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A study on Cold-formed Steel Frame Connection: A review

Article  in  IPTEK The Journal for Technology and Science · December 2017

DOI: 10.12962/j20882033.v28i3.3223

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IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017 83

A study on Cold-formed Steel Frame

Connection: A review
Indra Komara1, Endah Wahyuni1, and Priyo Suprobo1

Abstract This paper is aimed to review the current researches on Cold-formed steel (CFS) structures, particularly for
screw connections, welded connections, bolted connections and adhesive connections. Connection presents as a major
parameter of the important elements for CFS framing system in order to attain its structural stability. The performance of
different CFS connections is well-discussed in order to capture the behaviour of each type of connection. Based on the review
assessment, the results highlighted that all types of connections except adhesive connections have shown the proper behaviour
that can trigger the change of any design codes. Otherwise, adhesive connection is given several advantages that leads a novelty
in the construction technology. Hence it still has some gaps of knowledge that are needed to be filled with comprehensive
future researches.

Keywords cold-formed steel, connection, screw, welded, bolted, adhesive

Abstrak Makalah ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji ulang penelitian terkini mengenai struktur baja berbentuk dingin (CFS),
terutama untuk sambungan sekrup, sambungan las, sambungan yang dilipat dan sambungan perekat. Sambungan merupakan
parameter utama elemen penting sistem pembingkaian CFS untuk mencapai stabilitas strukturalnya. Kinerja koneksi CFS yang
berbeda dibahas dengan baik untuk menangkap perilaku setiap jenis koneksi. Berdasarkan penilaian review, hasilnya menyoroti
bahwa semua jenis koneksi kecuali koneksi perekat telah menunjukkan perilaku yang tepat yang dapat memicu perubahan kode
desain apapun. Jika tidak, koneksi perekat diberi beberapa keunggulan yang mengarah pada kebaruan dalam teknologi
konstruksi. Oleh karena itu masih ada beberapa celah pengetahuan yang perlu diisi dengan penelitian masa depan yang
komprehensif.

Kata Kunci baja tahan dingin, sambungan, sekrup, dilas, dilipat, perekat

I. INTRODUCTION1 structural elements and focused at the location where the

tightening action occurs [4]. It is imperative to
C old-formed steel (CFS) frame is referred as
lightweight steel frame building which is constructed
using galvanized CFS sections. This type of construction
transferring force and moment from a structural member
to the supporting elements. Joint is modified as the
is now called as industrialized building system (IBS) connection plus the corresponding zone of interaction of
which becomes a famous construction choice in low to each element. The characteristics of CFS joint are easy to
medium rise building and residential house construction. install, ready in market, low cost installation and handling
It provides various advantages as compared to traditional and less maintenance needed [5].
construction methods. For instance, simple and rapid A. Section profiles of CFS
construction, high quality controlled, ease of
prefabrication and mass production, eliminates the need CFS steel shapes can amply be classified in two major
of formwork, cost and time saving, advance sustainable groups. Those are indvidual structural frame members and
development by minimizing the waste of construction and panels and decks. Then, the common sections shapes such
recycling elements [1]. Moreover, CFS construction as I, L, C and Z are usually used in engineering pratices of
represents additional benefits that can be used to achieve CFS construction. Some shapes of CFS steel sections are
an essential requirement for a competitive behaviour illustrated on Figure 1. Nevertheless with the
under seismic events [2]. improvement of industrial cold forming procesess, the
Although CFS sections are becoming increasingly complex section of CFS types are possibly formed and
famous in construction field, there are a few problems enable to offer competitive solutions to attain structural
associated with it, those are thin-walled section and weight reduction and having higher carrying capacity.
connection failure. Thin-walled behaviour restricts the The application for these section type are modified by
structural performance of CFS sections by premature its functions, in instance, typical Z or C sections are used
buckling and instability. Over the past decade, the as a purlins and bracings in roof and system in resedential,
growing application of CFS as IBS had brought a large- commercial and industrial building and circular, square or
wide researches to insure the improvement stability and rectangular hollow sections are used for structural
reliability of the constructed of CFS structures. As the IBS members such as chords and webs in plane and space
demand increases gradually, many studies were done to trussses. Then, the panels and decks, in most cases are
estimate the safety issue of the use of CFS members as used for roof decks, floor decks and wall panels.
primary structural members, e.g. roof truss, frame, beam
and column member [3]. Connection is implied as main
support component which mechanically tightens the

