See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/349769365

Low Carbon Concrete: Specification and practical recommendations

Article  in  Concrete (London) · March 2021

CITATIONS READS

2 218

3 authors:

Fragkoulis Kanavaris Nuno Mesquita Ferreira

Arup 2 PUBLICATIONS   2 CITATIONS   
43 PUBLICATIONS   281 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Bryan Kenneth Marsh

Arup
14 PUBLICATIONS   513 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

COST TU1404 STSM: Evaluation of cracking charactestics of cement-based materials and multiphysics simulations of early age concrete View project

Transformation of excavated London Clay into construction resources View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Fragkoulis Kanavaris on 04 March 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 LOW/ZERO-CARBON CONCRETE

Specification and practical

recommendations
Low-carbon concrete is a topic of ever-increasing importance. Fragkoulis
Kanavaris, Nuno Ferreira and Bryan Marsh of Arup attempt to identify
some of the possible solutions for specification and to provide practical
recommendations for specifiers and designers that could aid in reducing
the carbon footprint of concrete.

T
here will be few, if any, reading reviewed herein. Therefore, it is prudent
this article who are not fully aware to first explore viable ways, particularly for
of the predominance of concrete the UK construction sector, through which
as a construction material and its CO2 emissions can be reduced by decreasing
perception as having a high-carbon footprint. or eliminating Portland cement, or by Above: One Coleman Street. An
Although the carbon footprint of concrete, sequestering CO2 within the setting or curing Arup project in the heart of London
in itself, is not particularly high, the sheer of concrete. completed in 2007 was the first
volume of concrete produced annually Other potential material solutions, major use of secondary aggregates
inevitably means it is a significant contributor eg, through aggregates, as well as design (china clay stent) in concrete,
to global carbon emissions. considerations are also discussed. Capture of together with high proportions of fly
The principal source of CO2 emissions CO2 at the manufacturing stage of Portland ash. The project was the winner of
from concrete is Portland cement, owing to cement would seem to be an ideal solution the 2007 Concrete Centre Award for
the energy required for calcining limestone but is beyond the scope of this article. Sustainability. (Photo: The Concrete Centre.)
and to the waste CO2 released from limestone
decomposition essential for its production. Partial CEM I replacement Top: Different cementitious materials
The approximately 4 billion tonnes of cement Natural pozzolans, waste materials and used in concrete.
produced annually is responsible for 2.2 industrial by-products have long been used in (Photo: Portland Cement Association.)
billion tonnes of CO2 (6–7% of the global concrete as partial replacements for Portland
total anthropogenic CO2 emissions). This cement and are referred to by various terms,
has led to a rapidly increasing demand in the such as cement replacement materials • Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag
construction sector for specifying and using (CRMs), supplementary cementitious (GGBS) is one of the most widely used
low-carbon concrete. This need has long materials (SCMs) or additions. They usually CRMs globally and, particularly, in the
been recognised by many in the industry exhibit a significantly lower carbon footprint UK. It is characterised by a very low
and much research and development effort than the approximately 860kgCO2e/tonne embodied carbon content compared with
has been, and continues to be, expended in of CEM I and can, therefore, be used to CEM I (approximately 80kgCO2e/tonne
attempting to find solutions. reduce the overall carbon footprint of of GGBS), and has the benefit of being
There are several technologies currently concrete. Some of the CRMs enhance the covered by current Standards for the
existing in terms of using alternative durability properties of concrete while, in material itself and its inclusion in
constituent materials to produce concrete, some cases, they could also have adverse concrete. A latent hydraulic by-product
with a varying degree of efficiency, effects on other concrete properties. The from iron manufacturing, it typically
applicability for structural application and most widely known replacement materials replaces CEM I in concrete by 50%, but
standardisation, and the main ones are are briefly reviewed below. can replace up to 80% in structural

