CHAPTER THREE

Maintenance and Overhaul of Steam Turbines

Introduction
Steam turbines are utilized in numerous industries to drive boiler fans,
boiler feed and water pumps, process and chiller compressors, blast
furnace blowers, paper mill line shafts, sugar mill grinders, and
generators in a variety of industries and applications. Consequently,
steam turbines can range from being small and simple in
design/construction to large, highly complex designs/arrangements
consisting of multiple sections and multiple shafts.
Specifying the desired maintenance and overhaul intervals for steam
turbines, therefore, has to take into account the design/construction of the
turbine as well as the industry and application utilizing the turbine.
Besides the configuration and industry associated with the steam turbine,
the infrastructure for monitoring, operations and maintenance including
specific practices, and steam quality can have a major effect on the
reliability of steam turbines regardless of the industry or application. In
the next several sections of this paper, several pertinent aspects of steam
turbines will be addressed. The discussions have been organized in a
sequence beginning with steam turbine component characteristics, failure
mechanisms, arrangements and applications. These discussions are
followed by what infrastructures should be in place to operate and
maintain steam turbines, what has failed based on past experience, and
what maintenance should be conducted to minimize the risk of failure.
And lastly, the discussions include what should betaken into account for
determining longer major overhaul intervals and what effects the new
steam turbine technologies may have on scheduled maintenance and
overhaul intervals.

3.1. Steam Turbine Component Characteristics

Failure Mechanisms, Arrangements and Applications
Steam turbines are fundamentally the same regardless of whether they
drive a simple 500 shaft horsepower (SHP) fan or drive a 1,000 MW
generator. In all cases, steam is expanded through rows of stationary and
rotating blading which convert the energy in the steam into mechanical
energy. While the functions are the same for all steam turbines, the
designs are sufficiently different to necessitate brief discussions on the
important components, their characteristics and failure mechanisms, and
how they are arranged or organized as these attributes do affect steam
turbine maintenance tasks and frequencies.
3.1.1Turbine Component Characteristics and Failure Mechanisms

A; Steam Turbine Balding

Steam turbines produce power by converting the energy in steam

provided from a boiler or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) into
rotational energy as the steam passes through a turbine stage. A turbine
stage normally consists of a row of stationary blading and a row of
rotating blading. The purpose of the stationary blading is to direct the
flow of the passing steam to the rotating blading at the proper angle and
velocity for the highest efficiency and extraction of power. The purpose
of the rotating blading is to convert the directed mass flow and steam
velocity into rotational speed and torque. Stationary blading may be
referred to as nozzles, vanes, stators, partitions, and stationary blading
while rotating blades may be referred to as buckets, blades, and rotating
blading. A turbine may have a single row or stage of stationary and
rotating blading or may have multiple rows or stages of blading.
Steam turbine blading have different shapes which are referred to as
either impulse blading or reaction blading. Impulse blading is
characterized by high velocity fluids entering the turbine blade, by a
blade profile that efficiently turns the direction of the fluid with little
pressure change, and by decreasing the velocity of the fluid as it leaves
the blade to extract energy. Typical impulse blades are crescent or U-
shaped and may not always be symmetrical.
Reaction blading is characterized by high velocity fluids entering the
turbine blade, but not as high as impulse velocity levels, by a blade
profile that efficiently allows the fluid to expand while passing through
the blade, and by decreasing both the velocity and pressure of the fluid as
it exits from the blade to extract energy. Typical reaction blading has
tear-drop shaped leading edges with a tapered thickness to the trailing
edge. The blades may have twist to their shape which may range from
low amounts of twist or reaction at the base of the blade to high twist or
reaction at the tip of the blade.Impulse type balding is typically utilized in
the high pressure or front sections of the steam turbine while reaction
blading is utilized in the lower pressure or aft sections of the turbine.
Many of today’s new steam turbines, however, are utilizing reaction
blading in all stages of the turbine including the high pressure sections.
Regardless of the blading type, the blade tips may be covered with bands
peened to their tips which connect several blades together in groups, or
the blades may have integral shrouds which are part of the blades, or may
have no tip cover bands or shrouds free standing). The blade shrouds and
cover bands are utilized to keep the passing steam from leaking over the
tip of the blades which reduces efficiency and power output and to reduce
or dampen the vibration characteristics of the blading. Both stationary
and rotating blading can have shrouds or covers depending on the turbine
design. The number of blades in a group that are covered by shrouds is
dependent upon the vibration characteristics of the specific machine. For
some designs, thick wires (called tie wires) are brazed into or between
blades to dampen the vibration levels of the blades or groups of blades. In
other cases, the tie wires are installed in the blade tips particularly in large
blades in the last stages of turbines. And for some blade designs,
interlocking tip shrouds (z-shaped) and midspan snubbers (contact
surfaces) are utilized to dampen blade vibration, particularly for long last
stage turbine blades. Steam turbine blading can be subjected to several
failure mechanisms in service. These mechanisms are indicated in Table
1 along with the resultant damage and typical causes of failure. For
steam turbines to operate with high reliability and availability, the
ability to regularly inspect and assess the steam blading condition is
important as any of the failure mechanisms in Table 1 can lead to
failure if left undiagnosed or neglected.

