919

A publication of

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS

VOL. 94, 2022 The Italian Association
of Chemical Engineering
Online at www.cetjournal.it

Guest Editors:Petar S. Varbanov, Yee Van Fan, Jiří J. Klemeš, Sandro Nižetić
Copyright©2022, AIDIC ServiziS.r.l.
DOI: 10.3303/CET2294153
ISBN978-88-95608-93-8;ISSN 2283-9216

Thermodynamic Analysis of LNG Regasification Process

Sandeep Yadav*, Rangan Banerjee, Srinivas Seethamraju
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Maharashtra, 400076, India
204170009@iitb.ac.in

Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) plays a vital role in the transition toward a sustainable energy future due to its
reduced emissions compared to coal. Due to the low storage temperature (-162 °C) during LNG shipping,
there is an ample amount of cold exergy (800-900 kJ/kg) embodied in LNG. The regasification process of LNG
usually does not utilize this cold exergy. In this study, a detailed thermodynamic analysis of the LNG
regasification process with secondary literature data is done. This process is modelled in Aspen Plus for a
2.77 MMTPA LNG regasification plant using the Peng-Robinson equation of state to calculate the
thermodynamic properties. It is found that 1,024 kJ/kg of LNG is available in the form of physical exergy,
which is equivalent to 0.131 kWh of power. From the obtained results, the energy and exergy flows are
represented through Sankey and Grassmann diagrams. The maximum exergy loss is 40 %, originated from
the LNG heat exchanger. The present study delineates the pathway for future work of cold exergy utilization to
the potential cold consumers (e.g., data centre cooling, food storage etc.) with minimum destruction of exergy.

1. Introduction
Worldwide energy demand is rising, together with the necessity to reduce emissions and pollution due to
population growth and economic development. In addition to these factors, high energy prices are pushing us
towards the sustainable use of energy resources. It is necessary to have affordable, flexible, and low carbon
primary energy sources in the energy mix. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plays a vital role in the transition
toward a sustainable energy future due to its reduced Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions compared to coal
and oil, by 50 % and 20 % (IGU, 2021).
LNG is a clear, colourless, and non-toxic liquid, which results from the liquefaction of natural gas. LNG
liquefaction process decreases the volume of the gas by 600 times which makes it economical for overseas
transportation (Lim et al., 2020). LNG is stored in large, insulated tanks and transported at -162 °C near
atmospheric pressure. After reaching the delivery terminal boil of gases are reliquefied and LNG is regasified
to its gaseous phase and delivered through pipelines (Shakrina et al., 2021). LNG regasification is done
typically through heating mediums like air and seawater via various types of vaporisers (Naveiro et al., 2021).
In the regasification process, the temperature difference between the cold LNG and the atmosphere is very
large (approximately 185 °C) which makes it attractive from an exergetic point of view. Apart from the
chemical exergy of LNG, it possesses plenty of high-quality physical exergy, i.e., 800-900 kJ/kg of LNG at -
162 °C (Zhao et al., 2020).
Various studies on LNG cold energy utilization have been reported which include power generation through
the Organic Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle and combined cycle (Cao et al., 2021). In power generation cycles
LNG cold is utilized as a cold sink and its cold energy is used to condense the working fluid of the power
generation cycle. A study on the power generation potential of LNG regasification terminals shows that up to
0.240 kWh of electric power can be generated per kg of LNG regasified (Çengel, 2020). In addition to power
generation, LNG cold exergy utilisation in air separation (Wu et al., 2020) and power generation with cryogenic
carbon capture (Liu et al., 2020) have also been reported in the literature. In the air separation process, LNG
cold is utilized to precool the air entering the compressor which reduces the compressor work. LNG cold
energy-based cascaded system is proposed which provides cooling at different temperature levels, power,
heating, natural gas, and liquid carbon dioxide (Liu et al., 2020). A study identified potential future applications
of LNG cold energy utilization in cooling for data centres, seawater desalination, energy storage, and cold

Paper Received: 15 April 2022; Revised: 14 May 2022; Accepted: 18 May 2022
Please cite this article as: Yadav S., Banerjee R., Seethamraju S., 2022, Thermodynamic Analysis of LNG Regasification Process, Chemical
Engineering Transactions, 94, 919-924 DOI:10.3303/CET2294153
920

chain (He et al., 2019). Recent studies reviewed and assessed the improvements related to LNG cold energy
utilization systems. These systems are not able to efficiently utilize the available cold energy in LNG. To
understand the losses and process irreversibilities occurring from each component of the LNG regasification
system, the regasification process needs to be thermodynamically analysed in a detailed manner.
Thermodynamic analysis can be used to evaluate, analyse, and optimize the energy usage in the LNG
regasification process and the utilization potential of the available cold energy. In addition to thermodynamic
analysis, very limited carbon footprint analysis of the LNG regasification process is reported in the open
literature. Carbon footprint analysis provides opportunities to mitigate carbon emissions.
In this study, a detailed thermodynamic analysis of the LNG regasification process (seawater as the heating
medium) is performed with a carbon footprint analysis. The process is modelled in Aspen Plus, and the results
of the thermodynamic analysis are shown through Sankey and Grassmann diagrams.

