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SUMMARY

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction 1.328
Laminar: Cf  Re L  5 10 5
is called drag. The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear Re 1/2
L
stress w is called the skin friction drag since it is caused by
0.074
frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure is Turbulent: Cf  5 10 5  Re L  10 7
called the pressure drag or form drag because of its strong de- Re 1/5
L
0.074 1742
pendence on the form or shape of the body. Combined: Cf   5 10 5  ReL  10 7
The drag coefficient CD is a dimensionless number that rep- Re1/5
L ReL
resents the drag characteristics of a body, and is defined as
 

2.5
Rough surface, turbulent: Cf  1.89  1.62 log
FD L
CD  1
2
 2
A
The average Nusselt number relations for flow over a flat plate
where A is the frontal area for blunt bodies, and surface area are:
for parallel flow over flat plates or thin airfoils. For flow over
a flat plate, the Reynolds number is hL
Laminar: Nu   0.664 Re 0.5
L Pr
1/3
ReL  5 10 5
x x k
Rex    
Turbulent:
hL 0.6  Pr  60
Transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at the critical Nu   0.037 Re0.8
L Pr
1/3
Reynolds number of k 5 10 5  ReL  10 7
xcr Combined:
Re x, cr    5 10
5
hL 0.6  Pr  60
Nu   (0.037 Re0.8
L  871) Pr ,
1/3

For parallel flow over a flat plate, the local friction and con-
k 5 10 5  ReL  10 7
vection coefficients are
For isothermal surfaces with an unheated starting section of
0.664 length , the local Nusselt number and the average convection
Laminar: C f, x  Re x  5 10 5
Re 1/2
x coefficient relations are
hx x
Nu x   0.332 Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
Pr  0.6 Nux (for 0)
k 0.332 Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
Laminar: Nux  3/4 1/3 
0.0592 [1  ( /x) ] [1  ( /x) ]
3/4 1/3
Turbulent: Cf, x  , 5 10 5  Re x  10 7 Nu x (for 0)
Re 1/5 0.0296 Re0.8
x Pr
1/3
x
Turbulent: Nu x  9/10 1/ 9 
hx x 0.6  Pr  60 [1  (/x) ] [1  (/x) ]
9/10 1/9
Nu x   0.0296 Re 0.8
x Pr
1/3
2[1  ( /x) 3/4]
k 5 10 5  Re x  10 7 Laminar: h hxL
1   /L
The average friction coefficient relations for flow over a flat 5[1  ( /x) 9/10
plate are: Turbulent: h hxL
(1   / L)
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CHAPTER 7

These relations are for the case of isothermal surfaces. When a hD

Nu D   C Re Dm Pr n(Pr/Prs) 0.25
flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux, the local Nusselt k
number is given by
where the values of the constants C, m, and n depend on value
Laminar: Nux  0.453 Re 0.5
x Pr
1/3
Reynolds number. Such correlations are given in Table 7–2.
Turbulent: Nux  0.0308 Re x P r 1/3
0.8 All properties except Prs are to be evaluated at the arithmetic
mean of the inlet and outlet temperatures of the fluid defined as
The average Nusselt numbers for cross flow over a cylinder Tm  (Ti  Te)/2.
and sphere are The average Nusselt number for tube banks with less than
16 rows is expressed as
0.62 Re1/2 Pr1/3
  
hD Re 5/8 4/5
Nucyl   0.3  1 Nu D, NL  F NuD
k [1  (0.4/ Pr)2/3]1/4 282,000
where F is the correction factor whose values are given in
which is valid for Re Pr  0.2, and Table 7-3. The heat transfer rate to or from a tube bank is de-
 termined from
 
hD 1/4
Nu sph   2  [0.4 Re1/2  0.06 Re 2/3]Pr 0.4 
k s Q̇  h A s Tln  ṁCp (Te  Ti)

which is valid for 3.5  Re  80,000 and 0.7  Pr  380. where Tln is the logarithmic mean temperature difference de-
The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature fined as
Tf  (T  Ts)/2 in the case of a cylinder, and at the free- (Ts  Te )  (Ts  Ti ) Te  Ti
stream temperature T (except for s , which is evaluated at the Tln  
ln[(Ts  Te )/(Ts  Ti )] ln(Te /Ti)
surface temperature Ts) in the case of a sphere.
In tube banks, the Reynolds number is based on the maxi- and the exit temperature of the fluid Te is
mum velocity max that is related to the approach velocity  as
 ṁC 
Ash
Te  Ts  (Ts  Ti ) exp
In-line and Staggered with SD  (ST  D)/2: p