B; Discs, Rotors, Shafts, Blade Rings, Shells, and Diaphragms

To transmit the torque produced in each stage of the turbine, the rotating
blading is fastened to discs or wheels through a specially designed
attachment shape at the blade base or root. The root shape may be fir-tree,
T-slot, or semi-circular fir-tree shaped or may use multiple pins to hold
the blades to the discs. The turbine discs may be shrunk fit onto a shaft
with an antirotation key or the discs may have been forged with the shaft
as an integral assembly. The output shaft from the shrunk fit or integral
disc rotor is then connected to the driven equipment through a flange
connection or flexible coupling.
Similarly, stationary balding roots may be attached to slots in shells,
casings, or blade rings or where the stationary blading is welded to
support rings to create a stationary blading assembly referred to as a
diaphragm. Depending on the pressure and temperature of the steam to
the turbine, there may be dual sets of shells or casings; an inner shell
which holds the stationary lading and an outer shell which acts as
pressure boundary for the turbine as well as accommodating attachment
of blade rings. The mass and thermal inertial of steam turbine rotors and
shells can be quite large. As such, the temperature gradients the rotors
and shells can encounter during starting and transients need to be
controlled carefully otherwise there can be serious rubs between the
rotating and stationary parts and/or there can be extensive distortion of
rotors and/or shells when the gradients are too large or occur too fast.
Steam turbine discs, rotors, shafts, shells, blade rings, and diaphragms
are subjected to the same failure mechanisms and causes that apply to
steam turbine blading. It is not uncommon to encounter permanent
deformation (creep), fatigue cracks (thermal and vibratory), and stress
corrosion cracking in discs, rotors, shells, and diaphragms. Unlike
balding, the mechanisms may take longer for the resultant damage to
become detectable as these parts tend to be more robust in size.

C; Rotor Forgings with Center Bores

Integrally forged steam turbine rotors manufactured in the past two
decades have not had bores machined in the center of the rotor. The
improvements in steel refining and forging manufacturing have not
necessitated the need to remove impurities and poorly forged material
that accumulated in the center of older rotors. The presence of the center
bore results in a high stress in the bore that requires periodic ultrasonic
(UT) and eddy current (ET) inspection for cracks. Because of the
quality of some of the early forgings, cracks have been found that require
internal machining of the bore to remove the affected material. It has not
been uncommon to find a few hundred thousand indications during UT
inspection that may require additional analyses to determine if the
indications are cracks and if they are connected to each other, potentially
resulting in a unsafe condition. The improvements in UT inspection
instrumentation and techniques have also resulted in finding new
numbers of defects that were not detectable with older UT technologies.
On the positive side, the presence of the center bore does allow for UT
inspection of rotor wheels and blade slots from; underneath.
D Bearings and Lubrication Systems
As with most rotating machinery, bearings are utilized to support the
turbine rotor inside housings installed in the turbine shells. Depending on
the size and number of stages of the steam turbine, different types of
bearings may be utilized. It is common for smaller steam turbines to
utilize rolling element bearings while larger turbines will utilize journal
and multi-pad thrust bearings. Regardless of the type of turbine, there
needs to be a complete lubrication system that reliably provides clean,
cool lube oil to the turbine bearings. For many large steam turbines, shaft
lift oil systems are utilized to lift the shaft in their journal bearings during
starting and to keep the shaft lubricated during coast down of the turbine
rotor after steam to the turbine is shut off. For some turbines, lube oil
(usually mineral oil) is utilized to power servomotors and actuators for
stop and control valves. In other cases, hydraulic fluids (usually
phosphate-ester type fluids), which can operate at higher pressures and
temperatures without ignition, are utilized to provide the required power
for the valves.
Properly designed and maintained lube oil or hydraulic fluid systems are
extremely important. Most oil systems, as a minimum, need to include an
oil reservoir with level indication, filters and separators (particulate and
water removal), pumps (primary and emergency backup that are
independent of the primary pump system), pressure switches or sensors to
detect loss of oil pressure, and heat exchangers to cool the oil. Of most
concern is protecting the turbine from loss of lube oil incidents which
may involve the loss of oil pressure detectors (pressure switches and
controls) or backup lube oil pump(s) and/or their starting logic not
working properly. Since oil is utilized to lubricate and cool turbine
bearings (and gearbox gears and bearings, if present) and actuate major
turbine valves, it is important that the oil be free of dirt, moisture,
foaming, and any contaminants which would cause damage to bearings,
servomotors, and valve actuators. Some contaminants are removed by
filters, but removal of water requires water separators, oil purifiers, or
centrifuge type filter systems. Oil coolers can also be a source of water as
leaks tend to flow from higher pressure (water) to the lower pressure oil
system in the cooler. Oil does oxidize in the presence of water and will
have a limited life. As such, conducting frequent sampling of lube oil and
hydraulic fluids for particulates, water, contaminants, and remaining life
is important. The reliability of the lube oil system is important as loss of
lube incidents have been both frequent and severe events for all sizes of
turbines. As such, periodic checks of loss of lube protection devices and
logic need to be conducted.
E; Steam and Oil Seals
In order to keep the steam from going around the stationary and rotating
blading, steam turbines utilize seals to keep the steam confined to the
flow path. Depending on the size and type of steam turbine, various types
of steam seal designs (carbon rings, labyrinth, retractable labyrinth,
brush) may be utilized. These systems are usually pressurized with steam
to minimize the pressure differential across these seals so that leakage
from the higher pressure parts of the turbine is less likely to occur.
Similar type seals are utilized to keep bearing oil confined to the bearing
housing. As such, seal systems may have filters, pressure regulators,
coolers, and the like to maintain a seal pressure as required. Severe
rubbing of new seals after overhaul or during transients operation,
particularly starting, continues to cause steam turbine forced outages.

