Class 11

Phonological Rules: Metathesis
Phonological process in 1- Ask /æsk/ changed for

which sounds switch Aks /æks/
places in the phonemic
2- Introduce /ɪntrəˈdus/ changed for
structure of a word
Interduce /ɪntərˈdus/
The two sounds involved
might be consonants or 3- Cats /kæts/ changed for
vowels cast /kɑ:st/
Phonological Rules: Strengthening
Aspiration rule
Also called ‘’fortition’’
Aspiration is a phonological
phonological process that we use in English to alter
process in which a the sound of /p/ and other voiceless
sound is made stops.
stronger Aspiration can be used as another way of
telling if some syllables are stressed or
not
Phonological Rules: Weakening
Also called ‘’lenition’’ The flapping rule

this phonological
process explains The phonemes /t/ and /d/ turn into flaps
when these sounds occur between two
the way in which a
vowels (i.e., intervocalic), but only when
sound becomes
the second vowel is unstressed.
weaker
Class 11: Monday, February 27th
 Assimilation results from the influence of one segment on
another. A sound becomes more like another nearby sound in
terms of one or more of its phonetic characteristics.
 When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of

one phoneme is copied or taken by the other, then we
generally the process known as assimilation.
An assimilation rule is
a rule that makes
neighboring segments
more similar by
duplicating a phonetic
For example, the English vowel nasalization rule
property. states that vowels become nasalized before a
nasal consonant within the same syllable
Vowel Nasalization
Nasalization is the process of

the production of a sound
while the velum is lowered,
so that some air escapes
through the nose during the
production of the sound by the
mouth.
Vowel Nasalization
Nasalization of vowels Vowels are nasalized before a nasal

typically occur when the consonant within the same syllable
vowel immediately structure.
precedes, or follows, a
nasal consonant /m, n, ŋ/,
as in words such
as man [mæ̃n], now [naʊ̃ː]
and wing [wɪŋ̃ ].
 Assimilation is the one of connected speech how to speak fast.
 It is often defined as a process of replacing one sound (or changing

some properties of a sound) under the influence of another sound
which occurs near to it.
 It has also been characterized as an adjustment of speech sounds to

their environment.
The phonemes of assimilation are: 1- Basket maker, coconut butter,
fight plan.
1. /t/ changes to /b/ before /m/ or /b/
and /p/ 2- Bad pain, good morning, closed
2. /n/ changes to /b/ before /m/ or /b/ book.
and /p/
3. /n/ changes to /ŋ/ before /m/ or /k/ 3- Action group, Golden gate.
and /g/
4. /t/ changes to /k/ before /m/ or /k/ 4- credit card, smart girl, secret
and /g/ menu
5. /d/ changes to /g/ before /k/ or /g/ 5- Red carpet, bad girl, second
class.
6- . /s/ changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ and /j/ 6- Dress shop, nice yatch
7- These sheep, cheese shop,

7. /z/ changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or /j/ where’s yours?
8- Bath seat, earth science, fourth

8. /θ/ changes to /s/ before /s/ season
When in the sequence of segment
AB, segment A (first) exerts influence Example:
on segment B (second). We can say
that A is an assimilator while B is
assimilated. The sound "get them" not
In other words, it happens when a
pronounced as "gɛt dәm" because
preceding sound has an effect on a the word 'get' ends in the alveolar /t/
following one. ; the word 'them' with the interdental
/d/, when the two are combined
A B they’re turn into "gɛt әm" the
interdental /d/ is often pronounced
Influence is from left to right. like the preceding sound, /t/.
The question What’s the
problem?
In slower speech we might say:

/wɒts ðə ˈprɒbləm/ .
In very fast, casual speech we

could say:
/wɒtszəˈprɒbləm/
In regressive assimilation the assimilated sound The example is the sound
creates a new sound. of “that page” into “dæt
pedʒ”, the alveolar /t/
Regressive assimilation occurs when the final changes to /p/ because the
sound of the preceding word becomes similar to second word, page begins
initial word. In other words, a following sound has with a /p/.
an effect on a preceding one
It happens when the final
A B consonant affects the initial
Influence is from right to left
Bad boys: In slower
speech we might
say: /bæd bɔɪz/
In fast, casual speech

we could say:
/bæb bɔɪz/
Reciprocal Assimilation occurs when the This can be noticed in
sequences of segment AB, segment B exert words like:
influence on segment A, and at the same • soldier /‘soυldjər/
time segment A influence on segment B. So, • picture /‘pıktu:r/
A and B are assimilator. • fissure /‘fısju:r/
They become
This is when two sounds mutually affect
each other or when two sounds are /‘səυldзə/, /‘pıkt∫ə/, /fı∫ə/
combined and produce the new sound.
• Assimilation of Place of For example, the final
Articulation consonant in ‘that’ ðaet is
Assimilation of place is most alveolar t.
clearly observable in some cases
where a final consonant with In rapid, casual speech the /t/
alveolar place of articulation is will become /p/ before a
followed by an initial consonant bilabial consonant, as in: ‘that
with a place of articulation that is person’ (ðaep pɛ:sn) , ‘light
not alveolar. blue’ (laip blu:) and ‘meat pie’
(mi:p pai).
Another observable case in English is in word Examples:
final alveolar consonants such as /t, d, n/:
That boy → /ðap bɔɪ/
If a word ends in one of these consonants is
Good concert → /gʊg
followed by a word whose initial consonant
kɒnsәt/
begins with a bilabial, a velar or a dental, the
word-final alveolar consonant is likely to
Ten players → /tem
change it is place of articulation to match that
pleɪәz/
at the beginning of the second word.
Assimilation of Manner of Articulation
Assimilation of manner is much less
noticeable, and is only found in the most rapid
and casual speech; generally speaking, the
tendency is again for regressive assimilation.
Assimilation of manner typically occurs in the

most rapid and casual speech, in which case
one sound changes the manner of it is
articulation to become similar in manner to
a neighboring sound.
 The sixth sheik’s sixth sheep is
sick
 The fifth sheik’s fourth sheep is

sick
This type of rule refers to
processes whereby two
neighboring sounds become
less similar.
When a sound changes one of its

features become less similar to
an adjacent sound , usually to
make the two sounds more
distinguishable.
What do Phonological rules exist?
Languages have general principles that

constrain posible sequence of sounds. The
rules specify minimal modification of the
underlying forms.
Phonological rules provide the phonetic

information necessary for the
pronunciation of utterances.
What do Phonological rules exist?
 Change feature values

 Add new features (distinctive/non-distinctive):
aspiration in English.
 Delete segments: contraction rules in English.
 Add segments (schwa insertion in plural and
past tense).
 Reorder segments (metathesis: sk to [ks]
• Curzan. A, Michael P. Adams, 2009. How English Works. A Linguistic
Introduction. St. Petesburg College, Pearson.
• Iman. O. (2015). Phonological Rules. University of Babylon.English
Department .
• Moira. Y. (1988). The Obligatory Contour Principle and Phonological
Rules: A Loss of Identity. Linguistic Inquiry.
• Sanders, M. (2020). An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh
University Press.

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Phonological Rules: Metathesis

Phonological process in 1- Ask /æsk/ changed for

Also called ‘’lenition’’ The flapping rule

 When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of

Nasalization is the process of

Nasalization of vowels Vowels are nasalized before a nasal

 It is often defined as a process of replacing one sound (or changing

 It has also been characterized as an adjustment of speech sounds to

7- These sheep, cheese shop,

8- Bath seat, earth science, fourth

In slower speech we might say:

In very fast, casual speech we

In fast, casual speech

Assimilation of manner typically occurs in the

 The fifth sheik’s fourth sheep is

When a sound changes one of its

Languages have general principles that

Phonological rules provide the phonetic

 Change feature values

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