ST
max   where As  NDL is the heat transfer surface area and m· 
ST  D (NT ST L) is the mass flow rate of the fluid. The pressure
Staggered with SD  (ST  D)/2: drop P for a tube bank is expressed as
ST  2max
max   P  NL f 
2(SD  D) 2
where ST the transverse pitch and SD is the diagonal pitch. The where f is the friction factor and  is the correction factor, both
average Nusselt number for cross flow over tube banks is ex- given in Figs. 7–27.
pressed as

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

1. R. D. Blevin. Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook. 5. W. H. Giedt. “Investigation of Variation of Point Unit-
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984. Heat Transfer Coefficient around a Cylinder Normal to an
2. S. W. Churchill and M. Bernstein. “A Correlating Air Stream.” Transactions of the ASME 71 (1949),
Equation for Forced Convection from Gases and Liquids pp. 375–381.
to a Circular Cylinder in Cross Flow.” Journal of Heat 6. M. Jakob. Heat Transfer. Vol. l. New York: John Wiley &
Transfer 99 (1977), pp. 300–306. Sons, 1949.
3. S. W. Churchill and H. Ozoe. “Correlations for Laminar 7. W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford. Convective Heat and
Forced Convection in Flow over an Isothermal Flat Plate Mass Transfer. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
and in Developing and Fully Developed Flow in an
Isothermal Tube.” Journal of Heat Transfer 95 (Feb. 8. F. Kreith and M. S. Bohn. Principles of Heat Transfer, 6th
1973), pp. 78–84. ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2001.
4. W. M. Edmunds. “Residential Insulation.” ASTM 9. H. Schlichting. Boundary Layer Theory, 7th ed. New
Standardization News (Jan. 1989), pp. 36–39. York, McGraw-Hill, 1979.
cen58933_ch07.qxd 9/4/2002 12:13 PM Page 408

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HEAT TRANSFER

10. N. V. Suryanarayana. Engineering Heat Transfer. St. Paul, 14. A. Zukauskas. “Heat Transfer from Tubes in Cross Flow.”
MN: West, 1995. In Advances in Heat Transfer, ed. J. P. Hartnett and T. F.
11. W. C. Thomas. “Note on the Heat Transfer Equation for Irvine, Jr. Vol. 8. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Forced Convection Flow over a Flat Plate with and 15. A. Zukauskas. “Heat Transfer from Tubes in Cross Flow.”
Unheated Starting Length.” Mechanical Engineering In Handbook of Single Phase Convective Heat Transfer,
News, 9, no.1 (1977), p. 361. Eds. S. Kakac, R. K. Shah, and Win Aung. New York:
12. R. D. Willis. “Photographic Study of Fluid Flow Between Wiley Interscience, 1987.
Banks of Tubes.” Engineering (1934), pp. 423–425. 16. A. Zukauskas and R. Ulinskas, “Efficiency Parameters for
13. A. Zukauskas, “Convection Heat Transfer in Cross Flow.” Heat Transfer in Tube Banks.” Heat Transfer Engineering
In Advances in Heat Transfer, J. P. Hartnett and T. F. no. 2 (1985), pp. 19–25.
Irvine, Jr., Eds. New York: Academic Press, 1972, Vol. 8,
pp. 93–106.