1
Indra Komara, Endah Wahyuni, and Priyo Suprobo are with
Departement of Civil Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh
Nopember, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia. Email:
indra12@mhs.ce.its.ac.id; endah@ce.its.ac.id; priyo@ce.its.ac.id.
84 IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017

Figure 1. Various shapes of CFS steel sections (Yu, 1990)

and design optimization [6]. Finite element models are

B. Advantages of CFS structure implementation
used to represent the actual case since the testing in full
Some of the principle advantages of CFS sections are scale of connection can be very costly.
illustrated as follows [Adil dar, et al, 2014]: Due to the comparative low thickness of the material,
 CFS can be employed to produce almost any connection technology plays an important role in the
desired shape as per requirement. development of structure using CFS members. In fact, to
 Cross sectional shapes are formed o close know appropriate connection, the comparison of CFS
tolerances and these can be consistently repeated connection should be evaluated. From [2-10], the review
for as long as required. process was done mostly for CFS structural elements.
 Pre-galvanised or pre-coated metals can be More reviews are therefore made for CFS connections in
formed, so that high resistance to corrosion, the following discussion. The connections are classified
besides an attractive surface finish, can be as screw connections, welded connections, bolted
achieved. connections and adhesive connections.
 High strength to weight ratio is well-achieved
As the matter of fact, it is possible to distribute the A. Screw Connection
material from the neutral axis in order to enchance the Screw is a common type of connections which is used
load carrying capacity, particularly in beam and trusses. in CFS. In consequence of thinness of the CFS, screw
connection provides advantages in simple design and fast
C. CFS design consideration
handling. Screwed joints are suitable and effective when
Several problems pertaining to CFS steel design is applying into the CFS section with the condition that total
mainly caused by the thinner materials and cold-formed thickness should not give difficulty to the self-drilling
processes used in the production of CFS sections. process.
Consequently, unlike the normally thicker steel members, Experimental tests were investigated for CFS section
the design of CFS members must be given consideration with drilling screws subjected to single shear mode and
during the design phase of such members.The design tension mode, expressed in Figure 1. Self-drilling screw
considerations are listed such as buckling, torsion and illustrated better moment of capacity and rigidity as
distortion, stiffener in compression element, section compared to conventional joints [7][8], when bolted end
properties, web crippling, ductility and plastic design, plate moment connection was found impractical to apply
joint or connection, thickness limitations. in portal frames knee joints. The study presented that the
proposed self-drilling screw joints could overcome the
II. COLD-FORMED STEEL CONNECTION RESEARCHES effective modulus properties i.e different lips, flanges and
In recent years, review on the development of CFS web dimension for both Australian and American
structure has been increased significantly. The reviews sections. It was also studied under wind load at roof pitch
concentrated on CFS section behaviour, for instance, condition [7]. In this condition, gusset plate was replaced
compression member, distortional and element buckling, with the channel section and connected with different
corrugated and curved panels, flexural members, torsion configuration of self-drilling screws in order to obtain the
and distortion, web crippling, mechanical properties, structural behaviour of screw joints. The behaviour is
composite and plasterboard construction, storage racks illustrated in Figure 2.
IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017 85

Figure 1. Shear and tension in CFS connections Figure 2. Screwed-connection behaviour in shear condition

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Laser welding process; (a) Welding scheme, (b) Automatic laser welding process

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Definition of symbols for welded tubular T-joint; (a) End view, (b) Elevation

