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LANGUAGE IN INDIA
Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow
Volume 21:12 December 2021

ISSN 1930-2940
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Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 21:12 December 2021
Contents i
WISH YOU A HAPPY NEW YEAR!
Contents
Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
A Study of the Representation of Culture in the Speak Now and
Stretch Textbooks Used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand 1-23
Xizhe Zhang
Chinese Students Self-Perceived Reading Ability and Its Implication
to the Teaching of Critical Reading 24-36
Selvaganapathy, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Scholar

‘Pu’ Speakers Learning English in Middle Schools of
Car Nicobar (A&N Islands): A Study in Error Analysis 37-61
Professor Maya Khemlani David and Ameer Ali

Using Conversations as Pedagogical Tools for Teaching
Cross-Cultural Competence to English Language Students:
Focus on Speech Acts 62-77
Dr. Mamata Rani Subudhi

The Language of Silence in Joy Kagawa’s Obasan 78-83
Harpreet Kaur, Research Scholar and Dr. Shweta Gupta, Associate Professor
Rethinking Women in Contemporary Hindi Cinema 84-93
Sabri Mohammad and Noor Abu Madi

Raising a New Generation of ‘Feminists’: Gender and Social Norms in
Chimamanda Adichie’s Imitations and The Arrangers of Marriage 94-103
Yi He, M.A., PhD Student

The Analysis of Persuasive Language of Netvertisement:
A Pedagogical Proposal 104-121
Mrs. Reena Garg, M.A. English, B.Ed.

Memes: Creative Technological Strategy for ESL Learners 122-130
Majd Abushunar, Ph.D. in Linguistics

An Analysis of Jordanian EFL Learners’ Figurative Competence of
Color-Based Idioms 131-147
Article Pages Deleted 148-209
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Contents ii
Shafqat Hussain and Ameer Ali
The Feminist Study of Rupi Kaur’s Home Body 210-221
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Contents iii
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Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 Vol. 21:12 December 2021
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A Study of the Representation of Culture in the Speak Now
and Stretch Textbooks Used in
Chonburi Technological College, Thailand
Ms. Sojipan Ekachai

Assumption University, Thailand
nanyapak.e@gmail.com
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Courtesy: https://www.amazon.com/Speak-Now-Student-Online-Practice/dp/0194030156
Abstract
The current research considers that language, context, and culture are inextricably
linked as their starting point, and this viewpoint has two significant consequences for foreign
language teaching. Textbooks have historically been essential in influencing English
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
A Study of the Representation of Culture in the Speak Now and Stretch Textbooks Used in
Chonburi Technological College, Thailand 1
classrooms. The present research has concentrated on the methods and practices linked to
context and culture found in Stretch 1A, Stretch 1B, and Speak Now English textbooks
currently used at Chonburi Technological College in Thailand. Content analysis was used to
answer the research questions and derive meanings from words or images selected in the
Stretch 1A, Stretch 1B, and Speak Now English textbooks to determine the context in which
they are used and understand their relationship to one another to draw inferences about the
underlying culture. The present study has found concrete links between the English textbooks
used by the Chonburi Technological College and various elements of culture employed to
facilitate a better understanding of the Thai students' English-speaking countries. All three
textbooks under analysis use different cultural teaching methods for non-native learners in
interactive classroom activities that allow them to practice English as a communicative,
interactive process. Furthermore, the study found that the Speak Now Student Book is more
focused on improving students' communication skills, stimulating them to speak confidently
and effectively. Through Speak Now Student Book - Online Practice, the students can
enhance their listening, speaking, and pronunciation abilities outside of class by allowing
them to talk, record, and submit to instructor activities. In contrast with Stretch 1A and
Stretch 1B, the Speak Now Student Book is the first English learning book to introduce
dialogue videos to provide real-life models of English communication while emphasizing the
native English culture.
Key Words: Foreign Language Teaching, English textbooks, Stretch 1A, Stretch 1B, and
Speak Now, Chonburi Technological College Thailand
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to examine the representation of culture in two textbooks,
Speak Now and Stretch used by one of Thailand's colleges. The aim is to provide Thai
students with multicultural awareness that will enable them to be interculturally competent
English language learners. The close relationship between language and culture have been
widely studied and argued that culture is one of the most important aspects in the field of
language education. Knowing the content of the textbooks used in Chonburi Technological
College will be able to address specific pedagogical issues.
The majority school sets English as a mandatory subject so that the learner can gain
more knowledge of English language. It is a compulsory second language in schools and in
tertiary education. Most Thai teachers (52 percent) have low English proficiency, and more
than 80 percent of English teachers did not have English major. The presence of cultural
content in textbooks is also important for the development of students' communication
process to be able to strengthen their intercultural communicative competence.
It is vital for English language teachers to understand how culture is represented in

textbooks. When it comes to language learning, culture and language are inextricably linked.
Each student's desire to improve intercultural communication may emphasize the importance
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
of investigating authentic cultural representations. Students should be aware that textbooks
used in teaching and learning aid in communication to develop linguistic and intercultural
competency (Lopez-Rocha, 2016). Cultural content is critical in English textbooks since
studying English as an international language entail knowing about the cultures of English-
speaking societies in addition to their language. Not only from native English-speaking
countries, but also from Thailand, should cultural knowledge be included in publications.
Additionally, this study can aid in the development of fundamental integrated abilities where
culture plays a role in language teaching and learning. This will aid both public and private
schools when selecting English textbooks. Develop activities for learners that encourage
active participation while creating intercultural competency, hence assisting them in
acquiring cultural awareness and interaction. Selecting textbooks that are appropriate for the
local context should be a practice. To appreciate cultural diversity, it is vital to understand
how culture is represented in Chonburi Technological College textbooks.
Finally, the findings of this study can assist scholars in evaluating English textbooks
to have a better understanding of how to teach intercultural competency. That is why this
study evaluates how Chonburi Technological College's year 1 textbooks Speak Now and
Stretch convey culture. These books are approved by the Ministry of Education textbooks for
HVC. In this article, I use Speak Now 1, Stretch 1A, and Stretch 1B as data gathering
instruments. This will be a qualitative study. The checklists will be used to gather, analyze,
and evaluate the data.
Objectives
The objectives of the study:
1. To identify the different types of cultural information represented in Speak Now

and Stretch Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand.
2. To determine the different senses of culture represented in Speak Now and Stretch
Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand.
3. To classify the different elements of culture represented in Speak Now and ‘Stretch’
Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand
Literature Review
Writing is creative. According to Prowse (1998), writers' hands cannot keep up
with their brains when inspired. But when the ideas do not arrive, it's disheartening
(Tomlinson, 2003). Many material producers describe ad hoc and spontaneous material
writing procedures that rely on intuitive feelings for activities that work (Tomlinson, 2003).
Despite this, writers like Tomlinson and Masuhara (2011) state that understanding a writer's
language learning concepts, target students, and teachers is important before writing a
textbook. No matter how beautifully written a textbook is, it will never be suitable for all
teaching and learning situations. Choosing one textbook over another or using portions of a
book in whole while supplementing others, is often regarded one of the most essential
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
variables in the success or failure of teaching and learning. The most effective teaching
materials support both teachers and students' need and levels of proficiency. Thus, textbook
evaluation should include assessing how well it aligns with teachers' teaching ideas and
students' learning needs. Moreover, textbook evaluation can assist publishers decide on
publication and teachers build their own textbooks or supplemental resources to publish
(Tomlinson, 2003).
In Thailand, educators must prepare pupils for the world of global communication.
Students should have the ability to utilize English as an international language, cultural
awareness, and intercultural communicative competence. Using culturally relevant texts in
the English language classroom helps students develop intercultural communication
competence. Knowing that English is not only about the inner circle countries' culture, but
also other countries that utilize English as an international language or lingua franca, would
help students build intercultural communication skills and broaden their cultural horizons.
English as a Lingua Franca

English is becoming the global language as more people use it. Worldwide, 1.75
billion people speak English. By 2020, two billion people were expected to speak it (Robson,
2014). This implies English is mostly utilized to communicate with people from different
cultural and linguistic backgrounds. As an international language, English is a recent
phenomenon, according to McKay (2012). It is used globally for inter-country
communication and locally for inter-language communication. English is defined as an
international language by McKay (2018) in terms of communication and cultural expression.
It allows speakers to express their thoughts and culture with others, she says (McKay 2002).
Meaning, English is part of the culture of the country it is used in. Language and culture are
intimately related in the sense that language is the carrier of culture. People used language to
express their ideals and attitudes as part of their identity (Kaewsakul & Teo, 2016).
According to McKay (2002), teaching English as an international language requires cultural
content, notably in the instructional materials. It is important to note that as English becomes
more worldwide, students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds should be aware
that learning the language is not enough; they must also know how to utilize it culturally.
According to Kramsch (2008), the purpose of utilizing English as an international language is
enabling speakers to communicate with people from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds. These ideas should be incorporated in instructors' instructional materials to help
pupils respect different cultures and their norms and ideals. Thus, cultural competence is
required and should be emphasized in language courses to improve cultural understanding
and avoid misunderstandings among people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
As a result of this, the language instructor should educate students how to communicate
beyond words, through a language of understanding and tolerance, of respect for the other's
values, beliefs, and cultures (Tulpan, 2017).
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
In Thailand, educators must prepare pupils for the world of global communication.
Students should have the ability to utilize English as an international language, cultural
awareness, and intercultural communicative competence. Using culturally relevant texts in
the English language classroom helps students develop intercultural communication
competence. Knowing that English is not only about the inner circle countries' culture, but
also other countries that utilize English as an international language or lingua franca, would
help students build intercultural communication skills and broaden their cultural horizons.
Historically, the educational policies of numerous countries around the world vary. The ideal
name for English used to communicate across linguistic and cultural divides is ‘English as a
lingua franca' (House, 2003).
Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

Due to the globalization of English, intercultural communicative competence (ICC)
has become a hot topic. World Englishers are influencing its diffusion. As the globe becomes
a global village, understanding not only how English is spoken and utilized by different
speakers of English is vital. Understanding how English is used is another way to understand
a speaker's culture. As a result, conversations regarding culture in English classes must
include not only native speakers but also non-native speakers or other English speakers. Since
many individuals use English to communicate with people from various cultures, it is critical
that ICC be integrated into language teaching, especially ELT. Recently, the Council of
Europe's (2018) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages promotes
integrating cultural components in language training. Interculturality aims to “help language
learners connect with speakers of other languages on equal terms and be aware of their own
and interlocutors' identities” (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002).
Language learners who develop intercultural awareness can communicate

successfully and build human relationships with persons from other languages and cultures
(Byram, Adam & Stevens, 2001). Effective communication occurs when a speaker is aware
of their interlocutor's linguistic and cultural background. As he/she can effortlessly project
themselves. Ho (2009) and Kramsch (2008) agree with Byram (1997) that the non-native
speaker paradigm is no longer objective for ESL students. Also, teachers found it difficult to
integrate cultural content into ELT if the traditional viewpoint is utilized to prevent
promoting intercultural communicative abilities. Deardoff (2008, 2016) built on Byram's
(1997) ICC paradigm to construct the Process Model of Intercultural Competence.
English Education in Thailand

Thailand's first education plan was created in 1932. Various governments have since
described national programs as crucial duty to generate quality citizens for the country. Since
the first plan in 1961, education has been one of the primary components of the national
economic and social development plan. Thailand has two educational tracks: academic and
vocational. Those seeking higher education would choose academic track, while those
seeking employment would choose vocational track (Muller & Funnell, 1991). Both curricula
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
cover language, math, science, social studies, arts, and physical education. The educational
program's framework has a gap.
Aside from basic education, vocational tracks include civil construction, auto
mechanics, machine shop mechanics, electrical engineering, electronics engineering, and
welding. Both public and private schools provide vocational and academic education. In most
nations, vocational education is provided after primary education. However, most Thais
believe vocational education lacks intellectual exposure. Vocational education is perceived to
focus on technical studies, machines, and shop labor (Pasawanoo, 2019).
In 2010, out of a total population of almost 66 million, over 14 million students were
enrolled in Thai schools, 4.8 million in secondary and 2.5 million in higher education
(Michael & Trines, 2018). There are several formal routes into vocational education and
training. Some subjects are included in the secondary school curriculum. However, pupils
might choose to study in one of the country's vocational colleges after high school. The
general stream has a 60:40 student to vocational student ratio. Currently, the Office of
Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) has 415 colleges separated into 13 specialties.
Their technical credentials covered a larger range of subjects. Alternatively, students can
finish their regular secondary education and then transfer to a vocational school to get a
technical or higher diploma. A diploma can be upgraded to a bachelor’s degree after two
years of study in a higher education institution. Understanding that people are our most
significant resource and the drivers of sustainable economic success, Thailand places
emphasis on education and training. The government's current policy focuses on better
technology, productivity, and skills among a better paid workforce With only three years
until the ASEAN Economic Community is established (Michael & Trines, 2018), education
policies and programs targeted towards Education for Employment are increasingly important
(Senkrua, 2019; Tumthong, Sirasoonthorn, Humphrey, Lincharoen, & Siripornpaibul, 2019).
The Teaching and Learning of English

Teaching and learning are intertwined. Understanding of teaching and learning ideas
may contribute to the success of language teaching and learning. According to Tomlinson
(1998), learning is a conscious activity that involves committing to memory significant
information. Learning skills, values, and worldviews are influenced by cognitive, emotional
and contextual factors. To study is to gain knowledge, whereas to teach is to impart
knowledge. Brown (2000) described teaching as directing and assisting learners to learn.
Language is one of them. In spite of its limited use in Thailand, English has played an
essential part in Thai education for over a century. It is important to consider numerous
elements while teaching English as a foreign language, including the learning environment,
appropriate content and materials, evaluation criteria and student level (Graddol 2006).
There are a few reasons why learning a foreign language like English is difficult in
Thailand. Many students are learning First English to improve communication between
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
people from other nations who do not speak English (Marshall, 2019). The language of
education and business is English. In this era of globalization, learning English is vital for
economic competitiveness (Prescott, 2009). Third, learning English can help people learn
about various cultures and extend their horizons (Marshall, 2019; Prescott, 2009).
The 2002 National Education Curriculum is based on the 1997 Thai Constitution,
which guarantees all Thai citizens 12 years of free education. From 1 to 9th grade, this is
required, and from 10th to 12th grade, According to the National Educational Act of 1999,
lifelong education is defined as education for self and social development (Wongsothorn ,
Hiranburana & Chinnawongs, 2002). School officials, parents, students, and businesses are
concerned about Thailand's English-language teaching and learning (Saengboon, 2019).
According to Wongsothorn, Yordchim, Thitivesa, and Pongsurapipa (2019) in the LEARN
Journal, the Ministry of Education and the Office of the Higher Education Commission
should increase the English language standards of students, teachers, and educational
employees. According to them, this standard is for improving English teaching and learning
to help students compete with other ASEAN communities (Wongsothorn, Yordchim,
Thitivesa, & Pongsurapipa, 2019). Higher education institutions must define strategies and
targets for improving English language proficiency in all courses and levels of education.
Using English for students to graduate with academic, professional, and communication
abilities in English. The higher education institutions must design a strategy to meet the
objectives and goals including indicators and evaluation.
According to the Higher Education Commission's announcement on boosting English

language standards in higher education institutions, universities must improve teaching and
learning management. The government has a policy of education and learning to improve
Thai teachers' skills to cope with the rapidly changing environment and develop their full
potential. Higher education institutions should organize extracurricular activities, media
processes, and/or environments that encourage students to acquire English language skills on
their own. Higher education institutions must assess all students' English proficiency using a
tertiary standard test developed by the institution or other standardized English language
assessments comparable to the CEFR or other standards. From the academic year 2016
forward, higher education institutions may consider include the results of the English
language competency test in the certificate (Wongsothorn, Yordchim, Thitivesa, &
Pongsurapipa, 2019). The Ministry of Education mandates the incorporation of culture in
teaching and learning to promote students' communicative proficiency and intercultural
awareness.
The Roles of Textbook in ELT

Materials might be informative, instructional, experiential, eliciting, or exploratory,
depending on the learner's needs (Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2011, 2017). In other words,
textbooks should contain everything students need to know. Richards (2001) stated that
textbooks are important in most language programs. A textbook can help teachers prepare
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
and teach lessons, as well as provide content, practice, and activities for students. Using
textbooks saves time, directs lessons, guides discussions, facilitates homework, makes
teaching easier, better organization, convenience, learning easier, faster, better, and most
importantly, provides confidence and security. Textbooks can be used as a teaching and
learning tool to help students fit their needs (Cunningsworth, 1984; Graves 2008). According
to Allwright and Hanks (2009), textbooks can provide ideas and activities for teaching and
learning if they are appropriate for students. Thus, textbooks are recognized as crucial
components in most language programs.
Textbooks are vital in language education, say educators (Richards, 2001). However,
due to potential restrictions, textbooks have been questioned in EFL settings (Richard, 2010).
According to Richards, textbooks give a structure and syllabus for a class, allowing the
teacher to teach the student systematically. According to Hutchinson and Torres (1994), most
textbooks used as teaching materials are so broad that it is almost universal in ELT
classrooms. Teachers should be able to chose textbooks and learning materials that best meet
their students' needs. While textbooks may provide a variety of teaching and learning
materials for teachers and students, it is the teacher's skill that makes these resources
meaningful and beneficial to students. English language textbooks are required in Thai
schools for both teachers and students. To reach the goal of having interculturally and
linguistically aware students, the instructional materials should reflect this. These English
textbook/textbooks should reflect learners' needs, such as cultural contexts. Cross-cultural
components can strengthen Thai learners' awareness to improve intercultural communication
(Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009; Nipaspong, 2011).
According to Baker (2008), Thai students should be taught to compare cultural

diversity in textbooks. These commercially ready-made international textbooks are suitable
for learners who learn cultures other than the target language culture (Wongbiasaj, 2003).
Thus, basic textbooks used in Thai education should be culturally suitable and allow young
Thai learners to reflect on their own cultural experiences to better comprehend their Thai
cultural heritage and others (Ratanaphruks, 2012). Although textbooks can provide valuable
language models and input for less experienced teachers, their benefits and drawbacks should
be evaluated.
Textbook’s Evaluation Criteria

The textbook is a major component in influencing student success in language classes.
So, teachers or curriculum developers should choose wisely. Experts typically use checklists
to evaluate and pick textbooks. A dependable instrument makes evaluation easier, more
objective, and more valid. Most published checklists lack expected validity or reliability
(Mukundan & Ahour, 2010). This involves the development of a checklist with high concept
validity, consistent item scores, and low cost.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Language teaching is intimately related to the textbook when there is a teacher
shortage. That doesn't mean the teacher's method always mirrors the textbook's method.
Oddly, the textbook-heaviest teachers are least qualified to analyze or evaluate its content and
manner. The textbook can be a dictator to the instructor who feels compelled to explain every
item in the exact same order and context as the textbook author. A textbook should be
utilized sparingly, as it cannot meet all teaching needs. The amount of English language
training via textbook is restricted in bilingual and multilingual contexts. The textbook can
show general problems, but problems specific to distinct language groups are left to the
teacher.
A textbook may potentially lose its relevance due to changes in the community's
linguistic policy.
Many textbook selection procedures have been proposed to choose the best textbook
for each teaching and learning setting. Cunningsworth (1995) presented two evaluations. The
first is “Impressionistic Overview,” where teachers swiftly assess textbooks based on their
cover design. Unsuitable textbooks can be filtered away (McGrath, 2002). The second is “In-
depth Evaluation”, which examines specific areas such as language abilities and provides
activities. McGrath (2002) argued that reviewing textbooks requires using the
impressionistic, checklist, and in-depth methods. Similar to Cunningworth's impressionistic
overview, the overall impressions after reading the blurb, contents, and then skimming the
book to assess organization, subjects, layout and aesthetics. It entails ticking off a list of
criteria in a specific order. This method is quick and easy to compare textbooks.
English teachers are expected to select textbooks, which is part of the evaluation
process. Choosing a book requires decision making because it affects financial and
pedagogical outcomes. Inappropriate book selection leads to negative consequences on
teaching and learning, as well as cost waste. One reason why items on a textbook evaluation
checklist do not achieve their intended functions is as follows. The evaluation checklist items
are too localized and intended for a certain community of teachers for a specific time period.
Developing items can be difficult to assess objectively. Despite its comprehensiveness and
excellent rate reliability (Mukundan, 2010), the Skierso (1991) checklist has some tough to
answer items. Items might be confusing for teachers, especially those unskilled or
undertrained. While textbook quality has increased, most instructors and administrators still
struggle to choose the right material.
Program administrators and classroom teachers are frequently forced to adopt new
reading textbooks on short notice. Even if publisher personnel are knowledgeable, their desire
to market new products influences their advice. Because classroom teachers use readers
frequently, the checklist offered here will help streamline the evaluation process. Some
teachers ask so many questions when evaluating textbooks that they never finish. A reading
textbook with little or no evaluation may become the focus of the curriculum until another
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
reader is randomly picked to replace it. With the checklist, administrators and classroom
teachers will be able to evaluate reading textbooks more thoroughly while also saving time
(Miekley, 2005; Figueroa Caas et al. 2010; Wen-Cheng et al. 2011).
Method
This chapter outlines the study's methodology. The introduction will be followed
by a description of the research design. Then the population and sampling methodologies,
and finally the instruments. The instrument's validity and reliability will be justified, as will
the intended data collection and analysis. This chapter summarizes the study's research
process.
The Study
The study will take place at Chonburi Technological College in Amphoe Meung
district, Chonburi province. The college was picked because the researcher is currently
employed there. This college's priority is improving teacher and student education. The Basic
Education Core Curriculum 2008 makes English a mandatory subject in Thailand. The
Ministry of Education has allowed the use of the Speak Now and Stretch textbooks in Thai
colleges, and Chonburi Technological College now uses both. The socio-cultural settings of
the textbooks that an institution may employ become significant since intercultural education
is being emphasized in 21st century teaching and learning. These recommended texts are
frequently utilized at Chonburi colleges. The head of the foreign language department
proposed that these textbooks be evaluated.
Research Design
This study will be based on textbooks. The aim is to examine the cultural content
of Thai students' English textbooks at Chonburi Technological College. A methodology that
blends quantitative and qualitative methodologies is used in this work (Creswell & Clark,
2011; O'Cathain et al., 2007; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). According to Tashakkori and
Creswell (2008), in a single study or program of inquiry, the investigator collects and
analyzes data, integrates findings, and develops conclusions utilizing both qualitative and
quantitative methodologies (Tashakkori et al, 2008). Mixed methods use both quantitative
and qualitative methods to counterbalance one another's flaws (Creswell, 2003). Using
combined techniques, Dörnyei (2007) states that “words may bring meaning to numbers and
numbers can provide precision to words.” Because of the nature of this investigation, this
design was chosen. In this design, quantitative research will be used to synthesize large
volumes of data and reach conclusions based on statistics (Babbie, 2008).
In qualitative research, the researcher examines the data's contents for cultural
representation, evaluates them, and delivers thorough findings (Creswell, 2007). To put it
another way, qualitative researchers analyze phenomena like textbook evaluations in their
natural environments, trying to make sense of or interpret them in terms of human meanings.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Generally, mixed techniques combine qualitative and quantitative methods. ‘The qualitative
should direct the quantitative and vice versa.
Research Population and Sampling
Purposive sampling will be used with the Speak Now and Stretch multipack. Jack C.
Richard and David Bohlke wrote the Speak Now, while Susan Stempleski wrote the ‘Stretch.'
This study will analyze every series. Oxford University Press produced both textbooks. These
textbooks are for Chonburi Technological College first year Diploma students. The Stretch
has 2 series and the Speak Now has 1. Susan Stempleski of Oxford University Press wrote
Stretch 1A. It has 6 units. Each unit contains the following.
Unit 1: “Jobs” topic. This unit discusses job terminology and responsibilities. This
section is designed to teach new terminology related to various jobs. This lesson includes
exercises including listening for major ideas, reading, and writing. Other parts deal with Wh-
Questions in the simple present.
Unit 2: “Daily Activities” subject. This unit discusses daily routine. This course
teaches students how to ask Yes/No questions in the present tense (stressed). This topic has
two reading and writing assignments.
Unit 3: “Now” is the topic. This course is designed to teach pupils about life
experiences and careers. A grammar focus on Present Continuous questions will also be
taught. This course includes activities for three skills: specialized listening, reading (language
central), and writing (learning a language).
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Unit 4 is about "Feelings". This subject teaches students about taking notes, happiness
surveys, and creating plans. This unit includes tasks for three skills: listening, reading, and
writing.
Unit 5: “On the Weekend” is the topic. This unit's goal is to teach kids about meeting
people, watching movies, and visiting family. This unit's grammar discourse is Past Simple.
This lesson teaches three skills: listening for main ideas, speaking (turn-taking) and writing
(Free writing). Unit 6: “Downtown” subject.
The aim is to teach students three skills: speaking (repeating for understanding and
pronunciation), reading (iTravel Vacation Rentals passage) and free writing. Jack C. Richards
and David Bohlke from Oxford University Press wrote Speak Now 1. It has 8 lessons. Each
lesson has the following:
Lesson 1: “New Friends”: Listening and Speaking are the only two skills in Speak
Now. This lesson's goal is to teach pronunciation and communication.
Lesson 2: “interests”: To learn how to describe time difference and contrastive stress
in questions and compound nouns.
Lesson 3 “People”: This lesson's goal is to teach students how to identify

conversational tensions. This lesson includes activities for three skills: listening,
pronunciation, and conversation.
Lesson 4: “Daily Life”: It includes 4 mini-topics on pronunciation, listening, and

conversation. Lesson 5: “My Hometown”: This session focuses on pronunciation, listening,
and conversation skills.
Lesson 6: “Shopping”: It has 4 subtopics. Listening and speaking stress intonations.
Lesson 7: “Food”: This session focuses on three skills: listening, pronunciation, and
conversation.
Lesson 8: ‘Past and Future': There are four main topics: listening, pronunciation, and
communication.
Findings
There are three types of textbooks: (1.) Speak Now (2.) Stretch 1 A, and (3.) Stretch 1
B. At each level of analysis, constant comparison was used to distill the data further, until
themes emerged from the data. In addition, included in the chapter are tables and graphics
used to present the details of each textbook used in Chonburi Technological College.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
1. What are the different types of cultural information represented in ‘Speak Now’
and ‘Stretch’ Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand?
2. What are the different senses of culture represented in ‘Speak Now’ and ‘Stretch’
Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand?
3. What are the different elements of culture represented in ‘Speak Now’ and
‘Stretch’ Textbooks used in Chonburi Technological College, Thailand?
Findings for the Research Question 1

The cultural information in Stretch 1A Multi-Pack is provided on each unit of the
textbook. The textbook has six units and eight categories. Idiomatic expressions-collocations-
etc, realia and pseudo-realia, graphic illustration, and sound recordings are the eight
categories found. As shown in the table above, cultural information is most abundant in
sounds and recordings, followed by visual illustrations, and least abundant in instructive text,
idiomatic expressions, collocations, etc. The sounds and recordings are vital in teaching
specific phrases and expressions. The art of pronouncing requires more than just repetition.
Pronunciation includes language (vocabulary and grammar) and pronouncing talents
(speaking and listening). Like vocabulary and grammar, students are encouraged to
pronounce by observing and understanding the laws and patterns that govern speech. In
English, the first syllable is generally stressed for nouns and adjectives, while the second
syllable is often stressed for verbs. Pronunciation is a physical motion because it is part of
speech. To properly pronounce a new language, pupils must retrain their speaking muscles.
Vocabulary and pronunciation also require paying attention to how the language is spoken.
Listening to the noises and voice recordings in the book can help students improve their
English pronunciation.
The sounds and recordings are vital in teaching specific phrases and expressions. The
art of pronouncing requires more than just repetition. Pronunciation includes language
(vocabulary and grammar) and pronouncing talents (speaking and listening). Like vocabulary
and grammar, students are encouraged to pronounce by observing and understanding the laws
and patterns that govern speech. In English, the first syllable is generally stressed for nouns
and adjectives, while the second syllable is often stressed for verbs. Pronunciation is a
physical motion because it is part of speech. To properly pronounce a new language, pupils
must retrain their speaking muscles. Vocabulary and pronunciation also require paying
attention to how the language is spoken. Listening to the noises and voice recordings in the
book can help students improve their English pronunciation. Visual illustrations appear 29
times in the Stretch 1A book and have cultural importance. Images are frequently utilized in
foreign language training materials to help students grasp the text. In Stretch 1A, the text
conveying foreign attitudes and opinions was identified as the third cultural element of
importance.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Stretch 1A Multi-Pack divides culture into four categories: Aesthetic (culture with big
C), Sociological (culture with little c), Semantic (culture with s) and Pragmatic (culture with
p). The table also reflects 6 textbook units. As seen in the table above, the most frequent
sense is pragmatic, followed by aesthetic (culture with big C) and sociological (culture with
little c). The lowest frequency is Semantic sense. Stretch 1A Multi-Pack textbook had 17
instances of pragmatic sense. Language textbooks are well-known for their benefits to
teachers of all levels. Pragmatic sense infographics are found on practically every page of the
textbook and provide short but clear instructions for certain assignments. Teachers and
students can use this information. The pragmatic function provides input for classroom
education, including texts, activities, and explanations. So, for example, teachers using the
Stretch 1A Multi-Pack textbook can use the authors' suggestions rather than making daily
decisions. This is beneficial because textbook writers are assumed to be more expert in this
topic. This saves time and money for teachers who would otherwise have to prepare
educational materials for their students. Third, educators may easily control the class
(Akutso, 2008).
Textbooks assist with the teaching process by guiding lessons and guiding class
discussion after the input presentation. Textbooks make instruction more pleasant, simple,
and structured. As a result, less experienced instructors rely on textbooks for information and
technique (Bagaric & Djigunovic, 2007). The aesthetic sense (culture with a capital C)
appears 16 times in Stretch 1A. To some, culture's aesthetic sense is just the top of the
iceberg. These cultural references are typically encountered in textbooks while discussing
films, plays, concerts, and other large-scale entertainment. They appear in practically every
chapter, usually at the start of each lesson, followed by text or dialogue exercises.