PROBLEMS*

Drag Force and Heat Transfer in External Flow 7–10C What is flow separation? What causes it? What is the
7–1C What is the difference between the upstream velocity effect of flow separation on the drag coefficient?
and the free-stream velocity? For what types of flow are these Flow Over Flat Plates
two velocities equal to each other?
7–11C What does the friction coefficient represent in flow
7–2C What is the difference between streamlined and blunt over a flat plate? How is it related to the drag force acting on
bodies? Is a tennis ball a streamlined or blunt body? the plate?
7–3C What is drag? What causes it? Why do we usually try 7–12C Consider laminar flow over a flat plate. Will the fric-
to minimize it? tion coefficient change with distance from the leading edge?
7–4C What is lift? What causes it? Does wall shear con- How about the heat transfer coefficient?
tribute to the lift? 7–13C How are the average friction and heat transfer coeffi-
7–5C During flow over a given body, the drag force, the up- cients determined in flow over a flat plate?
stream velocity, and the fluid density are measured. Explain 7–14 Engine oil at 80°C flows over a 6-m-long flat plate
how you would detennine the drag coefficient. What area whose temperature is 30°C with a velocity of 3 m/s. Determine
would you use in calculations? the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer over the entire
7–6C Define frontal area of a body subjected to external plate per unit width.
flow. When is it appropriate to use the frontal area in drag and 7–15 The local atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado
lift calculations? (elevation 1610 m), is 83.4 kPa. Air at this pressure and
7–7C What is the difference between skin friction drag and at 30°C flows with a velocity of 6 m/s over a 2.5-m 8-m flat
pressure drag? Which is usually more significant for slender plate whose temperature is 120°C. Determine the rate of
bodies such as airfoils? heat transfer from the plate if the air flows parallel to the
(a) 8-m-long side and (b) the 2.5-m side.
7–8C What is the effect of surface roughness on the friction
drag coefficient in laminar and turbulent flows? 7–16 During a cold winter day, wind at 55 km/h is blowing
parallel to a 4-m-high and 10-m-long wall of a house. If the air
7–9C What is the effect of streamlining on (a) friction drag
outside is at 5°C and the surface temperature of the wall is
and (b) pressure drag? Does the total drag acting on a body
necessarily decrease as a result of streamlining? Explain.
Attic
*Problems designated by a “C” are concept questions, and space
students are encouraged to answer them all. Problems designated
by an “E” are in English units, and the SI users can ignore them.
Air 4m
Problems with an EES-CD icon are solved using EES, and
complete solutions together with parametric studies are included 5°C
on the enclosed CD. Problems with a computer-EES icon are 55 km/h
10 m 12°C
comprehensive in nature, and are intended to be solved with a
computer, preferably using the EES software that accompanies
this text. FIGURE P7–16
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CHAPTER 7