2. Thermodynamic analysis of LNG regasification process

LNG is regasified at high pressures owing to the pipeline pressure requirement of the natural gas supply
chain. There are temperature and pressure differences with respect to the ambient conditions. This difference
with the environment is called cold energy and it is obtained when LNG is regasified from its cryogenic state
(-162 °C) to the final gaseous state at the ambient conditions (25 °C).
Energy and exergy analysis estimates the extent of LNG cold energy accessible in the receiving terminals and
the potential of LNG cold energy utilization. Energy analysis treats all forms of energy as equivalent without
differentiating between the different grades of energy. It is based on the first law of thermodynamics and is
qualitative. On the other hand, exergy analysis is based on the degradation of energy, and it differentiates
between the different grades of energy. Exergy analysis is based on the second law of thermodynamics
(Kotas, 1988). The process of exergy analysis is especially suited for achieving the goal of efficient usage of
energy resources. Also, it allows the spots, categories, and actual magnitudes of waste and loss to be
monitored (Moran et al., 2014).
The general energy balance can be expressed as:
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (1)

𝑄𝑄̇ + �(𝑚𝑚̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 . ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑊𝑊̇ + � 𝑚𝑚̇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 . ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (2)

where 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the rate of net inlet energy transfer in kJ/s; 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 is the rate of net outlet energy transfer by heat,
work, and mass in kJ/s; 𝑄𝑄̇ is the rate of net heat input in kJ/s; 𝑊𝑊̇ is the rate of net work output in kJ/s; 𝑚𝑚 is the
mass flow rate in kg/s and ℎ is the specific enthalpy in kJ/kg.

The general exergy balance can be expressed as:

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3)
LNG regasification is an open system flow process so, the overall exergy associated with the flowing stream of
matter can be expressed as (Dinçer and Rosen, 2021)

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃ℎ +𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶ℎ + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (4)

where 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃ℎ is physical exergy; 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶ℎ is chemical exergy; 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 is kinetic exergy; 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is potential exergy
Since no combustion occurs in the LNG regasification process, there is no occurrence of a dead state, and the
chemical exergy of LNG is constant throughout the process. LNG regasification is physical exergy conversion
process only.
Physical exergy is due to an imbalance caused by the difference in temperature and pressure with respect
to 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 and 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 .

𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬̇𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝒎𝒎̇[(𝒉𝒉 − 𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒐 ) − 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐 (𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒐 )] (5)

where 𝑠𝑠 is the specific entropy in kJ/kg.K and the subscript o indicates properties at dead state (To and Po).
Using the Eq(1) to Eq(5) and thermodynamic data, the energy and exergy balance of the LNG regasification
process is performed. The reference state (𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 and 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 ) for the exergy calculations is 25 °C and 1 bar.

3. System description
After unloading from the carriers at the terminals, LNG is stored in insulated containers which are used as
feed tanks to the regasification process.
 921

3.1 LNG regasification process

Figure 1 is redrawn with the data (LNG stream temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate) from Noh et al.
(2018). LNG is stored at -162 °C near atmospheric pressure in an insulated tank. Boil off-gases (BOG)
generated during the transportation and unloading process are compressed to 10 bar pressure and mixed with
the pressurized (10 bar) LNG stream from pump P1. As the mass flow rate of the LNG is very high as
compared to the BOG, it gets condensed and converted back to LNG during the mixing process. Then, LNG is
pressurized to 60 bar with pump P2 and supplied into the vaporizer (heat exchanger) as a cold fluid. Seawater
is used to heat the LNG and it is pressured with pump P3 to 3 bar and supplied to the vaporizer as a hot fluid.
In the vaporizer, LNG is converted to high pressure (60 bar) NG for further transportation and seawater is
released into the sea with a minor temperature drop at a temperature of 17 °C.
-130oC 20oC
P3 Sea water
1.26 bar -5.94 oC 1 bar
10 bar