F; Stop, Trip & Throttle, and Intercept Valves

Important to any turbine is the ability to start and stop the machine
under normal (controlled) and emergency conditions. For steam turbines,
being able to shut off the steam supply quickly and reliably is required.
This is normally accomplished by either main steam (MS) stop valves or
trip and throttle (T&T) valves which are usually installed in the inlet
piping to the steam turbine or on the turbine shell. The valves are
designed to be leak tight otherwise any steam leakage may keep the
turbine turning at low speed after shutdown or causing an over speed
because the valve did not close completely after a shutdown or trip.
For most applications, actuators for these valves are powered by high-
pressure hydraulic system fluid or lube system oil. Hydraulic or lube
system pressure powers servomotors to open the valves while loss of oil
pressure results in spring-load closing of the valve in a fail-safe condition
(closed). For some old and small steam turbines, the stop valve may be a
manual valve with a large hand wheel. The same valve may also be used
for starting the unit. In addition, there may be hand operated valves
mounted in the nozzle inlet for manually increasing steam to the turbine.
For reheat type steam turbines, which direct steam back to a boiler
superheated section for reheating after going through the high pressure
section of the turbine, there are additional valves installed between the
high pressure section and subsequent section of the turbine. Reheat stop
valves are used for leak tight protection but a faster active valve called an
intercept valve is installed in series or combination with the reheat stop
valves in order to prevent over speeds. The valves also open with oil
pressure and are spring-loaded closed when oil pressure is reduced to
zero under trip and over speed conditions.
These valves provide fundamental overspeed protection to the steam
turbine and need to be tested, inspected, and overhauled routinely as
contaminants in the steam, wear of mating valve parts, or damaged
valve seats can cause sticking or leaking of these valves in service.

G; Governor/Control Valves
Control valves are provided on the turbine shell to regulate the flow of
steam to the turbine for starting, increasing/decreasing power, and
maintaining speed control with the turbine governor system. Several
different valve arrangements are utilized. These include a single inlet
valve with separate actuator, cam lift inlet valve assemblies, and bar lift
inlet valve assemblies. The valve assemblies are normally mounted onto a
steam chest that may be integral to the shell or bolted to it. The cam lift
valve arrangement utilizes cams, bearings, and bushings which are
mounted on camshaft to regulate the position of each valve. A hydraulic
servomotor drives a rack and pinion connection to the camshaft to
indicate the position desired by the governor. In the bar lift valve
arrangement, a hydraulic cylinder lifts all of the valves attached to the bar
together, but the collars on each valve stem are set at different heights and
opening sequencing for admitting steam during starting and load changes.
These valves need to be cycled routinely to minimize the potential for
the valves to stick. When the valves stick open or closed, the turbine is
put into jeopardy as a result of losing the ability to control the turbine
(i.e., increase or reduce load).

H; Admission, Extraction, and Non-Return Valves (NRV)

In addition to the traditional stop and control valves, many steam
turbines have additional ports installed on the turbine to admit or extract
steam. Steam turbines designed to admit steam not only at the turbine
inlet but also at a lower pressure locations in downstream sections of the
turbine are referred to as admission turbines. These turbines are utilized
primarily in applications (steel mills, paper mills, combined cycle plants
with triple pressure HRSG’s) where additional steam flow at lower
pressures is available to make additional power. In addition to providing
additional sources of steam to the turbine, the turbine can also be a source
of steam for facility services at various pressures and flows. Turbines
with this kind of capability are referred to as extraction turbines and may
be described by the number of extractions (single, dual, etc.). Steam is
taken from the turbine at various stages to match with the facility’s
pressure and flow requirements. The extractions can be categorized as
controlled or uncontrolled, as well as automatic or manual. Some
extractions are utilized for feed water heating. The extraction control
valves typically have two functions; to regulate the steam flow externally
and to maintain the extraction steam pressure constant. The valves are
hydraulically opened and spring-loaded shut. They are, however, not
designed to be leak tight and will typically pass 5% steam flow in the
closed position.
Non-return valves (NRV) or check valves are normally installed
downstream of the controlled and uncontrolled (i.e., no regulating or
control valve) extraction connections to the turbine. The function of the
valves is to permit flow of extraction steam in the outgoing direction and
prohibit backward flow into the turbine when turbine extraction pressure
is lower than the lines it feeds. The valves are designed to be spring-
loaded shut when there is no extraction pressure but they also have an air
or hydraulically assisted actuator to close the valve when the systems are
pressurized. Malfunctioning of extraction NRV’s is the primary cause
of over speed damage during turbine shutdown. As such, these valves
need to be tested, inspected, and overhauled on a frequent basis.