12°C, determine the rate of heat loss from that wall by convec- 7–22 The top surface of the passenger car of a train moving
tion. What would your answer be if the wind velocity was dou- at a velocity of 70 km/h is 2.8 m wide and 8 m long. The top
bled? Answers: 9081 W, 16,200 W surface is absorbing solar radiation at a rate of 200 W/m2, and
7–17 Reconsider Problem 7–16. Using EES (or other) the temperature of the ambient air is 30°C. Assuming the roof
software, investigate the effects of wind velocity of the car to be perfectly insulated and the radiation heat ex-
and outside air temperature on the rate of heat loss from the change with the surroundings to be small relative to convec-
wall by convection. Let the wind velocity vary from 10 km/h to tion, determine the equilibrium temperature of the top surface
80 km/h and the outside air temperature from 0ºC to 10ºC. Plot of the car. Answer: 35.1°C
the rate of heat loss as a function of the wind velocity and of
the outside temperature, and discuss the results.
7–18E Air at 60°F flows over a 10-ft-long flat plate at 7 ft/s.
Determine the local friction and heat transfer coefficients at in-
tervals of 1 ft, and plot the results against the distance from the
leading edge. Air 200 W/ m2
7–19E Reconsider Problem 7–18. Using EES (or 30°C
other) software, evaluate the local friction and 70 km/h
heat transfer coefficients along the plate at intervals of 0.1 ft,
and plot them against the distance from the leading edge.
7–20 Consider a hot automotive engine, which can be ap-
proximated as a 0.5-m-high, 0.40-m-wide, and 0.8-m-long rec- FIGURE P7–22
tangular block. The bottom surface of the block is at a
temperature of 80°C and has an emissivity of 0.95. The ambi- 7–23 Reconsider Problem 7–22. Using EES (or other) soft-
ent air is at 20°C, and the road surface is at 25°C. Determine ware, investigate the effects of the train velocity and the rate
the rate of heat transfer from the bottom surface of the engine of absorption of solar radiation on the equilibrium tempera-
block by convection and radiation as the car travels at a veloc- ture of the top surface of the car. Let the train velocity vary
ity of 80 km/h. Assume the flow to be turbulent over the entire from 10 km/h to 120 km/h and the rate of solar absorption from
surface because of the constant agitation of the engine block. 100 W/m2 to 500 W/m2. Plot the equilibrium temperature as
7–21 The forming section of a plastics plant puts out a con- functions of train velocity and solar radiation absorption rate,
tinuous sheet of plastic that is 1.2 m wide and 2 mm thick at a and discuss the results.
rate of 15 m/min. The temperature of the plastic sheet is 90°C
7–24 A 15-cm 15-cm circuit board dissipating 15 W of
when it is exposed to the surrounding air, and the sheet is sub-
power uniformly is cooled by air, which approaches the circuit
jected to air flow at 30°C at a velocity of 3 m/s on both sides
board at 20°C with a velocity of 5 m/s. Disregarding any heat
along its surfaces normal to the direction of motion of the
transfer from the back surface of the board, determine the sur-
sheet. The width of the air cooling section is such that a fixed
face temperature of the electronic components (a) at the lead-
point on the plastic sheet passes through that section in 2 s. De-
ing edge and (b) at the end of the board. Assume the flow to be
termine the rate of heat transfer from the plastic sheet to the air.
turbulent since the electronic components are expected to act
as turbulators.
7–25 Consider laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate main-
Air
30°C, 3 m/s tained at a constant temperature. Now the free-stream velocity
of the fluid is doubled. Determine the change in the drag force
on the plate and rate of heat transfer between the fluid and the
plate. Assume the flow to remain laminar.
7–26E Consider a refrigeration truck traveling at 55 mph at
a location where the air temperature is 80°F. The refrigerated
compartment of the truck can be considered to be a 9-ft-wide,
Plastic 8-ft-high, and 20-ft-long rectangular box. The refrigeration
sheet system of the truck can provide 3 tons of refrigeration (i.e., it
90°C
can remove heat at a rate of 600 Btu/min). The outer surface
of the truck is coated with a low-emissivity material, and thus
radiation heat transfer is very small. Determine the average
15 m/min temperature of the outer surface of the refrigeration compart-
FIGURE P7–21 ment of the truck if the refrigeration system is observed to be
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HEAT TRANSFER

Air, 80°F passages between the fins. The heat sink is to dissipate 20 W of
 = 55 mph heat and the base temperature of the heat sink is not to exceed
20 ft 60°C. Assuming the fins and the base plate to be nearly isother-
mal and the radiation heat transfer to be negligible, determine
Refrigeration the minimum free-stream velocity the fan needs to supply to
8 ft truck avoid overheating.

Air
25°C

FIGURE P7–26E

operating at half the capacity. Assume the air flow over the en- 60°C
tire outer surface to be turbulent and the heat transfer coeffi-
cient at the front and rear surfaces to be equal to that on side Fins
surfaces.
7–27 Solar radiation is incident on the glass cover of a solar
collector at a rate of 700 W/m2. The glass transmits 88 percent 0.5 cm
of the incident radiation and has an emissivity of 0.90. The en-
tire hot water needs of a family in summer can be met by two 10 cm
Transformer 5 cm
collectors 1.2 m high and 1 m wide. The two collectors are at- 20 W
tached to each other on one side so that they appear like a sin-
gle collector 1.2 m 2 m in size. The temperature of the glass 6.2 cm
cover is measured to be 35°C on a day when the surrounding
air temperature is 25°C and the wind is blowing at 30 km/h.
FIGURE P7–28
The effective sky temperature for radiation exchange between
the glass cover and the open sky is 40°C. Water enters the 7–29 Repeat Problem 7–28 assuming the heat sink to be
tubes attached to the absorber plate at a rate of 1 kg/min. As- black-anodized and thus to have an effective emissivity of
suming the back surface of the absorber plate to be heavily in- 0.90. Note that in radiation calculations the base area (10 cm
sulated and the only heat loss to occur through the glass cover, 6.2 cm) is to be used, not the total surface area.
determine (a) the total rate of heat loss from the collector, 7–30 An array of power transistors, dissipating 6 W of power
(b) the collector efficiency, which is the ratio of the amount of each, are to be cooled by mounting them on a 25-cm 25-cm
heat transferred to the water to the solar energy incident on the square aluminum plate and blowing air at 35°C over the plate
collector, and (c) the temperature rise of water as it flows with a fan at a velocity of 4 m/s. The average temperature of
through the collector. the plate is not to exceed 65°C. Assuming the heat transfer
from the back side of the plate to be negligible and disregard-
Tsky = – 40°C
ing radiation, determine the number of transistors that can be
placed on this plate.
Solar
collector
Air Solar
25°C 35°C radiation Aluminum Power
plate transistor, 6 W