www.concrete.org.uk March 2021 concrete 35

23-40MarchConcrete2020.indd 35 24/02/2021 11:08

 LOW/ZERO-CARBON CONCRETE

concrete (eg, foundations) or even more concrete but also more recently in
in specialist applications (eg, up to 95% Caribbean nations and are now covered
in female secant piles). In UK structural by BS 8615-1(2). BS 8500-1 currently Practical recommendations
concrete construction specifically, a gives guidance on their specification and Engineers and specifiers are being
cementitious component containing 50% use in concrete up to levels of 55% of the surrounded by a plethora of options
GGBS is commonly considered ‘business cementitious content. of available concrete constituents and
as usual’. The specifier should be aware of • Calcined natural pozzolans have been decisions regarding concrete specification,
potential implications with respect to infrequently used to date, but have should consider the following elements:
rate of strength gain (especially in cold potential for increased use as it may be
weather), rheology, finishing and even possible to convert abundant low • Local availability/responsible sourcing.
increased susceptibility to carbonation at kaolinitic clays to efficient CRMs. As Not all cement replacement materials,
high replacement levels. with natural pozzolans, the materials and alternative cements or replacement
• Fly ash, a pozzolanic by-product from their use and specification are covered by aggregates are available in all regions;
coal-fired power plants, with a very low BS 8615-1 and BS 8500-1. Such using locally sourced materials, rather
carbon footprint (approximately alternatives become more appealing as than importing ones with a lower carbon
0.1kgCO2e/tonne of fly ash) and which the availability of traditional CRMs, such footprint, might be preferable when
can improve the durability of concrete, as GGBS and fly ash, becomes more and transportation is considered.
has traditionally been widely used. more limited. This has led several well- • Check local Standards, specifications and
Common CEM I replacement levels are known cement producers to look into regulations (provisions valid in the place
30–35%, although replacements of up to developing clay kilns in Europe and of use), as well as client specifications,
55% are covered by current Standards. Africa. whether the materials intended for use
Nevertheless, with the ambition for coal- • Limestone powder, although relatively are covered, or specifically excluded.
fired power stations to cease operation inert, has been widely used to replace a Unnecessary exclusion should be
being materialised, the availability of fly small quantity of CEM I in concrete, challenged if it prevents potential
ash in the UK has decreased dramatically, typically up to 15–20%. It exhibits a very benefits.
although some thought has been given to low carbon footprint and is covered by
the use of stock-piled material. BS 8500-1. • Identify appropriate applications. Walk
• Silica fume is a highly reactive pozzolanic • Other waste ashes (eg, rice husk ash, before you run; horses for courses and
by-product from the silicon industry but biomass ash, palm oil fuel ash, sewage other clichés. Consider precast vs in-situ,
whose use tends to be largely restricted to sludge ash), ground recycled glass cullet non-structural vs structural, where
special applications, particularly where and supersulfated cements have also been applicable, and consider cost and time
high-performance or high-strength reported as suitable for structural implications.
concrete is required. Although of very concrete. However, their availability • Available information (as much as
low embodied carbon (approximately depends on location and their use lacks possible) should be obtained from
28kgCO2e/tonne), practical CEM I standardisation. manufacturers/suppliers to decide if any
replacement does not generally exceed • Ternary binders (cements), or even determination of engineering properties
15% due to limited efficiency at higher quaternary ones, are allowed by the or performance-based testing is needed.
levels and high cost. BS 8500‑1(1) limits European Standard for cement, EN 197- • Previous experience from any existing
CEM I replacement with silica fume to 1(3), (types IV and V) and combine applications should be identified,
10%. It can also contribute to carbon Portland cement with two or three particularly if materials are not covered by
reduction by reducing the overall CRMs. BS 8500-1 does not currently any Standards.
cementitious material content in cover such cements. Nevertheless, they
concrete required to obtain desired have potential for offering embodied • Identify applicable structural and
properties. carbon savings through using materials durability-related properties needed for
• Metakaolin is another highly reactive other than GGBS or fly ash. One design, particularly where the proposed
pozzolanic CRM, originating from solution with considerable potential is materials are not covered by any Standard
calcining highly kaolinitic clays. Similarly that of LC3, which is a ternary binder or specification, as testing could be
to silica fume, it is only generally only consisting of Portland cement, limestone requested or commissioned.
used in relatively small quantities in and calcined clay. • Optimise geometry of sections so that
concrete and predominately in special less material is used.
applications. It is, as of 2019, covered by Total CEM I replacement
BS 8615-2(2) and BS 8500-1 in the UK Alkali-activated cementitious materials • Consider specifying a lower strength class
for the material, and its specification and (AACMs) are a relatively new binder or propose 56-day strength acceptance,
use in concrete, respectively. The technology that can be used to totally replace where applicable, to achieve higher
embodied carbon of metakaolin is higher Portland cement, and are typically based on replacement of CEM I and lower total
than that of the previously mentioned GGBS and/or fly ash but may be constituted cementitious materials content.
CRMs, owing to the calcining required. from other pozzolans. The improvements
• Natural pozzolans are abundant in some these materials offer towards carbon footprint
parts of the world but are not currently in comparison with ‘business as usual’ are
readily available in the UK. Such not clear and appear to depend, at least in
materials have been used in Roman part, on the chemical activators used. The