Furthermore, the seismic design for screw joints were ambient temperature, 2.5 of reduction factor could be used
discussed [9][10]. In that matter, the X-braced shear walls for shear-out failure. The equations for the ratio of the
with Net Section Failure (NSF) connection were needed edge distance to the diameter is in the range of 1.00-1.75.
to design in high seismic zone. The experimental data of The observed failures included bearing, failure and
screwed join in straps was illustrated. Then, elastic material failure. It was found that current design
stiffness and tangent stiffness of the joint and the strap specifications are conservative towards strength
must be considered in design. Cold-formed roof sheeting prediction at elevated temperatures. For transient state
connection with self-tapping screw was also investigated test, failure mode of the screwed connection may change
at ambient and elevated temperature [10]. Another as the load increases.
analysis, the effect of edge and end distance on the A various series of full-scaled isolated screwed joint
connection resistance was conducted by using finite test is investigated [11]. The study held with the 12
element method and experimental investigation. At specimen in total of beam-to-column connection were
86 IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017

studied with different configurations and compared by LBW is widely used in automotive industry, yet it is still
using Eurocode analytical model. As the result, initial considered as new term in CFS construction. In this study,
stiffness of the joints increased as the beam depth experiment tests were consisting of element test i.e lap-
increased. The examined screwed joints were all shear and U-tension tests and beam flexural tests. The
considered as partial strength category when classified by analysing was intended at examining the innovative
their strength, as the strength of joint was more than 25% connection in building up CFS beams. The LBW concept
of connected beam flexural resistance. is precisely welded to the joints that will minimize the
error and thus intensify the safety of the connections.
B. Welded Connection
Additionally, for connection configuration on the
Welded joints offer rigid joints between CFS flanges, welds with spacing of 100 mm have the same
members. In this case, welding operation requires skilled flexural resistance with spacing of 50 mm. The
workers. It is also served with extra care as compared to characterization of failure of laser welds was conducted
other joints. The review is specialized to laser beam under combined loading condition [12]. The failures were
welding (LBW). The LBW process is illustrated in Figure classified into two regions, namely, base metal failure and
3. [12]. interfacial failure.

TABLE 1.
THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF ADHESIVE JOINT
No Wide Thickness Overlap Area Adhesive Adhesive Ultimate Ultimate Strain
Length Thickness Load Stress

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) Kgf Kgf/cm2 mm

Sikadur 31
1 0.75 40 1680 0.75 385 23.9 2.25
CF-N

2 0.75 40 1680 JB Weld 0.75 1570 9.04 9.04

TABLE 2.
THE COMPARISON JOINT STRENGTH OF ADHESIVE JOINT AND SELF-SCREWED DRILLING JOINT
Self-screwed drilling joint Adhesive joint
Ultimate stress Thickness Ultimate stress
Number of screw Type of adhesive
(Kgf/cm2) (mm) (Kgf/cm2)