I; Steam Line Connections and Drains

Proper connections and support of the steam lines to the turbine are
important as well as the steam drains. If the steam supply lines are putting
a load on the turbine, it is likely to cause the turbine to vibrate and will
cause mechanical distress to the attachment locations. Similarly, when
steam turbines are started, there is a warm-up time to heat the turbine to
the proper temperature level before admitting full starting steam.
Removal of condensed steam from the stop valve and T&T valves, the
turbine shells, and any sealing steam locations during this period of
operation is important to prevent damage to the turbine. As such, low
point drains, steam traps and drain valves, vents, and the like need to be
functioning properly and piping runs orientated so that the water drains
out. When drain systems are not operating properly, the potential for
encountering thermally distorted rotors (bowed) and shells (humped)
will be high.

3.1.2Turbine over speed Protection and Trip Logic

The most destructive event for a steam turbine is an over speed event as
the steam turbine and its driven equipment are usually catastrophically
damaged. These events, while infrequent, continue to occur on either
small or larger steam turbines regardless of the vintage, technology level,
application, or type of control system (digital, analog, hydro-mechanical,
mechanical associated with the steam turbine.
A steam turbine may utilize a mechanical over speed protection system,
electronic over speed protection system, or combination of systems to
maximize protection. The mechanical over speed device consists of a
spring-loaded piston mounted in the turbine shaft at the front of the
turbine. When turbine speed reaches an over speed condition (i.e., 10%
above running speed), the piston pops out and hits an oil dump valve
lever which causes depressurization of the oil supply to the stop, trip and
throttle, and intercept valves. These results in all stop and intercept valves
immediately closing. Many mechanical systems also utilize a flywheel
ball governor driven by the turbine shaft. Any change in governor
position is converted to a change in oil pressure to the turbine control
valve servomotor or actuator. Under over speed conditions, the flywheel
governor will hit the oil dump valve lever to close the steam stop valve.
With electronic systems, numerous magnetic speed pickups are installed
on the turbine shaft.
The turbine control system and software logic will electronically open the
oil dump valve to depressurize the oil system and close all stop and
intercept valves. There are various versions of electronic over speed
systems in service. Some include both primary and backup (emergency)
systems that operate independently. Some include test switches to test the
primary system for proper operation without actually tripping the turbine.
For most turbines the over speed protection system will also cause or
command the turbine control valves to close as well. Because the control
valves are not leak tight by design and their closure rate is much slower
than stop and intercept valves, they are not considered to provide any
over speed protection.
In addition to the type of over speed protection provided, the trip logic
utilized by the control system to open the circuit breaker associated with
the steam turbine’s generator does have some effect on the performance
of the protection. Typically, two trip schemes are utilized; sequential
tripping and simultaneous tripping. Sequential tripping is when the steam
turbine is always tripped first and the generator circuit breaker opens
when the turbine speed and decaying power has decreased sufficiently to
cause the generator reverse power relay to open the breaker. The method
is typically utilized with large steam turbines operating at high steam inlet
pressures and temperatures where it is desired to dissipate the energy in
the turbine before opening the breaker to minimize the over speed level
on shutdown.
Simultaneous tripping is utilized when both the turbine stop or trip and
throttle valve and the generator circuit breaker are opened at the same
time, regardless of whether the turbine or generator protection system
initiated the trip. This type system is utilized successfully on small to
medium size steam turbines where the steam pressures and temperatures
are low and there is little steam volume in the turbine to cause an increase
in speed on shutdown. Regardless of the type of over speed and trip
protection systems provided, the system needs to be regularly tested by
simulation and by actual testing of the complete system.
3.2 Steam Turbine Arrangements and Applications
3.2.1Type of Steam
The steam utilized in steam turbines can be in three different states:
saturated, superheated, and supercritical. Saturated steam is produced
when you heat water to the boiling point or vaporization temperature for a
given pressure. Under those conditions, you have very hot water and a
steam vapor that is given off at the water interface, similar to what
happens in a tea pot. However, for steam turbines, the boiling occurs in
the boiler steam drum where the steam is separated from the liquid water
that it came from. Depending on the pressure and temperature of the
water being heated, the steam may still contain a portion of entrained
water unless it is heated further to vaporize the remaining water content.
Steam turbines do not like water in their steam so the steam is heated
until all of the remaining water has vaporized.
Saturated steam may be heated to a higher temperature at the same
pressure in other boiler sections referred to as superheaters or reheaters.
Saturated steam heated to these higher temperatures is then referred to as
superheated steam. Steam turbines which utilize superheated and
saturated steam are often referred to as subcritical steam turbines. If the
pressure of the superheated steam is increased further until the
thermodynamic critical point of water is reached (221 bar/3,205 psi), then
the steam is referred to as supercritical steam. This steam has the
characteristic of passing from a liquid (water) to a vapor (steam) state
without going through an intermediate liquid and vapor phase. This
means a boiler drum is not needed as the heated water directly converts to
vapor with no moisture to separate or reheat. Turbines utilizing this type
of steam are referred to as supercritical turbines. If the pressure of the
steam is increased to 370 bar (5,365 psi), the plants are referred to as
ultrasupercritical plants. As would be expected, as the temperature and
pressure of steam increase, the complexity, materials, and the costs of the
steam turbines will increase accordingly. Typically, smaller steam
turbines utilize saturated steam. Most industrial and power plant
applications use superheated steam, and most advanced power plants are
moving towards supercritical steam.
The supercritical units have higher efficiencies, produce less emissions,
need less fuel, but tend to require more advanced and thicker materials to
deal with both the higher pressures (370 bar/5,365 psi) and temperatures
(720°C/1,328°F). Of course, the costs are higher as well. There are a
number of typical inlet pressures and temperatures that steam turbines are
designed to utilize. The approximate ranges of steam inlet conditions for
various size units can be arbitrarily categorized based on what has been
installed in industry. These are listed below noting that there is some
overlap between conditions.
• Small Units (0.5 - 2 MW): 150-400 psi/500-750°F (10-30
bar/260-400°C)
• Medium Units (1.5 - 10 MW): 400-600 psi/750-825°F (10-42
bar/400-440°C)
• Large Units (4 - 100 MW): 600-900 psi/750-900°F (42-62
bar/400-482°C)
• Large Units (10-1,000 MW): 900-2,400 psi/825-1,050°F (62-166
bar/440-566°C)
• Supercritical Units (>200 MW): 3,625-5,365 psi/1,010-1,328°F
(250-370 bar/
540-720°C)