35°C
Air 25 cm
FIGURE P7–27
4 m/s
7–28 A transformer that is 10 cm long, 6.2 cm wide, and 65°C
5 cm high is to be cooled by attaching a 10 cm 6.2 cm wide
polished aluminum heat sink (emissivity  0.03) to its top sur-
25 cm
face. The heat sink has seven fins, which are 5 mm high, 2 mm
thick, and 10 cm long. A fan blows air at 25°C parallel to the FIGURE P7–30
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CHAPTER 7

7–31 Repeat Problem 7–30 for a location at an elevation of of air at 1 atm pressure and 30°C with a velocity of 6 m/s. The
1610 m where the atmospheric pressure is 83.4 kPa. surface temperature of the ball eventually drops to 250°C. Deter-
Answer: 4 mine the average convection heat transfer coefficient during this
7–32 Air at 25°C and 1 atm is flowing over a long flat plate cooling process and estimate how long this process has taken.
with a velocity of 8 m/s. Determine the distance from the lead- 7–41 Reconsider Problem 7–40. Using EES (or other)
ing edge of the plate where the flow becomes turbulent, and the software, investigate the effect of air velocity on
thickness of the boundary layer at that location. the average convection heat transfer coefficient and the cooling
7–33 Repeat Problem 7–32 for water. time. Let the air velocity vary from 1 m/s to 10 m/s. Plot the
heat transfer coefficient and the cooling time as a function of
7–34 The weight of a thin flat plate 50 cm 50 cm in size is air velocity, and discuss the results.
balanced by a counterweight that has a mass of 2 kg, as shown
in the figure. Now a fan is turned on, and air at 1 atm and 25°C 7–42E A person extends his uncovered arms into the windy
flows downward over both surfaces of the plate with a free- air outside at 54°F and 20 mph in order to feel nature closely.
stream velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the mass of the counter- Initially, the skin temperature of the arm is 86°F. Treating the
weight that needs to be added in order to balance the plate in arm as a 2-ft-long and 3-in.-diameter cylinder, determine the
this case. rate of heat loss from the arm.

Air
25°C, 10 m /s Air
54°F, 20 mph

86°F

Plate 50 cm

50 cm

FIGURE P7–34

Flow across Cylinders and Spheres

7–35C Consider laminar flow of air across a hot circular FIGURE P7–42E
cylinder. At what point on the cylinder will the heat transfer be
highest? What would your answer be if the flow were turbulent?
7–36C In flow over cylinders, why does the drag coefficient 7–43E Reconsider Problem 7–42E. Using EES (or
suddenly drop when the flow becomes turbulent? Isn’t turbu- other) software, investigate the effects of air
lence supposed to increase the drag coefficient instead of temperature and wind velocity on the rate of heat loss from the
decreasing it? arm. Let the air temperature vary from 20°F to 80°F and the
wind velocity from 10 mph to 40 mph. Plot the rate of heat loss
7–37C In flow over blunt bodies such as a cylinder, how as a function of air temperature and of wind velocity, and dis-
does the pressure drag differ from the friction drag? cuss the results.
7–38C Why is flow separation in flow over cylinders de- 7–44 An average person generates heat at a rate of 84 W
layed in turbulent flow? while resting. Assuming one-quarter of this heat is lost from
7–39 A long 8-cm-diameter steam pipe whose external sur- the head and disregarding radiation, determine the average sur-
face temperature is 90°C passes through some open area that is face temperature of the head when it is not covered and is sub-
not protected against the winds. Determine the rate of heat loss jected to winds at 10°C and 35 km/h. The head can be
from the pipe per unit of its length when the air is at 1 atm pres- approximated as a 30-cm-diameter sphere. Answer: 12.7°C
sure and 7°C and the wind is blowing across the pipe at a ve- 7–45 Consider the flow of a fluid across a cylinder main-
locity of 50 km/h. tained at a constant temperature. Now the free-stream velocity
7–40 A stainless steel ball (  8055 kg/m3, Cp  480 J/kg · of the fluid is doubled. Determine the change in the drag force
°C) of diameter D  15 cm is removed from the oven at a uni- on the cylinder and the rate of heat transfer between the fluid
form temperature of 350°C. The ball is then subjected to the flow and the cylinder.
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HEAT TRANSFER