How do the Speak Now and Stretch textbooks at Chonburi Technological College,
Thailand, reflect culture? Stretch 1A Multi-Pack organizes culture into four categories:
Aesthetic, Sociological, Semantic, and Pragmatic (culture with p).
The most common sense is pragmatic, followed by artistic (culture with a capital C)
and sociological (culture with little c). Semantic sense is the lowest. A Multi-Pack textbook
featured 17 pragmatic cases.
Language textbooks are well-known for their value to all teachers. They are included
on almost every page of the textbook and provide quick instructions for assignments. This
data can help teachers and students.
The pragmatic function provides texts, activities, and explanations for classroom
education. Instead of making daily decisions, teachers utilizing the Stretch 1A Multi-Pack
textbook can use the authors' ideas. This is good because textbook writers are regarded to be
more knowledgeable. This saves teachers time and money by not having to produce
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
educational materials for their students. Books help teachers by guiding lessons and class
discussion after input presentation. Textbooks make learning fun, easy, and structured.
Because of this, novice instructors rely on textbooks for information (Bagaric & Djigunovic,
2007).
Stretch 1A uses the aesthetic sense (16 times). This is simply the tip of the iceberg for
some. Films, musicals, concerts, and other large-scale entertainment are frequently discussed
in textbooks. They appear in almost every chapter, usually before text or dialogue exercises.
Discussion
Culture is a social process that deals with how people communicate in various
contexts. They tend to study multiple languages to satisfy their academic and professional
communication needs. Intercultural communication requires students to practice linguistic
forms and become familiar with the target language's culture. Thus, in order to develop
intercultural communication skills, ESL students should use textbooks that provide cultural
context and awareness throughout their language learning process. Specifically, ELT research
has aided the industry by giving vital insights into adding cultural awareness into ELT
programs.
The current study identified similarities between English textbooks used at Chonburi
Technological College and cultural aspects used to better comprehend English speaking
countries. These textbooks used cultural teaching strategies for non-native learners to practice
English as a communicative interactive process. The Stretch and Speak Now textbooks also
assist students acquire culturally appropriate conduct and attitudes based on communication
patterns in the target language. Thus, before teaching cross-cultural communication skills,
educators must be fluent in teaching a foreign language. It explores the cultural material in
the Speak Now and Stretch (1A and 1B) textbooks used at Chonburi Technological College in
Thailand, and the problems Thai students may face in learning intercultural communication
competency. The study discovered that language is used in the Stretch and Speak Now
textbooks to express personal experiences and recollections between students. Because
language is more than just a means of delivering and receiving information, neglecting to
understand the cultural background and social behavior of a language's use can result in
misinterpretation and breakdown of language communication. It is also a cultural social
behavior. Depending on the situation, a suitable cultural entanglement with language
acquisition can solve difficulties that are difficult to comprehend for foreign or second
language learners (Emitt & Komesaroff, 2003).
Overall, the Stretch and Speak Now textbooks prioritize exposing students to a variety
of perspectives on the English-speaking globe. Selection seems to have prioritized the topic's
motivational influence. However, several texts and subjects have been provided to familiarize
pupils with specific instances of foreign literature. Language usage in diverse settings is
shown in the works. Nonetheless, minimal attempts are made to educate pupils on good
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
language usage and how to adapt language to diverse situations and discourse norms.
Textbooks today don't seem to place a high premium on building students' international
understanding and attitudes toward other cultures. Misunderstandings regarding various
books and subjects' goals may result from inconsistencies between how cultural content is
presented and followed up in textbook series. Many books, for example, feature
conversations with world-renowned authors and literary works. However, the questions and
exercises accompanying the texts do not focus on the author and his or her work, nor on the
text's literary features. Numerous publications provide critical factual information about
various countries, but the practice material reveals that it is irrelevant whether students learn
and remember any of it. The seemingly random selection of texts and subjects may also
contribute to the impression that the cultural material's objective is unclear. Texts that teach
pupils about vital aspects of a foreign culture are contrasted with texts chosen only for their
entertainment value. Many texts dealing with incidental issues and events may be considered
to diminish the apparent importance of the cultural substance given.
Using sounds and recordings, visuals, ordinary life discussions, and contextualized
writing exercises helps students learn the language's cultural context. A sonic and visual
emphasis on English culture was observed in Stretch 1A, Stretch 1B, and Speak Now
textbooks. Stretch 1A, for example, uses sounds and recordings to teach students how to
pronounce words and phrases correctly in a certain cultural context. Stretch 1B and Speak
Now both rely heavily on visuals to achieve their goals. Using a variety of cultural
components enhances the learning process beyond just listening and repetition. Students can
learn English words by seeing and understanding the laws and patterns underneath the
surface of speech. Similarly, vocabulary and grammar are used to help students pronounce.
Because pronunciation is part of speaking, it might be considered a form of exercise. Students
must retrain their speaking muscles to appropriately enunciate a foreign language, which is
difficult to understand without an auditory and visual cultural context. It's also important to
study vocabulary and hear pronunciation in the local nation. Listening to the noises and voice
recordings in the Stretch 1A and Speak Now textbooks can assist Thai students learn English
pronunciation. According to Tomlinson (2007), teaching a foreign language should focus on
drawing students' attention to linguistic features influenced by culture, while providing
opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative goals through meaningful
realistic integra.
There have been several studies on cultural material in English textbooks in Thailand,
but none on how different cultures are presented and which are the key selection criteria. The
cultural material in the textbooks was divided into two groups based on Lee's (2009)
methodology and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001).
Both little "c" and big "C" cultures were present in the Stretch and Speak Now textbooks, but
both were more prevalent in the receptive skills of listening and reading than the productive
skills of speaking and writing. It sheds light on the forms of cultural knowledge addressed in
English textbooks used by Chonburi Technological College in Thailand to help EFL students
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
learn about culture and prepare them for communication scenarios in foreign contexts.
Aesthetic sense (culture with big C) is mentioned the most (16 times), followed closely by
sociological sense (culture with tiny “c”), with 15 mentions across the textbook. Stretch 1B
was cited 10 times for sociological sense (culture with a small “c”) and 7 times for artistic
sense (culture with a big “C”). From this perspective, the Stretch 1A and Speak Now
textbooks introduce a better understanding of culture than the Stretch 1B textbook. Long-Fu
(2001) found that early tiny "C" culture is better than later huge "C" culture. Stretch 1B may
be a better alternative for beginners than Stretch 1A and Speak Now, which are better suited
for later stages of study. Regardless, according to Jespersen (1904), the primary purpose of
language education is to expose students to the most exemplary ideals and institutions of a
foreign country, as well as its literature and culture, or, in other words, the nation's soul. Due
to the lack of a well-defined socio-linguistic and socio-cultural theoretical underpinning,
cultural material was taught incidentally and secondary to language (Long-Fu, 2001).
According to Rajabi and Ketabi (2012), students should be aware of how culture is depicted
in textbooks so they may grasp the social standards of language. This helps foreign students,
like Thai students, understand cultural frames of reference since they represent the target
language and the target speaker's culture (Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). Additionally, Halliday and
Hasan (1985) agree with earlier findings that learners should learn how to use the language
effectively in socio-cultural settings. In other words, language teachers should be aware of
and adept in cultural circumstances.
When creating a framework for non-native speakers to learn a foreign language,

educational institutions should focus on culture. According to Finocchiaro and Brumfit
(1983), Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a method of teaching language use in
everyday situations, where features of speech like pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and
culture are chosen and graded according to their importance in real-world communication.
The Communicative Approach places foreign language instruction in a social and cultural
context. Language is affected by society, economics, culture, and the people who speak it
(Long-Fu, 2001). For intercultural communication, defining communicative competence in
terms of socio-linguistic norms or a native speaker model seems to be a minimal position,
according to Byram (1997). This is because such a model does not consider the learners'
social identities (e.g., Thai students).
Classroom activities allow students to apply their different understandings of how the
world works, resulting in deeper personal links between group members, more defined
individual identities, and a higher sense of belonging to the learning community. When
utilized in conjunction with cooperative language acquisition, collaboration towards a
common goal can help kids develop emotionally and linguistically (Murphey & Asaoka,
2006). Cooperative learning is a method for extending the cooperative learning process
beyond the classroom and school environment into the larger community in which students
live and work.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Pedagogical Implications of the Study
The current study begins with Byram's (2014) ICC framework and Yuen's (2011) four
P's, which assert that language, context, and culture are inexorably linked. This idea has two
main implications for Thai foreign language teaching. To begin with, it appears that teaching
language in context and working with many components of context and culture in addition to
the many aspects of language can help Thai students deal with the full meaning potential of a
foreign language. Second, foreign language education may help expose Thai pupils to
manifestations peculiar to local English cultures. This is because foreign language education
introduces pupils to language, situations, and cultures that are different from their own. These
insights are crucial components in students' ability to communicate effectively in a foreign
language. I wanted to know how to track and apply new ideas in foreign language education
to the classroom, namely English at Chonburi Technological College in Thailand. Because
textbooks have traditionally influenced Thai schools, the research focused on context and
culture-related methodologies and practices present in current textbook series like Stretch and
Speak Now. Possible improvements in the English classroom at Chonburi Technological
College have been identified based on the findings of this study and the Stretch and Speak
Now textbooks.
English education has a long tradition of teaching students about other cultures, and
there are numerous reasons why this should continue in the future. However, the materials
studied in this study reveal significant issues with language and subject selection. The
function of cultural aspects in foreign language courses is the most important issue. To learn
about the globe and its cultures, pupils may be offered cultural information. It can help pupils
enhance their communication skills and understand diverse cultures.
However, foreign language textbooks can inspire pupils to learn more about the globe
and its cultures. Another alternative is to integrate English classes with other subjects like
history or social studies. Developing foreign language skills for Thai students requires
knowledge of cultural subjects not generally covered in other courses. Diverse behavioral
standards and speaking patterns are only a few key terms here. Brogger (1992) presented one
possible strategy for identifying relevant themes in a foreign language course like English. In
English education, focusing on nations and cultures is crucial. A traditional focus on British
and American culture has been seen, as has an approach that combines material from other
English-speaking nations. For example, both Stretch and Speak Now textbooks regularly
present visual and auditory material with diverse nationalities. The Stretch and Speak Now
textbooks also suggest that showing students enticing images of the English-speaking world
will motivate them to study the language. There are several reasons to reconsider the
traditional emphasis on the UK and the US in English language instruction. For example,
English is important at Chonburi Technological College because it is a language of
international communication. From this perspective, knowledge of a diverse range of
countries and cultures is essential. Thus, it may be claimed that future English textbooks
should focus on specific themes and cultural groups rather than the "obvious" UK/US focus.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
Several dialogues and activities in the studied texts aim to combine instruction and
amusement, but the ultimate result often fails to achieve both goals. Books that try to make
teaching British and American history more appealing to students by focusing on the
historical progression of familiar topics (such as fashion and eating) and on specific,
significant events are examples. Students can be delighted and entertained by texts with less
information density but high incentive value or educated by texts with more information
density but lower incentive value. Many novels try to appeal to adolescents' interests and
concerns by tackling adolescent issues like friendship or leisure activities. For example, in
both Stretch and Speak Now, the target learner appears to be a Western adolescent
preoccupied with personal matters. To accommodate the student population's diversity and
educate them to new ways of seeing and understanding the world, a broader perspective may
be required. More difficult and controversial themes may also catch the interest of many Thai
students, which may benefit their learning and willingness to utilize the language-finding
engaging and motivating material for students will always be a problem. The most obvious
approach is to provide pupils with many of choices in books, subjects, and methodologies.
The English syllabus also suggests a possible method by asking pupils to discuss cultural
concerns with people outside Thailand.
Conclusion
The current study indicated the interconnectedness of language, context, and culture.
English as Foreign language teaching in Thailand suffers from two primary aggravations. As
a first step, teaching language in context and working with numerous components of context
and culture in addition to the many parts of language appears to be needed for Thai students
to fully comprehend a foreign language's meaning. Second, foreign language education may
expose Thai students to manifestations peculiar to local English cultures by providing new
terminology for previously recognized ideas and new methods of thinking about, discussing,
and understanding the world, enriching cultural understanding and knowledge for Thai
students through English language instruction. These insights are equally crucial to students’
ability to communicate in a foreign language. In light of the historical importance of
textbooks in Thai schools, English is very important specifically for Chonburi Technological
College because it is a language of international communication. An understanding of diverse
places and cultures therefore can be considered as equally vital. Finding materials that are
culturally engaging and interesting to provide students multiple options on subject matters,
activities, and approaches can be the most obvious recommendation to the challenges faced
by the teachers and learners.
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Ms. Sojipan Ekachai
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================================================================
Chinese Students Self-Perceived Reading Ability and Its

Implication to the Teaching of Critical Reading
Xizhe Zhang
Assumption University, Thailand
xiaozhe3233@gmail.com
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Abstract
Reading skill is one of the basic skills a learner should develop to function as a
competent learner. This enables a student to feel successful, as s/he can access information and
be oriented on what is going on in this fast-changing world. For foreign students, like Chinese,
an ability to read and comprehend a text is crucial for success but how much comprehension
they know seems to be a big question that needs to be answered especially if the focus is about
reading critically (Waring & Nation, 2004). This paper emphasizes on the importance of
students’ perceived reading ability and its implication to teaching critical reading because often
we read depending on our purpose. As well, there are different types of readers, competent
readers who normally know what information they are looking for and those who need more
time for understanding the information. To teach critical reading, therefore, students should be
competent readers as they are likely to be equipped with understanding implicit messages when
they interact with the text.
Keywords: Chinese students, Critical reading, critical reading ability, perceived reading
ability, reading
Introduction
Essentially, reading is one of the most important parts of learning as learners develop
their other learning skills. In addition, reading develops readers' intellectual and affective
processes which deal with reasoning, inferences, empathy, and critical thinking.
The aim of critical reading is to help students improve their understanding through
different texts exposure. To comprehend a text, students are required not only to synthesize the
relationship of the spelling pattern to the sound pattern of the written language but also to
acquire the vocabulary needed for higher text comprehension level (Waring & Nation, 2004).
As Makau (1990) argued, a student with good comprehension level should possess the
following abilities: to understand information being read, know the spirit of the message, and
have an ability to analyze and evaluate the meaning beyond the text. In other words, students
need to be able to think critically not only on what they hear but what they read. Reading
critically is important as this allows learners to critique the text and understand the disposition
or orientations of information based on its factuality or biases (Freebody & Luke, 1990;
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Xizhe Zhang
Chinese Students Self-Perceived Reading Ability and Its Implication to the Teaching of Critical
Reading 24
Aghajani & Gholamrezapour, 2019), the skill that the 21st century learners need to possess
especially when it is in English.
Literature Review
Reading and reading comprehension revisited
Reading is an interactive process consisting of inferring, knowing correct sounds and
comprehension (Catts & Kamhi, 2005). Being able to use these skills in a certain reading
environment facilitates a reader's good comprehension of what s/he reads. To be a successful
reader can be determined by these different elements, reading attitude, reading purpose, prior
knowledge about the text, textual structure and vocabulary knowledge in which comprehension
is determined by the interaction of the reader with the text (Yildiz et. al, 2010).
Reading can be divided into three levels (Dale, 1965, p. 105)

1) The simple, uncritical reproduction and duplication on what has been said. This
level of reading is called ‘reading the lines’ or literal comprehension.
2. A higher level, drawing inferences from what is read or ‘reading between the lines’
this requires critical thinking.
3. A third level involves evaluation and application which requires vigorous and
critical judgment, this reading is called ‘reading beyond the line’.
The second and third level of reading is needed for students’ higher comprehension
classified into three types (Makau, 1990, cited in Critical Reading for Graduate Students,
2019, p. 6).
1. Content reading this illustrates a student’s understanding of the information being
read.
2. Empathic reading this shows a student’s understanding of the spirit or the real
essence of the message
3. Critical reading is the combination of the number one and two (Critical Reading
for Graduate Students, 2019, p. 6)
According to different scholars, a reader's accurate perception, sound recognition,

word recognition, word discrimination, semantics, syntax, and linguistic processes and
comprehension are foundations for attaining effective reading and healthy reading skills
(Schreiber, 2003). Different researchers (Cain & Oakhill, 2006; Catts & Kamhi, 2005; Kintsch
& Kintsch, 1998; Kintsch & Rawson, 2005; Shaywitz et al., 2003) argue that working with
different texts and textual structures, making predictions and inferences, setting goals and using
strategies to enhance the reading environment and reading comprehension are prior to the
transfer of information in the reading environment during the reading process. Understanding
text, learning from it, and enjoying reading are the ultimate goals of learning to read as readers
tend to assimilate and immerse themselves in what they read (Yildiz & Çetinkaya, 2017).
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 25
Text comprehension is assumed to be involved readers constructing in three levels of
mental representations: surface code, text base, and situation models (Kintsch & Kintsch,
1998). Surface code is a verbatim memory of words or phrases and is less relevant to discourse
processes (Mulder & Sanders, 2012). Text base is a representation of meanings of a text,
comprised of textual propositions and their interconnections. This is relevant to discourse
processes because it includes readers' recollection for relations between information in the text
(Kintsch & Kintsch, 1998; McNamara et.al, 1996). While situation models refer to a
representation of what text is about, amounting to the combination of information explicitly
present in text and inferences made by readers (Kintsch & Kintsch, 1998; McNamara et al.,
1996). As learning from text is construed as the construction of situation models, readers go
beyond the text to understand implicit relations or principles by making inferences based on
what was discussed as prior knowledge (Kintsch & Kintsch, 1998; Millis et al., 2011).
According to Beck et al., (1998), reading comprehension is the "sine qua non of reading" (p.
40). Knowing how to read words, therefore, has little value if the student is unable to construct
meaning from text. As reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning through
complex processes, thus, this does not only include word reading, word and world knowledge
but also understanding the hidden meaning beyond the text (Cornoldi & Oakhill, 2013;
McKeown, Beck, & Blake, 2009). Reading comprehension involves remembering and
understanding the main ideas, whereas critical reading begins the process of taking action. This
means absorbing the information while interpreting, categorizing, questioning, and weighing
the value of that information.
When it comes to developing this skill, English language teachers have a responsibility
to help their students develop a language of critique which enables their students to focus on
transforming their mindset towards reading (Waring & Nation, 2004). Once this skill is
developed, students might be able to improve other skills too (for example, writing). According
to Wallace (2005), reading critically is essentially a social act therefore, language learners with
critical thinking ability have the ability to think creatively to solve problems and make
decisions, as thinking skills enable them to learn continuously (Mahyuddin, et al., 2004, Rahimi
& Sharififar, 2015). In other words, critical thinking would likely to foster learners’ lifelong
ability to think outside the box. Furthermore, learners' who think critically would be able to
implicitly evaluate and understand the arguments beyond the text, a reading skill which go
beyond the surface of the text to deeper text comprehension (Uysal & Bilge, 2018).
Critical Reading
Critical reading is a more active way of reading in which readers engage in a deeper
and more complex engagement with the text while reading (Sarig, 1987; Robbins, 1977;
Pennycook, 2001). It is an independent and self-directed type of reading where students do not
necessarily need a teacher to guide them in their reading. Critical readers normally use different
processes in reading, such as analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating the texts being read.
Students are likely to read to remember and not to forget (Sarig, 1987; Robbins, 1977;
Pennycook, 2001). The critical reader recognizes not only what a text says, but also how that
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 26
text portrays the subject matter as s/he identifies the uniqueness of every text based on its writer
or author (Kurland, 2010). Thus, in terms of text interpretation it comes this way; in terms of
recognizing what a text says, it reflecting on what the text does in making such remarks,
because reading critically enables readers to understand the essence of what was written
(Crystal, 2007).
These three simple modes are reflecting on the three types of reading and discussion:
1. What a text says- [restatement] talks about the same topic discusses as the original
text
2. What a text does- [description] discusses about aspects of the discussion.
3. What a text means – [interpretations] analyzes about the meaning of the text
through inferences (Husein & Pulungan, 2017 cited in Yanwar, 2020).
Recognizing the purpose of reading, therefore, needs recognition of the text purpose by
looking at the ‘choices of content and language', tone, persuasive elements involve in
classifying the nature of the language choices and biases involved in classifying the nature of
patterns of choice of content language to understand the overall picture of the text and its
meaning (Kurland, 2010). Reflecting on the three simple modes mentioned above can be
understood that critical reading leads to critical thinking which involves a complex
combination of skills and characteristics.
Kurland (2010) summarizes these characteristics as:

1. Rationality involves these different domains:
a. Rely on reason rather than emotion
b. Require evidence, ignore no known evidence and follow the evidence where it
leads
c. Concerned more with finding the best explanation than being right, analyzing
apparent confusion and asking questions
2. Self-awareness entails this way of thinking:
a. Weigh the influences of motives and bias
b. Recognize own assumptions, prejudices, biases, or point of view.
3. Honesty engages on personal recognition of emotional impulses, selfish motives,
nefarious purposes or other modes of self-deception.
4. Open-mindedness includes knowing to:
a. Evaluate all reasonable inferences
b. Consider a variety of possible viewpoints or perspectives
c. Remain open to alternative interpretations
d. Accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm because it explains the
evidence better, is simpler
e. Accept new priorities in response to a reevaluation of the evidence or
reassessment of real interests
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 27
f. Do not reject unpopular views out of hand
5. Discipline encompasses:
a. Precise, meticulous, comprehensive, and exhaustive
b. Resist manipulation and irrational appeals
c. Avoid snap judgments
This means a critical thinker knows how to critique the text as readers are likely active
in questioning the text they are interacting with; thus they tend to know how to connect the
dots in different angles and come up with sensible answer or point of view (Aghajani &
Gholamrezapour, 2019). At the same time, critical thinking depends on critical reading as these
normally integrate the reading based on their understanding of the world. This leads to critical
literacy.
In this study, the focus is to understand Chinese students’ perceived reading ability as
the first step to develop Chinese students’ critical reading. The argument is that, although
teachers may teach Chinese students reading skills and comprehension can be acquired, there
are areas which are underrated or neglected in discussions of literacy development (Comber et
al. 2002) especially the undergraduate students in China context. Hence, letting them
understand the text they read in English alone would not guarantee the development of their
critical reading dispositions, therefore understanding their self-perceived reading ability is
viewed to be necessary because to read critically, these Chinese students should be competent
English readers.
There are three questions used as underpinnings of this article.
1. What are the Chinese undergraduate students’ self-perceived reading ability?

2. What are the implications of the findings to teaching of critical reading?
Research Methodology
This study employed a quantitative research design using descriptive analysis.
Purposive sampling was used and selected 250 Chinese first year undergraduate students from
one of the international universities in China. These students have enrolled in the AY2021. The
instrument used in this study was a self-perceived reading assessment questionnaire. This
questionnaire is divided five components: reading speed, comprehension, number of reading
material, concentration, and retention. The self-perceived reading questionnaire has 15 items
to be answered in which 8, 14, 15 represent effective reading strategies and the rest of the items
would be viewed as problematic areas. There were three categories that the participants would
choose: 0= describes me almost never; 1= describes me sometimes; 2= describes me often or
to a large degree.
Although the consent form was distributed to different participants before the actual
survey and they agreed to participate in the study, at the end only 79.6% have returned the
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 28
survey questionnaire. Meaning out of 250 students, 199 have returned the questionnaire. The
returned questionnaire would be the basis for the analysis of the data.
The descriptive analysis, percentage and frequency, was used to analyze Chinese
students’ self-perceived reading ability.
Findings
Using the three categories, the findings illustrate the participants’ self-perceived
reading ability.
Table 1
Reading speed
1 I would describe myself as 37 141 21
a slow reader compared to 18.5% 71% 10.5%
other students.
As illustrated on the table, out of 199 Chinese students who participated in the survey,
10.5% described their reading ability as slow readers, for those who chose ‘describes me
almost never’, or perceived themselves as fast readers’ garnered 18.5% in the survey. While
71% indicated that the statement ‘describes me sometimes’, this means that their speed can be
varied depending on the text they read.
Table 2
Reading Comprehension
2 I have difficulty finding the main 43 141 15
idea when I read. 21.5% 71% 7.5%
3 I often need to read materials several 27 133 39
times before I understand it. 13.6% 66.8% 19.8%
4 I have difficulty interpreting the 44 139 16
meaning of words I read. 22% 70% 8%
5 I have trouble ‘reading between the 45 134 20
lines’ for implied meaning. 22.6% 67.3% 10.1%
When it comes to the reading comprehension, 21.5% of the students indicated that they
have ‘no difficulty in finding the main idea’ of the text, 13.6% do not need to read the materials
several times, 22% have problem interpreting the meaning of words and 22.6% have no
problem ‘reading between the lines.’ While the rest of the 70% found that sometimes they have
difficulty in reading comprehension, for example, 71% found it difficult to find the main idea
in the text sometimes, 66.8% sometimes ‘need to read materials several times’, 70% still have
‘difficulty interpreting the meaning of words sometimes’ and 67.3% have trouble ‘reading
between the lines’ sometimes’. Furthermore, almost 10% of the students have faced problems
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 29
with regards to reading comprehension. As indicated in the survey, 7.5% of the participants
‘have difficulty finding the main idea’ in the text, 19.8% have difficulty in understanding what
they have read that was the reason why they have to read the materials or text many times, 8%
still encountered difficulty in interpreting the meaning of words in reading materials while
10.1% have problems reading between the lines.
Table 3
Number of Materials
6 I cannot read all the required 54 124 21
readings (not enough time). 27.1% 62.3% 10.6%
7 I cannot keep up with supplementary 42 136 21
readings. 21.1% 68.3% 10.6%
8 I skim before reading for detail. 35 97 67
17.6% 48.7% 33.7%
Number of reading materials implied the amount of materials that the students can read
as suggested by a teacher. As shown in the table, more than 20% of the participants have no
difficulty of reading the required readings as indicated in Item 6, 27.1% has no difficulty of
reading all the required readings and Item 7, 21.7% can keep up with supplementary readings
and 33.7% has a good reading strategy as illustrated in Item 8. In addition, those who have
difficulty of catching up the required reading and could not keep up reading the supplementary
materials are higher as they represent 62.3% and 68.3% respectively. Also, 48.7% indicated
that they only used a good reading strategy such as skimming the contents of the text before
reading for detail sometimes. Although the survey indicated that about 10% of the participants
could not read the required reading materials and may lagged behind with the supplementary
readings, as shown in Item 6 and 7, those who have good reading strategies tend to be higher
when compared with who do not used the skimming strategy before they read in detail.
Table 4
Concentration
9 I often can‘t keep focused, unless 71 104 24
I‘m very interested in the material. 35.7% 52.2% 12.1%
10 My eyes often see the words, but my 78 108 13
mind is somewhere else. 39.2% 51.3% 6.5%
11 I am easily distracted by my own 66 108 25
thoughts while reading. 33.2% 54.3% 12.5%
12 I am easily distracted by things 57 125 17
going on around me. 28.6% 62.8% 8.6%
With regards to the participants reading concentration, 35.7%, focused on materials

they read, 39.2 % can concentrate well why reading as they are not easily disturbed with their
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 30
thoughts and 28.6% are not distracted with what was going on around them. Meaning, more
than 30% of the participants are good in concentration. While, out of 199 students almost 10%
have difficulty with concentration. While 55.15% indicated that sometimes they have
difficulty.
Table 5
Retention
13 I forget much of what I read soon 67 117 15
afterwards 33.7% 58.8% 7.5%
14 I make notes while reading. 19 99 81
9.5% 49.7% 40.8%
15 I highlight or underline while 10 84 105
reading. 5% 42.2% 52.8%
Retention is the last component of the questionnaire survey. Based on the findings, only
33.7% perceived that they have no problem retaining the information after they read, while
7.5% have implied that they forget the information after they read and 58.8% have indicated
that sometimes they have forgotten what they have read afterwards. As for the Item 14 and 15
almost 50% of the students indicated that they have effective reading strategies as they made
notes while reading, such as highlighting or underlining words while reading. Interestingly,
only 7.25% of the students implied that strategies indicated that might help them retain
information were not used. Then again, more than 50% of the participants indicated that they
only used the strategies (Item 14 and 15) occasionally.
Discussion of the Findings

This paper discussed the implications of students self-perceived reading ability and its’
implication to teaching critical reading. Reading is an act of interaction between texts and
readers; this is the reason why this is perceived as an ‘active skill’ because comprehending
what we read meant extracting the right information from the text (Tasnimi, 2017). A reader
therefore needs to be aware what ability they possess so that they would be able to do the next
level of comprehension which is critical reading. The questionnaire which has five components
was used to let Chinese students assessed their self-perceived reading ability. As the findings
illustrated, the first component, ‘reading speed’; indicated that, students reading speed varies
as this was dominated by ‘describing them sometimes. Good readers tend to read fast as they
know how to skim and look for specific information better; hence, this might help them not to
lose their concentration easily. Reading speed also tends to project how much information a
reader can acquire. Nevertheless, this does not mean a fast reader acquires more information
than slow reader. A good reader’s speed normally varies as they know where to focus and what
information needs to be internalized. Also, no matter how fast reader a student can be, there is
still a tendency that a reader can experience difficulty to retain all information he/she reads.
This is the reason why; competent readers know when to speed up and when to slow down
when they read.
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Reading 31
In a sense, reading comprehension involves readers understanding of words or the
language they acquired and how they organized them in a meaningful way. In this study,
Chinese students’ self-perceived reading comprehension tends to be varied. Also, they seemed
to have difficulty in determining their self-perceived comprehension ability. As the survey
illustrated, these is dominated by describing them ‘sometimes’. The reason perhaps depends
on the reading materials they read. Poor comprehension tends to be influenced by poor
vocabulary knowledge in English or being not able to retain information a reader needs (Brown,
2010). Good comprehension involves selecting and understanding what information you need
as well as linking information together (Cornoldi & Oakhill, 2013; McKeown, Beck, & Blake,
2009). This is the reason why the background knowledge of what we read, and the number or
level of the vocabulary a reader knows influence comprehension (Yildiz et al., 2014).
As for completing the reading materials, there are a few who seems to have difficulty
in completing their assign reading and other supplementary materials. What was illustrated in
the survey was that because the majority indicated that very few used some strategies in reading
for example, skimming or scanning, somehow this might have an influence on their ability to
complete what they read. According to Abdelrahman and Bsharah (2014) and Sutz and
Weverka (2009) if you have lots of materials waiting to be read, skimming for information
helps readers to expedite their reading time they only focus on important information they need
to know. Thus, knowing to use this strategy can influence reading speed because this allows
readers to increase their concentration. One of the reasons why students tend to read slowly is
because of their lack of speed. Students who read slowly due to their lack of speed in reading
(Anderson, Wilson, & Fielding, 2010 cited in Baştuğ, 2014) that might influence by their
comprehension level.
The Implication of the Findings to the Teaching of Critical Reading

The findings suggest a few implications to teaching and learning. The reading ability
of the students participated in this study varies. There were a few who tended to have difficulty
with regards to reading speed, reading comprehension, completing the need to complete
reading materials, concentration, and retention of the information. The teaching of critical
reading therefore needs to be planned accordingly.
Teachers. First, teachers need to address the difficulties encountered by their students
before teaching the critical reading. For example, those who belong to the group where they
perceived their reading ability as problematic may need more time to improve their reading
ability first before they can be taught how to read critically. Students who might have reading
difficulties tend to have limitations on what activities they can do therefore teachers are
recommended to find effective ways or strategies to teach effective reading comprehension.
Critical reading is not just about reading words and understands them literally; this needs
interpretation and appreciation of the text. Therefore, comprehension skills need to be
developed before teachers can teach the students with difficulties in reading, critical reading
(Rahimi & Babaei, 2021). Second, activities that can activate students’ curiosity in reading
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 32
need to be develop because reading comprehension is a manifestation of conscious reading
(Razlan, 2015). For this, students might be able to develop the textual awareness on how to
find main ideas, important information they want to know and other details for understanding
the text being read. All of these can be attained with the help of teachers who can provide good
feedback to their students.
Students. Students need to be aware that reading can help them to improve their
linguistic knowledge and not just their reading skills. The ability to read comprehensively is an
indication of students’ reading fluency thus affects their reading speed, word recognition, and
concentration progress, as well as retention. Students who love to read have more vocabulary
knowledge than those who seldom read, thus influence reading comprehension better. Also,
students need to realize that reading is a multidimensional, meaning once reading ability is
improved the rest of the skills follow, for example, writing and speaking. Thus, students need
to advocate reading as this skill is crucial to students’ academic life
Conclusion
This study identified the Chinese students’ self-perceived reading ability and discussed
the implications of the findings to the teaching of critical reading. The suggestion therefore is
that, before teaching critical reading teachers’ need to be aware of his/her students’ reading
ability as critical readers need to be competent readers with higher cognitive processes.
Meaning, they should have high comprehension level to be able to understand implicit meaning
in the text.
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Reading 33
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Yildiz, M., & Çetinkaya, E. (2017). The Relationship between Good Readers' Attention,
Reading Fluency and Reading Comprehension. Universal Journal of Educational
Research, 5(3), 366-371.
Yildiz, M., Yildirim, K., Ates, S., Rasinski, T., Fitzgerald, S., & Zimmerman, B. (2014). The
relationship between reading fluency and reading comprehension in fifth-grade Turkish
students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 2(1), 35-44.
Zimmerman, B., Rasinski, T., Blachowicz, C., & Lems, K. (2012). The fluency development
lesson: A model of authentic and effective fluency instruction. Fluency instruction.
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Xizhe Zhang
Reading 36
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‘Pu’ Speakers Learning English in Middle Schools of
Car Nicobar (A&N Islands):
A Study in Error Analysis
Selvaganapathy
M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Scholar
Jawaharlal Nehru University
Brahmaputra Hostel, Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi -110067
selvaganapathy905@gmail.com
==================================================================
Abstract
This study aims to explore and analyze the learning difficulties faced by ‘PU’ speaking-
students in Car Nicobar the Union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is generally felt
that learning of English varies in different context. Learners having background of ‘PU’
language differ on account of learning achievements. Similarly those who enjoy more English
learning atmosphere may perform better than their counterparts. In order to carry out the study,
three types of subjects were used. The study was descriptive-qualitative in nature, but
quantification was also used to arrive at statistical inferences. The results indicated that most of
the learner’s problems arose due to Mother tongue and L1 interference on second language
learning process.
Keywords: English Language Teaching in Car Nicobar Island, ESL, learning difficulties,
interference, Error Identification, Testing and Evaluation.
1. Introduction
Nicobar is one of the districts of Andaman Union Territory. ‘Pu’ is the language of the
people of the Island of Car Nicobar, which is part of the Malay Peninsula. Car Nicobar is the
northern most, most heavily populated, and a flourishing Island of the Nicobar group. Since the
middle of the seventeenth century, the ‘Pu’ speakers have been in contact with the outer world.
Portuguese sailors and French missionaries are the first recorded people to have stepped into the
Islands. There are more than three tribal groups (namely, the Nicobarese, Shompen and Karen)
living in Nicobar district. The local name of the Car Nicobar dialect is called ‘Pu’. It is
considered as a standard dialect. The ‘Pu’ language belongs to Austro-Asiatic family. This
language community lives in many Islands like Car Nicobar, Camorta, Katchal, Campbell Bay,
==================================================================
‘Pu’ Speakers Learning English in Middle Schools of Car Nicobar (A&N Islands):
A Study in Error Analysis 37
Tarasa, Rangat, Mayabunder and Port Blair. The medium of instruction in the schools of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands is Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, or Bangla.
In the process of language learning, there are many troubles faced by the tribal students,
especially in attaining basic language skills. Even though many other issues crop up while
teaching language, and also a variety of teaching methods are engaged in the classroom
situations, the problems are not yet fully rectified. So an attempt has been made to study the
existing problems while learning and teaching language. Besides, the study identifies linguistic
remedial measures so that the problems faced by these language students can be rectified.
The ‘Pu ‘community comes under the list of scheduled tribes. They are living in different
places like Car Nicobar, Tarasa, Nancowry and Port Blair Islands of Andamans. These ‘Pu’
tribes are living in rural as well as urban areas. According to the Census of India 2001, the total
number of ‘Pu’ tribes is 36,844 in the Union Territory population. The population of them in Car
Nicobary is 17,841 (2014) There are 15 villages. There is no panchayatraj. There is only Tribal
Council and 1 hamlet in Car Nicobar. The population mainly consists of scheduled tribes.
According to RP Sharma (2013), the term Nicobar has been derived from the word
‘nakkavaram’ which means hill and ‘itam’ means place and is used to denote Chola’s island.
Nicobaries speak their own dialect of Pu. These people migrated from and to many islands.
Karunakaran (1971) says, “The dialect of the Nicobar Tribes is a dialect of Nicobarese and is
being spoken by 11020 people who live in Nicobar. Car Nicobar is situated in Nicobar district in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The total area of Nicobar is 1841Sq Km. the number of the
islands is 19 in Nicobar group. The total number of villages in car Nicobar is 15. Car Nicobar is
divided into 15 tribal council raj which comes under one Tribal Council Union. The main
livelihood of the people of Car Nicobar is fishing and coconut plantations. They belong to the
social community called “Nicobaries”.”
The ‘Pu’ speakers are a Mon-Khmer speaking people of Nicobar. Total population is
divided into four groups although the majority of the people have competence in Car Nicobar
dialect ‘Pu’.
Car Nicobarese speech also has become a sort of standard dialect amongst the
Nicobarese. The reasons for giving preference to the dialect spoken by the Car Nicobarese are
enumerated below.
2. Related Studies
The first and the most notable contribution towards the grammatical analysis of the
Nicobarese was made by E.H. Man. But he mainly concentrated on the central group consisting of
==================================================================
Camorta, Nancowri, Trinkut and Katchal. It was G. Whitehead who made the most commendable
attempt to frame formal grammar of the Nicobarese language. He concentrated mainly on Car
dialect. However, he was not equipped with the methods of modern linguistics; his analysis
became broad and required a re-survey. According to Grierson (1927, PP. 32f), Pater W. Schmidt
grouped together and identified the Munda language, the Mon-Khmer languages and the
Nicobarese languages as the Austro-Asiatic subfamily. This in turn was classed by him as a
subgroup of the Austric family along with the Austro-Asian sub-family. In a publication on the
subject, Pinnow in 1963 arrives at the following linguistics language family.
Austro-Asiatic
Nihali(?) Munda-Language Khmer-Nicobarese language