3.2.2Exhaust System Configuration

The exhaust of the turbine can be designed for two different pressure
levels. If the exhaust pressure of the turbine is designed to be near
atmospheric pressure (i.e., a few inches of Mercury absolute), the turbine
type is referred to as a condensing turbine. This is because the low
pressure exhaust steam enters the condenser for conversion into water,
which is pumped to the plant’s condensate and feed water systems. The
condensing steam turbine exhaust may be in the vertical or axial
(horizontal) direction. This type of turbine results in maximizing the
expansion ratio across the turbine and requires larger last stage turbine
blades as a result of the low pressures in the later stages of the turbine. If
the exhaust pressure of the turbine is designed for a higher pressure (i.e.,
3.5 bar/50 psi), the turbine is referred to as a backpressure turbine. In
these types of applications, the steam turbine is being used as a pressure
reducing station which can make power; however, the higher pressure
exhaust steam is being used for other purposes in the facility. In this case,
the exhaust connection to the turbine will be a pipe rather than ducting
leading to a condenser, consequently the last stage blades will be smaller.
3.2.3Grouping and Number of Turbine Stages

Turbines are often described by the number of stages. For example, single
stage turbines are usually small units that drive pumps, fans, and other
general purpose equipment in a facility. For medium size steam turbines
that drive air conditioning chillers or generators, 4 to 10 stages may be
utilized. In large size units, there may be 12 to 40 stages driving
generators or other equipment. These stages may be grouped into
different sections of the turbine. The section with the highest pressure
levels is called the high pressure (HP) section. The intermediate pressure
(IP) section has the mid-level pressure levels. The low pressure (LP)
section has the lowest pressure levels and discharges to the condenser or
backpressure system. The turbine sections can be packaged into separate
sections in a single turbine casing, into separate casings for each section,
or in combination (HP/IP turbines in one casing and LP turbine in
another). In addition, in many LP turbines and some HP and IP turbines,
there are two turbines connected together in the same casing but in
opposing directions to balance the thrust loads.
Flow to these turbines is through the center of the casing and exits from
each end of the turbine. These are referred to as turbines with double
flows (i.e., opposing flow paths on same shaft). The MW rating of the
steam turbine, however, may not be indicative of the number of sections
or casings which make up the turbine. This is exemplified in Figure 2
where a 750 MW turbine could consist of 2, 3 or 4 casings. Of course the
fewer number of casings and stages for the same steam conditions results
in high loadings and larger size blading for these model turbines,
particularly in the last stage. The selection of which configuration is
utilized is dependent on economics (cost and efficiency) and customer
desires.

Figure 3 – Typical LP Turbine Last Stage Blade Sizes

Consistent with the variation in the number of turbine casings, the last
stage blades in the LP section, which is the largest blade in the turbine,
may range in size and materials over a broad range. Figure 1 shows a
typical suite of blade sizes that a manufacturer may utilize in their steam
turbines. Several manufacturers are now utilizing titanium material for
the last stage blades because of the lighter weight and improved corrosion
resistance as compared to steel blades. Unfortunately, whether made from
titanium or steel, these large blades are usually the most expensive in the
turbine and the most likely to fail with time.
3.3 Turbine Arrangement
In most cases, steam turbines and the generators they drive are laid out
in sequence, meaning that the casings and shafts of all of the turbine
sections and generator are in a single line. This is referred to as a tandem
compound layout or arrangement. In some cases, the casings and shafting
are laid out with two parallel shafting arrangements. These are referred to
as cross compound arrangement. These units are characterized by the HP
and IP turbines driving one generator and the LP turbine driving another
generator. The steam for the LP turbine comes from a cross connection
from the IP turbine exhaust. This is exemplified in Figure 4 where the
HP and IP turbines and their generator make up the left drive train while
the 2 LP turbines and their generator make up the right drive train.
Regardless of the two parallel shafting arrangements, the unit has to run
as if the systems were all directly connected together.