36 concrete www.concrete.org.uk March 2021

23-40MarchConcrete2020.indd 36 23/02/2021 14:36

 LOW/ZERO-CARBON CONCRETE

china clay stent, slag, expanded slate/

shale) may be considered for up to total
natural aggregate replacement.
Consideration needs to be given to
potential implications for concrete
performance and any additional
transportation energy/cost involved.
• Carbon-negative aggregates, such as
those developed by OCO technology
and Blue Planet, have started to gain
attention. These are generally lightweight
products using sequestered carbon and
industrial waste/by-products. They offer
an attractive carbon-negative,
Embodied carbon of different materials
lightweight aggregate option, provided
including those used for construction.
that the final aggregate is not
Note that concrete is at the lower end of
contaminated with potentially
the graph, indicating that among currently
deleterious substances and that the
available robust and durable building
strength of the aggregate is suitable for
materials, it is one of the most viable structural applications. Current known
options. (Image: Inventory of Carbon and Energy database.)
applications in the UK are restricted to
unreinforced concretes.

Concluding remarks
There is no simple or immediate
global solution to the problem of the
behaviour of alkali-activated concretes has footprint. Some concrete plants in the US, high embedded carbon content of the
been widely researched and investigated; Canada and Singapore have successfully cementitious materials essential for the
however, owing to their complex behaviour, installed this technology. production of high-quality concrete, not least
range of possible composition and resultant Solidia and CarbiCrete technologies, because of the sheer volumes involved. But
properties, they are yet to be included in which are based on calcium silicates instead there are ways by which low-carbon concrete
national specification Standards. Currently, of Portland cement, also sequester CO2 for can be produced on a more local scale.
in the UK, their composition and use are curing and hardening; however, they are still Nevertheless, intense effort is required
covered by PAS 8820(4), while there are in the developmental stage. before the problem can be said to be solved.
ongoing efforts to include them in BS 8500-1 In view of the continuously decreasing
and BRE SD1(5). Commercialised products Aggregate replacement availability of traditional CRMs, it may
in the UK include Cemfree, Earth Friendly Natural aggregates generally have a very be expected that cementitious binders
Concrete and Virtua; several, mainly non- low-carbon footprint; hence, any ordinary composed of Portland cement, limestone
structural, applications of such materials have replacement will not necessarily contribute to and calcined clays – as well as carbon capture
been reported. lowering the carbon footprint of the concrete and storage during cement production – will
but may contribute to waste reduction and become more appealing options for concrete
Alternative (non-Portland) cements reduced resource depletion. Nevertheless, decarbonisation.▮
Non-Portland cements can be separated some carbon-negative aggregates are available
into four types: a) reactive belite-rich and others are under development. Options References:
Portland cement; b) belite-ye’elimite-ferrite; for partial or complete replacement of natural 1. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8500. Concrete.
c) carbonatable calcium silicate cement; aggregates include: Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206. Part 1 –
and d) magnesium oxides derived from • Recycled/crushed concrete aggregates Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier. Part
2 – Specification for constituent materials and concrete.
magnesium silicates. The embodied carbon have been used for several years and are BSI, London, 2015+A2:2019.
of such cements varies with type (20–30% generally widely available but may be in 2. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8615.
less than CEM I for (a) and (b), and 70–90% high demand for other applications. Specification for pozzolanic materials for use with
for (c) and (d), with even the possibility of Their specification and use is covered Portland cement. Part 1 – Natural pozzolana and
natural calcined pozzolana. Part 2 – High reactivity
a negative carbon footprint); however, they within BS EN 206(6) and BS 8500 up natural calcined pozzolana. BSI, London, 2019.
lack standardisation and their production is to a practical replacement level limited 3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 197-1.
limited to certain locations worldwide. to 20%. Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity
• Recycled glass and plastic may also be criteria for common cements. BSI, London, 2011.
4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, PAS 8820.
CO2 sequestering used in relatively small quantities; Construction materials. Alkali-activated cementitious
A technology known as CarbonCure uses practical limits are generally in the region material and concrete. Specification. BSI, London, 2016.
a relatively small amount of CO2 in liquid of 30% and 10% for recycled glass and 5. BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Concrete in
form during concrete batching to accelerate plastic, respectively. Their use is more Aggressive Ground. Special Digest 1, BRE Press,
Watford, 2005.
strength gain and, as a result, achieves some common in regions faced with issues 6. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 206.
reduction in total cementitious materials relevant to waste glass and plastic. Concrete. Specification, performance, production and
content, further reducing the overall carbon • Other secondary aggregates (such as conformity. BSI, London, 2013+A1:2016.

www.concrete.org.uk March 2021 concrete 37

23-40MarchConcrete2020.indd
View publication stats 37 24/02/2021 11:08