Khasi
Malacca Sub- group
Nicobarese
Palaung & Wa
Mon-Khmer
Source: Das. A.R. 1977 ‘A Study on the Nicobarese Language’ Anthropological Survey of India
Calcutta.
The data in this study have been collected in such a way that at least three generations were
represented, the object being to note the gradual change of pronunciations. The first thing that
strikes one who has read Whitehead and knew his comments about this language as slurred and
indistinct, is that the pronunciation of the modern Nicobarese is much clearer than what it was in
Whitehead’s time. The Danish scientists, Dr. H. Rink, who visited the Nicobar Islands in 1846,
wrote “I have heard many different languages spoken, but none of them had so disagreeable a
sound as the Nicobarian. The great number of guttural and nasal sounds the uneducated drawing
pronunciation becoming still different on account of the disfigured mouth, makes a very
disagreeable impression”. Man puts his view in the following way: It is only, right to mention
that the difficulties, experienced to transliterations the sounds in this language, are chiefly due to
the imperfect articulation which characterize the speech of the great majority of the natives, the
result of the almost universal practice of excessive betel-chewing. But the present writer did not
find much difficulty in understanding the pronunciation of the Car Nicobarese.
==================================================================
The present situation of having a clearer pronunciation may be due to the impact of English
and Hindi with which they are in constant touch. Another reason may be due to the fact that the
modern Nicobarese do not like chewing betel nut as they did in the days of Rink, Man and
Whitehead. As the pronunciations changed through generations, so far my data is concerned, no
significant structural difference was found, excepting some phonetic deviations, which are not
significant from the structural point of view. The modern Nicobarese use a considerable number
of English and Hindi loans in their conversation.
3. Linguistic Profile of the Region

Nicobary (Pu) belongs to the eastern group of Austro-Asiatic language family. It is majorly
spoken in Car Nicobar and some neighbor Islands, as well as Port Blair. It is also spoken in
Tarasa Island and in the District of North and Middle Andaman, Shompen has also found its way
down Great Nicobar of the District of Car Nicobar and appears in the deep forest of the Islands,
and the Natives Islands of Catchall and Camorta, where it is spoken along with Hindi.
4. Language Skills
In the teaching-learning process of a language, four language skills are developed among
the students. They are listening, speaking, reading, and writing (LSRW). So far as the first
language is concerned, the first two language skills are acquired by the child to a certain level
before it goes to school. But in the case of second language, all the four language skills are
developed among them only in the classroom circumstances.
5. English Language Teaching in Nicobar

Teaching of English as a second language in the school is influenced by several factors
which in a way can be considered as obstacles for proper language learning. The same language
differs from place to place from social group to social group and from time to time. Teachers,
who hail from different parts of Andamans, are influenced by their own dialects. Such influence
is usual. Borrowing is another important factor through which a language innovates a new
feature in pronunciation and vocabulary. There are several sociolinguistic attitudes which
influence the adoption of borrowed features. In English, one can find a number of Hindi and
other language usage which are found in the basic level and common in the day-to-day language
use.
6. Error Identification through Testing and Evaluation

Testing and achievement are used for the measurement of the educational process. The
purpose of this study is to test and assess the achievements in English language learning of
middle school tribal students of the Car Nicobar in Nicobar district, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Besides, mother tongue interference in English is also identified.
==================================================================
It is commonly approved that assessment is one of the most significant parts of the
educational goals beyond the usual idea of official tests and examinations. Assessment provides
essential feedback of each and every step of the teaching process. Students and teachers, the
teaching, and learning procedure all are to be assessed. The results of assessment reflect how and
what teachers teach, how and what students learn, and what happen during both the teaching and
learning process. Usually, tests and examinations are the tools to assess the students’ attainment.
These days, assessment includes tasks such as projects and presentations when evaluating the
performance of students. They provide a more comprehensive and objective view of students’
presentation and skills. Such task-based work projects give confidence to the students to
integrate their knowledge and skills in order to solve their problems and also to transfer their
knowledge to others. It benefits the students themselves and their peers too.
7. Methods of Obtaining the Data

Selection of Participants
The participants in this study are Pu speakers learning English as a second language at the
middle school level in Car Nicobar Island. The researcher conducted a test for students from
these schools. 60 out of 120 students were taken from 4 schools out of 9. The schools selected
for this study are Govt. Secondary School Tamaloo (1), Car Nicobar, and Govt. Secondary
School Arong (2), Car Nicobar, Govt. Senior Secondary School Malacca (3), Car Nicobar and
Govt. Secondary School Mus (4), Car Nicobar. Data were collected from 60 students randomly
from each school (school 1 male (6) and female (2), school 2 male (2) and female (5), school 3
male (3) and female (11) and school 4 male (14) and female (17)) in 8th standard. The total
number of participants, thus, were 60 students (male 25 + female 35).
8. Preparation of Questionnaire
Questionnaires prepared for students were based on their reading and writing skills in the
schools and some questions about the importance of English language and its use. The
questionnaire included reading comprehension questions based on reading and understanding of
English language which contained 5 questions, 2 marks for each and the duration allowed was 10
minutes. The other section of the questionnaire included free composition like essay writing to
judge their language aptitude. The questions sought to evaluate their English language learning
ability, vocabulary, writing ability and mother tongue interferences. Questions were also
included about their interest in learning English. The participants were asked to write 200 to 300
words. This question offered 20 marks and the time period was 20 minutes.
The given topics for Free Composition (Constructed Response) were not concerned with
specific and unfamiliar content areas requiring any specialized and technical vocabulary. The
==================================================================
topics were chosen on the ground that they would elicit the students' personal experiences,
impressions, and feelings, and thus they would have fewer problems expressing themselves.
9. Sampling Procedure
All the schools are Government schools in Car Nicobar Island. Schools in Tamaloo and
Malacca are secondary schools and schools in Arong and Mus are senior secondary schools. All
the four schools are following CBSE syllabus, CCE pattern and NCERT materials. The level of
participants is same; all are ‘Pu’ speakers. Since all the participants are studying 8th standard,
their age range is within 12 to 14. Average is 13 and standard division is 12.5. There are 60
participants from 4 schools. Number of students from each school varied: i.e. 8,7,14, 31.
Similarly the male and female numbers also could not be equal number: 25+35 (male + female).
Since all are Government schools following the same CBSE syllabus and materials, the teachers’
qualification, etc. are also the same. We can club the data together as 25M +35F=60 in all.
10. Significance of the Study

This study will identify mother tongue interferences and the problems of learning and
teaching English as second language in Car Nicobar schools. The method adopted for the present
study deals with problems identified in learning and teaching English as a second language at
different stages in Car Nicobar schools.
11. Data Analysis and Interpretations

The present study was empirical in DATA nature and the data inputs were both
quantitative as well as qualitative. It was cross sectional and limited to four schools in four
villages out of the 21 villages in Car Nicobar. The data was collected by using questionnaires for
students. The Questionnaire had a brief demographic profile and a detailed Language Ability
Test (LAT) (Selvaganapathy 2017).
Table 1
School Wise Participants List
Sl.No
SCHOOLS MALE FEMALE TOTAL
1. Government Secondary School, Tamaloo (1) 6 2 8
2. Government Senior Secondary School, Arong (2) 2 5 7
3. Government Secondary School, Malacca (3) 3 11 14
==================================================================
4. Government Senior Secondary School, Mus (4) 14 17 31
TOTAL 25 35 60
Source: Computed from primary data
12. Language Ability Test (LAT):

The Language Ability Test (LAT) used for the present study comprised of both cloze test
(Gap fill exercises, MCQs) and Free Composition. The components of LAT were Reading
Comprehension Test which required the students to write their answers for five short answer type
questions (one or two sentences each) in free composition; an essay (200 words in free
composition) and Grammar comprising of cloze test questions on Tense (Verb usage),
Adjectives, Articles and Prepositions. The overall total score of LAT was 50 and the time
allotted was 45 minutes. Based on the answers that the students wrote in LAT, Errors are
identified, classified and analyzed.
The data from both the cloze test (Gap Fill, MCQs) and the Free Composition are
compared and analyzed as well. Since the percentage of error for any objective type of cloze test
is always calculated in terms of the total score for that particular question or item; and on the
other hand percentage error in Free Composition is always with respect to the total number of
errors committed. Their comparison cannot be done on a one to one basis. However, it gives an
indication to ascertain the weak areas of the learners.
Table 2
Individual Participants List for Free Composition Errors
Total No. of Total No. of Word per Total No. of Total No. Error
Sl.No Student Code
Words sentences sentence Errors free sentences
1. SA13F1T 103 19 5.4 102 1
2. LA12M1T 87 15 5.8 55 1
3. IG13M1T 96 18 5.3 94 -
4. DA12M1T 61 10 6.1 61 -
5. MI13M1T 60 9 6.6 38 -
6. ES13M1T 83 14 5.9 72 -
7. MA13M1T 97 16 6.0 82 -
8. TA13F1T 95 19 5.0 55 -
9. RA12F2T 128 20 6.0 89 -
==================================================================
10. RA13F2T 79 14 5.6 63 -
11. AN13F2T 88 15 5.8 56 -
12. ME13F2T 72 14 5.1 60 -
13. JA12M2T 77 14 55 56 -
14. JE12F2T 61 12 5.0 58 -
15. DO12M2T 76 14 5.4 65 -
16. VA12F3T 31 11 2.8 28 -
17. TH13F3T 144 10 14.4 26 -
18. GI12F3T 68 12 5.6 25 -
19. PE12M3T 129 10 12.9 38 -
20. NA12F3T 97 19 5.1 26 -
21. ZA12F3T 38 06 6.3 09 2
22. OL13F3T 57 05 11.4 11 -
23. HE12M3T 128 12 10.6 31 -
24. WI12M3T 129 09 14.3 23 -
25. CE12F3T 194 27 7.1 50 2
26. SU12F3T 146 19 7.6 62 2
27. SY12F3T 97 23 4.2 56 1
28. SH12F3T 88 19 4.6 36 3
29. JU12F3T 80 20 4.0 39 2
30. SA13F4T 49 09 5.4 21 2
31. ES12F4T 105 16 6.5 41 -
32. OX12F4T 88 16 5.5 40 -
33. LO12F4T 97 18 5.3 12 9
34. GI12F4T 35 19 1.8 59 2
35. SH12F4T 127 21 6.0 41 6
36. BA12F4T 85 18 4.7 18 3
37. RO13M4T 50 06 8.3 12 -
38. LE12M4T 86 12 7.1 22 -
39. AB12M4T 61 13 4.6 20 2
40. AL12M4T 89 13 6.8 60 -
41. GI12M4T 89 12 7.4 12 4
42. BO12M4T 92 14 6.5 23 1
43. MA12M4T 36 08 4.5 10 -
44. GE12F4T 38 07 5.4 12 1
45. PR12M4T 73 08 9.1 34 -
46. GA12M4T 30 05 7.8 15 -
==================================================================
47. JA12F4T 76 10 7.6 26 2
48. SU12F4T 84 14 6.0 20 3
49. ST12M4T 98 06 16.7 14 2
50. MI12F4T 86 11 7.8 16 2
51. SY12M4T 65 12 15.4 19 1
52. NI12M4T 75 10 7.5 25 -
53. GL12F4T 59 10 5.9 23 -
54. SH12F4T 99 10 9.9 19 3
55. FL12F4T 58 12 4.8 22 2
56. SH12F4T 47 09 5.2 24 -
57. CL12F4T 87 10 8.2 24 2
58. ME12M4T 58 10 5.8 21 1
59. AR12M4T 53 10 5.3 17 3
60. SW12F4T 41 05 8.2 17 1
Source: Computed from primary data
Table 2 clearly shows that the participants fail completely in writing error free sentences.
One participant had 9 error free sentences out of the total 18 sentences that she had written. The
maximum number of words that any participant wrote was 194 and the minimum number of
words was 30 in a Free Composition wherein the student participants were supposed to write an
essay of about 200 words. The maximum number of sentences was 27 and the minimum number
of sentences reported was 5. The highest number of errors by any single participant was 102 and
the least number of errors was 9.
13. School Wise Free Composition Errors

Out of the four schools in Car Nicobar, namely Government Secondary School Tamaloo,
Government Senior Secondary School Arong, Government Secondary School Malacca and
Government Senior Secondary School Mus which participated in the present study, Government
Secondary School Malacca and Government Senior Secondary School Mus participants
displayed a better performance at 32.25% and 33.39% Errors respectively. Table 3. shows the
relative performance of all the four schools in terms of Number of Words, Sentences, Errors, and
their percentage along with the number of Error Free Sentences in Free Composition. Tamaloo
and Arong participants did not perform well, and their Error Percentage was recorded at 84.89%
and 76.93% respectively.
13. a. School-wise Participants /Demographic Profile
==================================================================
The data was collected from four schools in Car Nicobar, namely, Government Secondary
School Tamaloo, Government Senior Secondary School Arong, Government Secondary School
Malacca and Government Senior Secondary School Mus. According to the 2011 census Tamaloo
for tourists, is originally Tim-lö village which has about 379 households with a population of
1515 and 74.01% literacy rate. Arong for tourists, is originally Ha-ran having about 233
households with a population of 1194 and a high literacy rate of 87.73%. Malacca is the largest
village in Car Nicobar, originally called U-rèk-ka (called "Malacca" only for tourists) and it has a
population of 1637 with 368 households and 77.9 % overall literacy rate. Ha-nyôch (Mus) has
about 365 households with a population of 1553 and 80.2% literacy rate.
The number of students from each school could not be the same. There were 8, 7, 14 and 31
participants from each of these schools respectively. Similarly the male and female numbers
could also not be controlled. There were 25 male participants and 35 female participants (Figure
3.1) who participated in this study.
Figure 3.1: School-wise Participants
For tabulation, each of the participants was given a distinct seven digit alpha numeric
code taking into account the initials of their names, age, gender, school and other language
known.
Since all are Government schools which follow the same CBSE syllabus and materials
and even the qualification of teachers are also the same, the data was clubbed together.
The students ranged from 12 years of age to 14 years. Since all the students were from standard
8th, their age range is within 12to 14.
==================================================================
Age and School criteria though should not have much significance, but, wherever there is
a marked difference in the performance of the participants on the basis of these variables, they
are analysed in detail for the present study.
Linguistic Repertoire of ‘Pu’ participants
Figure 3.2: Linguistic Repertoire of Pu participants (60)
There were 60 participants, and their mother tongue is Pu. As Figure 3.2 depicts there are
five major languages spoken in the area excluding their mother tongue and they are Hindi,
English, Tamil, Malayalam, and Arabic. Five of the students did not respond for the question
==================================================================
regarding Tamil language. All of the participants responded for English and Hindi. More than 90
% of the participants were comfortable with Hindi in terms of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. In English however, the participants claimed that they faced more problem while
speaking and reading as compared to listening and writing. The participants were comfortable
while listening to Tamil whereas only 28 per cent of them were comfortable while speaking; and
only 16 per cent of them were comfortable reading and writing Tamil. As far as Malayalam and
Arabic is concerned, very few of the participants were comfortable with them. No one was
comfortable while reading and writing Malayalam and only 3.3 per cent and 1.6 % were
comfortable while listening and speaking respectively. For Arabic also only 3.3 % of the
participants were comfortable while reading and only 1.6 % were comfortable while listening,
speaking, and writing Arabic.
Table 3.1: School Wise Free Composition Errors
==================================================================
Figure 3.1 depicts very clearly that the participants from Malacca and Mus were far better
than those from Arong and Tamaloo as far as their English learning was taken into account.
Their Free Composition Error Percentage was less than half of those recorded by the Arong and
Tamaloo participants.
Table 3.2. Free Composition Errors Male vs. Female
Table 3.3: Types of Error Total %Errors Total % Total Total

Errors MALE Errors Errors Errors %
Categories MALE FEMALE FEMALE Errors
Nouns 217 23.61 275 21.2 486 22.04

Prepositions 31 3.27 28 2.16 59 2.67
Articles 37 3.9 89 6.8 126 5.71
Verb 44 5.7 107 8.32 151 6.84
Adverb 4 0.95 14 1.08 18 0.81
Tense 12 1.26 10 0.77 22 0.99
Adjectives 30 3.16 41 3.18 71 3.21
Conjunction 27 2.8 54 4.19 81 3.67
Spellings 50 5.27 57 4.43 107 4.85
MT / 94 11.19 140 10.88 234 10.61
==================================================================
Other words
Language
Semantics in India www.languageinindia.com
33 3.48 ISSN 39
1930-2940 21:12
3.03 December
72 2021 3.26
‘Pu’ Speakers Learning
Punctuation English in
CAPITALISA Middle 20.78
191 Schools of 218
Car Nicobar 16.9
(A&N Islands):
309 14.01
A Study in Error Analysis
TION 49
FULLSTOP 128 13.92 172 13.3 300 13.60
COMMA 22 2.3 40 3.1 62 2.81
Figure 3.1: Free Composition Error Percentage across Schools
MALE(25) % AVERAGE FEMALE % AVERAGE

PER (35) PER
PERSON PERSON
(MALE) (FEMALE)
Total No. of 1978 - 79.12 2927 - 83.62

words
Total No. of 294 - 11.76 588 - 16.8

sentences
Words per 6.72 6.14

sentence
Total No. of 919 46.46% 36.76 1286 43.93% 36.74

errors
Total No. error 15 5.1% 0.6 51 8.67% 1.45

free sentences
14. Free Composition Errors Male vs. Female

As reported in Table 3.4, the total number of errors in Free Composition by male
1 2 4
3
Sl.No SCHOOLS Error per Error per Error per
Error per person
person person person
Total No. of
1. 8 Avg. 7 Avg. 14 Avg. 31 Avg.
students
Total No. of
2. 682 85.25 581 83 1426 101.85 2213 71.38
words
Total No. of
3. 120 15 103 14.71 202 14.42 232 7.48
sentences
Words per
4. 5.68 5.64 7.05 9.53
sentence
==================================================================
Total
Language in No. of www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 21:12 December 2021
India
5. 579 72.37 447 63.85 460 32.85 739 23.83
Selvaganapathy,
errors M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Scholar
6. Error % 84.89 76.93 32.25 33.39
Total No. of error
7. 2 0.25 - - 12 0.85 52 1.67
free sentences
participants (25) is 919 whereas the total number of errors by female participants (35) is 1286.
However, per person error (as shown in Figure 3.3) for both male and female participants is
almost similar at almost 36.
15. Types of Errors in Free Composition

Types of Errors in Free Composition are classified in Table 3.5 and depicted in Figure
3.6. Nouns as a category report the highest percentage of errors at 22.04% followed by
Capitalization and Full Stop at 14.01% and 13.60%. The least number of errors are reported in
Adverbs and Tense at 0.81% and 0.99%. However, the cloze test errors for Tense showcase a
different picture (Refer Table 3.8 and Figure 3.9) wherein it is reported at 54% of the total score
allocated for Tense.
i. Nouns: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in noun is 217 which is 23.61% of
their total whereas female participants (35) committed 275 errors out of 1286. Female error
percentage in noun is 21.2%.
ii. Prepositions: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in prepositions is 31 out of
919. Their error percentage of preposition is 3.27% whereas female participants (35) committed
28 total number of errors in preposition out of 1286. The female error percentage of preposition
is 2.16%. The cloze test result show that per person average errors for preposition out of a total
number of 5 prepositions is 0.55 which is 11% out of the total marks allocated. (Refer Table 3.8
and Figure 3.9).
iii. Articles: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in articles is 37 out of 919. The
errors of articles by female participants (35) are 89 out of 1286. The error of articles percentage
in male is 3.9% and that of female is 6.8%. The cloze test result show that per person average
errors for Articles out of a total number of 5 Articles is 0.75 which is 15% out of the total marks
allocated.
(Refer Table 3.8 and Figure 3.9).
iv. Verbs: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in verbs is 44 out of 919. The error
percentage of verb is 5.7% whereas the number of errors by female participants (35) in verb is
107 out of 1286 with their error percentage of verb reported at 8.32%.
v. Adverbs: Adverbs as a category report the least errors. Total number of errors in adverbs by
male participants (25) is 4 out of 919 with the error percentage being 0.95% whereas female
participants (35) report 14errors in adverb out of 1286. Their error percentage of adverb is
1.08%.
==================================================================
vi. Tense: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in tense is 12 out of 919. The error
percentage of tense is 1.26% whereas female participants (35) commit 10 errors out of 1286.
Their error percentage of tense is 0.77%. However, the cloze test result showcase an entire
opposite picture wherein it is reported that per person average errors for Tense (Verb Usage) out
of a total number of 5 is 2.7 which is 54% out of the total marks allocated. (Refer Table 3.8 and
Figure 3.9).
vii. Adjectives: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in adjectives 30 out of 919. The
error of adjectives percentage is 3.16% whereas female participants (35) in adjectives 41 out of
1286. The error of adjectives percentage is 3.17%. The cloze test result show that per person
average errors for Adjectives out of a total number of 5 Adjectives is 1.05 which is 21% out of
the total marks allocated. (Refer Table 3.8 and Figure 3.9).
viii. Conjunctions: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in conjunction is 27 out of
919. Their error percentage of conjunction is 2.8% whereas female participants (35) commit 54
errors in conjunction out of 1286. Their percentage error of conjunction is 4.19%.
xi. Spelling: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in spellings is 50 out of 919. The
error percentage of spelling is 5.27% whereas female participants (35) make 57 spelling mistakes
out of 1286. Their error percentage of spelling is 4.43%.
x. Mother Tongue/ Other Words: Total number of errors by male participants (25) in mother
tongue and other words interference is 106 out of 919. Their percentage error of mother tongue
and other words interference is 11.19% whereas female participants (35) made 89 errors in
mother tongue and other words interference out of 1286. Their percentage error of mother tongue
and other words interference is 6.8%.
xi. Semantics: Errors in Vocabulary wherein the participants use an inappropriate word for lack of
semantic knowledge are clubbed under this category. Total number of errors by male participants (25)
in semantics is 33 out of 919. Their error percentage of semantics is 3.48% whereas female participants
(35) commit 39 errors out of 1286. Their percentage error of semantics is 3.03%.
xii. Punctuation: Errors in Capitalizations, Full Stops and Commas are identified and clubbed
under Punctuations. Total number of errors by male participants (25) in punctuations is 341 out
of 919. Their error percentage of punctuations is 36% whereas female participants (35) commit
430 out of 1286 errors in punctuations. Their error percentage of punctuations is
==================================================================
33.3%. The maximum number of errors within this category is reported by Capitalizations
followed by errors in Full stops. As depicted in Table 3.6 Errors of Deletion and Substitution
outnumber the Addition errors across all grammatical categories.
Figure 3.7: % Error for Free Composition (Male vs. Female)
16. Error Hierarchy
The Hierarchy of Errors in Free Composition is depicted in Table 3.10 and Figure 3.10 &
3.11. As far as the Error Hierarchy in Cloze Test is concerned it does not hold much significance
as the comparison is made only among the four grammatical categories; Adjectives, Articles,
Prepositions and Tense.
Table 4.5: Error Hierarchy for Free Composition

Sl.No. MALE % FEMALE %
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1 Punctuations 36 Punctuations 33
2 Nouns 22.9 Nouns 21
3 Mother tongue /Other words 11.19 Verbs 8.27
4 Verb 5.7 Mother tongue /Other words 6.8

5 Spelling mistakes 5.27 Articles 6.8
6 Articles 3.9 Spelling mistakes 5.25
7 Semantics 3.48 Conjunction 4.17
8 Preposition 3.27 Adjectives 3.17
9 Adjectives 3.16 Semantics 3.0
10 Conjunction 2.8 Preposition 2.16
11 Tense 1.26 Adverb 1.0
12 Adverb 0.95 Tense 0.77
MALE
PUNCTUATIONS
36%df
NOUN 22.9%
MOTHER TONGUE/OTHER
WORDS 11.19%
VERBS 5.7%
SPELLING MISTAKES 5.27%
ARTICLES 3.9%
SEMANTICS 3.48%
PREPOSITIONS 3.27%
ADJECTIVES 3.16%
CONJUNCTIONS 2.8%
ADVERBS 1.26%
ADVERBS 0.95%
Figure: 3.10: Hierarchy of Errors in Free Composition MALE
==================================================================
FEMALE
PUNCTUATIONS
33%
NOUNS 21%
VERBS 8.27%
MOTHER TONGUE/OTHER WORDS 6.8%
ARTICLES 6.8%
SPELLING MISTAKES 5.25%
CONJUNCTIONS 4.17%
ADJECTIVES 33.17%
SEMANTICS 3.0%
PREPOSITIONS 2.16%
ADVERBS 1.0%
ADVERBS 0.77%
Figure: 3.11: Hierarchy of Errors in Free Composition FEMALE
The maximum number of errors by male participants (25) is in punctuations 36%

whereas the female participants (35) also make most errors in punctuations 33.3%. Individual
category-wise it is Nouns where they make the maximum number of errors followed by
Capitalization and Full Stop.
The minimum number of errors by male participants (25) is in adverbs 0.95% whereas
the female participants (35) make least errors in tense 0.77%.
17. Research Findings

This research was conducted to the students who are tribal students in middle school level
of Car Nicobar Island. The mother tongue interferences of ‘Pu’ speakers learning English as a
second language and the view of the students on the reading and writing skills were also sought
and analyzed. Findings of the present research study may be summarized as follows.
✓ Students’ achievement at word (lexical) level is high (91-94%).

✓ Students obtained highest scores at sentence level.
==================================================================
✓ In essay writing students commit spelling errors and grammatical errors in their
writing; it could be dialect influence.
✓ Most of the students obtained the highest scores in grammar part.
✓ Some of the students obtained the lowest scores in dictation of words and also
paragraph writing.
✓ Most of the students faced difficulties in writing paragraph.
✓ It was found that several students were not good in listening and speaking but good in
reading and writing. Some students were not reading properly. They require more
exercise for their development.
✓ They confuse the secondary symbols for the short and long vowels in reading and
writing. In replacement process, a greater number of errors were committed by the
students in relation to other processes.
✓ Female participants committed a smaller number of errors than the male.
✓ Comparatively the errors were less in semantics than in the lexical.
✓ In all the processes like addition, deletion, and substitution they confuse the sounds of
/n/, /m/, /p/, /ph/, /t/, /d/, /ń/, /ñ/, etc. in their graphemic representation: name -mame,
father-pather or Pa, football-foodball, etc.
✓ Students committed errors in essay writing. In essay writing, errors like spelling
errors, sentence errors, mother tongue or first language influence, word repetition,
mirror image, analogical errors, illegibility, semantics, and lack of interest in writing
are found.
✓ Students committed errors in paragraph reading or reading comprehension. In
paragraph reading, errors of pronunciation are found. It could be due to their mother
tongue influence. Most of the times, they utter nasal sound; it could be due to their
shape of nose or nasal cavity.
✓ Most of the students’ handwriting is not good and is illegible. Comparatively female
students are better than male.
✓ The researcher finds mother tongue words are used frequently by participants.
Sl.No ‘Pu’ words English words

1. Fa or Pather father
2. Ma mother
3. Kar car
4. Oak drink
5. Ayom grand parent
6. Khanu-ha-hoo Pig festival
7. Kevidy one kind of tree or native fruit
8. Sabudhan native cake (prepared by Kevidy fruit)
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Tamil words are used by ‘Pu’ speaking students
Sl.No Tamil words ‘ Pu’ words English words
1. amma ama mother
2. appa apah father
3. ayya (Madurai dialect) ayom grandfather
4. aaya (Tanjavoore dialect) ayom grandmother
5. thanni thani water
6. tampi thambi younger brother
• Hindi words are used by ‘Pu’ speaking students

Sl.No Tamil words ‘ Pu’ words English words
1. ma ma mother
2. abha abah father
3. maami maami aunty
4. doodh wala milkwala milk man
5. macchi machi fish
• ‘Pu’ speaking students coined some English words

Sl.No Coined English words Correct English words
1. Bus man bus driver
2. Mathis mother
3. Big family joint family
4. House women /house lady housewife
5. Grand fa/grand man grand father
6. Grand women/grand lady grand mother
7. Shop man shopkeeper
8. Cleaning man sweeper
Conclusion
To conclude, this research work shows that a few tribal students have high level of English
proficiency because in Car Nicobar Islands. They speak ‘Pu’ language at home also. All the
students have gained better language competency with more knowledge and language skills after
==================================================================
studying English as a compulsory course. Whatever the type of assessment was used, it was clear
that monitoring the exam within a structured framework and blueprint was very significant
information regarding the efficiency of their teaching as well as the achievements of their
students. This study was undertaken with the aim of finding out the worth fullness of tests to
evaluate the effectiveness of the middle school level education.
==================================================================
Acknowledgement
I express my deep sense of gratitude and love to my mother Kamalam Selvaraj who is my first
teacher forever. Praise the LORD!
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my research supervisor Prof. Pradeep Kumar, Professor,
Centre for Linguistics, JNU, for his intellectual support, kind help, parental care, and valuable
suggestions; and for he is one who has shaped my life in my entire career.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my research Co-supervisor Dr.Salonee Priya
(Vivekanand Institute of Professional Studies, Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha
University (GGSIPU), New Delhi.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my M.Phil. (2015-2017) research supervisor Prof.
Vaishna Narang, Professor, Centre for Linguistics, JNU, for her intellectual support, kind help,
parental care, and valuable suggestions; and also for she is one who has shaped my life in my
entire career.
My sincere thanks are due to Asst. Prof. Dr.Jochibed Vincent, native speaker of Nicobarese
language, Head of the Department of English, Andaman College Port Blair, who taught me
Nicobarese language in Car Nicobar Island in 2017.
I express my sincere thanks to Christie Vincent, native speaker of Nicobarese language, PGT
English Language Teacher, Govt. Senior Secondary School, Lapathy Car-Nicobar who provided
shelter for me when I did my fieldwork in Car Nicobar Island.
I thank Dr.Thilagavathi, Associate Professor, Department of English, Jawaharlal Nehru Rajkeeya
Mahavidyalaya, Port Blair, for her valuable suggestions.
I am very grateful to Asst. Prof.Ram Kumar, Department of Tamil, Andaman College, Port Blair,
for his valuable suggestions, ideas, encouragement and support for my research work.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Asst. Prof. Ronald, native speaker of Nicobarese
language and faculty of English, Andaman Govt. College, (ANCOL) Port Blair, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, who helped me in collecting data from Nicobarese students.
==================================================================
==================================================================
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https://eric.ed.gov/?ti=Error+Analysis+(Language)
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Selvaganapathy
M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Scholar
Brahmaputra Hostel
New Delhi -110067
selvaganapathy905@gmail.com
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================================================================
Using Conversations as Pedagogical Tools for Teaching Cross-
Cultural Competence to English Language Students: Focus on
Speech Acts1
Professor Maya Khemlani David
Honorary Professor
Asia-Europe Institute
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
mayadavid@yahoo.com
Ameer Ali
Researcher
Institute of English Language and Literature
University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan.
ameer7037@gmail.com
====================================================================
Abstract
This research discusses the importance of developing cross-cultural competence among students
of English language. It is argued that examples taken from real life conversations enacted in
different contexts can be used as pedagogical material to teach students of English how the use of
speech acts varies from one cultural context to another cultural context. Understanding this
difference can help encourage mutual understanding and mutual respect between interlocutors
coming from different cultural contexts. In this research, data were collected from real life
conversations enacted in different Asian contexts. Qualitative analysis of the collected data showed
that socio-cultural norms affect the way language speakers speak and write language in a wide
range of contexts. It is suggested that dialogue-based language input of speech acts taken from real
life examples can help students of English understand the importance of socio-cultural context in
which speech acts are embedded.
Keywords: Asian, conversations, competence, cross-cultural, cultural, English, pedagogical, teach
• 1
An earlier version of this paper entitled Using Novels as Pedagogical Tools for Teaching Cross-Cultural
Competence to English Language Students: Focus on Speech Acts was presented by Maya Khemlani David
(2021) at a webinar on Speech Acts: Learning Cross Cultural Differences from Literary Works. In the
webinar, she discussed similar issues focusing on specific speech acts but drawing examples from literary
sources.
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Using Conversations as Pedagogical Tools for Teaching Cross-Cultural Competence to English
Language Students: Focus on Speech Acts 62
1. Introduction
Learning a language typically focusses on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation to develop

reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. However, one of the reasons for learning a language
is to communicate with people and how to use words or structures in different contexts at different
times (Byram, 2013). This means that language is learned when speakers can use the language
APPROPRIATELY (our emphasis) in different contexts (Austin, 2005) and with different people
and understand the underlying meaning beyond the text. Understanding the meaning is sometimes
accompanied by cultural understanding and using culturally appropriate language can help
maintain communication without inter-cultural differences and conflicts. According to Byram
(2013), apart from linguistic competence, intercultural competence makes communication flow
smoothly.
Communication is anchored by the interlocutors’ physical and cultural contexts. This shows that
communication can be culturally situated (Clark and Ivaniè, 1991):
“... language forms cannot be considered independently of the ways they are used to communicate
in context. Further, individual acts of communication in context cannot be considered
independently of the social forces which have set up the conventions of appropriacy for that
context” (p. 170).
Therefore, in language teaching, teachers must integrate culture. With the emergence of more and
more non-native speakers of English and the growth of more multilingual societies, with
internationalization and globalization, it is vital to integrate cultural norms with language teaching
(David, 2008). Way back in 1997, Liddicoat (1997) stated that this was far from the dominant view
of language teachers.
Considering this important issue, real life dialogues used in both formal and informal domains are
suggested as learning materials to make second language learners of English aware of cultural
differences based on speech acts. L2 teachers of English can employ such materials to increase
multilingual learners’ sense of self and pride in their ethnic cultural norms when using English as
a lingua franca with fellow countrymen and with “native” speakers of English (David, 2021).
In short, there is a strong relationship between language and culture (Conway et al., 2010). Some
researchers have described language as the ‘essence of culture’ (Newton et al., 2010: p. 7;
Thielmann, 2003). Agar (1994: p. 28), used the term, ‘languaculture’ to linguistically and
symbolically demonstrate that “culture is in language, and language is loaded with culture”.
More researchers in recent times have also examined the influence of culture in second language
teaching and learning in different contexts (Bonvillain, 2008; Liddicoat & Crozet, 2000;
Thielmann, 2003). These scholars emphasise that culture is an integrated part of teaching L2 skills
====================================================================
and should not be seen as a separate topic to be taught. In fact, Kramsch (1993: p. 8), says if
“language is seen as social practice, culture should be the very core of language teaching”.
The significance of culture in language teaching can be gauged from the fact that excluding culture
from learning or teaching L2 can result in many misunderstandings (Bonvillain, 2008) as what is
deemed as a culturally appropriate or polite speech act varies from one context to another (David,
2021).
1.1 Politeness and Culture
Despite the universality of politeness, Brown, and Levinson (1987, 62) state that “the content of
face will differ in different cultures”, implying that there is a certain cross-cultural variation. In
support of Brown and Levinson, other researchers agree that the form of politeness varies from
one culture or subculture to another because cultural presuppositions held by interlocutors might
be fundamentally different. Therefore, culture is now recognized as important in language
acquisition, both in terms of teaching target cultural norms (Crozet, 2003; Liddicoat & Crozet,
2000), and in terms of the relevance of learner’s home culture to their learning (Cummins et al.,
2005; Flory & McCaughtry, 2011).
1.2 Speech Acts
We will focus on the notion of politeness in speech acts as this varies from one culture to another,
and such differences may result in communication difficulties (Gass and Neu, 2009). Speech acts
are basically what we say when we speak, for example if we say, “Good Morning” that can be
seen as a greeting (though there are many different ways of greetings for example religious
greetings), and if we say, “you are clever!” that can be seen as a speech act of performing a
compliment (unless of course we are being sarcastic).
Due to differences in cultural norms of performing certain speech acts, second language speakers
may fail to communicate effectively, though they may have good lexical and grammatical
knowledge of the target language (Cohen & Olshtain, 1981; Thomas, 1983). In part, cross-
linguistic differences in speech act realization rules may cause second language speakers'
pragmatic failures.
Speech acts are generally difficult to perform in a second language because learners may not know
the cultural norms in the second language, and they may also transfer their L1 or first language
conventions into the second language, as they might assume that such rules are universal. Because
the natural tendency for language learners is to fall back on what they know to be appropriate in
their first language, L2 learners must understand exactly what they do in that first language to
recognize what is transferable to other languages.
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The speech acts that have been focused in this study include among many others giving advice,
compliments, and apologizing.
These speech acts have been identified using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) four types of politeness
strategies, which include,
Bald on Record Politeness Strategy
Bald-on-record strategy does not minimize threats to a person’s face. For instance, ‘ooh, I want
to use one of those’. This example poses threat to an addressee’s face because neither polite request
has been made nor likes and dislikes or social status of the addressee has been considered.
Positive Politeness Strategy
Positive politeness recognizes a person’s social status or desire to be respected. For instance, ‘is it
okay if I use one of those pens?’
Negative Politeness Strategy
One assumes that one is imposing on others when making a request. For example, ‘I am sorry to
bother you, but I just wanted to ask if I could use one of those pens?’.
Off-record Indirect Politeness Strategy
‘Hmmm, I sure could use a blue pen now’. (Indirect request which is realized by a person
belonging to the same cultural community). This appears to be a declarative sentence, but in fact
it is an indirect way of requesting a pen from someone.
(These examples have been taken from The University of the West Indies, Mona Jamaica website).
1.3 Literature Review
Previous research focused on how requests are enacted in different cultural contexts (Koh, 2002).
Making a request is potentially a face threatening speech act and depends not only on who is
making the request and to whom but also in what context. Using a comparative analysis
method, researchers (Koh, 2002; Meyerhoff, 2011) demonstrated how speech acts of requesting
can vary from one cultural context to another. What is considered polite in one culture may not be
deemed polite in another culture. According to Meyerhoff (2011), there are three factors which
determine what is deemed politeness or impolite behaviour and these include power, social
distance, and the cost of the imposition of a speech act, such as a request.
Koh (2002) discussed that Koreans preferred using negative politeness strategies, where the
speaker shows respect for the hearer’s negative face wants. In contrast, Americans use positive
====================================================================
politeness in their requests (Koh, 2002). For instance, expressions, such as I am sorry to trouble
you, but I am not feeling well. Could you give me a hot drink?’ shows a negative politeness
strategy of making a request because deference is shown to the listener.
The speech act of apology has also been investigated and examined in a range of contexts (Abbas,
Anjum & Pasha, n.d.; Aydin, 2013). Much like requesting, apologising has also been
conceptualised as an act of politeness (see Brown and Levinson, 1987). Building on this politeness
dimension of apology, Abbas, Anjum & Pasha (n.d.) found that Pakistanis prefer using positive
politeness in their speech acts of apology. Positive politeness strategy is used to avoid offence by
showing friendliness. This strategy is enacted through jesting, building common ground,
juxtaposing criticism with compliments, tag questions, nicknames, honorifics, discourse
markers (please), and ingroup register or jargon (Nordquist, 2020). For instance, “But please be
kind to your mother” is a positive politeness strategy used in a real life context because it contains
a discourse marker, ‘please’.
In contrast, negative politeness strategy is aimed not only at avoiding offence but also at showing
deference. This strategy is put into practice through questioning, hedging, and disagreeing
(Nordquist, 2021). According to Nordquist (2020), questions are one of the ways to express
negative politeness strategies because these can reduce harshness of a speech act.
In other words, positive politeness is more about building common ground by recognizing
mutual respect, while negative politeness is more about recognizing the trouble or
inconvenience that one’s request or other speech act may cause, though this is also aimed at
saving face.
Much like other speech acts, the speech act of greeting has also been widely investigated
(Almegren, 2017; Jucker, 2017; Shleykina, 2016). According to Jibreen (2010), greeting is an
expressive speech act that reflects psychological states of speakers in different contexts.
Almegren’s (2017) comparative study of Arabic-speaking participants in Saudi Arabia and Native
Speakers of English in America demonstrated that Arabs are more conscious of social hierarchy
than American speakers of English in their speech acts of greeting.
The speech act of prohibition, another potentially face threatening act also plays an essential role
in communication. This speech act has also been researched in different contexts (Al-Saaidi et al.,
2013; Ahmed, n.d.). Comparing speech acts of prohibition used in the Quran (Arabic) and the
Bible (English), Al-Saaidi et al (2013) discuss that the former expresses prohibition through
negative imperative (do not do), while the latter expresses it through declarative sentences. Al-
Saaidi et al (2013: p. 99) give an example from the Quran, “Abundance diverts you, until you come
to the graves”. This is an implicit prohibition indirectly advising people not to over-indulge in
worldly deeds neglecting good deeds. Implicit prohibition expressed through declarative
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sentences is more effective than an explicit prohibition expressed through the negative, ‘do not
do it’ or ‘let him not do it’ (Al-Saaidi et al, 2013).
Differences in the patterns of making requests were also reported by Alzeebaree and Yavuz (2017)
in their comparative study of Kurdish speakers of English and native speakers of English. They
showed that the Kurds used more strategies of ability (can you/could you please…), while the
English used more strategies of wishing (I would like…) when making polite requests (see
Alzeebaree and Yavuz, 2017).
Differences in the pragmatic and sociolinguistic behaviour of native speakers (NS) and non-native
speakers (NNS) vis-a vis compliment giving and receiving can be used by the language teacher
as a basis for raising consciousness of the culturally different ways of giving and receiving
compliments (David, 1999). Compliments, like apologies are primarily aimed at maintaining,
enhancing, anointing, or supporting the addressee's face (Goffman, 1967) and are generally
regarded as positive politeness strategies.
Extracts culled from a novel Bicycle Days where a young American stays with a Japanese host
family in Tokyo show a number of compliments by the young American to a number of speakers,
both Japanese and Americans. The Japanese hostess on being told by the young American guest
that her food was good responded by saying, “Eat” and elsewhere she deflected the compliment
by saying that her husband helped her with the cooking. In contrast, a young American friend who
had been complimented by the young American protagonist responded by merely saying,
“Thanks” (see David, 1999: p. 5).
The responses, however, vary and the extracts clearly indicate that in some cultures an acceptance
of the compliment is the norm, while in other cultures an acceptance would signify an infringement
of cultural norms.
1.4 Real Life Examples as Language Teaching Material
Real life examples taken from conversations can be used as a resource for second language
teaching. Long regarded as a powerful medium for both inter and intra-cultural growth,
conversations may transcend any particular place or time or may link students with their immediate
culture and enable them to participate in its development. Milne (2010) asserts that conversations
selected for both thematic relevance and linguistic accessibility can motivate students to read and
provide an effective vehicle for exemplifying language use and introducing cultural
assumptions.
Real life examples used in language learning classes provide many linguistic prospects to the
language learner and allocate the teacher with the ability to design activities that greatly increase
“the potential for more authentic interaction” (Milne, 2010: p. 215). The use of real-life dialogues
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as a teaching tool is legitimated because it provides the learners with authentic linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and cultural input (David, 2020).
Using real life examples as teaching material in ESL classes can provide the learners with many
advantages, including construction of meaning in a context (Bramer, 2003); conceptual and
linguistic development (Goldenberg, 1991); and increased engagement of students (Hendy and
Ceuvas, 2020).
Due to its authenticity, conversation is equipped with sociolinguistic and pragmatic information.
These two features are more related to ‘appropriateness’ in language which can be found only
in a contextualized language such as daily life conversations (Hassan, 2014). Daily life
conversations are authentic examples of language use.
The relationship between language teaching, culture, and speech acts has been discussed. Now,
we move on to discuss methodology used in this study. We then move on to provide examples of
specific speech acts in daily life conversations taken from different contexts, which can help
learners become aware of cultural differences when enacting or performing these speech acts.
2. Methodology
This section concerns data description, research design and the method of data analysis.
2.2 Data Description
Conversations that took place in English in real life were used as data for this research. Research
Participants from Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran, India, and Britain were asked to share their
conversation/speech acts of advice, compliments, and apology. Twenty participants were
purposively chosen and only 15 responded. All the participants were from Asia, while there was
one Pakistani from Britain. Textual data used in real life conversations were shared via WhatsApp.
2.3 Research Design
The research design of the current study can be sequenced into 4 stages.
Stage 1: Contacting Acquaintances for Sharing their Real-Life Examples/Conversations
Twenty examples were provided by 15 participants via WhatsApp, and only relevant (10) were
chosen and processed qualitatively. These ten examples of real-life speech acts were purposively
chosen based on a list of selection criteria, particularly: (1) conversations that took place in 2021;
(2) took place in English; (3) containing examples of advice, compliments, and apology; (4)
spoken in a wide range of contexts; and finally, (5) come with politeness strategies because speech
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acts are effectively enacted using these strategies. Politeness strategies used in daily life
conversations can also vary in a wide range of contexts.
Stage 2: Selection of Relevant Excerpts from the Conversations
In this stage, 1-2 excerpts were taken from the selected conversations which contain speech acts
of advice, compliments, and apology and strategies of politeness.
Stage 3: Transcription for the Selected Examples
The selected examples containing speech acts (advice, compliments, apology) and politeness
strategy were manually transcribed in Microsoft Word.
Stage 4: Qualitative Analysis
In this stage, data obtained were qualitatively analysed using speech acts and politeness strategies
as theoretical framework.
3. Findings and Analysis
In this section, research findings based on three headings: Speech Acts of Advice; and Speech Acts
of Compliments; Speech Acts of Apology are analysed.
3.1 Speech Acts of Advice
Speech acts of advice varies from one cultural context to another cultural context, and this can be
demonstrated in real life language used in a wide range of situations. For instance, a piece of advice
given by a Pakistani man via WhatsApp to his friend about spending much of time in studies shows
how friendship as a relationship anchors the speech act of advice in Pakistani context. In Pakistan
where friendship is conceptualized as an obligation, the exchange of advice between friends is a
common phenomenon. He says,
“I hope that you will not take offence at my words. I want to say that you are not giving sufficient
time to your studies. It’s time to realize your obligation and spend more and more time studying
books and preparing for your studies”.
The above given piece of advice enacted by a person in Pakistan is an example of the negative
strategy of politeness because the addresser has acknowledged the offence his speech act may
cause to the addressee. Realizing his responsibility of friendship, the person advises his friend to
invest his time in studies. Such direct pieces of advice in which an addressee’s face is addressed
can easily result in perlocutionary effects.
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The speech act of advice may be enacted in a different way in the British context. For instance, an
out-of-wedlock affair is differently discussed by a British-Pakistani father with his son, “when I
was your age, I had made many girls as my friends. I often used to date with one of them and spent
pleasant time”. The Pakistani father in Britain is suggesting that his son does what he did and live
a happy life. This speech act of advice may not be used by a father in Pakistan. This example
shows how there are culturally different ways of enacting the speech act of advice.
Such examples of speech acts culled from real life conversations can be used as a catalyst by the
teacher to initiate awareness into other real life contexts comparing differences in the enactment
or performance of different speech acts across cultures.
CAVEAT
The words used to perform the speech act of giving advice and even of receiving advice depends
on a number of variables in addition to culture, and this depends inter alia on who is apologising
to whom, the nature of the wrong done and the context. Hence, these other variables have to be
considered before a sweeping statement is made regarding the effect of cultural norms on the
performance of speech acts.
After discussing the speech acts of advice, speech acts of compliments are now discussed.
3.2 Speech Acts of Compliments
Another important speech act is the performance of giving and receiving compliments. In many
Asian contexts, it is polite to negate and reject compliments and praise. In this way, the compliment
receiver emphasizes humility.
Raising students’ awareness of these cultural differences resulting in varying responses to

compliments will help improve the communicative competence of language learners. Some
examples of spoken discourse taken from a range of real-life conversations are provided as
examples of teaching input which act as a catalyst to discussion on cross-cultural differences in
the speech act of responses to compliments. Some of the examples of responding to compliments
are shown below:
Compliments
1. A Pakistani teacher on being complimented.
Students: “Dear sir, you have developed our learning skills, groomed our personalities, and
increased our thought horizons. We will always be thankful to you. God bless you”.
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Teacher: “I am happy and satisfied that I had an opportunity to teach amazing and hardworking
students like you. I pray for your success and wish you the best of luck”.
Responses to compliments in the above and following examples have been taken from real life
examples in Asian (Pakistani, Indian) contexts. All these examples show that in response to
compliments, many Asians would not accept credit but would rather diffuse such appreciative
remarks. In example 1, a teacher has been complimented on his teaching which he diffuses.
In contrast, an English teacher is happy on being complimented for teaching well.
2. “oh, thank you so much. I am glad to hear such nice words”.
In this example, which was obtained through a Pakistani respondent in Britain, the English teacher
is happy and thankful to have heard compliments from his students about his teaching. These
examples show how speech acts and cultural norms vary in different cultural contexts.
3. Amazed by her accounting and statistical skills, a boy said to a girl, ‘How did you learn
these amazing skills?
The girl replied, “I am not that much amazing. I just don’t miss my homework and do it on time.
My father also helps me a lot”.
Similarly in example 3, an Indian girl has been complimented for her improvement in Accounting
and Statistics subjects, the receiver diffuses the compliment by giving credit to her father. Both
examples of compliments are positive politeness strategies because these are attempts at building
rapport and common ground through appreciation (giving the compliment) and humility
(responding to the compliment) between the interlocutors.
In example 4, the same pattern of diffusing compliments can be perceived.
4. “Dear Ma’am, I am thankful to you because you have been my good mentor.” In response, the
teacher said, “it’s your keenness that keeps you motivated”.
In Asian contexts, compliments are usually diffused by receivers. In this case, a Malaysian teacher
has diffused the compliment using the bald on-record direct strategy of politeness. The act of
diffusing a compliment using the bald on-record direct strategy can offend a compliment giver’s
face in non-Asian contexts (see Brown and Levinson, 1987), but shows humility and modesty in
many Asian contexts (David, 2021).
3.3 Speech Acts of Apology
According to Abbas, Anjum and Pasha (n.d.), Pakistanis usually prefer using positive politeness
strategies in their speech acts of apology. However, this can vary from one person/context to
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another. How Pakistanis apologize as shown in real life conversations is now presented and
analysed.
Speech Acts of Apologising
1. With tears tickling down my cheeks, I looked towards the heaven and tried to seek his
forgiveness, “for God’s sake, please forgive me, as my intention was not to hurt you, though I am
feeling guilty”.
The speech acts of apology can also vary in different languages and cultures. Example 1 shows
how a Pakistani man uses a speech act of apology. This speech act of apology shows his guilt
because he has hurt his friend. He is weeping because the feelings of guilt and remorse have
overcome him. This speech act of apology is an instance of negative politeness strategy because
he disagrees with his friend by saying that his acts that hurt his friend were not intentional.
2. “I accept that I have been unfair with you since long, but despite all this you have tolerated
my behaviour. Please, accept my apology, and give me one last chance, and I will be a good
partner”.
In contrast, example 2 taken from a Pakistani context demonstrates positive politeness strategy
because the husband accepts his wrong and apologises to his wife. The speech act of apology
shows that a person has accepted his/her mistake and is sorry for what happened.
3 “Please try to understand, I soon fell asleep last night. I didn’t see your WhatsApp message.
I am still sorry about it”. (Reply) “It’s okay, if you fell asleep”.
Example 3 shows how a Pakistani accepts his mistakes and shows that he is sorry. The other person
accepts the apology. This speech act is an example of positive politeness strategy because it
contains a discourse marker, ‘please’, and because the speaker has felt the need to apologise.
Positive strategy of politeness establishes reciprocity between interlocutors through the
recognition/confession of mistakes.
4. She said: “I am sorry I could not give you answers on time, but I promise to send on
Monday”.
He said: “No worries, dear, I have now submitted my article”.
In example 4, an Iranian girl says sorry to a Pakistani boy for being unable to submit her responses
(interview) on time, and the Pakistani accepts the speech act of apology and tells her not to worry
because he has finished his work (article) and submitted it. Statement 1 is an example of positive
politeness strategy because apology has been sought.
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Again, it must be emphasised that the caveat holds. Apart from cultural variables, there are other
variables that affect this speech act (David, 2021). It depends on the extent of the misdemeanour
or the wrong done, on the relationship between the person who has perpetuated the misdemeanour
and the person wronged and the context of the apology. For example, in an Asian context it is
normally the daughter-in-law who will apologise for the wrong done and due to the power, a
mother-in-law holds, she can refuse to accept the apology and, in this way, not give any face to
the daughter in law (see David, 2021).
4. Discussion and Concluding Remarks
In this study, we talked about how speech acts vary in different contexts (Asian and British) and
how lack of understanding of this issue can cause misunderstanding and conflict between
interlocutors belonging to different cultural groups. It was also discussed that different politeness
strategies of face saving, such as positive politeness and negative politeness are used to enact
speech acts in different socio-cultural contexts. Lack of understanding of culturally appropriate
politeness strategies can cause conflict and misunderstanding.
It is suggested that English language teachers can prevent this conflict and misunderstanding by
developing their students’ cross-cultural competence. Students’ cross-cultural competence can be
improved by giving them dialogue-based language input taken from real life conversations enacted
in a wide range of contexts.
Furthermore, language teachers can make their language students realise through the enactment of
specific speech acts that they can and should maintain their heritage cultural norms and values they
have in the Englishes they speak with each other (David, 2008). They should be proud of the new
ways of performing certain speech acts based on their L1 cultural norms which are being
transmitted to their L2 (David, 2021).
However, they should be aware and be vigilant of who their interlocutor is. L1 cultural norms can
be transmitted to L2 with fellow members of the speech community but adaptation may have to
be made when they are in L1 countries communicating with L1 speakers. Then, some speech
accommodation may be necessary.
In a paper, David (2021) focusing on speech acts and examples taken from literary texts states that
teachers should also create feelings of pride among students regarding their culture and language
encouraging them to reproduce their L1 and cultural norms in their use of English. Students should
be encouraged to positively view their culture and reflect it in the English they use when they
communicate with their fellow countrymen belonging to the same cultural community. For
instance, if a Muslim from Pakistan greets his countryman saying, ‘Assalam-o-Alaikum’, the
answer should be ‘Wa Alaikum Salam’, rather than ‘good morning/afternoon/evening’.
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Meanwhile, students should also recognize and respect other community’s socio-cultural norms,
and consciously consider these when speaking to the concerned community. This can be done by
helping students read and understand dialogues and a range of speech acts performed in
conversations taken from different contexts.
Finally, this study ends with a caveat. With globalisation and diaspora, many of our (Asian)
culturally learnt value systems change, and this too can be reflected in the performance of specific
speech acts.
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The Language of Silence in Joy Kagawa’s Obasan
Lecturer in English
KBDAV College, Nirakarpur, Khordha
Odisha 752019
mamatarani778899@gmail.com
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Courtesy: https://www.amazon.com/Obasan-Kogawa-Joy-2003-08-19-
Paperback/dp/B012YXAKCI/ref=sr_1_5?crid=1YR7QWVEOTF61&keywords=joy+kogawa+obas
an&qid=1639893872&s=books&sprefix=joy+kagawa+obasan+%2Cstripbooks%2C110&sr=1-5
Abstract
Joy Kagawa's masterpiece work Obasan records the history of an individual, a family
and of a generation. The novel sings the song of silence, and the title character is the epitome of
silence. The political significance of the work is on the internment of Canada's Japanese
residents during World War II. It is a original work and expressive of a sensibility that wishes to
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The Language of Silence in Joy Kagawa’s Obasan 78
define in relation to each other, Japanese and Canadian way of seeing and even to combine those
divergent perceptions in an integrated and distinctive vision.
Keywords: Joy Kogawa, Obasan, memories, silence, speech, internment camp, tombstone,
dream.
In her debut novel Obasan, 1981, Joy Kogawa presents a peoples’ plight with
historical authenticity about the internment of Japanese Canadians during World War II and
demonstrates her understanding of the emotive power of words as conveyed through literature.
Set in 1972, the novel centers around the memories and experiences of Naomi Nakane, a thirty
six year old schoolteacher living in rural Canadian town of Cecil, Alberta. Naomi is simply the
literary incarnation of Kogawa herself with her painful experience of internment and
concentration camp as she had undergone along with her family at the tender age of six. Naomi
is presented as a person lost in the nightmare created by her silence; only by expressing her
feelings she can reach understanding and emotional health. The novel is therapeutic for Naomi;
for Kagawa herself and above all potentially therapeutic for the community of Japanese
Canadians. It weaves a seamless tale that stretches between a generation, span a continent and
decades with a dream. The dream that is terrifying; the silence that can’t speak; the love that is
voiceless yet vivid; the grief that cries out loudly yet unheard. The story is in flashback as the
protagonist, Naomi looks back as an adult finding out what really happened to her family and
their loved ones during the horrible chapter of history. “From silence and suffering to voice and
resolution, this novel is about survival, multicultural style…’’. (Day 6)
Obasan, however is with the presence of an erased maternal figure. The text doesn’t seek
to answer the question, “who am I”, but attempts to question, “what are the different ways of
being?” In tracing “being” as constituted both in silence and language. It is concerned with how
non-language or language maintains or breaks down psycho-social repression. With beautiful
poetic language the novel insists on fusing the personal with historical horizons and collapses the
boundaries between autobiography and friction and uplifts itself to a classical level of an
emotional catharsis of a self as well as a generation. In her book, A Poetics of Post Modernism
(1998), Linda Hutcheon speaks about the distinction of literature and history. In this book she
calls Obasan as a “Histography met-fiction” where Naomi’s personal memory is confronted with
makers of recorded history (the diary, the letters and the official documents) the textualized
accessibility of the past to us. In the large part the muted history finds its voice through literature
and breaks its stony silence through language. Naomi is imprinted by history and maimed by past
and seems to be a very redundant narrator who remembers the past events as extremely painful
experiences. Her reluctance to reveal the truth or break the silence is a typical “postmodern
feature” (as defined by Hutcheon). By her refusal to speak and remember and make herself
visible as Aunt Emily demands it as her refusal to integrate fragments of past. Naomi’s narrative
technique, quoting documents and diaries succeeded in creating a fiction of sociological
documentation although it lacks to be considered as an integrated and coherent story.
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The opening two lines of the novel “silence that cannot speak” and “silence that will not
speak” manifest the true tone of the work that is, some people can’t speak about the past because
it is too painful to recall while other group of people choose not to speak about the past for other
reasons. Naomi’s story is a journey from oppressive silence into a freeing speech. The reading of
the novel is of keeping to the usual western hierarchy which values speech as active and having
agency, silence as passive and having no agency. But here this hierarchy doesn't exist in this way
as traditional Japanese culture. King-kok Cheung in his book Articulate silence (1993) has
observed that, "most reviewers of Joy Kogawa’s Obasan has applied the hierarchical opposition
of language and silence to the very novel that disturbs the hierarchy ".
A middle school teacher with her uncle Isamu is on her annual trip to Coulee in
Granton, Alberta in 1972. This was an annual trip that started from 1954. Naomi memorized the
town dominated by white Canadians and a few mystified incidents. She got the news of her
uncle’s death and went for a courtesy visit to her aunt or Obasan as called in the Japanese
language. Both the women went to their old attic, where a great secret is silenced for years. They
found a large number of documents and letters treasured but in mute condition. There lies the
history of a family, a generation, and a nation. Naomi's thoughts were about her childhood days.
A loving home in Vancouver, bubbled with innocent incidents i.e. releasing chick with a hen to
another cage, tale of momotaro and her painful memory of molestation by an old man Gower at
the tender age of four. In 1941, her mother went to Japan to visit the grandmother who was ill.
But the mother never turned back. Both Naomi and her elder brother Stephen were left wondered
about the mysterious disappearance of the mother. They were too small to be explained about the
mother’s situation. Two kids were puzzled about the silence of whole family and confused on
uncle Isamu’s remark “too young’’ and ‘’someday’’ to know about the condition.
As an adult Naomi faces some of the same stonewalling situation that made a child so
perplexing. She used to ask aunt Emily about her mother., for which she gets little more than a
pained stare and a cryptic remark before Emily changes the topic. However Naomi does not react
to this kind of evasion in direct way, she’s clearly frustrated with her aunt. Her irritation stems
from the fact that Emily is more concerned with the broad issue then with specific. people and in
Naomi's view, a bunch of people picking away at outraged letters will have little to no effect on
anyone. She thinks about her family members not about the issue. Naomi is furious at the
government for the cruelty towards people, but she is also disappointed by her aunt for failing to
understand the pain. One night, she hears the adults of house whispering about whether or not to
tell the children something…to which Obasan prays and Emily cries. Aunt Emilyl is with her
cardboard folder packets, that was read by Obsana earlier that day with a magnifying glass.
Being muffled by mysteries, Naomi sees dreams of her mother doing a death dance with a rose in
her mouth and the rose is connected to Obasan’s twain and that is connected to and Emily’s
package. A figure, Naomi called the grand Inquisitor descends and opens her eyes and her
mother’s mouth. She wakes and things that, to understand her mother the grand Inquisitor has to
listen to your silence. The roses the voice of silence that want to say the mother story. Naomi
decides to stop her inquisition, her search for the truth; the truth that is imprisoned within the
cardboard folder of Aunt Emily. There are the letters of grandma Kato to Grandpa Kato from
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Japan. Among the two letters, the first letter is short and brief, whereas the second says that
grandma Kato and Naomi’s mother decided to keep silent that would help the horror abate.
Naomi’s mother specially didn’t want her children to know what happened, but grandma wrote
the horrible events to grandpa through letter expecting to relieve her pain and agony.
In 1945, grandma and Naomi's mother were in Nagasaki to help Naomi’s cousin said
Setsuko, with her newborn baby; Chicko, who was looking like Naomi. One day, grandma was
getting ready to make lunch, baby Chiku strapped to her back, the bomb hit. Grandma was
knocked unconscious but alive. Both of Setsuko’s eyes had been blown out and her skin came
off against grandma’s hand, but she was still alive and calling for her son Tomio. Everywhere
there were people hideously maimed and dying. Grandma headed towards the house of
Setsuko’s father-in-law, Tomio was gone and never found. One day grandma came across a bald
woman whose appearance was hair raising as Kagawa describes:
“One evening when she had given up the search for the day, she sat down beside a naked
woman she has seen earlier, who was aimlessly chipping wood to make fire on which to cremate
a dead baby. The woman was utterly disfigured. Her nose and cheek were almost gone. Great
wounds and pustules covered her entire face and body. She was completely bald. She sat in a
cloud of flies and maggots wriggled among her, a vacant gaze, then let out a cry. It was my
mother”. (286)
Naomi asks her mother to help her listen, she speaks to her mother as if she were there,
telling her and shares her horror. She says that Obasan and uncle granted her mother’s request
for silence. Naomi says that silence destroyed them both; still struggling with the merits of
silence versus the benefits of memory. Her nightmare about her mother helps her decide at least
for the time that silence is best. The evil figure in the dream, the Inquisitor who brutally opens
Naomi’s eyes and your mother’s mouth. For years she has been metaphorically attempting to
force open her mother’s mouth to wrench the story of those last years from her absent and now
dead. However Naomi understands and forgives her mother’s desire to keep silent about the
atrocities she saw and suffered in the end, she seems to feel that the silence was not worth the
price. She insists on the feeling of a mystical connection to her deceased mother as if she is still
present somehow. While this is a comforting sensation, and the path is a strong argument for
truth telling. Naomi must talk herself about her mother’s presence because she has nothing else
to go on. She has hard facts even the most disturbing hard facts are precious for her. She clings
to the photos of her mother as if they are talisman, studying the buckles on her shoes as if they
have some deep meaning, if Naomi knew more about her mother, she would had been in
communication with her while she was still alive. Naomi wouldn’t so desperately need to insist
that she can still communicate with her after her death. Throughout the novel her mother is
connected with the image of a tree. As a child she is bound to her mother whose address is lost in
the mystery.
The mystery of silence is emphasized is a prologue which encapsulates the powerful

struggle between speech and silence:
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“There is silence that can’t speak. There is silence that will not speak. Beneath the grass the
speaking dreams and beneath the dreams is a sensate sea. The speech that frees comes from the
amniotic deep. To attend its voice. I can hear it say is to embrace its absence. But I fail the task.
The word is store”.
The brief passage presents at least three types of silence: the silence that is powerless to break
itself, which is the silence of the aunt Aya; Uncle Isamu’s childless bride who raised Naomi and
Stephen after their mother’s disappearance and father’s separation during the internment. The
second category of silence is willful silence; one which has the power of speech but denies it.
This is the silence of refusal as seen in the mystery mother’s opinion against “telling the
children”. The last type of silence is of “that amniotic deep” of “speaking dream” from which
comest’ “the speech that free”. Here Kagawa goes with biblical truth: “Ye shall know the truth
and the truth shall make you free” (John, 38:8) to conflate truth with speaking dream. The free
speech comes from underground, from subconscious associated with the period of unity between
child and mother – the foetal sleep of the child in the mother’s womb.
The silencing of the event in Nagasaki, where Naomi’s mother disfigured and later died is
intended as a protection. It is also a request by Naomi’s mother; “Qodomo no tame ni” (for the
sake of children) which is also the motto of Uncle Isamu and Aya Obasan’s silence. This silence
however further conflicts the identity of Naomi who cannot reach a narrative of herself or
construct a work identity. As Cheung knows “The novel depicts the plight of a child who does
not know and cannot tell. Naomi has been withdrawn throughout childhood and adolescence; her
quite disposition seems to be tied to her mother’s unexplained absence. As a girl she questions
but receives no answer, as an adult she desists because she dreads knowing.’’ (Cheung 131)
The silence of Obasan is of a stick quality, a form at resistance against any form of
discursive identification. Obasan’s silence and Naomi’s reaction to it shows how it is also the
silence together with the demand of speech of Emily which guides and motivates Naomi’s Quest
for uncovering her past and redefining her own identity. Resistance towards language displays
the distinction between symbolic and semiotic qualities of language. If language is always the
expression of loss it builds up and necessary or signifier itself. By her silence, Obasan rejects to
build up this distance. She is the tombstone of her family – every details of past activities are
buried within herself which can’t be transformed or changed by any language. Naomi also can’t
follow Aunt Emily’s advice to write her version. She rather tells her story in a poetic unlined
way by changing between her adult point of view and her childhood point of view then could be
seen as a strategy by which her story aims at a quality of language, Julia Kristeva has called
semiotic. The mystic poetry that Kagawa uses in Obasan appeared to be a search for the semiotic
quality of language as can be seen in the quotes from the epigraph at the beginning of the book.
=====================================================================
Works Cited
Cheung King. Articulate Silence. Ithaca, Cornell University Press 1993 Print.
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Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Post Modernism: History, theory, fiction. New York: Routledge, 1988.
Print
Kagawa, Joy.1981 Obasan. Boston: Godine. Print.
Kristeva, Julia.1984. Revolution in Poetic Language. Translated by Margaret Waller. New York:
Columbia University Press. Print.
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Rethinking Women in Contemporary Hindi Cinema