For some steam turbine designs, the turbine sections are mounted on
opposite sides of the generator. An example of a Stal VAX modular
steam turbine generator design is shown in Figure 5. In this turbine
design, the HP turbine section is on the left of the generator and the LP
turbine is mounted on the other side of the generator. A reduction
gearbox is provided to reduce HP turbine speed to the generator. Stal also
designed radial turbines where there are no stationary blading but rather
counter rotating blading that connect to two separate generators. While
the exhaust arrangement, steam inlet conditions, and turbine stages and/or
blade size can characterize a turbine, so can the operating speed. Larger
steam turbines and older turbines run at 3,000 (50 Hz) or 3,600 (60 Hz)
RPM. The LP turbines and generators with cross compound units
typically run at half speed – 1,500 (50Hz) and 1,800 (60 Hz) RPM. All of
these turbines connect directly to the generator for operation at this speed.
Small, medium and lower end large turbines run at higher speeds (5,000
to 12,000 RPM). This necessitates the use of a speed reduction gearbox to
match the generator design speeds. In non-generator drive applications,
the steam turbines may be run at higher speeds with or without a gearbox
to match the driven speed of compressors, pumps, fans, line shafts, and
other equipment.
3.3.1Single Stage Small Steam Turbines
A typical single stage turbine is shown in the left side of Figure 6. These
units typically consist of a double row of stationary and rotating blading,
wheels keyed and shrunk onto shaft, antifriction thrust and radial journal
bearings, carbon shaft seals, overspeed trip bolt, mechanical governor,
and housings. Because these turbines run low pressure and temperature
steam, they are usually constructed of less sophisticated and lower cost
materials. These types of units are utilized to drive boiler fans, water
pumps, boiler feed pumps, and generators in a variety of industries.

3.3.2Multistage Medium Size Steam Turbines

The typical construction of a multistage unit with nine stages is shown in
the right side of Fig. These types of units consist of an initial impulse
stage followed by several reaction stages, wheels shrunk onto a shaft,
tilting pad thrust and radial journal bearings, labyrinth shaft seals, over
speed trip device, and casing. These may be used for driving line shafts in
paper mills, chiller compressors for building air conditioning, small
centrifugal and reciprocating compressors in the oil and gas industry, and
generators in all industries.

Figure 2 – Single and Multistage Steam Turbines

A; Single Casing Admission/Extraction Multistage Steam Turbines

The typical construction of a 35 MW admission/extraction steam turbine
is indicated in Figure 7.This turbine consists of 16 stages grouped into
three different sections (HP, IP, and LP) with an admission valve at the
inlet to the IP turbine section and extraction valve located at the inlet to
the LP turbine. These size machines will utilize an integrally forged rotor
(discs/shaft), journal and tilting pad thrust bearings, labyrinth type seals,
and non-return valves downstream of the extraction valve. This
condensing, non-reheat design has several features common to many
steam turbines rated at less than 120 MW and with those that provide
extraction steam capabilities. These types of steam turbines are utilized in
paper mills and steel mills to drive generators or turbo blowers as well as
to reduce the pressure of boiler supplied steam for other plant services. In
the oil and gas industry, these types of turbines are also utilized to drive
compressors.
B; Single Casing Non-Reheat Multiple Stage Steam Turbines
A 15 stage 110 MW single casing, non-reheat steam turbine rotor is
shown in Figure 3. This turbine is similar to the Figure 3 single casing
turbine with separate HP, IP and LP flow sections; however, this turbine
is physically much larger in size and used to produce power in
cogeneration and older-generation combined cycle applications. It is
noted that the generator is connected to the end of the LP section of the
turbine.

Figure 3 – 110 MW Single Casing,

Non-Reheat Steam Turbine Rotor

C; Single Casing Reheat Multiple Stage Combined Cycle Steam

Turbines
With the rapid growth in combined cycle plants, the steam turbines
utilized in these plants have changed substantially. A modern version is
shown pictorially and in cross section in Figure 9. In particular, the
generator is now connected to the steam turbine at the steam inlet side
(HP) of the turbine rather than the turbine exit (LP); use of exhaust
diffusers and axial condensers are utilized more frequently than vertical
condensers; three steam inlets to the turbine are utilized, one from each
steam drum (up to three for triple pressure HRSG’s); and the steam stop,
control, intercept valves have been combined into integral assemblies to
save space and cost. Of course, these changes have not been without
problems. Control of HRSG steam/water quality to the turbine is poor
compared to fossil plants, and, consequently, there have been numerous
incidents of turbine deposits and sticking of the integral valve assemblies.
These incidents are in addition to more rub incidents because of the
tighter radial and axial turbine clearances.
D; Multiple Casing Multiple Stage Reheat Steam Turbines
A modern five casing reheat steam turbine in shown in Figure 10. As
previously discussed, the number of casings will be a tradeoff between
cost, turbine efficiency, and last stage blade risk. As with the combined
cycle steam turbines, there have been design changes made to stop,
control, and intercept valves to integrate them together as combined
assemblies. These are clearly shown to the right and left of the HP and IP
turbines casings in Figure 10. In general, the number of casings does
resent an overhaul challenge as 5 separate turbines have to be aligned to
each other and to the generator as shown in Figure 11. As such, it is not
uncommon for sectional overhauls to be conducted, i.e., the HP and IP
turbines may be conducted as one overhaul and the LP turbines and
generator conducted as a separate overhaul

l.