1 17.335 Sikadur 31 CF Normal 0.75 23.9

2 17.409 Sikadur 31 CF Normal 0.75 23.8
1 17.335 JB Weld 8265 epoxy 0.75 95.7

Another analysis was conducted on tubular X-joint RHS was considered. Other studies were conducted that
using the carbon steel replaced by stainless steel [13]. the fatigue test and design in tube-to-tube joints and
Subsequent to stainless steel does not have a distinct yield section-to-section plate connections of SHS under in
stress, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5% and 1.0% of proof stresses were plane bending [15]. Further, CHS T-joint is given a
put in the investigation. In that condition, three failure preferable joint especially on the fatigue strength which is
modes happened as follows: chord face failure, chord side compared to SHS T-joint. The SHS T-joint behaviour is
wall failure and local buckling failure of brace. The study also investigated using finite element analysis [16]. A
expressed that the 0.2% of proof stress is reasonable in model was expanded to study the sensitivity of
predicting the design strength of stainless steel tubular X- parameters. The plastic behaviour of knee joint of RHS
joint in rectangular hollow section for two condition i.e. was conducted as well. Subsequently, it was found that the
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state. internal sleeve connection was fitted in plastic design.
The analysis on stainless steel tubular T-joint, square
C. Bolted Connection
and rectangular hollow section brace and chord members
was hold which is presented in Figure 4. The study is Bolted connection is an ordinary fastener in steel
coincident to the recommendation by [13] that the 0.2% construction which can be applied to both steel section
of proof stress is reasonable in predicting the design (hot-rolled) and CFS section. In this review, for bolted
strength of stainless steel tubular T-joint in rectangular connection, the research is focused on two types of
hollow section, in both condition as X-joint. connection i.e. stainless steel and lapped Z-purlins.
On the contrary, T-joint in Square Hollow Section The previous research proposed equations of design
(SHS) or Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) and Circular for cold-formed carbon steel bolted connections. The net
Hollow Section (CHS) have been analysed. In that section was applicable to light steel framing design as
experiment analysis, a web buckling formula was illustrated in Figure 5. Experimental analysis for bolted
proposed to foresee the deformation limit and ultimate connection between thin gauge stainless steel was
strength in RHS [14]. In foreseeing the web buckling performed [17].
strength and chord flange strength, the corner radius of The carbon steel design provisions are suitable in
IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017 87

predicting tear-out failure and net section rupture but Furthermore, the behaviour of bolted connection in
overestimate the bearing resistance of bolted connection. multi-span of purlin was conducted [20]. Here, rigid
NSF and bearing capacity were examined in stainless CFS connection was assumed in old practice for the ease
bolted connections. The edge distance namely e2 and bolt calculation but in the laboratory test, the research was
configuration were the main parameters that affect the net conducted in semi rigid in bolted lapped connection. The
section rupture of bolted connection [18]. From that result shown a different failure when semi rigid
research, a recommend design equation for net section connection was taken. Later on, the web crippling at the
capacity of stainless steel connection was verified by edge of the lapped zone was given to calculate with
statistical and numerical analysis [17]. In fact, there are bending moment in multi-span cold-formed Z-purlins
two equations of bearing design for two conditions. The using bolted lapped connection. In [21], the lap edge
first condition is checked by fracture, whereas the second single section was considered as critical in purlin design
condition looks the deformation under the service loads and lateral torsional buckling when in the case of laterally
[18]. unrestrained purlins. Several conclusions were illustrated
from the research where bending moment was dominating
the load-carrying resistance, the critical section was the
edge of lapped connection, moment resistance of the edge
section of lapped connection was twice less than the
moment resistance at internal support section, the
effective flexural rigidity was affected by the length of
lapped connections, and the effective flexural rigidity of
lapped connection could be estimated by using stress
analysis and deflection analysis.
D. Adhesive Connection
Adhesive connection offers sturdy connection that can
Figure 5. Net section failure - Comparison between deformed test significantly affect the structure resistance. In most cases
specimen and numerical model. of CFS structures, connection provides as a weakness
parameter that reduce the load bearing capacity. That
Subsequently, a finite element model consists of condition often leads to a structure premature collapse.
bolted connection in thin-walled stainless steel plates Consequently, in this paper, adhesive connection is given
under static shear was occurred [19]. In this parameter, as an alternative solution to response that condition.
referred to the Japanese Steel Design Standards (AIJ), its Adhesive joints for CFS connections potentially offer an
design has less accuracy in predicting the ultimate increase in the incremental strength of the structure [21].
behaviour specifically, failure mode, ultimate strength and The research scope of adhesive connection is concerned
the occurrence of curling of stainless steel bolted in two conditions; the capacity and the variety of
connection loaded in static shear. With the result, the connections, specifically for 0.75 mm substrate thickness.
study proposed a modified formula for calculating the Experimental tests were employed by using epoxy
ultimate strength. The load-displacement curves of bolted resin and polyester resin on adhesively bonded Single Lap
connection are estimated with nonlinear material and no Joints (SLJ) and Flexural Joints (FJ) which is subjected to
geometric finite element analysis. The finite element static loading [9]. A screw joint using 6 mm drilling screw
analysis was used to clarify the structural behaviour of was added to the SLJ specimen as illustrated in Figure 2
single shear bolted connections with two bolts in CFS and another parameter is also added to the FJ specimen in
structures [19]. As the matter of fact, the ultimate strength, Figure 3. Furthermore, the ultimate strength and strain due
failure mode and curling of the finite element model give to axial and flexural loading of the joints were measured
a proper agreement in comparison to experimental data. as well as visual investigation by using video microscope.