Harpreet Kaur, Research Scholar
harpreetkaur198888@yahoo.com
Dr. Shweta Gupta, Associate Professor
shweta0180@gmail.com
Department of Humanities, Babu Banarasi Das University, Lucknow
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Abstract
This study throws light upon the portrayal of women in Hindi Cinema. Cinema is one of the
most influential and powerful mediums of mass communication and entertainment.
Delineation of Women in Cinema has always been a hot subject of debate and discussion.
Taking a broad glimpse of Cinema and Women, we see that right from its inception till the
present day, women have been an important part of Hindi Cinema. The Contemporary period
of Hindi Cinema marked a transition and became an emblem of women empowerment and
emancipation. Contemporary Hindi Cinema is celebrating the diversity of woman and their
multi-faceted role in society.
Key words: Hindi cinema, Contemporary, Cinema, Women, Patriarchy, Feminism.
Introduction
A fusion of several art forms, Cinema has a magnetic hold on the mind of the audience.
Cinema has a wider catchment area. Since the introduction of motion picture, the world of
entertainment has undergone a revolution and cinema has really become a global enterprise
and reached unprecedented heights. It won’t be wrong to say that the Film is motion, picture,
sound, theatre and school, all packed in one and which is why it can communicate effectively
to thousands of viewers. Cinema is really a statement of life and its documentation. The raw
material of cinema is life itself. Characters depicted in films represent socio-cultural
conditions of society and its political and economic fabric. In fact Khwaja Ahmad Abbas calls
Cinema as “People’s Art”.
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Rethinking Women in Contemporary Hindi Cinema 84
Portrayal of Women in Cinema has always been a hot subject of debate and discussion. As
women constitutes almost half of the population and hence their correct portrayal on celluloid
is very essential for breaking stereotypes that exist in our society. It is very sad to admit that
our Indian Society is patriarchal to the very core. Here men are seen as breadwinners and the
role of a woman is restricted to being a good homemaker. She is seldom considered as an
individual who could play a multi-faceted role in society but Feminism has contributed a lot
towards changing the status of women in society. Feminist Writings of Mary Wollstonecraft,
Simone de Beauvoir, J.S Mill, Elaine Showalter, Alice walker, Margaret Atwood, Julia
Kristeva, Betty Freidan and many such had a profound impact on society and Hindi Cinema
could not remain unaffected by it.
Taking a broad glimpse of Cinema and Women, we see that right from its inception till the
present day, women have been an important part of Hindi Cinema. Ever since the very first
film of Hindi Cinema “Raja Harishchandra” (1913) was being made by Dada Saheb Phalke,
the need for the heroine was terribly felt. Dada Saheb searched a lot and after much effort,
a boy with slender figure and chiselled features played the female part. Later on, it was with
Phalke’s second film entitled “Mohini Bhasmasur”, women entered the film world and
Durga Bai Kamat became the first female actor of Bollywood. Then there was no looking
back. In context of evolution of their roles in films, if we have a broad glimpse of Indian
Cinema, from silent era till date, we see women characters fulfilling their social obligations
towards family and towards society but hardly as persons. She is pictured as an ideal mother,
gentle daughter, dutiful sister-in-law, obedient wife but rarely as an individual.
The Contemporary period of Hindi Cinema marked a transition and became an emblem of
women empowerment and emancipation. The powerful #MeToo Movement, one of the
implications of fourth wave feminism gained momentum in the industry. With this rising
feminism, inclusion of more women in the writing process, as directors and choreographers,
female perspective, opinions have finally begun to be explored. Such developments brought
women from the margins to the centre. Contemporary films are breaking stereotypes. These
films have forced creators and audience to take a fresh look at different roles played by
women and introspect into the kind of typecast she was perpetuated earlier.
Methodology: The following study is Qualitative and Exploratory in nature. Qualitative

analysis of some select contemporary films is done. This method provides this paper a critical
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lens to study the stereotypical portrayal of women in Indian Cinema and how contemporary
Cinema has portrayed women in unconventional roles. Moreover, it critiques the cinematic
representation of issues like gender and its roles. Thus, this method will be used to study the
manner in which femininity in Bollywood is interpreted and how women centric films try to
deconstruct the concepts of reality, self, status in contemporary Hindi films.
Findings and Analysis
Contemporary Hindi Cinema is giving vent to the hidden motifs of feminine sensibilities, her
quest for freedom, self-respect, dignity and her changing role in society. In earlier films,
female experience was ignored and was given less importance. They were trapped in
secondary roles and they handled with care the male ego but Contemporary Hindi Films are
showing various aspects in the representation of women and their multifarious role in society.
Contemporary Hindi films are helping us find out those patriarchal values which dominate
the Indian society, controls, command the lives of women. Their contribution is significant in
making the society aware of women’s needs and aspirations.
To name a few, director Kundan Shah’s film ‘Kya Kehna’ is an example of a woman’s film
that left many critics surprised by its box office success. Targeting a younger audience, the
film was hailed as a challenging exploration of women emancipation and empowerment.
In spite of an awkward fact that the main protagonist is in a state of motherhood as a result of
pre-marital sex, still the movie exemplifies the strength of a girl, her courage to fight against
patriarchal forces and nurture her child single-handedly.
Coming towards the plot of the film, Priya Bakshi (Preity Zinta) is a lovely, vibrant, spirited
girl who has just completed her school and is in the first year of college. As the only
daughter, she is the apple of her father’s Gulshan (Anupam Kher) eye. Her mother Rohini
Bakshi (Farida Jalal) and three brothers shower love and affection on her. So does Ajay
(Chandrachur Singh) her childhood friend. Ajay is in love with Priya and wants to marry her
but she is blissfully unaware of his feelings and considers him her best friend. In college,
Priya meets the dashing Rahul (Saif Ali Khan) who is a spoilt brat and a womanizer. She falls
prey to his belief, fake love and gets pregnant and then follows her long battle to bring her
unborn kid into this world. Kya Kehna is a Contemporary Hindi Film that exemplifies the
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spirit of woman emancipation. The movie has Umbrella themes- Morality, Family,
Motherhood, Marriage, need for Self- independence and respect of women.
Looking at the movie from a feminist perspective, Priya the protagonist of the film rises high
like a Phoenix. She is the Brave New Heroine of Contemporary Films.
Priya’s outspoken nature is established in the opening scenes. When she slaps the Vice-
Principal of her school on behalf of her classmate, who had been sexually molested by him
earlier that day. This happens onstage at her farewell ceremony where she receives the award
of “Best Student”. Though for a moment, everybody is shocked but then her brave,
courageous act is rewarded.
“Maine jo kiya hai, mujhe uska koi pachtawa nahi hai. Hume apni teachers
ki izzat karni chahiye, unka aadar aur sammankarna chahiye. Lekin yeh
aadmi, hamare teacher baneke layak hi nahi hai……. Aur aaj jab inhone meri
saheli ke saath bhi yahi karna chaha, Tab hum sabne faisla kiya ki ab hume
hi kuch karna padega. Mei janti hu ki iska anjam bahut bura hoga. Shayad mujhe
blacklist kar diya jai. Kissi bhi college mei mujhe admission nahi milega. Aur mera
career hamesha ke liye barbaad ho jayega. Lekin maine wohi kiya joh mujhe karna
chahiye tha. Aur aage bhi mei wohi karti rahungi .Zindagi bhar.” (Priya)
(Translation in English)
“I have no regrets for what I have done. Teachers are to be respected I know .But this man
isn’t fit to be a teacher. The whole School knows about his scandals. On some pretext or the
other he calls innocent girls into his office and he ties to take advantage of them. Today he
tried to molest one of my friends. So we decided that we have to do something. I know I’m
going to face dire consequences. I might be black-listed. I may even be denied admission to
any college and then my career might be ruined forever. But I have done what I should have
done and that’s what I will always do all my life” (Priya)
She is not shown dumb, passive but unreserved and willing to speak and stand for what is
right. She can be given the synonym of ‘Brave New Heroine’. As a contemporary film, the
movie not only celebrates women’s quest for dignity, love and respect but also glorifies
Motherhood. In the movie also, the concept of single motherhood is also suggested.
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Lajja is 2001 movie directed by Raj Kumar Santoshi. Inspired by the ideas of Feminism and
describing the plight of women in a male dominated patriarchal framework, Lajja satrizises
the honour in which women are placed in society and the restrictions imposed on them.
Ironically, the four women pertaining to four stories in the movie Maithli, Janki,
Vaidehi and Ramdulari are all versions of Goddess Sita, the ideal Hindu Woman’s
name. . Lajja is undoubtedly, a feminist cult film and one of the best #Me Too movies. It
depicts in myriad shades the struggle of women in India. In fact, decades before the #Me
Too movement began, Lajja, a great Bollywood epic had become the voice for the unending
struggles that women face in India. These four women along with other females are victims
of male chauvinism, marital abuse, downright disgusting hate and violence against being
women. However they are fighting for their rights and dignity against the social norms and
injustice as depicted within the script numerous times throughout the film.
Looking from the feminist perspective, Santoshi’s first Sita – the main protagonist of the film
Vaidehi is a loyal and caring wife. The literal meaning of Vaidehi is one who gets the body
from the Earth, played in the movie by Manisha Koirala is highly sensitive and moral
woman. In the movie, she shows courage, conviction and great patience- all emblems of
women emancipation. After revealing the real psyche and extra- marital relations of her
husband, she no longer wants to stay with Raghu. She turns decisive and assertive. When she
discovers about her pregnancy, she decides to shoulder independently the responsibility of
both Father and Mother to her unborn child. She needs no compassion and financial or
emotional support of her own parents and in-laws. Santoshi’s next Sita - Maithli is a brave
woman. At the start of the wedding, we get an idea that Maithli wants the marriage but as
time passes, we can see that she is doing it to please her family traditions and honour of her
father. The moment she sees her in-laws demanding opulent gifts and heavy dowry, the
wedding which was supposed to be a gala event for her becomes a painful event where she
feels her father’s pain, trauma and predicament. Moreover when her in-laws put allegations
on her character, she could not bear that. Finally when they increase the dowry amount,
Maithli breaks, cracks and ends the wedding before the final vows could happen. Her reply to
such male chauvinist behaviour is: “I won’t be quiet. This is the end’. She gives prominence
to her self-identity, respect, integrity of character thereby refusing the man who could not
honour her virtues and protect her.
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Santoshi’s next Sita- Janki is a theatre artist and a strong minded woman. She is pregnant
though unmarried but she has faith in her lover. When the Father of Janki’s child asks her to
have an abortion because he doubts her and also he has been persuaded into believing
traditions, she is angered. To Janki, he is judging her character. So instead of the theatre
performance, she moulds the script and speaks of her heart in front of the audience against
the abuses women are inflicted with. Santoshi’s next Sita- Ramdulari, attractive but a mother
figure for the village is a midwife. She is a woman believing in education and progress. She
educates the women in the village, helps them to become financially independent. She fulfils
all duties of her husband in her absence. Her character is highly inspiring. Rekha epitomizes
the new- woman emerging from the backwaters of the vast rural landscape of Uttar Pradesh.
She is progressive, pragmatic and forward looking. She hates and shuns female infanticide.
She hates and shuns female Infanticide. She leads her own cooperative society, educates
fellow women to become economically efficient- all symbols of women empowerment.
English Vinglish was directed by Gauri Shinde in 2012 starring Sridevi, Adil Hussain in the
lead roles. The movie is a courageous tale of Self-exploration of Shashi (Sridevi), the
protagonist of the film. English Vinglish is a transformational journey of Shashi in her
quest for self-respect and esteem. Coming towards the storyline, Shashi Godbole is an
Indian homemaker, who runs a small business of making and selling laddoos. Here itself, the
role of a woman, the work she puts in as a wife, mother are reduced to a mere duty and only
her entrepreneur job is portrayed as being some worth in the eyes of the family. Her husband
Satish and daughter Sapna have taken her for granted. Her daughter is embarrassed about her
mother’s minimal knowledge of English and does not want Shashi to go to school. Her
husband mocks and proclaims that she was born to make ladoos. Satish expects her to have
his breakfast ready and she Shashi’s is ready to warm his bed by night.
Shashi’s older sister Manu, who lives in New York City, invites Shashi’s family to her
daughter Meera’s wedding to Kevin. It is decided that Shashi will fly to New York five days
prior alone to help Meera with her wedding preparations. Shashi is a strong-determined
woman. In the first half of the film, we see that she becomes a butt of ridicule in the eyes of
her daughter and husband. After her daughter’s rude and disrespectful behaviour at her parent
teacher meeting, she feels very disturbed and tells her mother-in-law
“Fail toh mei ho gai” (00.16:55)

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“I am Failed” (English Translation)
But instead of sobbing, she secretly enrols herself in the English speaking class and works
hard to gain fluency in English. As a feminist cult film, the movie gives vent to Shashi’s
dilemmas, aspirations, fears, sensibilities, quest for self-identity. As a woman too, she wants
that kids should give her the same respect and recognition as they give to their father. She
believes it is every women’s right to get dignity and respect from family. The moment her
daughter starts mocking over her bad English and insults her on varied occasions, she feels
insulted. She wants no compromise with her self-respect. The speech which she finally
delivers shows her confidence and ability to fight against all odds that are detrimental for her
self-esteem.
Nil Battey Sannata internationally released as The New Classmate was directed by Ashwini
Iyer Tiwari in 2015 Starring Swara Bhaskar, Riya Shukla, Ratna Pathak Shah and Pankaj
Tripathi in the prominent roles. As a feminist cult film, the movie describes the struggle of a
woman and her right to dream and change her life irrespective of social status. It portrays
beautifully the dreams of a widowed mother about her only daughter and her fight using the
limited capabilities to achieve the same. The movie explores the relationship between a
mother and a daughter. Unlike traditional films, the main protagonist of the movie is a
heroine and the plot of the film is women-centric. Chanda’s character exudes optimism,
hard-work and modern day women’s multi-tasking. She is an emancipated woman. Working
in a shift in shoe factory, a masala godown, washing clothes at dhobi ghat, she tries to earn
much for her daughter’s education as she understands the value of dreams and empowerment
is possible only through education. Her character shows spirit, drive and endless optimism.
With a scenic view of the Taj Mahal, Chanda motivates Apu to follow her dreams.
“tujhe pata hai fail hone mei koi burai nahi hai. Burai hai toh bina koshish kiye
haar manane mein. Ek baat hamesha yaad rakhna lalli, tera sapna sirf aur
sirf tera hai. Tujhe pata hai zyada se zyada log tere sapne par hassenge, unhe
bhaad mei jane ko kehiyo….. bas apne sapne ko apni nazro se dur mat hone diyo”
“You know, there’s nothing wrong with failing. What’s wrong is admitting defeat without
trying. Always remember one thing. Your dream belongs only to you. Lot of people will laugh
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on your dream. Tell them to go to hell. Nobody can shatter your dream. Just don’t let your
dreams out of your sight”
A few years later Apu attends her Union Public Service Commission Civil Service exam
interview and passes it successfully with flying colours. After being asked what inspired her
to apply for the exam, she answers her mother was her inspiration, who now tutors struggling
maths students for free. The interviewer asks Apekhsha Sahay:
“Aap IAS kyu banna chahti hai. Kyuki mein Bai nahi banna chahti thi”.
“Why do you want to become an IAS Officer? Because I do not wanted to be a maid”
Secret Superstar was directed by Advait Chandan in 2017 and stars Zaira Wassim, Meher
Vij and Aamir Khan in the lead roles. The film deals with social issues like Gender Equality
and domestic violence. The film received positive reviews from critics and became one of the
most profitable films of all time. The movie is a feminist film. It motivates us to stand up
against oppression of any kind; may it be domestic violence or other heinous crimes related
to women. The movie celebrates gender equality and suggests that daughters are special.
They are in no way less than men. Secret Superstar is the story of Insia Malik, a 15 year old
teenager who aspires to be a singer. She shares a great bond with her mother Najma who is a
victim of domestic violence. As a wife, she appears to be weak but as a mother, she is very
strong. The movie is a tribute “to Mothers and Motherhood”. Insia tells her mother:
“Pehle Kehti ho ki so jao. Phir Kehti ho ki Sapne mat dekho. Sone jaoungi
Toh kya automatically sapne nahi aaeyenge aur Ammi sapne dekhna toh basic
hota hai. Itna toh sabko allowed hona chahiye. (Insia) Ek line mei bata kya
chahiye tujhe.(Najma).. Ammi hum chahte hain ki saara world hamari Awaaz sune”
“First you say I should sleep. Then you say do not dream. When I will sleep, dreams will
automatically come and Ammi, everyone has the right to dream. This much should be allowed
to everyone. (Insia). Just tell me what you want. (Najma). Ammi, I want that the whole world
should listen to my voice.” (Insia)
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When her mother sees Insia’s passion for singing, she secretly sells her necklace and buys a
laptop. Insia records a song wearing a Niqab so that Farooq can’t find her identity and
uploads video on YouTube under the name ‘Secret Superstar’. Meanwhile Farooq discovers
that Insia scored low in exams and out of anger he rips out all the strings from her guitar.
When he discovers that Najma had sold her necklace, he beats her terribly as a result of
which Insia throws her laptop from the balcony. Unlike other typical Bollywood heroines
who despite bold and empowered conform to social norms and ends up as a sufferer, Insia
and Najma assert their grit in the end and from being submissive and docile to strong and
bold characters. Her marching out of the airport is a step that symbolises her renunciation
from a loveless marriage. The bold step towards her daughter is symbolic of change. She is
the secret superstar who makes her daughter realize and cherish her dreams. She has tasted
patriarchal suppression so she understands the need for love, care and freedom and tries to
give it to her daughter. Insia’s character motivates us to believe in the notion of dreams. One
should dream. It is everyone’s right irrespective of race and gender. The movie motivates us
to stand against oppression.
Contemporary films have depicted the spirit of new woman who is playing a multi-faceted
role in society through women-centric strong portrayals. Such films are breaking stereotypes
of gender and highlighting the loopholes of patriarchy. Plots are taken up highlighting the
issues of feminism. Contemporary Hindi Cinema is trying to highlight the significance of
individual identity for a woman and such films will surely sensitize our youth especially
young boys to respect women and also have compassion not only towards their mother or
sister but also towards their female colleagues and counterparts.
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References
1. Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of Rights of Woman: W.N. Norton, 1975.
2. Wolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own: Indo- European Publishing, 2011.
3. Sarn, Renu. History of Indian Cinema: Diamond Books, 1 Dec 2012.
4. Mistry Pratima. The Changing Role of Women in Hindi Cinema: Indian Journal of Applied
Research, Vol 4, Issue 7 July 2014.
5. Director Kundan Shah’s Exclusive Interview on Kya Kehna on Lehren Retro. Retrieved
from Lehren Retro http://goo.gl/m2xNRT
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Filmography
1.Kya Kehna. Screenplay by Honey Irani. Dir. Kundan Shah Perf. Preity Zinta, Saif Ali
Khan, Chandrachur Singh, Anupam Kher, Farida Jalal. Walt Disney Pictures India, 2000
Film.
2. Lajja. Screenplay by Ashok Rawat, Raj Kumar Santoshi. Dir. Raj Kumar Santoshi. Perf.
Manisha Koirala, Madhuri Dixit, Jackie Shroff, Anil Kapoor, Mahima Chaudhary, Rekha,
Ajay Devgn. Eros International, 2001 Film.
3. English Vinglish. Screenplay by Gauri Shinde. Dir Gauri Shinde. Perf. Sri Devi, Adil
Hussain, Mehdi Nebbou, Priya Anand. Eros International, 2012 Film.
4. Nil Battey Sannata. Written by. Ashwiny Iyer Tiwari, Neeraj Singh, Pranjal Choudhary,
Nitesh Tiwari. Dir. Ashwiny Iyer Tiwari Perf. Swara Bhaskar, Pankaj Tripathi, Ratna Pathak,
Riya Shukla, Sanjay Suri. Eros International. 2016 Film.
5. Secret Superstar. Written By Advait Chandan, Dir. Advait Chandan. Perf. Zaira Wasim,
Aamir Khan, Meher Vij, Raj Arjun. Zee Studios. 2017 Film.
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Raising a New Generation of ‘Feminists’: Gender and Social Norms
in Chimamanda Adichie’s Imitations and The Arrangers of Marriage
Sabri Mohammad
Master’s Degree in English Literature and Criticism
Noor Abu Madi

Master in English Literature and Criticism
Full-time Lecturer, Language Center The Hashemite University, Zarqa-Jordan
noorb@hu.edu.jo
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Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

Courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie
Abstract
This paper focuses on the way females are perceived by the society in our contemporary
world in selected short stories of the Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. Adichie in her
works portrayed the underestimating social norms that misleadingly specify the gender roles for
both males and females in the Nigerian community and the negative consequences the females
have to endure in order to keep the intact image desired by such biased societies. Those gender
regulations and the role of the social transformational goals will be utilized in unfolding gender
problems in the light of Judith Butler’s book Undoing Gender in Adichie’s stories Imitations and
The Arrangers of Marriage. Adichie sheds light on the dehumanizing treatment of females in
such biased societies and the role of the females themselves in challenging those norms by taking
serious steps toward transforming them in a way that serves both genders equally. This study will
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Raising a New Generation of ‘Feminists’: Gender and Social Norms in Chimamanda Adichie’s
Imitations and The Arrangers of Marriage 94
highlight Adichie’s objective in building a positive society by raising a new generation of
feminists either males or females in the light of her nonfictional work We Should All Be
Feminists (2014).
Keywords: Feminism; Gender; Social Norms; Butler; Adichie; Imitations; The Arrangers of
Marriage; Social Transformation.
1. Introduction
Since the beginning of the 20th and the 21st century, there have been a large number of
studies and literary works that depict the status of females in different cultures around the globe.
Most of the work done by females, either literary or philosophical, discusses how women are
being viewed by either the other gender or by the society in general. They mainly concentrate on
their rights, and fight against all dehumanizing ways of treatment that females have undergone
and are still going through in their societies.
The status of females and their lives have been highlighted by many works. In particular,
females who live in colonial and post-colonial areas of the world are the case of study in many
works of literature. Recently, there has been more interest in reflecting and shedding light on the
situation of the African female by African female writers than what has been done in the past.
One of the rising and most iconic female figures in African literature is Chimamanda Ngozi
Adichie. Adichie is a Nigerian female fiction and non-fiction writer a novelist and an essayist
who has written many literary pieces Purple Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006),
Americanah (2013), and a collection of short stories.
In this paper, Adichie’s views on female identity, gender problems and social norms will
be discussed through two short stories: “Imitations” and “The Arrangers of Marriage”. It will
depict the lives of Nigerian females. This paper discusses the cases of these Nigerian females,
and how they suffer due to gender differentiation and social norms. Furthermore, Adichie’s essay
We should all be feminist (2014) where she expressed her views on what it means to be a
feminist in a culture which is governed by problematic gender abuses and discrimination in
Nigeria as this essay will be discussed side by side with her short stories.
In addition, the discussion will mainly focus on Judith Butler’s views on gender and
norms discussed in her book Undoing Gender (2004). This paper will mainly focus on her two
chapters: “Gender Regulations” and “Social Transformation.” It is important to note that
Adichie’s objective is to create a positive society, where females are treated in a better way, not
only in Nigeria, but also in the whole world. By showing the biases of the society’s judgment on
females she attempts at educating them about such injustices.
====================================================================
In our modern world, feminist writings aim at changing the negative images and roles
that society has fashioned for females. Therefore, it is the duty of the feminist writer to change
those views about the females by representing them in their works. In her book, Sexual/Textual
Politics: Feminist Literary Theory, Toril Moi tracks how feminists aim at changing the image of
females as she explains that “women are denied the right to create their own images of
femaleness, and instead must seek to conform to the patriarchal standards on them” (2002, 57).
Therefore, creating a literary work that represents females and their suffering is vital towards
understanding their needs for recognition and respect in this world.
2. Views on Gender: The Common Ground between Butler and Adichie

Judith Butler is an American thinker and gender theorist whose work has a huge
influence on feminism. Some of her works such as Performative acts and Gender Constitution
(1988), Gender Trouble (1990), Undoing Gender (2004), and other works focused on gender
studies. In Gender Trouble (1990), Butler discusses the importance of feminist theory to
represent and reflect on the status of women in society. To Butler, feminist studies which focus
on the representation of women is vital because it shows how women in this world have been
misrepresented. Butler explains that “For feminist theory, the development of a language that
fully or adequately represents women has seemed necessary to foster the political visibility of
women. This has seemed obviously important considering the pervasive cultural condition in
which women’s lives were either misrepresented or not represented at all” (1990, 4). Due to this
reason, many feminists have aimed at constructing a representation of females to ensure that they
are fully recognized and looked at in a neural and natural way. They try to revise all the rules
that govern this relationship which has been historically constructed for the favor of one gender
ruling or using the other, the female. Most of those literary and non-literary works try to build a
bridge to link between sexes and show us what is real and unreal about females. By doing so, the
intense relationship between genders, masculine and feminine, will disappear if they succeed in
substituting it with new male/female relationship that is neutral and acceptable to both.
Therefore, Butler, in Undoing Gender (2004), intensifies the importance of fantasy to build such
rules because “Fantasy is what allows us to imagine ourselves and others otherwise. Fantasy is
what establishes the possible in excess of the real; it points, it points elsewhere, and when it is
embodied, it brings the elsewhere home” (2004, 217).
One of the most important issues discussed by many feminists is the subjugation of
women. Viewing women are subordinate and oppressed has been the norm in many cultures and
communities around the world. Butler highlights this idea as a major defect in gender
relationship. She explains:
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To be called a copy, to be called unreal, is thus one way in which one can
be oppressed.
But consider that it is more fundamental than that. For to be oppressed

means that you already exist as a subject of some kind, you are there as the visible
and oppressed other for the master subject as a possible or potential subject. But
to be unreal is something else again. For to be oppressed one must first become
intelligible. To find that one is fundamentally unintelligible (indeed, that the laws
of culture and of language find one to be an impossibility) is to find that one has
not yet achieved access to the human. It is to find oneself speaking only and
always as if one were human, but with the sense that one is not. It is to find that
one’s language is hollow, and that no recognition is forthcoming because the
norms by which recognition takes place are not in one’s favor. (2004, 218)
Gender as a word, according to Butler, is a kind of a law that is connected to our

understanding to all the rules and regulations that govern the relationship between sexes. Gender
“is an index of the proscribed and prescribed sexual relations by which a subject is socially
regulated and produced.” (2004, 48). Therefore, all of our human actions and behaviors are
governed by the rules and regulations that surround the word ‘gender.’ It is how each and every
culture produces and reproduces it again and again according to its needs and laws. But the
problem does not lie in the act of producing these laws, but for the sake of whom it has been
produced, and on whom these laws and rules are thrown upon. As it has always been and is still
until today, and as expressed by many female writers, they have been negatively affected by
these laws. This is due to the fact that many of these laws are male centered or dominated by
patriarchal figures. As a result, it is the duty of feminist to reconstruct these laws that govern the
word ‘gender.’ To change the views by which we relate to each other as males and females.
Butler’s theory on gender goes well with how Chimamanda Adichie reflects on the status
of the African Female, precisely the Nigerian. It is vital here to start with Adichie’s essay, We
Should All be Feminist (2014), to pinpoint her objective to change how the society views
feminists. Adichie, through her fiction, concentrates on gender behaviors that are dominant in
Nigeria, mainly in her Igbo culture and traditions. She demonstrates how Nigerian females are
treated and oppressed by a male dominant community, either in Nigeria or abroad. She states
that gender as we see it today is a “grave injustice” (2014, 12). Adichie explains that feminism is
viewed as “negative” in African culture because females are thought to be “angry” and hateful to
men by defending their rights. She implies that the problem of gender is deep rooted within the
psyche of the whole society.
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Adichie’s endeavors to change the negative views towards females and feminists in the
Nigerian culture are projected through educating the people about these views in her fiction.
When asked about her courage in writing and her ideas on feminism in an interview with the
New African Magazine, she said “So, for example, when I talk about feminism in a conservative
society like Nigeria, the people’s reaction is like: ‘Oh, you are upsetting people’ or ‘God, she’s
gone too far’… People think that when I say fairly harmless things like, men and women are
equal, or that in a marriage, both people are full partners, somehow that is controversial. I find
this so ridiculous because this is just common sense in my opinion. Men and women are equal.”
(Adichie, 2021) Therefore, discussing gender is a primary choice in her fiction. She reflects on
images, stereotypes, behaviors, expectations, and other problems related to the Nigerian female
in her works. All are directly related to the dilemma of gender. She emphasizes on this issue
because of what she calls “the weight of gender expectations” in her culture, and that the
“problem with gender is that it prescribes how we should be rather than recognizing how we are”
(2014, 17-18). Fighting against all the negative social norms in one’s culture is vital to progress
positively and naturally toward a balanced community that respects both males and females.
Adichie’s mission is best elaborated in Butler’s words: “it is important not only to understand
how the terms of gender are instituted, naturalized, and established as presuppositional but to
trace the moments where the binary system of gender is disputed and challenged, where the
coherence of the categories is put into question, and where the very social life of gender turns out
to be malleable and transformable” (2004, 216).
The question to be asked here is: how does Adichie then define feminism in her quest to
project a balanced view towards females and feminists who are calling for their rights in her
culture; How does she want to transform all these views that surround and affect their life
negatively? Her definition of ‘feminist’ is “a man or a woman who says, ‘Yes, there’s a problem
with gender as it is today and we must fix it, we must do better.’ All of us, women and men, must
do better” (2014, 23). She does this by neutralizing our definition of a feminist character in
which it belongs to all human beings, both sexes.
3. Defying the Negative ‘Social Norms’ in Society

It is notable that Adichie tries to question the social norms that govern the lives of many
females in her society. These norms are somehow inherited and not judged by reason sometimes
because it puts the female in a very weak position, not letting her express herself properly.
Therefore, it is Adichie’s main mission to show these norms in her fiction, and to call for the
rights of what she calls “the female human” (2014, 21). She explains that she is “a human being,
but there are particular things that happen to [her] in the world because [she is] a woman” (2014,
22). Certain social norms sometimes govern the psyche of the society, and it survives time
without questioning the validity of those norms: are they correct or wrong? Do they serve
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purpose of the society in which every individual naturally develops through and by them? In her
essay, Adichie mentions some of the negative norms such as when the culture favors boys over
girls. They teach a girl to “worry” about her being “likeable” and at the same time not “teaching
boys to care about being likeable” (2014, 13). Butler emphasizes on the idea of norms and how it
affects our own definition of gender, and anything connected to it.
Butler discusses the relation between gender and norms in her chapter, “Gender
Regulations.” She states that “a norm operates within social practices as the implicit standard of
normalization (2004, 41). Therefore, certain behaviors, which we may call norms, are
normalized to serve a purpose in our social domain. The problem does not lie in the act of
normalizing, but in the norm or the behavior of the society and whether it really serves
everybody, males, and females or not. The danger is maybe found in the act of not questioning
the norm as it is practiced every day without revising its purposes and objectives; it may only
serve a certain gender or group over the other. As Butler puts it, “Norms may or may not be
explicit, and when they operate as the normalizing principle in social practice, they usually
remain implicit, difficult to read, discernible most clearly and dramatically in the effects that they
produce” (2004, 41). The effects of the norms, if negative, will mainly affect the stability and
continuity of the whole society. When these norms, which come in form of views or practices,
are developed and practiced in the society for a long period of time, they consequently become
the normal thing to do. Butler explains that if these norms become normal to us, they will form a
kind of blurred view towards our definition of gender, either masculine or feminine:
The norm governs intelligibility, allows for certain kinds of practices and action to
become recognizable as such, imposing a grid of legibility on the social and defining
the parameters of what will and will not appear within the domain of the social. The
question of what it is to be outside the norm poses a paradox for thinking, for if the norm
renders the social field intelligible and normalizes that field for us, then being outside the
norm is in some sense being defined still in relation to it (2004, 42)
These norms become the source of oppression on whom they are practiced. In other
words, the ideas which are held by the whole society about females, and how they should be
treated or raised did not yet develop in Adichie’s views. She says that: “a man is as likely as a
woman to be intelligent, innovative, creative. We have evolved. But our ideas of gender have not
evolved very much” (2014, 11). Those ideas, norms or even behaviors related to gender, deny
any evolution towards recognizing the rights of females, or even males, in society.
====================================================================
4. Discussion of Adichie’s Short Stories: “Imitations,” and “The Arranger of Marriage”
The discussion of the short stories will mainly concentrate on the norms represented by
Adichie. These stories depict the lives of two Nigerian women: Nkem, and Chinaza. Adichie
manifests through their routines how their behaviors and psyche have been affected by the
negative norms that control their lives as females. Those Nigerian women live abroad in America
as some of them came to America to get married and others came as immigrants.
In “Imitations,” the story revolves around the relationship between rich men and their
wives who live abroad in America. Nkem is a Nigerian woman who lives in Philadelphia, U.S.A.
She is married to a man who is fond of collecting pieces of art, especially Igbo. The main event
of the story occurs when Nkem discovers that her husband has a girlfriend back in Lagos,
Nigeria. Her husband, Obiora, visits them only two months a year. He spends the remaining ten
months of the year back in Nigeria running a business there. She comes to know about his
relationship from her friend, Ijemamaka. She tells her that “This is what happens when you
marry a rich man” (2009, 19). Her ultimate dream might have been revolving around getting
married to a man, a rich one to be me more precise. But, as Nkem describes her marriage, she got
into “the coveted league, the Rich Nigerian Men Who Sent Their Wives to America to Have
Their Babies league” (2009, 22). She did not realize that her husband has other women in his
life, just because he can. Nkem felt used and disrespected due to her husband’s promiscuity that
reflects his views as a male who can have multiple relationships regardless of his marriage. He
could have a wife abroad in America and a girlfriend back in Nigeria. This norm is apparent in
the discussion between Nkem and another Nigerian woman whom she met at a wedding in
Delaware. She explains the whole situation: “Our men like to keep us here, she had told Nkem.
They visit for business and vacations, they leave us and the children with big houses and cars,
they get us housegirls from Nigeria who we don’t have to pay any outrageous American wages,
and they say business is better in Nigeria” (2009, 23).
Adichie highlights this norm about married females through these stories of women who
suffer from the husband’s extra marital affairs. Adichie illustrates this in her essay “We should
All be Feminist” about how a culture makes females aspire to get married because being single is
disgraceful. Society “teaches a woman at a certain age who is unmarried to see it as a deep
personal failure. While a man at a certain age who is unmarried has not quite come around to
making his pick” (2014, 16). These norms put females in a red boarder line in which they try to
behave according to what society and the norms inform them to do. If a female does not behave
accordingly, she will be treated as an outcast by the whole society. Therefore, Nkem is supposed
to compensate and deal with this problem in a way that only saves her marriage. This is
expressed through the discussion between Nkem and her household girl, Amaeche, about
Obiora’s relationship back in Nigeria. Amaeche tells her ‘“You will forgive him, madam. Men
====================================================================
are like that”’ (2009, 28). However, at the end of the story Nkem insisted on her husband that she
returns to Nigeria and live with him in Lagos as a respected legal wife. By doing so, she has
challenged the social norms of being a voiceless female.
In “The Arrangers of Marriage,” it manifests the social norms of controlling to whom

women should be married and finding the perfect marriage arrangement for a female. Chinaza is
a Nigerian woman who got married to a Nigerian man who lives in America. Her marriage has
been arranged by her uncle and her aunt as she should get married and go live with her husband
because his mother was worried that he might get married to an American woman. So, her
husband, according to her family, was “the perfect husband” for her (2009, 126). After Chinaza
arrives to America, she begins to discover annoying facts about her husband. Every time, she
blames ‘the arrangers of marriage’ about not telling her about the difficulties she might face in
controlled marriage. She keeps saying, “They did not warn you about things like this when they
arranged your marriage” (2009, 125)
One of the most important issues is the education of females. Chinaza mentioned that she
was not given the right to express her opinion because her life was controlled and arranged
according to the wishes of her family and society. She says, “I had thanked them both for
everything—finding me a husband... It was the only way to avoid being called ungrateful. I did
not remind them that I wanted to take the JAMB exam again and try for the university” (2009,
126). Adichie points out here that Society favors marriage for females over education. Females
are not allowed to choose what they want in life. These norms that females must be up to in order
to satisfy the society’s aspiration, damage their lives. As a consequence, they have to deal with
their marriage as the only way to survive this world.
At the end of the story, Chinaza discovers that her husband is married to an American in
order to get his green card without even mentioning this to her before marriage. Also, her
neighbor, Nia, confesses to her that she and her husband were in a relationship before she got
married. Adichie shows us these images of females suffering from their husbands’ relationships.
At the same time, they are supposed to live with it in order to save the marriage. Adichie
explains how society views marriage: “This is a threat – the destruction of a marriage, the
possibility of not having a marriage at all – that in our society is much more likely to be used
against a woman than against a man” (2014, 13). In this context of marriage, the husband
underestimates his wife and treats her as if he owns her just because he is educated and well off
while she isn’t. Furthermore, Adichie shows us these images of women who really want a loving
husband, while their husbands were raised by the norms of the society that facilitated them to
manipulate and own their wives. When Chinaza wanted to leave her husband, she thought about
how her family would make it hard on her. All she wanted was to be respected as wife:
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I shook my head. You left your husband? Aunty Ada would shriek. Are you
mad? Does one throw away a guinea fowl’s egg? Do you know how many
women would offer both eyes for a doctor in America? For any husband at
all? And Uncle Ike would bellow about my ingratitude, my stupidity, his fist
and face tightening, before dropping the phone.
“He should have told you about the marriage, but it wasn’t a real marriage,
Chinaza,” Nia said. “I read a book that says we don’t fall in love, we climb
up to love. Maybe if you gave it time—”
“It’s not about that.”
“I know,” Nia said with a sigh. “Just trying to be fucking positive here.
Was there someone back home?”
“There was once, but he was too young, and he had no money.” (2009, 136-37)
In this context, Adichie wants to shed light on norms such as this: how society raises
males to disrespect females, how they are raised to see marriage as something to be owned, not
shared with respect. As she puts it, “Even the language we use illustrates this. The language of
marriage is often a language of ownership, not a language of partnership. We use the word
respect for something a woman shows a man, but not often for something a man shows a
woman” (2014, 16).
5. Conclusion
It is very important that an individual, either female or male, is to be recognized as a
human with rights in his society and culture. What Adichie wants us to see through these stories
is the dehumanizing treatment of females through negative norms related to gender that were
normalized by society by time. These norms affect the way we live and respect each other. She
wants us to look forward to the future with better manners and behaviors. Males and females
should not be the victims of negative norms, and this is her message to all. She emphasizes that,
“And I would like today to ask that we should begin to dream about and plan for a different
world. A fairer world. A world of happier men and happier women who are truer to themselves.
And this is how to start: we must raise our daughters differently. We must also raise our sons
differently” (2014, 14).
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Works Cited
Adichie, Chimamanda N.2014. We Should All Be Feminists. Fourth Estate-HarperCollins:

London.
---. “Imitations.” 2009. The Thing Around Your Neck. Fourth Estate-HarperCollins: London.
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---. “The Arrangers of Marriage.” 2009. The Thing Around Your Neck. Fourth Estate-
HarperCollins: London.
Faku, N. 2021 -Interview with Adichie -“Chimamanda Adichie: There are many ways for youth
to organize for change.” The New African Magazine. http//newafricanmagazine.com/26666/.
Butler, J. 1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge: New
York.
---.2004. Undoing Gender. Routledge: New York, 2004.
Moi, T. 2002. Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory. Routledge: New York.
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The Analysis of Persuasive Language of Netvertisement:
A Pedagogical Proposal
Graduate School of Human Sciences, Assumption University of Thailand
===========================================================
Abstract
This paper is a part of my PhD research to develop a writing course to support business-
major English language learners’ development of persuasive strategies in the written discourse of
digital advertisement (or netvertisement) on popular e-commerce platforms like Amazon.com.
Despite abundant descriptive studies of linguistic features, pedagogical investigations into the
emerging genre of netvertisement are yet rarely reported. The current study represents a key
preparation for curriculum intervention analyzing the persuasive features of netvertisement in the
pedagogical genre, with an orientation towards the frameworks from genre-based pedagogy
(GBP) of systemic functional linguistics (SFL). Text analysis of 40 pieces of advertisement by
40 sound brands revealed five important discursive moves towards the genre of persuasion and
identified three salient rhetorical strategies of engagement, graduation, and manipulation that
were substantiated by both verbal and image resources. The results suggested pedagogical
adaptations of move-structural model and linguistic models of evaluation in order to be succinct
and acceptable to business students.
Keywords: netvertisement, pedagogical genre, persuasive features

Introduction
Given the possible unpredictable changes in written modes in the future, it is important to
focus on the teaching of interpersonal skills that cope with the trend where the messages become
rather short, brief, denotive, and multimodal. College students who are entering the workplace in
the business industry are expected to use English as a lingua franca and write effectively to
persuade, comfort, and negotiate with the stakeholders. This study is motivated to address this
specific need, that is, to equip students with the writing strategies in the genre of persuasion.
This paper focuses on the writing of online advertisement, or netvertisement, on well-
established e-commerce sites, like Amazon.com and eBay, that provide platforms as a service for
sellers who create virtual stores and for buyers who shop with the search-engine results. Figure 1
shows an example of netvertisement of an electronic tablet from Amazon.com. In this new and
underexplored text type of advertisement, SFL based frameworks should offer insight into the
relationship between certain linguistic resources (form) and their functions (purpose) in the genre
of persuasion. When writing a netvertisement of the latest launch of iPad, the author chooses
certain lexicogrammatical features which are unlikely to be the same with the language the author
uses to introduce the iPad to his/her close friends.
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The Analysis of Persuasive Language of Netvertisement: A Pedagogical Proposal 104
Figure 1. An Example of Netvertisement of an Electronic Tablet From Amazon.com
Admittedly, this study does not explore further into other resourceful tools of persuasion
like feminism and interraciality (Hooks, 2016). Recent years witness colored female people being
increasingly featured television commercials, and advertisers’ interest in “diversity” should
improve persuasion by indicating their concern over and attention to their non-Caucasian
customers (Gordon, 2019). Few studies have explored whether similar emphasis on racial diversity
is identified on online advertising. Still, the persuasive forces added by diversity or sexuality is
beyond the scope of the study, as the current paper primarily aims to offer explicit descriptions of
lexico-grammatical features for pedagogical purposes for beginner writers.
While there are a couple of studies, though limited in number, revealing the features of
netvertisement (see e.g., Fortanet, et al., 1999; Labradora et al., 2014), most of them are merely
descriptive and do not relate their findings to pedagogical theories. This paper addresses the gap
of pedagogical practices and lays the foundation of my PhD study on developing a writing course
of persuasive strategies to Chinese college students who are new to the discourse of netvertisement.
According to Keck and Kim (2014), pedagogical grammar concerns “how grammar can most
effectively be taught and learned in the second language classroom” (p.1). This study explores the
potential of pedagogical grammar of persuasion by drawing upon SFL analytical frameworks of
evaluation (grammar description) and SFL genre-based pedagogy (L2 grammar instruction). The
research questions are: What are the common features of persuasive language found in the
pedagogical genre of netvertisement? How do the findings imply for the teaching of persuasive
netvertisement?
Literature Review
====================================================================
Yi He, M. A., PhD Student
To develop an organized linguistic analysis, this paper offers a local definition and
theoretical construction of persuasion. For this study only, persuasion refers to the effect or
the consequence of an efficient discourse where effective rhetorical strategies contribute to
persuasion but do not guarantee the fulfilment of the expected perlocutionary effect (i.e.,
purchase). Persuasion is multimodal since not only the words persuade, but all modes of
communication that accompany verbal messages contribute to persuasive effects.
Persuasion and engagement are intrinsically related. To win the favour and motivate
the readers’ final decision, businesses need to anticipate their audience’s expectations, which are
primarily derived from specific cultural and institutional values and beliefs, to be able to reach
them. In the promotional process through new e-genres, engagement is the necessary tool that
involves readers as discourse participants who are informed of the competition among substantial
business choices and aware of their increasing control over “every part of the business system”
(Jiménez, 2019, p. 344).
This study takes the concept of engagement based on two influential theoretical
frameworks of evaluation from the Model of Interaction by Hyland (2005) and the Appraisal
System by Martin and White (2005). The two approaches to engagement are oriented towards
different purposes for analysis. With a genre-based perspective, Hyland’s (2005) discussion of
engagement is somewhat binary with a distinction from stance which is related to the attitudinal
aspect of textual voices, or more specifically, the writer’s ethos for authority and credibility in
the academic discourse. Engagement from the Appraisal System (Martin & White, 2005; Martin
& Rose, 2007) takes a semantic approach to the analysis of texts, arguing that the same forms are
interpreted into different functions according to the likely emphasis indicated by the context. The
same adverbial “sure” in the Sentence 1 and 2 functions as Mood adjunct of intensity and an
elaborating concessive.
1) The inability on the part of instructors to establish and maintain a personal connection with
their students is a sure fire formula for disaster. [from 2019ACA of COCA]
2) Sure you want be physically fit and healthy, but finding time for a thoroughly effective
cardiovascular workout is just plain difficult with your schedule. [from Stamina InMotion
E1000 Compact Strider on Amazon.com]
Besides engagement, persuasion is related to the concept of graduation. In the
Appraisal System by Martin and White (2005), graduation carries interpersonal persuasive
weight as it overlaps with the intensity of attitudinal meanings and plays a dialogistic role in
scaling the degree of authorial voice in the value positions in association with the values of
prototypicality shared across the community and degree of aligning readers into the value
position being advanced.
Attitudinal and engagement assessments can be graded in terms of “force” or

“focus”. Under “force”, intensification applies to qualities and processes through three modes of
realization—isolation, infusion and repetition, while quantification deals with imprecise
====================================================================
measuring of number and presence of entities and imprecise reckonings of extent in proximity
and distribution. The interaction of force and attitude produces associated effects in alignment
and solidarity. Graduation that operates on prototypicality is termed “focus” which references the
degree to which the grading matches the exemplary instance within a category. This means
graduation markers of “focus” are not scalable but able to sharpen or soften the specification of
an exemplary feature.
Another related concept to persuasion is manipulation. The discourse of

netvertisement is not manipulative in terms of either the truth-value of the product information or
the reader’s unquestionable power to decide. Manipulative resources for this study refer to the
manipulative potential of information packaging. It is useful to import the concept Theme from
Hallidayan functional grammar. Theme System bears a close semantic relationship with the
system of Information and interacts with the system of Mood in terms of its marked and
unmarked themes.
According to Quirk et al. (1985), there is a habitual association between given

information and thematic position (i.e., clause-initial) and between new information and rhematic
position (i.e., not clause-initial). The structuring of given and new information could be
manipulated by skilled rhetoricians like Chomsky whose argument is found difficult to challenge
but wise to accept (Hoey, 1999). The following sentence serves a good example of manipulative
evaluation in a thematic position.
3) The rather obvious comments apply directly to study of language, child, or adult. (Hoey,
1999, p. 33)
In contrast to the rhematic complementary position, the evaluation “rather obvious”

embedded in the premodification of a noun makes it more readily acceptable by the readers as
given information or common ground, which exempts the writer from the need to build any stage
for justification for the evaluation.
It should be noted that the above discussion on persuasion in association with

engagement, graduation and manipulation seeks to take into account the multimodal nature of
netvertisement which consists of textual writings (usually on the right side) and promotional
images (usually on the left side). On the one hand, Martin and White’s (2005) Appraisal
System—despite their primary focus on texts—are applicable to the analysis of a multimodal
discourse (see e.g., Breeze, 2019; Tan, 2010). A good example of engagement in advertisement
pictures is a smiling face that shows discursive alignment with the readers who long for the
pleasing experience with the product. The image of a happy model reinforces positive
evaluations by resonating the verbal messages or exploiting metaphor scenarios relating to the
product and the life with the product. On the other hand, manipulation can be seen in visual
====================================================================
patterns at the level of image where elements receive salience by the size, colour, strength of
vectors, and their placements in relevance to the other elements (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2020;
Martin & Rose, 2007; Jewitt, 2009).
Multimodal Discourse Analysis introduces two types of textual organizations for

images (compositional), polarized and centred (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2020), into Theme
analysis for image design of advertisement. According to the polarized and centred principles of
organization, the right side is glossed as New and the top side as abstract and general, and
meanwhile the centred position carries the nucleus of information in comparison with marginal
elements.
This study takes a functional grammatical perspective of persuasion which contrasts

radically from the prescriptive attitude toward grammar. Opposite to the tenet of grammar as
static rules, this study views grammar as a skill and thus its mastery is based on opportunities to
use and practice in communicative activities. Australia has led a pioneering role in trialing and
developing a functional approach to language teaching since 1980s through the introduction of
genre-based pedagogy (GBP) (see e.g., Martin, 1985; Christie & Martin, 1997; Christie, 2005)
which has its theoretical roots in Hallidayan SFL. From the perspective of SFL, text types like
netvertisement are realized as genres which are described as “social practices—dynamic,
evolving ways of doing things through language” (Derewianka, 2012, p.130). In the promotional
genre, Bhatia (1993, 2004) summarizes the strategic moves in achieving the communicative
purpose and raises a universal model of move structures (see Table 1). Given the underutilized
genre-based approach in the Chinese context of English learners, Yang (2016) advocates for
localizing the advantages of GBP into the teaching practices of college students’ English writing.
Table 1. Bhatia’s (2004) Move-Structural Model of Promotional Genre

Number Discursive move
Move 1 Headlines and images (for readers’ attention)
Move 2 Targeting the market
Move 3 Justifying the product or service by indicating the importance or need of the
product or service
Move 4 Detailing the product or service
Move 5 Establishing credentials
Move 6 Celebrity or typical user endorsement
Move 7 Offering incentives
Move 8 Using pressure tactics
Move 9 Soliciting responses
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The SFL-based genre approach to teaching apprentice language learners into a
particular genre by developing a set of genre-specific lexicogrammatical and semiotic resources.
In other words, genre-based pedagogy emphasizes on learner’s acquisition of the knowledge and
skill of linguistic resources (e.g., organization of text structure, vocabulary) in association with
communicative tools in the socially and culturally valued genres (Martin & Rose, 2008). Table 2
outlines five features of SFL-GBP, though some educational theorists (see e.g., Hyland, 2007;
Foley, 2012) may suggest a wider ranged list.
Table 2. Features of genre-based pedagogy within SFL

No. Feature and Gloss
1 Holistic: To see linguistic features as the whole being influenced by the overall
meaning of a text
2 Scaffolding: To facilitate learning through guidance and interaction through shared
experience
3 Empowering: To provide students the specific resources to participate in the valued
discourse (e.g., genre of persuasion)
4 Explicit and critical: To make visible the way linguistic features contribute to the
overall meanings during which process students shall be able to read and produce
texts critically
5 Bridge over process and product approaches: To recognize the need of students to
be given knowledge about language, social purpose of language and opportunities
of using linguistic skills such as content planning
Methodology
Context of Study
The main objective of the study was to develop the pedagogical grammar of persuasive
netvertisement by delving into the rhetorical strategies by professional writers. This study was
part of my PhD project which in general aims at developing a classroom intervention that would
help business students to use rhetorical strategies of persuasion in their production of
advertisement. The student participants to be involved in the writing courses, building on the
pedagogical grammar this paper proposes, came from 2 separate classes at their final year in a
joint degree program called TAFE. Students showed high passing rates (>75%) in College
English Test Band 4 and were able to communicate fluently with teachers from the Australian
party, as they had acquired basic business speaking and writing skills from the Australian
business courses, especially in genres like marketing plans, strategy proposals and case study
analysis.
Text Analysis
The 40 texts for analysis were drawn from popular international e-commerce
websites including Amazon.com, ebay, and DHgate.com and belonged to three broad product
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categories—electronic devices and household appliances (e.g., mobile phones), gifts for
entertainment, and cosmetics (e.g. face cleanser). These promotional topics were supposed to
reveal the distinction between two strategic gambits, that is reason versus tickle advertising. This
distinction was useful for raising learner’s interest in the power of language and awareness of the
exclusive linguistic choices that differentiated products for pure entertainment from smartphone
advertisement, though advertisement on e-commerce platform tended to include both techniques
of reason and tickle appeals (Labradora et al., 2014).
Table 3. A List of Netvertisement for Detailed Analysis

Type of product/service Number of Netvertisement
Smart devices and household appliances 10
Gifts for entertainment 10
Skin care 10
Others (pillow, drain protector, pamper, tape for paste) 10
The mini-corpus of 40 pieces of netvertisement, selected from 40 brands with their star
ratings more than 4 out of 5, was developed against three criteria for a pedagogical purpose: (a)
the sample net-ad included linguistic/image features of three persuasive strategy—graduation,
engagement, and manipulation of information packaging, (b) most vocabulary and clausal
structures in the writing could be understood by my students, and (c) the sample net-ad that
offered a simple list of product parameters and features should be removed. The selection
prioritized banner advertisements with high frequency of ratings through the search engine for
time efficiency.
The analysis of netvertisement was two folded. The macro-level analysis observed
the fulfilment of generic moves based on Bhatia’s (2004) move-structural model for promotional
genre. The micro-level analysis drew on the systems of Engagement, Graduation and Theme
within the school of SFL that focused on ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings. For the
analysis of image-text relations in particular, Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA) was useful
as it offered established theories and frameworks (e.g., Kress & van Leeuwen, 2020; Jewitt,
2009) for interpreting the meaning and power of semiotics in multimodal genres such as online
advertisements on the companies’ websites (Harrison, 2008). Here, two types of textual
organizations for images (compositional), polarized and centred principles (Kress & van
Leeuwen, 2020), were introduced to Theme analysis for image design of advertisement.
Genre Analysis of Sample Netvertisement

The primary purpose of text analysis is to identify any language resources that are
salient and important in the genre of persuasion and meanwhile attainable to language learners.
Generic Structure
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The genre analysis based on Bhatia’s move-structural model of promotional genre
identifies three essential moves across 30 pieces of netvertisement. Move 1 “Headlines and
images” is obligatory as the headlines are always located at the top of written texts and images
(and sometimes videos) at the left-hand side of the texts. Another two obligatory moves are
Move 3 “Justifying the product or service by indicating the importance or need of the product or
service” and Move 4 “Detailing the product or service”, though the two moves show much
overlap with each other in the writings. In the following paragraph drawn from the advertisement
for 300 LED lights, Move 3 and 4 are welded together for the positive evaluation and description
of the product.
4) Easy to use: directly plug in and unplug it for power on and off. US standard outlet, voltage
110V. Plug to the controller: 1ft. Controller to the LED light: 8.9ft [from Twinkle Star 300
LED String Light on Amazon.com]
The subtitle “easy to use” at the beginning justifies the value of the product and
introduces the details and features that support the compatibility of the plug. In this case, Move 3
is considered a repetition of Move 4 where evaluation seems inevitable in the process of
description.
In comparison to Move 1, 3, and 4, the remaining six generic moves show varied
frequency in each piece of advertisement. Table 4 summarizes the number of netvertisement that
includes each optional move.
Table 4. Distribution of Optional Moves

Type Smart devices Gifts for Skin Others Sum
and appliances entertainment care
Move 2 (χ²=21.176, 0 (include Move 6 0 0 6
p=0) 5)
Move 5 (χ²= 14.167, 2 3 9 2 14
p=0.003
Move 6 (χ²=3.077, 0 1 0 0 1
p=0.380)
Move 7 (χ²=13.750, 6 1 0 1 7
p=0.003)
Move 9 (χ²=3.077, 0 1 0 0 1
p=0.380)
The Pearson Chi-square test is run on the 40 sets of data to determine the significant
influence of topic choices on each move type. The moves that show p value < 0.01 include Move
2, 5 and 7. In combination with the higher frequencies of Move 2, 5, and 7 than Move 2 and 9,
====================================================================
the statistical analysis implies for the varied emphasis on introducing the three moves across
different netvertisement topics.
More specifically, Move 2 Targeting the market is a salient move-structural strategy

by netvertisement of gifts and games. Structures that target the potential market like “a great
game for families and kids 6 and up” and “created for adults but appropriate for ages 12+” would
be better introduced within the topic of entertainment. Move 5 Establishing credentials is an
important move for skin care products (e.g., “skincare routine From Aveeno, a dermatologist
recommended brand for over 65 years”) that are keen on pronouncing the safety and maturity of
the beauty solution. While Move 2 and 5 take a flexible position in the 40 samples, Move 7
Offering incentives tends to occur as the consistent final move and to involve preferential
policies such as “2 years warranty” and “money back”.
Features of Persuasive Language

Analysis into the persuasive features of language (and images) is organized along
the use of rhetorical strategies of engagement, graduation, and manipulation. Since all the sample
texts are selected to include all the three strategies, the focus of qualitative analysis is on the
generic achievement of semiotic resources rather than the frequency of a particular structure.
Linguistic resources under Hyland’s (2005) Engagement system are grouped into
five grammatical devices while Martin and White (2005) outline the linguistic resources as four
major dialogic moves which are classified as expansion or contraction. The issues of interaction
or dialogicity in the 40 samples are special in terms of the limited variety of engagement
resources. Figure 2 includes two extracts from Today’s Deals on Amazon.com.
Sample 1 YANIBEST Silk Pillowcase for Skin and Hair - 21 Momme 600
Thread Count 100% Mulberry Silk Bed Pillowcase with Hidden
Zipper, 1 Pack Standard Size Pillowcase
▪ Gorgeous silk pillowcase will help you have true beauty sleep;
Yanibest luxuriously soft and stylish silk pillowcases are made
from 21 momme pure charmeuse silk specifically chosen for its
weight and feel; Pretty and classic colors are available for
difference choice; Sleeping on silk does much more than making
you feel like a Hollywood A-lister, it has many health and beauty
benefits, and is recommended by leading professionals.
▪ Silk Pillowcase for Skin benefits: Do you wake up in the morning
with sleep creases on your face? Silk contains 18 amino acids
which nourish your skin while you sleep; Silk doesn’t absorb
moisture from your face and body, preventing your skin from
drying out; When you wake up after sleeping on a silk pillowcase,
====================================================================
your face will be better hydrated and also beneficial to those with
dry flaky skin
Sample 2 TubShroom the Revolutionary Tub Drain Protector Hair Catcher,

Strainer, Snare, Green
▪ A Revolution in Drain Protection: Unlike regular plugs that go
over the drain, TubShroom fits inside, neatly collecting hair
around it. When it's time to cleanup, simply wipe TubShroom off
and GO! No harsh chemicals, no more tangled messes.
▪ No More Clogged Drains: Our bathtub drain strainer fits any
standard tub drain and is to catch every hair, every time.
TubShroom is designed to effortlessly catch any type of human or
pet hair without disrupting the flow of water.
▪ Save Money and the Environment: A single plumber visit can cost
hundreds. Drain snakes and liquid drain cleaners are a hassle to
use and aren’t always effective—not to mention the toll they take
on the environment and on your pipes.
▪ Money-back: We’re so sure that you’ll love your new clog-free
life with TubShroom, that we’re giving you 60 days to return it if
you’re not completely satisfied. Over 12, 000+ raving customer
reviews can’t be wrong.
Figure 2. Two Samples of Banner Netvertisement for Analysis
Obviously, these two writings rarely display any dialogic expansion, or more
specifically, they do not temper the propositions or leave their claims open to doubt. The texts
seem to be bare assertions without overtly referencing or acknowledging alternative voices.
Although the monoglossic and contractive moves dominate, it does not mean that dialogicity or
construed communication plays a minor role in the genre. In fact, many of the utterances are
found contractive, that is, they are strong assertions with contracted dialogic space by the means
of denying the alternatives (as in “No More Clogged Drains”), countering the propositions to the
readers’ expectations (as in “simply wipe TubShroom off and GO!”), pronouncing with explicit
authorial interventions (as in “We’re so sure that you’ll love your new clog-free life with
TubShroom”) and endorsing the message by association with authoritative sources (as in “[...] is
recommended by leading professionals”). On the other hand, a noticeable number of questions
and reader pronouns are found in the texts (e.g., “Do you wake up in the morning with sleep
creases on your face?”) where they are used to directly address the reader and welcome potential
voices in an ostensible way.
====================================================================
Engagement is realized as and manifested through visual codes at the level of image.
Human face (e.g., expressions and directions of facing) represents paralinguistic signals that
accompany writer-reader alignment or misalignment (Martin & Rose, 2007; Breeze, 2019).
Except for phone netvertisement, the other samples include at least one promotional image of a
happy model or models facing directly towards readers. In sample 1, the proposition of “Silk …
creating a nourishing sleeping surface for all hair types” alone may not sound persuasive.
The accompanying picture in sample 1 grasps the abstract idea “nourishing sleeping
surface” to reassure the reader that the Silk Pillowcase brings a healthy and sound sleep as
indicated by the relaxed posture and enjoying expressions of the girl in the picture. The image
reinforces the positive judgement of the pillowcase, generating the impression that this is the
right choice to make if one cares about his/her hair.
The second aspect for analysis is Graduation which is also part of the Appraisal
System by Martin and White (2005). In the extract below, “completely” (isolated intensifier) is
the grammatical item at the uppermost end of the intensity spectrum, and the upscaling of
“satisfied” following the Deny movement “not” indicates that the value position of the
expectancy of full customer satisfaction is not shared across community. Rather, high customer
satisfaction is taken seriously by “we” only with the 60 days’ refund policy.
5) [...] and we’re giving you 60 days to return it if you’re not completely satisfied. Over
12,000+ raving customer reviews can’t be wrong. [from Sample 2 of Figure 2]
The reckoning of the huge size of positive customer reviews is realized through the
number of “12,000” which is manifested by the assembling of synonyms “over” and “+”
(repetition). The infused lexis of verbal process “raving” describes the customer reviews and
calls the reader to align with the writer more strongly than he/she may otherwise not choose to
believe.
6) Perfect for those who have wavy hair, silk helps prevent the frizz factor …Gorgeous silk
pillowcase will help you have true beauty sleep; …Sleeping on silk does much more than
making you feel like a Hollywood A-lister, it has many health and beauty benefits, and is
recommended by leading professionals. [from Sample 1 of Figure 4]
Infused intensification like “gorgeous” and “perfect” with no separate lexical item
functioning up-scaler or down-scaler are strongly attitudinal and they register positive judgement
and feelings toward the product. Interestingly, the use of metaphor scenario “like a Hollywood
A-lister”, though not frequent, is also identifiable in the description of electronic devices as in
“…you’ll always feel like you’re listening from the front row”. In this case, the writer intends to
provide a shared position to the reader who is likely to find it attractive and to have the
====================================================================
strengthened feelings about the product or service advertised. In general, linguistic structures of
graduation vary from intensifier (e.g., completely, 100%), infused lexis (e.g., perfect, raving),
repetition (e.g., sleepiness and comfort, over 12,000+), and metaphor (e.g., feel like a Hollywood
A-lister).
Graduation as a rhetorical strategy is evident in the connection between images and

verbal texts. On the one hand, it is useful to view the inclusion of a photo and feature
introduction as a repetition of the verbal message (in the writings on the right-hand side) that is
realized and reinforced at the level of image. In the advertisement for digital devices, important
features like “binge-worthy battery” and “Dolby Atmos surround sound” in the writings are often
selected and re-illustrated in separate images as in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Promotional Images of a Smartphone
On the other hand, the second image use metaphor to highlight the benefits of
surround sound. The photo of a tablet is located at the centre of the space which is deliberately
presented as a cinema by elements of stereo speakers, popcorn, and a loosely wound roll of film.
The offering of a metaphorical scenario of cinema reinforces the verbal message of the enhanced
speaker system.
The third aspect for analysis is manipulation from the SFL framework of Theme
System. Since the resources signaling textual and interpersonal themes are rarely found in the
discourse of netvertisement, the focus of Theme analysis is on the markedness of themes in
declaratives. Firstly, subtitles are frequently used at the beginning of each paragraph (theme of
paragraph) and are often realized in the structures of nominal group or verbal group throughout
the writings. Nevertisement of digital devices stands out of other products in its consistent and
somehow “obligatory” use of subtitles that summarize key features. Secondly, at the level of
sentence, theme analysis indicates the high frequency of uncomplete structures which may omit
Subject, Subjective and Predicate or be a simple list of words as is in the extract below.
====================================================================
7) Natural and Organic Ingredients. Vegan. Cruelty-free. Eve Hansen products Made in USA.
No Sulfates. No Parabens. No Phthalates [from Eve Hansen Vitamin C Face Wash on
Amazon.com].
Listing is typical and understandable in the description of features, functions, and

ingredients where the writers present ideas in a concisely in response to readers’ professional
demand for a quick identification of specific features. In the remaining compete structures,
unmarked themes are frequently realized through nominal groups with embedded positive
evaluations such as “this fun family card game” and “stunning brightness and clarity”. The depth
of embedding personal evaluation and attitude grants little room for rebuttal given the
association between theme position and given information. Marked themes, less frequently than
unmarked themes, are typically found in such prepositional group as “with high-speed network
connections” that highlight product features in the netvertisement for digital devices.
Theme analysis is extended to the design of images in netvertisement based on

Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2020) polarized and centred principles of text-image organization. All
30 netvertisement offers photos of the product/service being positioned at the centre of space and
represents the nucleus of information while the verbal texts are optional.
The advertisement image of mulberry silk pillowcase emphasizes the texture of the
product by centralizing fabric creases while marginalizing textual information. Salience of
mulberry silk is further indicated by the contrast of sizes and colours (brightness) between the
photo of silk and font of letters. In the advertisement for Samsung smart tablet, however, the
textual information is not marginalized but placed at the top and bottom of image, which delivers
idealized gist of information via an evaluation “binge-worthy battery” and then comes to more
detailed information of the parameters via the numerals “7,040 mAh” and “15W” in the lower
composition. The tablet screen and “7,040 mAh” catch the reader’s attention by its enlarged size
and colour brightness.
Discussion
The generic analysis of netvertisement described above allows for the development
of a pedagogical approach that moves students progressively from genre awareness toward
independent use of persuasive resources. Bhatia’s (1993; 2004) move structural model should
serve a good beginning and opportunity for students to understand the impact of communicative
purposes on the structure of discourse. Adaptation is necessary so as to make the sophisticated
linguistic framework succinct and acceptable to students of business major in a vocational
college. Text analysis of 40 netvertisement indicates the great overlap between Move 3 and 4 and
varied importance of each move. The change should include the clipping of similar moves in
case of any students’ confusion, the elimination of redundant moves such as targeting the market
====================================================================
move, and the grouping of moves that shared a common purpose. Table 5 outlines the move
structures after adaptation for pedagogical purposes.
Table 5. Adaptation of Bhatia’s Move Structural Model

Number Discursive move Notes
Move 1 Headlines and Images Obligatory/beginning move
Move 2 Detailing the Product or Service Obligatory
- By describing
- By indicating the value
Move 3 Establishing Credentials Optional
Move 4 Endorsement or Acknowledgement Optional
Move 5 Encouragement to Buy Optional/final move
- By offering incentives
- By using pressure tactics
- By soliciting responses
It is useful to differentiate the discursive moves between advertisement of digital

devices and skin care. While the technology businesses tend to end up with the new Move 5
Encouragement to Buy through “2-year warranty” and “100% money back”, cosmetics
advertisers are motivated to establish credentials (the new Move 3) by pronouncing brand names
(e.g., “Eve Hansen products made in USA”, “Aveeno, a dermatologist recommended brand for
over 65 years”).
The analysis of engagement, graduation, and manipulation strategies offers a list of

semiotic resources to be included into the pedagogical grammar. Firstly, netvertisement are
characteristic of straightforward assertions without tempering the propositions or leaving their
claims open to discussions (c.f. expanding move by Martin and White). The way the writer
engages the audience is rather direct through personal address “you”, imperatives, and questions
(c.f. reader pronoun, directive/question). The current study modifies Hyland's (2005) and Martin
and White’s (2005) engagement system for a pedagogical adaption by removing the elaborated
distinction within “Disclaim”, “Proclaim”, “Entertain”, and “Attribute” and integrating
ostensible strategies of engagement into the same category. Table 6 serves a user-template for
semantic analysis when students are offered opportunities to deconstruct texts critically
according to SFL-GBP.
Table 6. Pedagogical Adaption of Martin and White’s Engagement System

Category Room for Gloss Example
dialogically
alternative voices
====================================================================
Minimal 0 Not overtly Cyclonic action helps to
engagement recognizing other keep the filter clean and
voices power strong.
Medium 50%- Rejecting the No, not, xx-free, but
engagement alternative voices
(restricting Enhancing or Of course, xx proves…, be
alternative proclaiming the shown to, !
voices) proposition
High 50%+ Acknowledging the may, maybe, can
engagement proposition as one of
(encouraging the possibilities
alternative Attributing the recommended by xx, xx
voices) proposition to comments …
others/distancing
Highlighting a Explore our variety of fun
proposition by and helpful products, our
first/second pronoun+ customer service team will
highlighting verbs help you RETURN OR
(including directives) REFUND
Posing questions Do you wake up with crazy
bed hair?
Secondly, the text analysis of graduation resources indicates the variety of

approaches to strengthen and emphasize evaluations and attitudinal meanings. The four common
ways to graduate are isolated intensification, infusion, repetition, and metaphor. Though college
students are likely to be aware of the scaling effect of intensifiers like “very”, their linguistic
knowledge of graduation strategies can be further expanded to include repetition (e.g., “soft,
beautiful and healthy-looking”) and be extended to promotional images. Repetition and metaphor
are important approaches to possibly draw the reader’s attention and mark reliability and
commitment to propositions.
Thirdly, manipulative strategies of information can take greater time and effort than
the other two strategies, as the concepts of Theme and Rheme are new to non-linguistics students
in the local context. The teaching and learning should start from the introduction to SFL Theme
System before moving to the deconstruction of rhetorical strategies in texts. Text analysis
highlights three important structures that utilize the default association between Theme position
and Given information, that is, to provide a title for each paragraph, to embed evaluation in
nominal group in Subject, and to make messages salient through text-image organization (e.g.,
brightness, size, centred or right-hand position). A differentiated emphasis on the first two
structures should be noted between netvertisement of digital devices and the other products so as
====================================================================
to highlight the characteristics of reason appeals. More specifically, the “hard technology”
netvertisement tends to suggest motives for purchase and organize the writings in the way that
spotlight the advanced technological progress through consistent use of subtitles. Thematization
of prepositional group like “with high-speed network connections” (adjunct) can further mark the
importance of product features and functions.
Implications
The analysis of persuasive netvertisement as set out in the previous section implies
for an explicit, language-focused, and scaffolded approach that is accessible to non-linguistics
students who are new to the genre of persuasion. Table 7 proposes the syllabus of teaching
persuasive netvertisement following the sequence of graduation, engagement, and manipulation
of information packaging, along with the increasing complexity and difficulty of each rhetorical
strategy.
Table 7. Proposal of Syllabus of Persuasive Netvertisement