20oC
3 bar

BOG -162oC -161.6oC -158oC -155oC Heat 10oC NG

+ 1.26 bar LNG
10 bar 10 bar 60 bar Exchanger 60 bar
LNG
P1 P2 17oC
3 bar

Figure 1: LNG Regasification process (Noh et al., 2018]

3.2 Modelling
The LNG regasification process shown in Fig. 1 is modelled using the Aspen Plus V8.4 software, which is a
process simulation tool. LNG is considered as 100 % methane in the entire analysis. The Peng-Robinson
equation of state is used to calculate the thermodynamic properties. For the process simulation, the adiabatic
efficiency of the pumps and compressor is taken as 80 %.

4. Results and discussion

During the regasification process, most of the cold energy available in the LNG is dissipated into the seawater.
Through energy and exergy analysis, the amount of energy and exergy dissipated in the heating fluid is
analyzed. LNG, inlet seawater, and electricity to run the pumps and compressor contribute to the input energy
and exergy; NG, and discharged seawater contribute to the output energy and exergy of the system. There
are energy losses and exergy destructions from different components. Table 1 shows the thermodynamic
properties of the LNG regasification process. All these data are taken from the NIST database for methane
(Friend et al., 1989). Additionally, energy and exergy at each point are also estimated. The negative sign in
the energy column represents the amount of cold energy present in the corresponding stream.

Table 1: Thermodynamic property, energy, and exergy data at all the points of Figure 1
Stream ṁ T P h s Ėn Exph Ėxph
(kg/s) (°C) (bar) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) (MJ/s) (kJ/kg) (MJ/s)
LNG 89.03 −162.0 1.26 -912.69 -6.69 -81.26 96,501 96.50
LNG 89.03 −161.6 10 -910.02 -6.69 -81.02 96,617 96.62
BOG 1.4 −130.0 1.26 -333.06 -1.67 -0.47 232 0.23
BOG 1.4 −5.94 10 -79.81 -1.46 -0.11 499 0.50
LNG 90.43 −158.0 10 -897.50 -6.58 -81.16 96,335 96.33
LNG 90.43 −155.3 60 -880.95 -6.54 -79.66 96,753 96.75
NG 90.43 10 60 -100.96 -2.39 -9.13 55,396 55.40
Seawater 5,164 20 1.01 84.01 0.30 433.83 5,804 5.80
Seawater 5,164 20 3 84.20 0.30 434.81 6,785 6.78
Seawater 5,164 17 3 71.64 0.25 369.95 13,364 13.36
922

4.1 Energy and exergy analysis

The energy and exergy balance of each component is made according to the equation (2) and (3). All the
energy balances are shown in Table 2. It is observed that major energy is being lost from the heat exchanger
and minor energy losses are happening from all other components. The energy losses estimated in pumps
P1, P2, P3, and Compressor C1 are 0.452 MJ/s, 2.83 MJ/s, 0.288 MJ/s, and 0.677 MJ/s. LNG vaporizes from
the heat available in the seawater however, there is a heat gain in the heat exchanger from the atmosphere
which is estimated as 5.67 MJ/s which is considered in the energy lost section of the Sankey diagram.

Table 2: Energy and exergy balance of LNG regasification system

Component Energy balance Exergy balance
Pump: P1 EP1, in + WP1, in = EP1, out + EP1, Lost ExP1, in + WP1, in= ExP1, out + ExP1, des

Pump: P2 EP2, in + WP2, in = EP2, out + EP2, Lost ExP2, in + WP2, in= ExP2, out + ExP2, des

Pump: P3 EP3, in + WP3, in = EP3, out + EP3, Lost ExP3, in + WP3, in= ExP3, out + ExP3, des

Evaporator: HEEHE, LNG in + EHE, SW in = ExHE, LNG in + ExHE, SW in =

EHE, NG out + EHE, SW out + EHE, Lost ExHE, NG out + ExHE, SW out + ExHE, des
Compressor:C1 EC1, in + WC1, in = EC1, out + EC1, Lost ExC1, in + WC1 = ExC1, out+ Exdes