Figure 4 – Multiple Casing Reheat Steam Turbine

Figure 5– Multiple Casing Reheat Steam Turbine

3.4 Monitoring, Operations, Maintenance, and Training Infrastructure

Training Infrastructure
Regardless of the size, number of casings, steam conditions, and
arrangements, it is essential that steam turbines have effective
monitoring, operating and maintenance procedures/practices, and training
for personnel. These topics are discussed in the next sections.
Monitoring
Equipment Monitoring
To effectively manage the health and performance of steam turbines,
there are a number of turbine parameters which should be measured,
monitored and/or displayed on a continuous basis. How much
information is monitored is a function of the steam turbine design and
application, but with today’s modern steam turbines, the following
parameters should be monitored:
• Speed (RPM) and load (kW/MW, or shaft horsepower (SHP))
• Steam turbine inlet pressure and temperature
• Steam turbine 1st stage pressure and temperature (these are the
conditions downstream of the first/large impulse stage before remaining
HP section blading, as applicable)
• HP turbine outlet (or cold reheat), IP turbine inlet (or hot reheat), and IP
turbine outlet/LP turbine inlet (or crossover) pressures and temperatures
for reheat and multiple shell turbines only
• Steam turbine rotor/shell differential expansions (as applicable for large
turbines)
• Steam turbine shell and steam chest temperatures/differentials (lower
and upper half thermocouples installed in HP and IP turbine sections for
large turbines)
• Admission and extraction pressures and temperatures (as applicable)
• Extraction line thermocouples to detect water induction (as applicable)
• Water and steam purity at the main steam inlet and condensate pump
discharge
• Sealing steam and exhauster pressures (as applicable)
• Steam turbine exhausts pressure and temperature
• Lube oil and hydraulic fluid supply pressures and temperatures
• Cooling water supply pressures and temperatures for the lube oil and
hydraulic fluid systems
• Journal bearing and thrust bearing metal temperatures (or drain
temperatures, if applicable) for the turbine and gearbox (as applicable)
• Bearing vibration – seismic, shaft rider or shaft x-and-y proximity
probes measurements for all turbine and gearbox (pinion) bearing
locations (as applicable)
Monitoring of these and other parameters is typically done in conjunction
with today’s modern turbine digital controls and plant control room
systems. These systems will also handle the starting sequence,
synchronizing, loading, speed governing, alarms, and trip logic for the
turbine, gearbox (if present), generator, and any supporting systems.
These systems also provide the electronic portion of the protection (i.e.,
turbine over speed) for critical turbine and generator parameters. For
older units there may be an analog control system which provides limited
protection along with mechanical/electrical devices on the unit. There
usually is a limited display of monitoring parameters. For even older
units, all operation will be manual with only a gage panel to monitor a
few turbine parameters. Vibration monitoring is done periodically using
hand-held instrumentation. These older units are dependent solely on the
knowledge of the operating staff, the presence and use of written
operating procedures, and the mechanical/electrical devices on the unit
for protection. All of these issues are important for every unit but the
consequence is higher with older, outdated units
summary

In Table 2, the main wear out problems with steam turbines is

summarized, together with an outline of how condition monitoring
can detect them.

Part Comments, suitable condition

Wear out problem
affected monitoring
Usually occurs gradually, worst at
Erosion by solid inlet blades. Less usual on sets with
particles(also erosion drum boilers and/or sub-critical inlet
Blades
by water droplets on steam conditions, or with bypass
latter LP blades) systems. Performance analysis
detects.
Usually sudden. Vibration analysis
Blades Parts breaking off
and Performance analysis detects.
Performance analysis, vibration
Scoring damage to analysis, wears particles in oil (but
Bearings
white metal representative sampling at each
bearing is rare).
Rubbing, temporary
Vibration analysis, and off-line, some
Rotors unbalance, cracking,
NDT (not detailed in this paper)
misalignment
Likely to occur gradually, but can be
Valve
sudden. Performance analysis detects.
spindles
Effect of seal wear is relatively
Shaft and
greater for HP blades. For impulse
inter-stage machines, the relative lost output for
glands each 25µm increase above design
(seals) clearance of about 600µm is:
Casing Leakage due to wear, • HP: blade tips, 5kW; inter-
joints distortion, breakage stage seals, 6kW per stage; end
glands 15 to 25kW.
LP manhole
• IP: blade tips, 2.5kW; inter-
gaskets
stage 2kW per stage; end
Internal glands 5kW
• LP: Blades tips and inter stage,
steam
piping and 1.5kW per stage; end glands
fittings 2kW.
 For reaction blades, the effect will be
greater.
Likely to occur gradually, mostly in
areas around 260°C. Some on-load
blade washing occurs with forced
steam cooling. Performance analysis
detects. Blade surface roughness has
Steam valve Deposits (more biggest effect at higher steam
strainers prevalent with base pressures. One case gave 17% drop in
loaded sets as cyclic output from deposits varying between
Valve
loading tends to have 250 to 2300 µm in thickness.
spindles
a blade washing
effect). Permissible roughness for LP blades
Blading
can be 100× coarser than for HP
blades. One test with surface finish
equivalent to 500 grit emery paper
caused 5% to 7% less efficiency in
HP blades, about 2% in LP.
Generator Electrical plant testing (several
Insulation faults
rotor, stator techniques
Air in leakage Tube
Condenser Performance analysis
fouling
Air in leakage, tube
Feed water
fouling by scale or Performance analysis
heaters
oil
Valves - HP,
Performance analysis. Acoustic
IP bypass, Leakage
leakage detection is also possible.
etc

OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE of Gas

Turbine

OPERATION

(a) Starting. Starting sequence of any gas turbine from rest to its rated
speed requires a certain
order of events to be accomplished either manually or automatically. The
major steps in sequence are
cranking, ignition, acceleration and governing.
The following is typical starting sequence of a gas turbine
1. Application of control power illuminates all the malfunctions lights.
2. Operate ‘Reset switch’ to reset malfunctions circuits: By doing so,
malfunction lights go off
and all control devices assume the condition for starting.
3. Operate “Start” switch to initiate starting sequence. By doing this, lube
oil pump and cooling
fan start. If there are separate switch for these, operate these.
4. When lube oil reaches a preset pressure, the starter is energized and
cranking of the engine
begins.
5. With the cranking of starting of starter, the engine and exhausts ducts
are purged of any
combustible gases that might be present.
6. During the cranking cycle, the fuel boost pump is used and operated to
increase fuel pressure.
7. As soon as the fuel pressure has reached a prescribed minimum value,
fuel and ignition
switches are turned on provided a preset turbine speed has been reached.
8. The turbine accelerates due to combustion of fuel and assistance of
cranking motor. At a
preset value, say in the order of 70% of rated speed, the starter and
ignition are cut-off automatically.
9. The turbine becomes self- sustaining and accelerates on its own to its
governed speed till the
governing system takes over the control.
(b) Shut down. To stop the gas turbine fuel supply should be turned off.
This is accomplished by
closing the fuel valve either manually or by de-energizing an electrically
operated valve. In cases where sleeve bearings are used, circulation of
lube oil to bearings after shutdown is necessary for cooling.

MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE
The type of maintenance, which is done on the gas turbine, is the same as
that of steam turbines.
From the experiences of the most manufactures of gas turbine equipment
forced outages are frequently caused-at least in part by inadequate
maintenance. The basic purposes of a preventive maintenance programme
are to reduce forced outages.
The following are the principal sub-systems of the gas turbine for which
manufacturers present
maintenance instructions:
1. Turbine gear 2. Starting 3. Clutches and coupling 4. Fuel system
5. Pneumatic system
6. Fire protection system 7. Control equipment 8. Generator-exciter 9.
Electrical controls
10. Auxiliary gear and main gear 11. Gas turbine 12. Lube oil system
13. Over speed protection
14. Temperature control and monitoring systems 15. Air conditioning
system
16. Emergency power 17. Motors 18. Related station equipment.

Maintenance is carried out daily monthly, quarterly, semi-annually and

annually.
So for the sequence of overhaul is concerned, it is similar to that of steam
turbines with some
exceptions.

TROUBLESHOOTING AND REMEDIES

Modern gas turbines are usually equipped with a very sophisticated

protection system using
microprocessor and computers, which gives a visual and audio alarm
when any pre-established safe condition is violated. In all types of alarm,
it is not necessary to shut the gas turbine down. If an alarm condition is of
sufficient duration and magnitude the unit will trip and shut down
automatically.
The following are the principal symptoms of gas turbine malfunctions
and the most common
causes of these malfunctions:
(a) Drop in compressor discharge pressure and subsequent drop in
load:
1. Dirty intake screens 2. Dirty compressor blades
3. Loss of compressor blades 4. Damaged labyrinth seals
(b) Smoke or dark stack:
1. Burner nozzle-dirty or worn Puffs of smoke indicate that carbon is
building up around the fuel nozzle and then passing through the turbine
creating rapid wear of blades, vanes and shrouds.
2. Uneven distribution of fuel to combustion chambers.
3. Combustion chambers damaged or out of position.
(c) Spread in turbine discharge temperatures:
1. Bad thermocouples 2. Uneven fuel to burners or dirty nozzles
3. Combustion chambers damaged or out of position 4. Unlit burners 5.
Damaged burner nozzles
(d) High wheel space temperatures:
1. Cooling airlines plugged
2. Cooling air heat exchanger dirty, leaking water or loss of cooling
water.
3. Bad thermocouples
4. Wheel space seals worn due to rubs by axial movement or rotor (worn
thrust bearing), bowed
shaft or casing out of round to open seal clearances
5. Cooling air supply not functioning properly.
(e) High turbine exhaust temperatures:
1. Loss of turbine blades or damaged inlet vanes 2. Bad thermocouples
3. Exhaust temperature controller out of adjustment
4. Increased blade tip clearances due to radial ribs. 5. Dirty air
compressor.
(f ) High Turbine Exhaust Pressure:
1.Turning vanes in turbine discharge duct damaged or missing.
2. Discharge silencer damaged.
(g) Vibration:
1. Indicating instrument out of adjustment 2. Loose shaft couplings
3. Bowed turbine shaft 4. Broken or missing turbine
blades
5. Damaged bearings 6. Shaft mis-alignment
(h) Loss of fuel pressure:
1. Fuel control valve out of adjustment 2. Fuel strainers dirty
3. Fuel pump or compressor damaged
(i) Light of failure:
1. Faulty spark plug 2. Combustion chamber cross
fire tubes out of place.
3. Electrical control out of adjustment 4. Fuel proportion out of
adjustment
5. Fuel atomizing air out of proportion 6. Burner nozzles dirty or worn
7. Combustion chamber damaged
(j) Machine ‘Hunting’:
1. Worn governor and control parts 2. Fluctuating fuel controllers 3.
Fluctuating exhaust temperature controllers 4. Hydraulic control valves
leaking or strainers dirty.
(k) Loss of oil pressure
1. Filters 2. Pump failure 3. Leakage in pump.