Number Title Elements
Lesson 1 Background Knowledge of the Functional grammar, move structure,
Purpose of Netvertisement and language meaning-making resources
Generic Moves
Lesson 2 Graduation Strategy Four ways to graduate: isolated
intensifier, infused lexis, repetition, and
metaphor
Lesson 3 Engagement Strategy Reader pronouns, directives, questions,
shared knowledge
Minimal engagement/ Medium
engagement/High engagement
Lesson 4 Manipulating Information Theme and information packaging
Packaging Organizational patterns in text/image
Lesson 5 Review and Assessment Independent Writing
The attempted syllabus informs the scope of possibilities for the future development
of intervention programs to include teaching materials, plans, and rubrics. This study is
pedagogically meaningful as little research has analysed the persuasive features of
netvertisement with an SFL-GBP orientation.
The analysis can be criticized for the over-emphasis on verbal messages than image
designs. In fact, this study overlooks the promotional audios that are attached alongside images
and able to zoom out to automatic play. A more comprehensive analysis should address new
literacy on such multimodal genres as netvertisement which is innovative and versatile in
====================================================================
delivering textual, image and audio messages. Admittedly, in the current research context,
students may feel over-burdened if they are required to learn and use language of persuasion and
meanwhile software for editing videos. Still, it is interesting to see how multimodal literacy can
be incorporated into a SLF-GBP approach to netvertisement that gradually apprentice students
towards independent construction using strong semiotic resources of different modes.
====================================================================
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Yang, Y. (2016). Teaching Chinese college ESL writing: A genre-based approach. English
Language Teaching 9(9), 36‒44. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1107877.pdf
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Yi He, M.A., PhD Student, Teaching Assistant in Ningbo City College
Graduate School of Human Sciences, Assumption University of Thailand
592/3 Soi Ramkhamhaeng 24, Ramkhamhaeng Rd.
Hua Mak, Bang Kapi, Bangkok 10240
yi.he.14@alumni.ucl.ac.uk +86 18305841657
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Memes: Creative Technological Strategy for ESL Learners
Head of English Department St. Xavier’s School Delhi
B-377, Lok Vihar, Pitam Pura, Delhi -110034
reenagarg5oct@gmail.com
===================================================================
Abstract
Knowledge of English has become a sine-qua non for understanding the progressive
ideas of the west apart from the increasing consternation of enjoying high status in the
communities. Hence responding to the teaching of English language as an effective
communicative skill becomes indispensable. With the introduction of ICT, teaching of English
no longer remains a romantic illusion. The spreading hands of technology, the invasion of
innumerable gadgets and plethora of platforms has become a unifying force, which can help
tackle communication challenges.
Though English cements its position as the world’s lingua franca, English language
teaching has evolved with time, alongside advances in technology. Language Learning
Technologies has brought about a paradigm shift in the art of teaching and learning. They have
acted as catalyst in stimulating pupils to not just oil the wheels of communication in the world
of business, trade, education, and tourism but also to emerge as confident orators & better
communicators. The amalgamation of technology in classroom teaching has enhanced
collaborative learning, lowered learning anxiety levels, improved academic abilities by
engaging students constructively and thus help create self-motivated independent learners.
Objective
The paper is a humble attempt to homogenize language learning with internet meme
videos into our classrooms. It inspires application of an exciting pedagogy based on creative
and innovative practices. This article does not intend to debar the utility of textbooks in
classrooms, instead it defines the inclusion of technical gadgets as aids to books to invigorate
language teaching and thus make it more creative rather than cumbersome, more relaxed rather
than rigorous and friendlier rather than intimidating. Over the years language teachers have
witnessed significant progression from ‘talk and chalk’ to BALL to CALL and now to MALL
Their roles have been redefined & are now expected to be facilitator, a trainer, a counsellor, a
manager and a supervisor. As is rightly said by Widdowson, “The real English teaching can be
realized not in the segregation of different units of grammar and composition but in its
integration”. Language teaching efforts by the teacher can churn dramatic outcomes when
integrated with technology. Teacher being the fountain head of knowledge, optimism, and
innovation, can overcome technical glitches and command technology with careful planning
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Memes: Creative Technological Strategy for ESL Learners 122
Significance of Memes
We stand at a juncture where new-age students are taught in a manner that is foreign to
them. Our Digital Immigrant instructors, speak an outdated language (that of the pre-digital
age), are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new language' (Prensky, 2001)
and the digital natives finds it hard to sit in the classroom for lectures. Since technology has
become an integral part of life which affects all the powers of grasping information through a
plane text, students find it cumbersome to listen, take notes or understand the theoretical
concepts during the lecture, more so the search engines and the internet has given much-needed
impetus to student autonomy in the learning process by enabling the learners to find the latest
and relevant information available globally which has made it harder to forge teacher-student
relationships.
To address the transitional dynamics of the twenty-first century & the issue of the
generation gap in teaching students through the integration of creative digital devices, flipped
classroom is the new normal, it departs from the traditional teacher-centric instructional
methods and provides learners with direct access to video lectures, slides, and other teaching
resources on online educational platforms. Web-based ecologies facilitate student participation
through interactive, innovative, and collaborative learning models.
To grasp the attention of the students it has become imperative to incorporate digital
communication in the language classroom in an enterprising and novel way. Multihued
pictures, video employed during classroom teaching has not only become a potent tool to
actively engage them and but also enables them to relate to the language taught in context.
Systematic adoption of internet memes and comic strips has helped in lending novelty, depth
& humour and thereby reducing anxiety during language learning. It has not only brought
about a paradigm shift from blackboard to the whiteboard, memory drives, web pages, and
blogs but has also stimulated cognitive and sensory domains with the introduction of humorous,
visual animations. Additions of subject-specific memes & PowerPoint presentations with
humorous insertions are actively employed by international organizations, like The British
Council, IELTS and Cambridge ESL in their TESL classrooms to assist in the simple
understanding of the subject taught.
Student’s learning can be tailor customized by improvising instruction methods of the

teacher by introducing memes. Baysac believed that the learners’ attention should be directed
towards what is in front of them, that is, the teacher or the board. Constant attention creates
involvement and a readiness to respond. This readiness can be created by using humorous
memes. In the classrooms, instructors exploit interesting memes as part of the presentation to
explain complex concepts more simply. Internet memes never solves the problem of complex
concepts, but it simplifies the complex procedure of any topic taught by the teacher.
What are Memes?
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Social networking sites gained popularity amongst the digital natives not only for
entertainment but also for communication One of the marked developments in the
communication space has been the extensive popularity of genealogy, the evolution of internet
memes. It consists of a combination of funny images and texts that allude to specific situations,
cultural references, or interest groups, through quick commentary, mood expression, or plain
mockery. The internet meme was first introduced by Richard Dawkins in his studies related to
genetics and memetic as a cultural unit. Wikipedia states that 'an internet meme is an activity,
concept, catchphrase, or piece of media that spreads, often as mimicry or for humorous
purposes, from person to person via Internet. Oxford Online Dictionary defines a meme as 'an
image, video, piece of text typically humorous in nature that is copied and spread rapidly by
the internet users, often with slight variations' (Oxford Online Dictionary, 2018).
Memes in Learning
Today, knowledge is growing exponentially. Memes are now being extensively and
popularly employed in the educational fields as well. Memes are intertextual and are a perfect
tool of learning through forming connections across and between subjects. Critical thinking is
an important aspect of learning, Memes help students build this skill by encouraging them to
be sceptical of what they view on social media websites and to be mindful of the accuracy of
the content they share. Memes can be introduced as ice breaking activity in the class
representing DO’S & DONT’S.
Courtesy: independent.co.uk
An important historical event can be taught by actively employing meme-creation

program and make their own meme with a witty subtitle.
Courtesy: memegenerator.net
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Memes in ESL
Internet memes are a hybrid between a picture and a verbal message. Memes that carry
graphic representations of dialogues, along with pictures, are better alternative to using pictures
in language classrooms. Young learners curate and analyse Internet memes to develop their
communication skills by introducing Humour which improves students’ understanding and
promotes retention and recall of course material Memes can be infused with grammatical puns
to learn the complexities of grammar through the puns in the classroom.
Courtesy: blogs.chatham.edu Courtesy: quickmme.com
In language learning classes teaching and learning vocabulary has a significant

importance, memes are trendy phenomena to create an enjoyable environment in the class.
Using meme creation enhances students’ participation in the class and helps students revise
vocabulary items intermingled with fun.
Courtesy: iste.org
Memes can also be creatively used to to summarize a section of the novel or dramatize
a point from a novel or short story.
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Courtesy: memesmonkey.com
An intriguing meme can be used to introduce chapter to help catch the attention and
constructively engage students as they walk into the classroom.
Courtesy: imgflip.com
An activity was undertaken wherein Each group was asked to develop one meme based
on the given topics that they had received during English classes. Each group was assigned to
upload or post their meme creation in the appointed Instagram account. Creating memes
‘supported intrinsic, integrative and instrumental values which affect the students’
motivation’. Using memes enabled the actual process of learning the ‘target language-intrinsic
value; target language itself and its speaker-integrative value; and consequences and benefits
of having learned the target language-instrumental value’.
Incorporation of memes in the classroom determined the readiness of the students by

having their undivided attention & arousing their attention. It helped in setting the mood of the
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class, could spark moments of laughter thus made the class happy. Since the learners could
concretely visualize an idea or concept, it aided in sustaining learning interest.
Learning through internet memes is a joyful experience as a learner. It was further

aggrandized by conducting survey on the students of classes XI & XII. The survey was
conducted on 130 students of classes XI & XII. The students were in the age grp of 17-18 yrs
both from science, commerce and humanities background. The rating was kept from 1 –
Strongly agree to 5- Strongly disagree.
Analysis of use of internet memes in language classroom

Discernment of students regarding practical applicability of internet memes
General Questionnaire I
Question 1. What is your opinion about English language learning? Total number of students
participated in the survey were 130 students. Most of the students felt English language
learning is fun, whereas only handful of students found it confusing and difficult to score.
Question 2. Do you know any social media sites? All the students expressed their familiarity
with social media sites.
Question 3. How many social media accounts do you have? Almost of the students have at
least 2 social media accounts.
Question 4. Are you aware of memes? All of participants are familiar with memes.
Question 5. Do you like memes? All of students liked memes because they are funny.
Memes Questionnaire II
Question 1. Views on integration of memes inside classroom. 95% of participants agreed upon
memes integration for language learning and teaching process.
Question 2. Significance of memes in enhancing understanding of English. 82% students were

of the opinion that memes enhanced their understanding while 6% disapproved it while 12%
were neutral.
Question 3. Are memes an enjoyable activity? 76% Participants enjoyed creating memes
whereas 13% remained neutral and 11% did not consider it enjoyable.
Question 4. Integration of memes for diverse topics. 80% Participants preferred utilizing
memes as a learning tool for diverse topics.
Question 5. Do you agree or disagree if the teaching of English is combined with social media?
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82% participants state their agreement on integrating social media for English learning process.
SURVEY STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
QUESTIONS AGREE DISAGREE
USE OF MEMES 39% 56% 3% 1% 1%

INSIDE CLASS
ENHANCING 30% 52% 12% 4% 2%
UNDERSTANDING
OF ENGLISH
IS IT ENJOYABLE 29% 47% 13% 8% 3%
ACTIVITY
USE OF MEMES 31% 49% 11% 5% 4%
FOR DIVERSE
TOPICS
TEACHING OF 37% 45% 15% 2% 1%
ENGLISH WITH
SOCIAL MEDIA
Chart Title
60% 56%
52%
50% 47%49%45%
39% 37%
40%
30%29%31%
30%
20% 15%
12%13%11%
8%
10% 4% 5% 4%
3% 1% 2% 1% 2% 3% 1%
0%
STRONGLY AGREE AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY DISAGREE
USE OF MEMES INSIDE CLASS ENHANCING UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH

IS IT ENJOYABLE ACTIVITY USE OF MEMES FOR DIVERSE TOPICS
TEACHING OF ENGLISH WITH SOCIAL MEDIA
Statistical analysis of survey (RQ1) of students regarding the inclusion of memes in

class-room practices. The table shows the percentage calculation of survey on percentage on
memes. It showcases students’ inclination towards use of memes in classrooms since most of
them feel that it is helping them to understand the concepts better.
The graphical representation of above survey is drawn in bar graph.

RQ2: What is the impact of including meme in classroom practices?
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In order to answer the RQ2, the midterm performance of the students is compared with
final term student performance.
The students are in their senior secondary classes at St. Xavier’s school.
Comparative analysis of mid-term results (RQ2)

Students’ grades of the midterm tests were compared with the students’ performance
during final term exams at St Xavier’s Among the two, one was inclusive of memes and the
other was the traditional approach where normal question answers were there. Students’
performance was compared with two parameters such as success rate and failure rate. The
category of success rate shows an improvement of final term students (students who passed the
course with the meme-based approach) with the midterm students (students who passed the
course with the traditional approach).
MID TERM PERFORMANCE USING TRADITIONAL APPROACH

TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER
OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS
PASSED FAILED
TRADITIONAL 130 103 27
MID TERM PERFORMANCE INCLUSIVE OF MEMES
TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER
OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS
PASSED FAILED
INCLUSIVE OF 130 119 11
MEMES
Chart Title
140
130
120 119
100 103
80
60
40
27
20
11
0
TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS
PASSED FAILED
TRADITIONAL INCLUSIVE OF MEMES
Conclusion
==================================================================
The numerical and statistical study has shown the students favourable response for the
incorporating memes as a creative tool. Based on the study the article promotes fruitful
engagement of the amalgamation of enjoyable yet fun mixed form of language learning activity
and pervasive technology which will have far reaching impact on students’ communicative
skills in the long run.
==================================================================
Bibliography
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287972354_Innovative_ways_of_English_language
_teaching_in_rural_India_through_Technology
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1326365X19842023/
https://www.online-journals.org/index.php/i-jep/article/download/15211/8045/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332812427_Humour_Discourse_in_Internet_Meme
s_An_Aid_in_ESL_Classrooms/
https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/meme
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1300464.pdf
https://www.quizony.com/are-you-addicted-to-the-internet/1.html/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346242832_Joy_of_Learning_Through_Internet_M
emes
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An Analysis of Jordanian EFL Learners’ Figurative
Competence of Color-Based Idioms
Full-time Lecturer, Language Centre
The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7810-6089
majd@hu.edu.jo
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Abstract
This study utilizes two translation tasks to investigate the competence of color idiomatic
expressions of Jordanian EFL learners. It also analyzes their errors and strategies when rendering
color idioms into English or Arabic. The two tasks include 26 sentences, each of which has an
English or Arabic color idiomatic expression. The sample of the study consists of 62 Jordanian
graduate students who are MA and PhD students of English. The results of the study reveal that
graduate students do not have a very good idiomatic competence of color expressions. The results
also display that similarities and differences of color connotations may negatively interfere or
positively transfer the meaning from one language into another. EFL graduate students easily acquire
English color-based idioms which have absolute or relative equivalents in Arabic. However, they
rely on their knowledge of L2 and L1 as well as the context to approach the meaning of English
color idioms with no Arabic equivalent. The study concludes that graduate students usually translate
English color idioms using the strategies of paraphrasing or giving Arabic equivalents. However,
they tend to apply the strategies of paraphrasing, literal translation, or avoidance when dealing with
Arabic color idioms.
Keywords: Color idiomatic expressions, Contrastive Linguistics, Translating Idioms, Error

Analysis, Translation Strategies, Foreign Language Learning.
1. Introduction
Colors play a vital role in the culture of any community. The dictionary of any language is
filled with color expressions that denote or connote a verity of meanings which are generally culture-
specific (Kress and Leeuwen, 2013). For example, only in English, a person may use the color blue
to express sadness as to feel blue. In German, on the other hand, blau sein (literally: to be blue)
refers to being drunk. Nevertheless, in Russian голубой (literally: light blue) means to be
homosexual (Bortoli and Maroto, 2001). Thus, Larson (1984) stresses on the issue of understanding
the cultural meaning of colors before translating color-based expressions into a different language.
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An Analysis of Jordanian EFL Learners’ Figurative Competence of Color-Based Idioms 131
Another difficulty in acquiring color expressions is that they are not always used literally. Many
color expressions are idioms; they convey something different from the meanings of its individual
units (Littlemore & Law, 2006). For example, white elephant means “a possession that
costs a lot of money but has no useful purpose”. Following Grant and Buaer’s (2004) classification
of fixed expressions, color expressions can be divided into categories based on two criteria,
figurativeness, and compositionality: Fixed expressions can be compositional or literal as green
garden, figurative as white as a sheet, ONCE (one element is non-compositional) as black eye, and
CORE (non-compositional and non-figurative) as yellow-belly.
Color idiomatic expression can also be classified in terms of equivalence (Kvetko, 2009): (1)
Absolute equivalence refers to color idioms that are similar in form and meaning. For instance, the
Arabic idiom ‫“ ضوء أحمر‬the red light” and the English idiom red light are absolute equivalents. (2)
Relative equivalence includes idioms that have similar or very close meaning but different lexical
items. The English idiom saw red has a relative equivalent in Arabic ‫“ احمرت عينه‬his eye became red”
And (3) non-equivalence refers to idioms that do not have idiomatic equivalent as yellow-belly which
does not have an equivalent in Arabic. Another feature that makes color idioms difficult to acquire
is that they have a fixed form. We cannot change the word order of an idiom, omit or replace one of
its words, or change its grammatical structure (Salim & Mehawesh, 2013). For instance, in English,
we say see red to express anger but not become or turn red.
Based on the above mentioned discussion, having cultural and linguistic knowledge is very
important in acquiring color-based idioms. Students not only have to know the symbolic meanings
of L2 color terms, but also they have to know the appropriate way to use or say them. Therefore, this
study examines how figurativeness, compositionality, and equivalence influence graduate EFL
student’s acquisition of color idiomatic expressions. It also investigates their translation strategies
and errors.
2. Literature Review
Color expressions of English and Arabic have been investigated in different linguistic fields.
Some research focuses on the meanings of color terms and the influence of culture in shaping their
meanings. For example, Hasan, Al-Sammerai, and Kadir (2011) conduct a semantic study on the
meanings of six colors in Arabic and English. To show how colors are used in these two languages,
the study uses cognitive cultural categorization of each color term. It also identifies three different
meanings: 1- ‘Basic meaning’ which refers the original meaning of the color term, 2- ‘Extended
meaning’ which refers to the meaning extended from the basic meaning throughout human
experience, and 3- ‘Additional meaning’ which refers to the meaning which has been further
abstracted from the extended meaning. The results of the study find out that Arabic and English
color terms have more common functions than differences. They also indicate that the extension of
colors is completely cognitive and created based on people’s experiences and culture. Furthermore,
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the original meaning of the color terms can be extended into several meanings and these extended
meanings can be further expanded into several abstract additional meanings.
Rabab'ah and Al-Saidat (2014), on the other hand, study the conceptual and connotative
meanings of black and white in Jordanian culture. Their main goal is to identify the influence of
culture in shaping the meanings of black and white idiomatic expressions. To achieve these goals,
100 participants are asked to give the meanings of 31 expressions of the colors black and white. The
findings reveal that people usually interpret the target expressions according to their connotative
meanings rather their denotative ones. The study also finds that white usually has a positive meaning,
whereas black indicates negative meaning with few exceptions such as, ‘His eye is white’, and ‘black
horse’. Moreover, the participants usually use color expressions instead of using adjectives directly.
For example, instead of saying he/she is a bad person they say /șɑfħtu sɔ:da/ ‘His page is black’.
Another study investigating the meanings of color terms is Al-Adaileh (2012). The study
mainly focuses on the figurative uses of six color terms in Jordanian Arabic and examines whether
color-based phrases have orthophemistic, euphemistic, or dysphemistic connotations. The data of
the study are gathered from newspapers, TV-series, and dictionaries and then their connotative
meanings are determined and checked by the participants in face-to-face interviews. The findings of
the study reveal that most colors have euphemistic and dysphemistic connotations. However, the
colors black, yellow, red and blue are mainly dysphemistic and often have negative connotations.
The color white is used euphemistically and has positive connotations more than negative ones.
Green, on the other hand, has both euphemistic and dysphemistic connotations.
Other studies, on the other hand, investigate the translatability of color-based idioms from
one language into another. For instance, Salim and Mehawesh (2013) analyze the translation of color
expressions from Arabic into English in Nagib Mahfouz’s novel “The Thief and the Dogs”. The
study examines the different translation strategies applied in translating color-based idiomatic
expressions and explore the similarities and differences between their meanings in the two
languages. As for the study methods, the study provides a contrastive study of 13 Arabic color
idiomatic expressions in the novel and their English translation. The findings of the study reveal that
color expressions are language-specific and evoke different associations and emotions in different
languages. The study also displays four strategies that are used to translate Arabic color idioms,
including: using an English idiom of similar meaning and form, translation by cultural substitution,
translation by paraphrasing, and translation by omission.
Finally, there are few studies analyzing EFL learners’ awareness of the differences and the
similarities of color terms between English and Arabic. For example, Rakhieh et al. (2014) examine
undergraduate students’ performance in translating English color idioms which may not have
equivalents in Jordanian culture. As for their methods, 40 undergraduate Jordanian students of
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English enrolled in AlHussein Bin Talal University are asked to translate 20 culture-bound color
idioms within its contextual meaning. The findings of the study show that undergraduate English
students perform poorly in the translation task as reflected by their scores on CBTT. Moreover, the
study relates this poor performance to the insufficient knowledge of English cultural bound color
idioms, the absence of Jordanian Arabic equivalence, and the inappropriate selection of translation
methods.
Another study is Ababneh (2020) who analyzes the performance of EFL students in a
multiple-choice test to investigate the acquisition of color term collocations. The sample of the study
consists of 94 Jordanian undergraduate students taking an English Course. The findings of the study
display that undergraduate students perform poorly in the English color collocation test and they do
not often understand English color terms with no Arabic equivalents. Black color terms are acquired
more easily than other color terms, whereas yellow color terms are the most difficult to learn.
Furthermore, the study indicates that gender differences and academic degree level do not influence
students’ performance in the test. The study recommends teachers to put more emphasis on color
terms collocations as a part of vocabulary teaching.
In conclusion, a number of researchers have studied color idiomatic expressions.

Nevertheless, there are very few studies investigating the influence of cultural differences on the
competence of understanding and producing color terms of advanced EFL learners. Much of the
existing research examining color terms focuses on the meanings of color terms in different cultures,
the translation of color terms in literary works, or undergraduate students’ comprehension of English
color idioms. This study, on the other hand, examines the competence of color idioms of MA and
PhD students of English. Moreover, this study is different in that it compares between the students’
abilities in translating English color idioms and their abilities in translating Arabic idioms. The study
also explores the translation strategies applied by graduate students of English to translate color-
based idioms.
4. Method
4.1. Sample of the Study
The sample of the study includes 62 graduate students of English attending two Jordanian
universities, the Hashemite University and the University of Jordan. The sample is divided into two
groups: The first group consists of 32 MA students, while the second consists of 30 PhD students.
All the participants are native speakers of Arabic and have achieved a high level in English.
4.2. Data Collection

Two translation tasks are administered to the participants to shed some lights on graduate
EFL students’ ability to translate and use seven color terms (black, white, red, green, yellow, blue,
and pink). The first task consists of 13 English sentences, whereas the second task consists of 13
====================================================================
Arabic sentences. Each of the 26 sentences includes a color-based idiom from English or Arabic.
English color idioms are selected from two well-established English dictionaries: Oxford Dictionary
(Oxford University Press, 2016), and Cambridge Online Dictionary (Cambridge University
Press,2016). Arabic color idioms, on the other hand, are chosen from two well-known Arabic
dictionaries: Muʕʒam Alluɣah Alʕarabiyah Alḥadeeɵ (Omar, 2008) and Alwasiiṭ (Majma9 Alluɣah
Al9arabiyah, 1998).
4.3. Data Analysis

The percentage of the correct answers of each color idiomatic expression is calculated. The
study then analyzes the best and worst translated color expressions in terms of errors and strategies
following Kvetko (2009), and Grant and Buaer’s (2004) classifications. It is worth mentioning that
in our analysis and calculation of correct answers, we accept any adequate answer that provides the
correct meaning of a given color idiom. This is because our main goal is to test the acquisition of
advanced EFL learners of color idioms and not their translation ability. Moreover, the analysis
considers explaining the meaning or giving non-idiomatic expression as a paraphrasing strategy, but
not answering the question as an avoidance strategy.
5. Results and Discussion

This chapter studies the performance of graduate English students in the translation tasks and
observes their errors and strategies when translating English and Arabic color idiomatic expressions.
Table (1) shows how MA and PhD students perform in the translation tasks:
Table (1): The percentage of the participant’s correct responses in the English and the Arabic
translation tasks
The task PhD students MA students All groups
The task of English color idioms 53 % 39% 46%

The task of Arabic color idioms 48% 49% 49%
Total percentage 51 % 44% 48%
Table (1) displays that student’s translation abilities of Arabic color idioms are slightly better
than their translation abilities of English color idioms. Furthermore, Table (1) demonstrates that
when translating English color idioms, the percentage of the correct translation given by PhD
students (53%) is higher than that given by MA students (39%). However, with Arabic color idioms,
the percentage of the correct translation given by PhD students (48 %) is lower than that given by
MA students (49%). Nevertheless, these differences are not that significant, and the two groups have
a poor performance in the two tasks.
The results suggest that graduate students who have achieved a high level of English
====================================================================
development have a relatively poor knowledge of English color terms. This could be attributed to
the fact that English color idioms have been neglected in the teaching of EFL students (Ababneh,
2020; Rakhieh et al., 2014). This could also be related to the differences in the connotative meanings
of color terms between English and Arabic as indicated in previous studies, viz., Salim and
Mehawesh (2013).
5.1 English Color-based Idioms

Table (2) displays the performance of the participants in the task of English color idiomatic
expressions.
Table (2): The percentage of the participants’ correct responses in the task of English color
expressions.
PhD MA
No. The figurative expression All groups
students students
Black eye
1. (bruised skin around the eye 80% 50% 65%
resulting from a blow)
Black out
2. ( undergo a sudden and temporary 25 % 30% 28%
loss of consciousness)
See red
3. 95% 50% 73%
(to become very angry)
Be in the red
4. (be in debt) (owe money to the 10% 12.5% 11%
bank)
As white as a sheet
5. (very pale, especially from shock, 65% 56% 61%
illness, or fear)
White elephant
6. 35% 19% 27%
(useless possession)
Blue blood
7. 30% 44% 37%
(a person of noble birth)
Once in a blue moon
8. 80% 56% 68%
(not very often)
Be green
9. 70% 38% 54%
(not experienced or trained)
10. Green fingers 70% 50% 60%
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PhD MA
No. The figurative expression All groups
students students
(skillful in gardening)
Yellow-belly
11. 20% 25% 23%
(coward)
Yellow press
12. (the journalism that exaggerates or 70% 63% 67%
is unnecessarily sensational)
In the pink
13. (in good health physically or 40% 13% 27%
mentally)
Table (2) displays that PhD students perform better than MA students when rendering every
English color idiom into Arabic. Nevertheless, there are exceptions with the color idioms black out,
blue blood, and yellow-belly. This is because MA students achieve (30%), (44%), and (25%) with
these idioms respectively, whereas PhD students score lower percentages (25%), (30%), and (20%),
respectively. According to Table (2), color idioms do not have the same level of difficulty. The
discussion below provides an analysis of the easiest and the most difficult color idiomatic
expressions.
The color idiomatic expression see red has the highest number of correct responses (73%).
Our explanation to this is that students may have used the Arabic connotative meaning (anger) of
the color red as well as the context to know the answer. This is because most of the correct answers
provide the idiom )‫عيناه (من الغضب‬/‫“ احمر وجهه‬His face turned red because of anger”. Concerning the
translation strategies, Graph (1) shows the percentages of the successful strategies followed in the
translation of see red:
Graph (1): The percentage of each successful strategy followed in translating see red
see red
15% 19% paraphrasing

color-based idiom
39% relative equivalent idiom
====================================================================
As Graph (1) shows, the majority of the answers given for this idiom range between
providing a color-based idiom (39%) as ‫عيناه‬/‫( احمر وجه‬His face/eyes turned red), giving a relative
equivalent (15%) (i.e., ‫( مش شايف الفضا‬not to see the sky) meaning “to become angry”), and
paraphrasing (19%) (i.e .,‫عصب‬/‫ غضب غضبا شديد‬/‫“ استشاط غضبا‬to get very angry”). As for the reduction
strategies, the study detects incorrect paraphrasing ‫( لم يتحمل ان يصرخ احد في وجهه‬He did not tolerate
that somebody screaming in his face), giving an Arabic idiom ‫( شاف الموت بعيونه‬to see death with
one’s eyes) “to be in great danger”, and avoidance of translation.
Despite it does not have an absolute equivalent in Arabic, the figurative expression once in
a blue moon gets the second highest percentage (68%). Nevertheless, about (54%) of the participants
provide the near-identical Arabic equivalents ‫مرة بالعمر‬/‫“ مرة بالسنه‬once in a lifetime/once a year”
which look similar in form to the English expression once in a blue moon. This may indicate that
knowledge of L1 positively transfer the meaning when there is a near-equivalent in L1. The data
analysis shows a number of successful strategies. These strategies are paraphrasing as ‫“ نادراجدا‬very
rarely”, and ‫“ بشكل قليل جدا‬very scarcely”; and giving a relative equivalent from L1 as ‫ بالسنة‬/ ‫مرة بالعمر‬
“once in a lifetime/ once every year”, and ‫( كل وين ووين‬every where and where) meaning “rarely”.
Graph (2): The percentage of each successful strategy followed in translating once in a blue moon
once in a blue moon
14%
paraphrasing
relative equivalent idiom
54%
Graph (2) shows the percentages of the successful strategies followed in the translation of
once in a blue moon. While fifty-four percent (54%) of the participants provide a relative equivalent,
only fourteen percent (14%) paraphrase the English idiom. As for the reduction strategies, some
participants give a non-equivalent idiom (i.e., ‫“ صعب المنال‬hard to get”), avoid translation, or provide
literal translation.
The expression yellow press (67%) is one of the best translated color idioms in the task.
About (50%) of the answers provide the absolute equivalent ‫الصحافة الصفراء‬. This indicates that the
similarities between the two languages positively transfer the meaning and facilitate the acquisition
of color-based idioms. Furthermore, yellow press is ONCE idiom, the word press is literally
translated. Graph (3) demonstrates the percentages of the successful strategies of yellow press:
====================================================================
Graph (3): The percentage of each successful strategy followed in translating yellow press
yellow press
17%
paraphrasing
literal translation
50%
Based on Graph (3), the participants display few successful translation strategies, including:
literal translation (50%) ‫“ الصحافة الصفراء‬yellow press”, and paraphrasing (17%) ‫صحافة‬/‫جرائد الشائعات‬
‫“ الفضايح‬journalism publishing scandals and gossips”. However, the study finds few unsuccessful
strategies as paraphrasing as ‫( الصحافه الورقية‬printed journalism) and avoiding the translation.
Graduate EFL students, however, fail to translate a number of English color idiomatic
expressions. For example, they are very bad at giving the meaning of be in the red. Only (11%) of
the participants give the correct answer using the strategy of paraphrasing ‫“ مديون للبنك‬to be in debt”.
This could be related to the lack of an equivalent color idiom in Arabic. Furthermore, this is a CORE
idiom which is non-compositional and non-figurative. Because of these reasons, the majority of the
students use different unsuccessful translation strategies, as shown in Graph 4:
Graph (4): The percentage of each unsuccessful strategy followed in translating be in the red:
be in the red
paraphrasing
34%
41%
incorrect idiom
avoidance
24%
According to Graph (4), forty-one percent (41%) of the participants incorrectly paraphrase
the idiom (i.e., ‫تحت الضغط‬/‫“ مضغوط‬be under pressure”), twenty-four percent (24%) provide an
incorrect Arabic idiom (i.e., ‫( اصفي على الحديدة‬to stay on iron) “to become poor”), and thirty-four
percent (34%) avoid the question.
The color idiom yellow-belly (23%) is difficult to comprehend by graduate students. The
reason behind student’s bad performance could be related to the differences of yellow connotations
====================================================================
between the two languages; The color yellow is not associated with cowardice in Arabic as it is in
English. Another reason behind this could be the lack of an Arabic equivalent. Furthermore, this is
a CORE idiom whose meaning cannot be predicted from its individual parts. Graph (5) displays the
percentages of the unsuccessful strategies of yellow-belly:
Graph (5): The percentage of the unsuccessful strategies followed in the translation of yellow-belly
yellow-belly
22% paraphrasing
color idiom
3% 52% avoidance
Based on Graph (5), most participants (52%) give incorrect paraphrasing depending on the
context as ‫“ غير متفهم‬inconsiderate” and ‫“ متردد‬hesitant”, whereas some participants (22%) avoid the
question. As for the successful strategies, the study observes correct paraphrasing as ‫“ جبان‬coward”.
The expression white elephant (27%) is one of the worst translated color idioms. Very few
students provide correct paraphrasing as ‫“ هدية غيرمفيدة‬useless gift” or ‫“ ملكية مكلفة‬a possession costing
money”. The majority of the participants incorrectly give positive meanings to white elephant as
‫( هدية رائعة‬great gift), ‫( هدية غالية‬expensive gift), or ‫( هدية كبيرة‬big gift). This poor performance could
be related to the fact that the color white usually has positive connotations in Arabic and English
(Rabab'ah & Al-Saidat, 2014; Rakhieh et al., 2014). Also, the idiom white elephant is a CORE idiom
whose meaning cannot be predicted from its individual parts.
Graph (6): The percentage of the unsuccessful strategies followed in the translation of white elephant
white elephant
19
paraphrasing
54 avoidance
Graph (6) displays the participants’ unsuccessful translation strategies. Most participants
====================================================================
(54%) incorrectly paraphrase white elephant (i.e., ‫“ هدية رائعة‬great gift”). Moreover, there are some
participants (19%) who avoid translation.
5.2. Arabic color-based idioms
Table (3) displays the participant’s performance in the task of translating Arabic color idioms.
Table (3): The percentages of participants’ correct responses for Arabic color expressions.
No. The figurative expression PhD students MA students All groups
‫احمرت عيناه‬
1. his eyes turned red 25% 25% 25%
(become very angry)
‫احمر وجهي‬
2. my face red 65% 50% 58%
(blushed)
‫سودت وجهي‬
3. my face black 40% 63% 52%
(disgraced me, embarrassed)
‫يوم اسو د‬
4. black day 60% 31% 46%
(black or bad day)
‫قلبه ابيض‬
5. white heart 50% 75% 63%
(good-hearted, kind-hearted)
‫االيادي البيضاء‬
6. white hands 30% 25% 28%
(philanthropist, or benefactor)
‫نابه أزرق‬
7. blue tooth 15% 19% 17%
(malicious or revengeful)
‫خضر األرض‬
8. land greening 50% 38% 44%
(planted the land)
‫عوده أخضر‬
9. green stick 70% 50% 60%
(not experienced or trained)
‫وجهك أصفر‬
yellow face
10. 75% 88% 82%
(pale because of shock, illness,
or fear)
11. ‫الضوء األخضر‬ 80% 87% 84%
====================================================================
No. The figurative expression PhD students MA students All groups
green light
(the green light, permission)
‫ضحكه صفراء‬
12. yellow smile 25% 44% 35%
(fake, sarcastic, or ironic smile)
‫أحالم وردية‬
13. pinky dreams 35% 38% 37%
(happy unattainable dreams)
According to Table (3), MA students perform better than PhD students with the majority of
Arabic color expressions in the task. However, sometimes PhD students are more accurate in
providing the correct meaning of color-based idioms. For instance, PhD students (70%) translate the
Arabic idiom ‫( عوده أخضر‬green stick) better than MA students (50%). Furthermore, Table (3) reveals
that some Arabic color idiomatic expressions are not always successfully translated into English.
The following discussion analyzes the Arabic color idioms which are easily translated into English
and these which are difficult to translate by Jordanian graduate students.
The color idiom‫( الضوء األخضر‬the green light) is easily translated into English. It has the
highest percentage of correct responses (84%). This can be related to the existence of an absolute
equivalent in English the green light. Graph (7) shows the participant’s successful translation
strategies of the idiom‫الضوء األخضر‬:
Graph (7): The percentage of each successful strategy followed in translating ‫الضوء األخضر‬
‫الضوء األخضر‬
green light
42% 42% paraphrasing