Tank: T1 ET1, LNG in + ET1, BOG in = ET1, LNG out ExT1, LNG in + ExT1, BOG in
= ExT1 LNG, out+ ExT1, des
On the other hand, exergy analysis shows the exergy destruction at each point of the process. Exergy
destruction happens due to the consumption of exergy in components throughout the process. In this work,
LNG cold exergy gained by the seawater during the vaporization process is considered as exergy destruction.
Exergy gained by seawater results in a minor drop in temperature (20 °C to17 °C) of seawater. This decrease
in seawater temperature does not show any potential for work so, it is considered as exergy destructed. The
largest exergy destruction occurs in the heat exchanger (34,777 kJ/s) which accounts for more than 90 % of
the overall exergy destruction. There is only minor exergy destruction in P1, P2, P3, C1 and T1 (0.01 MJ/s,
0.91 MJ/s, 0.287 MJ/s, 0.05 MJ/s and 0.781 MJ/s).
Figure 2 shows the Sankey diagram depicting the energy flow of the LNG regasification process. The cold
energy available in LNG has a negative magnitude. So, for balancing any of the components from the Sankey
diagram, the energy flow of LNG is taken as negative with respect to the reference conditions of 25 °C and
1 bar. The pumps and compressors have electric power requirements for their operation and are considered
as energy input. Seawater has a high mass flow rate of 5,164 kg/s and high energy also. It is observed that
considerably high energy flows are released into the seawater from LNG. Overall, 9.92 MJ/s of energy is lost
out of which the maximum is contributed by pump P2 and the heat exchanger. Pump P2 has higher losses
because it is exposed to the atmosphere.
Figure 3 shows the Grassmann diagram for the exergy flows of the process considered. The exergy flows of
electric power are the same as the energy flows because electric energy is fully convertible to work (the minor
conversion losses are ignored). LNG contains the highest exergy flows because of the large temperature
difference from the reference conditions. Exergy destruction from each component of the regasification system
is shown in Figure 4, which indicates that the exergy destruction associated with the heat transfer losses of
the different components (pumps and compressor) are very low and the heat exchanger is the highest. 92 %
of the overall exergy destruction is contributed by the heat exchanger.

Figure 2: Sankey diagram for the LNG regasification process in Figure 1

 923

Figure 3: Grassmann diagram for LNG regasification process in Figure 1

Figure 4: Exergy destruction across different components of Figure 1

4.2 Carbon footprint analysis

Currently, the LNG regasification capacity in India is 42 MMTPA. In addition to this, 24 MMTPA is under
construction and 10 MMTPA is planned for the next few years. From the exergy analysis, it is evident that
LNG contains approximately 1,084 kJ/kg of cold exergy, out of which 613 kJ/kg is carried away by LNG itself.
The remaining 471 kJ/kg of exergy is transferred to the seawater which is also not useful. This is the
conventional practice in most of the LNG regasification units. For the existing 42 MMTPA of capacity, these
losses translate to 2,588 TWh of exergy annually. If this cold exergy is recovered and utilized, then it would
lead to savings of 230 Mt of CO2 emissions this assumes that an average of 0.89 kg of CO2 is emitted per
kWh of electric power produced in India (Mallapragada et al., 2019).
Table 3 shows the carbon footprint of the input energy to the LNG regasification process. Energy input is in
the form of electric power (3,427 kWh) to run the compressor and pumps. With the grid emission factor of 0.89
kg CO2/kWh, it is calculated that 3,050 kg of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere to generate the power
required to regasify the LNG. Specifically, 9.37 t-CO2 is generated in regasifying per t-LNG.

Table 3: Carbon footprint of the LNG regasification process

Parameter values Units
Input electrical energy in the LNG regasification (Pumps
and compressors) 3,427 kWh
Mass flowrate of regasified LNG 325.55 t-LNG/h
Grid emission factor 0.89 kg-CO2/kWh
Total emissions 3,050 kg-CO2/h
Specific emissions 9.37 t-CO2/t-LNG
924

5. Conclusions and future perspective

In this study, a detailed thermodynamic analysis of the LNG regasification process is performed which showed
that 1,024 kJ/kg-LNG is available in the form of physical exergy. Both the energy and exergy analysis results
showed a large potential for energy recovery or storage From the Sankey and Grassmann diagrams, energy
losses and exergy destructions are distinctly noticeable at each component of the system. It is observed that
the vaporizer (heat exchanger) is the part where maximum exergy (92 %) destruction occurs. It is advisable
that a cold recovery system should be installed that can efficiently store or transfer the cold energy of LNG for
any other useful application. The carbon footprint analysis shows that cold exergy utilization of LNG decreases
the carbon footprint of the energy required to regasify the LNG. In addition, it will also decrease the carbon
footprint through the exergy recovery. The present study delineates the pathway for future work on cold
exergy utilization. Further study on LNG cold energy utilization for cooling in data centres and food storage
units will be targeted with the least destruction of exergy.

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