Figure 7. Failure mode of screw connections on the CFS structure

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Finite element model and analysis result; (a) Finite element Figure 8. Typical failure mode of adhesive joint; (a) Sikadur 31 CF
condition, (b) Deformed shape (curling) Normal, (b) JB Weld 8265 epoxy
88 IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and Science, Vol. 28, No. 3, December 2017

The following study was conducted to the behaviour that the adhesive joint gives a strength improvement is
of adhesive connection compared to self-drilling about 27.81% till 81.84% using SLJ with sikadur 31 CF
connection [22]. Tensile strength of self-drilling screw normal and JB weld, respectively [10]. In that case, there
joint and adhesive joint on CFS structure were evaluated are still many parameter studies that should be analysed.
by using Sikadur 31 CF Normal and JB Weld. The result Thus, comprehensive studies on adhesive behaviour
is presented in the Table 2. should be carried out to improve the reliability of joint
design.
III. DISCUSSION
A set of various research of CFS connection was IV. CONCLUSION
evaluated recently. On cold-formed screwed connection, This paper summarizes several previous studies on
some research studies are focused on CFS sheeting due to CFS connection in the area of screw connection, welded
drilling difficulty for primary structural members. Certain connection, bolted connection and adhesive connection.
screw configurations were investigated to obtain optimum The review is initiated by some scopes of discussion as
resistance strength. In this condition, economical design the length of the publication. Screw is a prepared regular
is always given as a major issue and to have the connection that is used in cold-formed steel due to the
economical design, the current research should be thinness of the cold-formed steel sections. Welded
adopted. The research studies are furthered to structural connection is considered as a rigid joint which can
behaviour at elevated temperature. improve the structural connection. In fact, it needs a
Screw connection is a convenient method for joining required skilled-workers. Bolted connection is a common
thin steel section or steel sheeting. It does not require design for steel connection. However, for CFS
heavy and precise tools at site and speed up the connection, it requires extra consideration due to a thin
prefabrication process. However, the difficulty of self- section and design standard. The last is adhesive
drilling process will increase with the increment of steel connection, it offers a strong joint which can allocate a
thickness and steel grade. For secondary structural sturdy connection. Adhesive connection will influence the
member, screwed connection has shown the effectiveness long-term performance. But, there are some gaps of
in structural member. Otherwise, for primary member, the knowledge that are needed to be filled up on the design
increased section in steel grade a section thickness for codes for adhesive connection. This could be completed
better resistance has induced the problem of drilling. with comprehensive future research. From the studies,
For welded connection, especially LBW, the focus of there are several other researches that are worth to be
current research is majority to find out the strength of the further discussed, particularly on the behaviour of frame
joint on various sections and various connections, the truss adhesive connection.
reliability of LBW applied in structures, the influence of
LBW types in strength in joints, the influence of heat IV. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
affected zone, failure mode that may occur and so forth. The research study described in this paper was
LBW which is popular on the building industry, also supported by a Grant from LPDP (Indonesia Endowment
should be carried out non-only on build-up section joints Fund for Education of Ministry of Finance) under the
but also beam-to-beam joints, beam-to-column joints, research funding program for basic laboratory research.
column-to-column joints and column-to-base joints.
Other than that, the heat from welding process will reduce
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