color idiom (literal translation)
Based on Graph (7), the majority of the participants follow two successful strategies which
are paraphrasing (42%) (i.e. permission and approval) and literal translation (42%) (the green light).
The findings of the study point that there are few participants who avoid translating the Arabic idiom.
Despite of the lack of an absolute equivalent in English, the color idiom‫( وجهك أصفر‬yellow
====================================================================
face) (82%) is easily translated into English. Graph (8) shows the percentages of all the strategies
followed in the translation of ‫وجهك أصفر‬:
Graph (8): The percentage of each strategy followed in translating ‫وجهك أصفر‬
‫وجهك أصفر‬
yellow face
5% parasphrasing (successful strategy)
13%
literal translation (reduction

strategy)
82% avoidance (reduction strategy)
As Graph (8) shows, (82%) of the participants give correct paraphrasing as pale, look tired,
sick, and unusual. Nevertheless, some participants provide unsuccessful translation strategies as
literal translation (13%) yellow face and avoidance of translation (5%). Interestingly, none of the
participants provide the relative equivalent color idiom as white as a sheet.
The color idiom ‫( قلبه ابيض‬white-hearted) is correctly translated into English by (63%) of the
participants. The majority of the participants provide the English idioms good-hearted, kind-hearted,
and warm-hearted. These correct responses could be related to a number of reasons. First, these
expressions are near-equivalents to the Arabic idiom; they are similar in form to the idiom ‫قلبه ابيض‬
(white-hearted). Second, they are ONCE idioms (one element is non-compositional), so they are
easily learned and acquired. Third, they are frequently used in everyday interaction. Graph (9)
demonstrates the percentages of all the strategies used in translating ‫قلبه ابيض‬:
Graph (9): The percentage of each strategy followed in translating ‫قلبه ابيض‬
‫قلبه أبيض‬
white-hearted paraphrasing (successful and
3%
17% reduction strategy)
literal translation (reductuon strategy)
55% 25%
English equivalent (successful
strategy)
Based on Graph (9), most of the participants (55%) provide relative equivalents. The study
detects few cases of literal translation white-hearted (25%), correct and incorrect paraphrasing
(17%), and avoidance of translation (3%).
====================================================================
Regarding Arabic expressions which are difficult to translate into English, the participants
provide their worst performance with the color expression ‫( نابه أزرق‬blue tooth). Very few students
(17%) give the correct answer using the strategy of paraphrasing as revengeful. This could be related
to the lack of a similar color connotation in English. Moreover, the color expression ‫( نابه أزرق‬blue
tooth) is a CORE idiom whose meaning cannot be literally translated. Graph (10) displays the
reduction strategies that are observed in the translation of graduate students:
Graph (10): The percentage of each unsuccessful strategy followed in translating‫نابه أزرق‬
‫نابه أزرق‬
blue tooth
8%
paraphrasing
28% 47% avoidance
literal translation
As Graph (10) shows, there are a number of unsuccessful translation strategies, viz.,
paraphrasing (47%) (i.e. strong, well-experienced, and dangerous), not answering the question
(28%), and literal translation (8%) blue tooth.
The color idiom ‫( احمرت عيناه‬His eyes turned red) has the second worst score (25%) achieved
by the participants. The majority of the students literally translate ‫ احمرت عيناه‬to his eyes turned/
became/ or got red. In our explanation, similarities between the two languages in the connotative
meaning (anger) of the color red negatively interfere. Only one participant provides the English color
equivalent saw red, most students paraphrase this idiom to became or got angry. This indicates that
students mostly do not acquire the idiom see red (discussed in Section 5.1), but they depend on the
context and the similarities between English and Arabic in their translation. Furthermore, this shows
that advanced EFL learners understand color idioms better than they produce them.
Graph (11): The percentage of each unsuccessful strategy followed in translating‫احمرت عيناه‬
‫احمرت عيناه‬
his eyes turned red
8%
9% literal translation
avoidance
58% paraphrasing
====================================================================
Graph (11) shows the reduction strategies applied by graduate students to translate ‫احمرت‬
‫عيناه‬. The majority of the participants (58%) use literal translation, while very few paraphrase the
idiom (8%) and avoid translation (9%).
The color idiom ‫( األيادي بيضاء‬white hands) has a very low percentage of correct responses.
Few participants (28%) correctly translate this Arabic idiom to benefactor, philanthropist, or having
great favors. This poor performance could be attributed to the differences in the color connotation
of white between the English and Arabic and the lack of a similar English equivalent to ‫األيادي بيضاء‬.
Moreover, the participants follow a number of unsuccessful strategies in their translation of the idiom
‫األيادي بيضاء‬, as seen in Graph (12):
Graph (12): The percentage of each unsuccessful strategy followed in translating ‫األيادي البيضاء‬:
‫األيادي البيضاء‬
white hands
paraphrasing
19% 22%
literal translation
11% incorrect idiom
20% avoidance
According to Graph (12), about (22%) of the participants incorrectly paraphrase the Arabic
idiom (i.e. sponsor, and helper), while (20%) of the participants literally translate this idiom to white
hands. Other participants, on the other hand, avoid translation (19%) or give incorrect idiom (11%)
(i.e. helpful hands, and working hands).
6. Conclusion
This study observes the performance of Jordanian graduate EFL students in two translation
tasks to investigate their comprehension and production of color idiomatic expressions. The analysis
of the data reveals that M.A. and Ph.D. students have a poor idiomatic competence regarding color
expressions. Graduate students often depend on their knowledge of the color connotation in Arabic
and English as well as the context to determine the meanings of English color idioms. However,
differences in color connotations between English and Arabic make the acquisition of color idioms
more difficult, whereas similarities between the two languages facilitate the acquisition of color
idioms. Negative interference occurs when there is no match between color idioms in the two
languages. In spite of this, similarities may also cause negative interference when rendering Arabic
color idioms into English as the case with the Arabic idiom ‫“ احمرت عيناه‬His eyes turned red”.
Students’ idiomatic competence of color expressions is also influenced by the degree of
figurativeness and compositionality. The participants usually translate ONCE color idioms better
====================================================================
than CORE color idioms.
The participants apply a number of successful translation strategies of color idiomatic

expressions, including: paraphrasing the color idiom, providing a relevant equivalent, or giving an
absolute equivalent. They also apply some reduction strategies such as massage avoidance, and
literal translation. Nevertheless, these strategies may differ depending on the language of the idiom,
the differences in the connotative meaning between the two languages, and the existence of an
idiomatic equivalent. The findings of the study point that paraphrasing and literal translation are
more common when translating Arabic color idioms into English, whereas giving an Arabic
idiomatic equivalent and paraphrasing are more frequent when translating English color idioms. It
seems that graduate student’s comprehension competence of color idiom is better than their
production competence. This is because they give color idioms when translating from English to
Arabic more than they do when translating from Arabic to English.
Finally, teachers are advised to increase students’ awareness of the differences and the
similarities of color connotations between English and Arabic to facilitate the acquisition of English
color idioms. Also, researchers are recommended to examine possible solutions for the difficulties
of learning color idiomatic expressions.
=====================================================================
References
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Rabab'ah, K. A., & Al-Saidat, E. M. (2014). Conceptual and connotative meanings of black and
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================================================================
Envisioning the Psychologically Subjugated Women:
The Feminist Study of Rupi Kaur’s Home Body
Shafqat Hussain
MPhil Scholar
University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
shafqat98hussain@gmail.com
Ameer Ali
MPhil Scholar
University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
ameer7037@gmail.com
=================================================================
Courtesy: https://www.amazon.com
====================================================================
Abstract
This study is carried out in reaction to the patriarchal mechanism of society, where women
have always been subjugated, suppressed, and surpassed by men. The research is conducted on the
poetic book of Rupi Kaur, Home Body. It is designed descriptively and qualitative in approach.
The researcher has followed Textual Analysis Method for the analysis of gathered data. The textual
data are collected with the sampling strategy of Simple Random Sampling. Theoretical framework
of Feminism by Beauvoir is adapted as an optic to critically analyze the data. Findings of the study
reveal that women in postmodern/postcolonial India are marginalized on the basis of their gender.
====================================================================
The Feminist Study of Rupi Kaur’s Home Body 210
They suffer from psychological disorder because of their feminine race, and Kaur hailing
from India has been a literary voice to advocate the suffering of women and want to preach and
make realize the readers about the outcomes of patriarchal mindset which subjugates women. Also,
the study is a fine contribution in the existing mansion of feminist discourse of the world.
1. Introduction
Literature has been manifesting the crucial issues of its contemporary and historical
society. Writers attempt at revealing the black layers of society. Literature that is why is considered
the true imitation of life. (Aristotle). Throughout the history of literature, poets have been
manifesting the confined crimes, love, romance, nature and evils in the society. The exploitation
of women’s rights under the umbrella of social crisis, has also been portrayed by a good score of
feminist poets like, Alexander Pope, Maya Angelou, Christiana Rossetti, Chetan Bhagat Parveen
Shakir, Ahmed Faraz and Rupi Kaur.
In the patriarchal mechanism of society, women have always been subjugated, suppressed,
and surpassed by men. They are deemed as machines and tools. The traditional mind of male-
dominant societies, consider women as a machine for giving birth to their babies. They are handled
as a tool for their sexual desires. Women lack in economic, social and political life of equal nature
of their men. This patriarchal trend has prevailed almost in every era throughout human history.
The movement of feminism has advocated the women’s rights in society.
Feminism is a theoretical ideology which emerged from the western world. It stands against
the patriarchal mood of society. The movement wants to revolutionize the world and wants to
equalize the women of the world with respect to economy, social life, politics and religion. It
stands as a movement to destroy the iron mind of men and its fist. Feminism has given birth many
branches. It has evolved through its four waves dealing with different objectives.
Rupi Kaur who is contemporary Canadian-Indian poet has emerged as a marvelous

advocate for the rights of women. Her poetry books have remained best-sellers in the world. Her
poetry usually revolves around the themes of women’s dignity, strength, satire on patriarchal
mechanism and traditional codes of the traditional mode of the society. Rupi’s works have been
replete with the theme of empowerment of women. She preaches it through her poetry. Her books
Milk and Honey (2015) and The Sun and her Flowers retain the touch of women’s issues, pain,
suffering and manipulation etc. She explores the dignity, status, suffering and the inner-self of
women through her recent book, Home Body (2020). Thus, feminist theory is taken as the
theoretical framework in order to pursue this research.
2. Literature Review
====================================================================
The researcher here brings the related literature to the topic and theory of this study. The
researcher has reviewed related literature across genre, culture and location of the subject poet of
the study. This literature review helps the readers to aptly understand this research’s theory and its
implementation on the gathered data. This review helps them to understand the whole subject of
this study and makes them aware of the same issue throughout other cultures. The researcher has
reviewed some researchers on Rupi Kaur’s other works. It assists the study to clearly show that
Rupi Kaur has remained untouched in terms of her undertaken approach on her newly book, Home
Body (2020).
Islam (2019) conducted a research on the subject of feminist writing of Rupi Kaur: “A
Gynocritic Study of Rupi Kaur’s Milk and Honey”. The researcher describes the term
gynocriticism as a modern theoretical framework to analyze the writings of women living in the
patriarchal system of the society described by Elaine Showalter. The present researchers analyze
her proposition about the theory and applies it on the poetry of Rupi Kaur. This research is of
qualitative method and illustrates the women’s empowerment and experiences of their literary
approach and power of expressing themselves in the male-dominant society. The research
concludes that Rupi Kaur has nerve to completely express her feelings, emotions, and satire the
traditional values of her contemporary society.
In Roy’s book, Ved (2017) has assessed the theme of feminism. In Arundhati Roy's book,
The God of Small Things, the researcher extensively outlined the novel. The novel is talked with
Feminism's mirror. She illustrated the internal conflicts that women face and surrender their own
happiness by considering the greatness of suffering. The research illustrates how the actions and
lives of individuals are influenced by small things. The researcher ends the article with the true
nature of tiny items. In Patriarchal society, the novelist Roy sees the caste system, political
affiliation and gender bias as "small things," whereas dreams, hopes, promises, and other feelings
are seen as little things. The researcher analyzes the social exploitation of women in Indian culture.
The researcher finds out the Arundhati Roy’s overall analysis as the women are manipulated in
the Indian culture and are deemed as small things.
Umeret al. (2016) has presented an evaluation for the purpose of illumination the gender
discrimination an inequality. Education is the core base of every society. Only education is the
weapon which can help the mood of empowerment of women in the society. It should be the prime
duty of both genders to acquire education in order to know the respective values for each other and
their own empowerment in their culture. The study brings the case of Baluchistan where women
have no right to get education. So, the researchers emphasize that women should be provided the
educational rights. It is injustice with them to not having their fundamental rights. Balochi men
are found to be powerful and famous for their physical bravery. On the other side, their women
====================================================================
are deemed as weak and feeble insects of the society. Thus, in order to abolish such traditional
dogmas, there should be a proper channel of education so that society could work equally.
Huda & Ali (2015) carried out a research on the subject: "Portrayal of women in Pakistani
media." The article is about the media's image of women. Objection of ladies is seen as a permanent
weapon for women who make the most of their efforts to grow the mass media. Advertisements
that use women as a seductive and appealing tool of weapon for attracting men causes their
exploitation. The dress code of women, the stylish appearance of their youth and the attractiveness
of bloom has the little to do with the lexical product. By explaining unwelcome tasks presented to
women, the researchers ended the paper. The way of handling and representing women exposes
them towards sexual abuse, and with the idea of believing every woman working in media is
corrupt.
Ghorfati & Medini (2015) conducted important research on the issue of "Feminism and its
impact on women in modern society". The article addresses how women have to go through many
challenges, constraints and barriers in order to become an integral part of culture. Women had no
rights before, and they were segregated, invalidated and violated by men. The profile and the
picture lady have changed radically by the occurrence of Feminism, and she transforms into a
sovereign, president, craftsman and teacher from being a poppet in the hands of man. The key
conclusion drawn by scholars is that the philosophy of feminism was successful in several respects,
resulting in a major shift in the status and role of women.
Siddiqui and Lodhi (2014) have come to the conclusion through their study on the aspect
of Feminism in 2014. They scholarly have faith that religion of Islam and International law permit
the voice of women, they both respect women rights. But the obstacles which are watered by
traditional dogmas have been a barrier between the women rights and international and Islamic
law. Women are only deemed for the honor of males of Pakistani society, and they are only the
prestige for them. There is no value of women’s emotions, feelings, and desires. Sometimes
women in Pakistanis society reach their destination of death when do not share the mutual concern
of their male masters. This slaughter of women is a prevailing aspect of women exploitation in
Pakistan. Such slaughter is famous as karokari and known as honor killing. This is brought into
action just for the restoration of fake and baseless prestige and respect of family, and it mostly
takes place in the countryside of Pakistan.
Munir and Akhtar (2014) have evaluated a study in the shape of their research. This deals
with the traditional tradition of Vani taking place in Pakistan especially in the tribal areas of KPK.
Vani which is sometimes also called Swara, is male dominant attitude. In this concept, women are
usually handed over to a party in order to create peace and resolving the issue of murder. It helps
them to not flame a fight amid the tribes again. Because of the male’s egoistic fights, women are
====================================================================
being exploited in the form of sacrifice. They are provided for marriage of their undesired wish.
The study opens it as it occurs because of the lack of education which causes the men not respecting
the women of their family. For such a baseless prestige, women are being used as they are their
tools not humans. In the last, the study provides the solution to it. Men and women should wear
the mask of education the shackle this patriarchal mechanism of the society where only women
are the toys to be used, and male enjoy their freedom.
Gao (2013) conducted a critical study on the issue of "Reflection on Feminism in Jane
Eyre." The article represents the Jane Eyre novel, a popular written work written on the basis of
her personal experiences by Charlotte Bronte. The author shapes a particular and audacious woman
in the novel who finds true love and equality. It's not the same Jane Eyre as any other women
around then. In struggles and troubling situations, she takes a run at her survival and preserves her
destiny. This paper shows some positive qualities that females possess. The researcher ends the
article by symbolizing the tale of Jane Eyre, where she talks about how a woman can strive harder
for decency and integrity in a heterosexual society. A brave woman should be courageous enough
to battle against it in response to life's hardships.
Habib, et al. (2013) has conducted a praiseworthy study on the novel, My Feudal Lord. The
novels shed the light on the autobiographical aspects of Tehmina Durani, and is writtern by herself.
The novels aim at displaying the breathtaking issues happening with women in the contemporary
arena of Pakistani society. Countries of third world like Pakistani, treats women very inhumanly,
are regarded as the slaves of males who are dominant over them. Being an autobiographical text,
it reflects Druani’s life, and the novelist portrays the hypocrite nature of men in the society. She is
ex-wife of a famous politician Ghulam Mustafa Khar who hails to a democratic house of Pakistan,
but Durani explores his patriarchal mindset. He being a democratic individual does not take care
of his own wife, because she is a woman. This shows that not only economically unstable people,
but the rich too participate in exploiting women in Pakistani culture. She is not allowed to read
even newspaper, and he over and over snubs his wife. So, Durani’s novel stands as a hammer to
destroy the stone of patriarchal mechanism of the society.
Bag and Roy (2012) has conducted a research on Indian culture that how women are
psychically and mentally destroyed in the hands of Indian male-dominant mode of society. Women
are misused and abused since their childhood. In different areas of India, girls also face early-
marriage and that marriage is possibly against their will. The study displays that the early-marriage
culture becomes the mental trouble those girls, especially for unwanted male partner. The study
points out another significant point that, the Indian male-centered culture, sends young women to
brothels, where they can be the source of their capital income. Moreover, media also pays heed in
the exploitation women, through advertisement so that men can be attracted to women because of
fascinating pictures and videos of women. They localize the status of women in Indian society.
====================================================================
The researchers concludes that study, that this psychological and physical torture with
women in India, and their lack of education and domestic violence may possibly come back in the
form of a great globally social threat for the country.
The aforementioned studies mainly provide a picture of a patriarchal society, where women
are not treated equally, and face a discriminatory approach in terms of social, political, and
economic exposure. The previous studies are reviewed on the research of different genres and
areas of knowledge. Some reviews focus on Indian and Pakistani novels of the same subject. Thus,
this exposure to different research of the same subject provides a justification that Rupi Kaur’s
book Home Body (2020) remains untouched in terms of feminist study, and it creates a problem
to find this gap in the book Home Body (2020). Hence, this research aims at analyzing the selected
poetry of Rupi Kaur from the book, Home Body (2020).
3. Method
The research follows the qualitative method of research. The researcher analyzes the data in
the light of theory of feminism. The data is collected from research papers, books and internet
websites. The researcher has followed qualitative design and Textual Analysis Method. For
sampling, simple random sampling strategy is adapted to get possible textual references from the
author’s book for the analysis. The data is analyzed descriptively. The study, along with qualitative
approach, is designed descriptively in nature; the collected data are analyzed descriptively.
3.1 Theoretical Framework: Feminism

Feminism falls into being through the fight against the oppression carried out in society for
women's rights. Two vital elements of intellectual commitment and political movement are
involved in feminism, which contributes to women's justice and ends in all types of patriarchy.
This is a cultural and literary phenomenon that in all walks of life promotes absolute equality of
men and women and thus empowers them to be at equal with each other, irrespective of race, class,
and creed.
"Simon de Beauvoir, in his notable work, The Second Sex (1949), thus expresses Feminism
as "Man is described as a human being and a woman as a woman whenever she acts as a human
being and to mimic man” (p. 226). This shows that a woman is deemed to be undignified and
pointless, despite her important interest and duty in a culture, which further invalidates her
presence in culture.
However, women exploitation, her divinity, manipulation, objection, real status, and
respect is discoursed in Rupi Kaur’s book Home Body (2020). She also preaches the feminist ideas.
Thus, this theoretical framework of feminism is taken in order to analyze the data.
====================================================================
4. Findings and Analysis
Historically, literature has talked about women-subject. They have been the prime center
of many a writers throughout history. Each writer has depicted them differently through their
writing style, atmosphere, culture, society and artistic approach. Rupi Kaur, hailing from India, the
contemporary liberal feminist writer has a different vision, style and art for talking about women
through her writings. She sometimes provides prosaic verses as well as poetic verses. Sometimes,
she just writes only one line. The line then consists of the universe of a woman.
Kaur is unique in this regard. She has been Master of It. She remains careless and pointless
while displaying women, their sex, gender, power, strength and social status and the subjugation
they receive. She has the art to highlight the existing scenario or culture of India in which women
receive biased attitude in terms of gender. She this is how explores their wounds and their reality
of society and brings them up in front of the conscious of their mind. Similarly, this all is argued
and discussed by feminist ideology. They advocate women, and talk about their status, strength,
value and worth, and sometimes they sound autobiographical too. Here, the study provides some
textual references of Kaur which display her feminist approach in the poetry related the poetic
verses and theory accordingly.
“After feeling disconnected ....... my mind and body........ Coming back to each other”
(Kaur, 2010)
The aforementioned line is taken from Rupi Kaur’s recent book Home Body. The line
artistically talk about the spiritual journey of a woman. She might be referring to a woman of her
experience, who was subjugated in Indian Culture by patriarchal mechanisms. Now she has been
returned to the situation where she has got no oppression. She depicts the revolutionized display
of a woman in Indian culture. She sounds more pathetic and exploring and envisioning the woman.
She feels her pain. She displays the pain. She wittedly pays satire on the patriarchal mechanism of
the society the woman lived in.
As feminist theory assumes that woman have been marginalized biologically and have not
enjoyed the equal spheres of life. This very idea is highlighted in the poem too. Kaur depicts the
idea of woman marginalization on any base. The reconnection of mind and body reflects her
biological suppression that woman have been aside on the basis of her biological weakness at a
time, but now she has returned back. It means now she considers herself biologically strong and
finds herself in the arena of strength. Her mind and body now are equal. She has mental capability
and physical strength too. In this ways, it is possible to argue that Rupi basically advocates the
idea that women are not weak but strong. Only patriarchal mindset considers them inferior. She
pays the criticism against the idea of weakness of women either biologically or socially. She
supports women and talks about them orderly. She stands for them and want to teach the world
====================================================================
that women are precious creation on the planet of earth and retain a great dignity spiritually and
ethically. She sees them spiritually. She rejected the biased gender based dogma in the male-
dominant society of the subcontinent and reflects the idea of feminism proposed by Beauvoir.
“I’m in the darkest room of my life” (Kaur, 2010)
The line quoted above is very deep in nature and form. The line also reflects the style of
Kaur. She enlists the whole universe of women in one line. This is basically poetic genius. The
line says two important phrases, ‘darkest room’ and ‘my life’. Any reader of Kaur can easily
examine what she basically wants to argue. The concept of marginalization of women in the
postcolonial society of India reflects here. She basically draws the sketch of the wounds of a
woman. As discussed by the feminist theory, women are deemed weak and have no equal rights
to men. So, the above line poetically advocates the same discourse. The phrases ‘darkest room’
and ‘my life’ explain the idea of women subjugation and oppression. Kaur displays the dark image
of the patriarchal society where women are deemed tools. They don’t receive respect. They even
don’t enjoy the choice of their life partner. They are implemented everything. They have no
alternative choice but to accept. They do not enjoy the social and political freedom. They do not
enjoy the educational phase of their life, and all the things in a society they desire or deserve.
Additionally, she becomes the voice of such women, and displays their wounds by arguing
that her such bound life has been actually a dark room. The dark room where there is no hope of
light, haunts. This kills the person. This murders the person. This pays scars on the person’s soul.
It tears it. It leaves nasty impact on the psyche of the person. The person may get depression and
suffer from anxiety, and there may other psychological disorder while living the dark room. Thus,
Kaur advocated the wounds of women who are also living in the darkest room of their life. She
wants to realize patriarchal mindset the suffering of those women, the psychological condition of
those women. She reflects the idea that how women have been the victim of male-dominant
attitude which is perhaps caused by their biological differences as discussed by the theorist.
“May be it was on my father’s face ...... no idea who he was ... rapist left it behind ...
Criminal I called a boyfriend”. (Kaur, 2010)
Feminist theory has always criticized the male-dominant attitude of societies. Beauvoir
also discussed this in the book w (1949). She presented the same idea of male subjugation of
women because of biological differences. In the aforementioned lines, Kaur talks about the
different roles of man who subjugate women. The woman who is sometimes sister, daughter and
girlfriend or wife, face the oppression by their respective masters. They oppress them socially or
sometimes morally. They think of themselves superior to their women. They remain Master of the
patriarchal mode of their society.
====================================================================
Similarly, talks about the man’s role of father. Being a father, he exploits his daughters. It
can be understood in a way that in some of the male-dominant societies, women don’t enjoy
educational freedom and environment, and they don’t have their desired life partner. And this all
happens because of their father and brother. They do not permit them to get education and marry
a man of their desire. So, being father women are exploited as biologically they are deemed inferior
to their males. Additionally, Rupi Kaur examines the same idea in the above line. She wants to
display that man sometimes being a boyfriend exploits his girlfriend. The exploitation can be
sexual, moral or even social. She deems him as a rapist and call him criminal. This also shows that
how Indian culture have been rich with such crimes. Boyfriends sexually exploit their girlfriends.
They have sexual intercourse and leave their girlfriends with the babies in their wombs. This
presents the moral corruption of those males who are indulge in this inhumane behavior, and Rupi
Kaur calls such individuals rapists and criminals.
“I’ll be quiet when ....... sexual assault ...... they stop screaming liar.” (Kaur, 2010)
This again explains the sexual, moral and social exploitation of women. As it is portrayed
by the feminist theory, males are biologically stronger than woman, and that causes the suppression
of women in male-dominant societies. Thus, Kaur also reflects the idea of how men have been
treating women in her society. She highlights that women are quite when they are sexually
assaulted in their domestic lives or urban setting. Women are sexually assaulted and raped, and
when they raise their voice against it they are mistreated in the society and people call them liar.
They don’t believe them. It is because women are deemed inferior, and male are dominant in the
culture and value. But, when women stay silent and raise no compliant voice against them, they,
the people who called them liar and treacherous, give up their grievances and don’t call them a
liar, stops their misbehavior one can call inhumane behavior. This highlights that in Indian culture
of Rupi Kaur men think of themselves biologically dominant, and they deem women inferior and
exploit them culturally and morally. This shows the injustice done to women. This depicts the
disqualifying nature of law, justice and court. There is no equal law for men and women socially.
Women are deprived. And they have to stay calm even when they are rapped. This is a disguising
picture of male dominant attitude.
“While everyone else was living their life in colour

Depression froze me...” (Kaur, 2010)
This line again justifies the suffering of women in the culture of Rupi Kaur. She sounds
very painful and screaming while depicting the woman version of victimization. As Feminist
discourse talks about the make dominancy over female, it is easily accessible that women are
marginalized in the society of male superiority. Kaur also reflects this in the aforementioned lines.
She explores the idea that all the world – the world of male dormancy live the life of luxury. They
====================================================================
enjoy everything in life. They have all comforts, all the physical relaxations, but women have not
been familiar to them. They are deprived and has been stayed same for a long ago in human history.
Rupi Kaur proposes the idea that, male have been victimizing women. They don’t let them
experience the life of their own desire. They remain stagnant, arrogant and patriarchal always there
with their own traditional thinking of superiority. Rupi provides the reason psychological disorder
of women who are subjugated by men. According to her, the solitude of unequal life becomes the
reason for their life in the society. Women because of suppression suffer from depression, anxiety
and restiveness. They feel inferiority complex in the society. That depression freezes women. The
freeze can be interpreted as refusal and denial of women in the society. Thy do go across racism,
discrimination, hatred, inferiority, and many more other evils in the patriarchal society.
In a nutshell, it is concluded that the whole discussion focuses on locating feminist

approach in the poetic writings of Rupi Kaur from her book, Home Body. The study has evaluated
the research questions and objectives in order to solve the research problem. The study has majorly
focused on the theoretical evaluation with regard to the research questions and objectives. Five
selected poems of Rupi Kaur are discussed in the above discussion and analysis with respect to
Beauvoir’s theory of Feminism from her book Second Sex (1949).
6. Conclusion
Researcher here organizes the whole discussion, its research question, objective, problem,
analysis and concludes them together in one idea. The feminism is normally dealt by many authors
in the world of literature. The ideas of Rupi Kaur which are somehow postmodern in nature retains
a great significance within themselves. Rupi Kaur normally remains very stagnant and liberal
while talking about women. She herself seems depressed and anxious about feminine. She stands
as an outspoken vocal for the rights of women in the patriarchal mood of society. She declares the
culture around her as rigid and biased in terms of gender. The patriarchal mechanism even does
not leave the mind of women free. Males control women, they captivate their mind, their body and
soul. This stands to be the social exploitation of women. Moreover, her writing covers the
systematically arranged domestic violence against women. In a poem where she talks about the
dark room stands as the epitome of her depiction of gender based violence and discrimination in
the male dominant society of her culture – universe. She also talks about the different roles of man
through which he exploits women. The role of father, brother, boyfriend, husband, etc. Kaur
touches this idea very artistically and in a novel manner by providing different aspects and roles
of male attitude towards women. Additionally, she has a staunch support for women equality. She
stands against women discrimination and the misbehavior done to them. She is a valid advocate
for women. She herself being a woman stands liberally and equally against males and challenges
them through her art, literature, and literary manners. In a nutshell, it is possible to pay the
argument that Rupi Kaur’s Home Body is replete with feminist ideas and reflects the empowerment
====================================================================
of women in male dominant-culture. She describes rape, domestic violence, and social injustice to
women.
====================================================================
References
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Beauvoir, S. (2011). The Second Sex. (C. Borde & S. Malovany-Chevallier, Trans). New
York: Vintage Books. (Original work published in 1949).
Cavanaugh, V. "A Brief History: The Four Waves of Feminism." Progressive Women's
Leadership, 12 Mar. 2017, www.progressivewomensleadership.com/a-brief-history-the-
four-waves-of-feminism.
Gao, H. "Reflection on Feminism in Jane Eyre." Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 3,
no. 6, June 2013, pp. 926-931.
Ghorfati & Medini/ university of Tlemcen, A. R. (2015). Feminism and its Impact On woman in
the Modern Society.
Habib, B., Alvi, S. D., & Badeer, A. (2013). Women in Tehmina Durrani’s My Feudal Lord: A
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JHSS), 19(12), 58-61. Retrieved from www.iosrjournals.org.
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Dar, S. H. (2013). Bapsi Sidhwa’s Ice-Candy-Man: A Feminist Perspective. International
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Munir, A., & Akhtar, N. (2014). A social custom "Vani" introduction and critical Analysis (1st
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LANGUAGE IN INDIA

Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow

Volume 21:12 December 2021

Managing Editor & Publisher: M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.

Language in India www.languageinindia.com is an open access journal. Language in

We have agreements with several database organizations such as EBSCOHost

Selvaganapathy, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Scholar

Professor Maya Khemlani David and Ameer Ali

Dr. Mamata Rani Subudhi

Sabri Mohammad and Noor Abu Madi

Yi He, M.A., PhD Student

Mrs. Reena Garg, M.A. English, B.Ed.

Majd Abushunar, Ph.D. in Linguistics

Article Pages Deleted 148-209

Ms. Sojipan Ekachai

It is vital for English language teachers to understand how culture is represented in

1. To identify the different types of cultural information represented in Speak Now

English as a Lingua Franca

Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

Language learners who develop intercultural awareness can communicate

English Education in Thailand

The Teaching and Learning of English

According to the Higher Education Commission's announcement on boosting English

The Roles of Textbook in ELT

According to Baker (2008), Thai students should be taught to compare cultural

Textbook’s Evaluation Criteria

Research Population and Sampling

Lesson 3 “People”: This lesson's goal is to teach students how to identify

Lesson 4: “Daily Life”: It includes 4 mini-topics on pronunciation, listening, and

Lesson 6: “Shopping”: It has 4 subtopics. Listening and speaking stress intonations.

Findings for the Research Question 1

Findings for the Research Question 2

Findings for the Research Question 3

When creating a framework for non-native speakers to learn a foreign language,

Chinese Students Self-Perceived Reading Ability and Its

Reading can be divided into three levels (Dale, 1965, p. 105)

According to different scholars, a reader's accurate perception, sound recognition,

Kurland (2010) summarizes these characteristics as:

There are three questions used as underpinnings of this article.

1. What are the Chinese undergraduate students’ self-perceived reading ability?

With regards to the participants reading concentration, 35.7%, focused on materials

Discussion of the Findings

The Implication of the Findings to the Teaching of Critical Reading

Nihali(?) Munda-Language Khmer-Nicobarese language

3. Linguistic Profile of the Region

5. English Language Teaching in Nicobar

6. Error Identification through Testing and Evaluation

7. Methods of Obtaining the Data

10. Significance of the Study

11. Data Analysis and Interpretations

2. Government Senior Secondary School, Arong (2) 2 5 7

3. Government Secondary School, Malacca (3) 3 11 14

Source: Computed from primary data

12. Language Ability Test (LAT):

13. School Wise Free Composition Errors

13. a. School-wise Participants /Demographic Profile

Figure 3.1: School-wise Participants

Linguistic Repertoire of ‘Pu’ participants