7–46 A 6-mm-diameter electrical transmission line carries an the person. The average human body can be treated as a 1-ft-
electric current of 50 A and has a resistance of 0.002 ohm per diameter cylinder with an exposed surface area of 18 ft2. Dis-
meter length. Determine the surface temperature of the wire regard any heat transfer by radiation. What would your answer
during a windy day when the air temperature is 10°C and the be if the air velocity were doubled? Answers: 95.1°F, 91.6°F
wind is blowing across the transmission line at 40 km/h.

Wind, 40 km/h
10°C
85°F
6 ft /s
300 Btu/h

Transmission
lines

FIGURE P7–46

7–47 Reconsider Problem 7–46. Using EES (or other) FIGURE P7–50E
software, investigate the effect of the wind veloc-
ity on the surface temperature of the wire. Let the wind veloc- 7–51 An incandescent lightbulb is an inexpensive but highly
ity vary from 10 km/h to 80 km/h. Plot the surface temperature inefficient device that converts electrical energy into light. It
as a function of wind velocity, and discuss the results. converts about 10 percent of the electrical energy it consumes
into light while converting the remaining 90 percent into heat.
7–48 A heating system is to be designed to keep the wings of (A fluorescent lightbulb will give the same amount of light
an aircraft cruising at a velocity of 900 km/h above freezing while consuming only one-fourth of the electrical energy, and
temperatures during flight at 12,200-m altitude where the stan- it will last 10 times longer than an incandescent lightbulb.) The
dard atmospheric conditions are 55.4°C and 18.8 kPa. Ap- glass bulb of the lamp heats up very quickly as a result of ab-
proximating the wing as a cylinder of elliptical cross section sorbing all that heat and dissipating it to the surroundings by
whose minor axis is 30 cm and disregarding radiation, determine convection and radiation.
the average convection heat transfer coefficient on the wing sur- Consider a 10-cm-diameter 100-W lightbulb cooled by a fan
face and the average rate of heat transfer per unit surface area. that blows air at 25°C to the bulb at a velocity of 2 m/s. The
7–49 A long aluminum wire of diameter 3 mm is surrounding surfaces are also at 25°C, and the emissivity of the
extruded at a temperature of 370°C. The wire glass is 0.9. Assuming 10 percent of the energy passes through
is subjected to cross air flow at 30°C at a velocity of 6 m/s. the glass bulb as light with negligible absorption and the rest of
Determine the rate of heat transfer from the wire to the air per the energy is absorbed and dissipated by the bulb itself, deter-
meter length when it is first exposed to the air. mine the equilibrium temperature of the glass bulb.

370°C
3 mm

Air
25°C
Aluminum
30°C 2 m/s
wire 100 W
6 m/s
FIGURE P7–49 ε = 0.9
Light, 10 W
7–50E Consider a person who is trying to keep cool on a hot
summer day by turning a fan on and exposing his entire body FIGURE P7–51
to air flow. The air temperature is 85°F and the fan is blowing
air at a velocity of 6 ft/s. If the person is doing light work and 7–52 During a plant visit, it was noticed that a 12-m-long
generating sensible heat at a rate of 300 Btu/h, determine the section of a 10-cm-diameter steam pipe is completely exposed
average temperature of the outer surface (skin or clothing) of to the ambient air. The temperature measurements indicate that
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CHAPTER 7

the average temperature of the outer surface of the steam pipe at 30°C flowing over the duct with a velocity of 200 m/min.
is 75°C when the ambient temperature is 5°C. There are also If the surface temperature of the duct is not to exceed 65°C, de-
light winds in the area at 10 km/h. The emissivity of the outer termine the total power rating of the electronic devices that can
surface of the pipe is 0.8, and the average temperature of the be mounted into the duct. Answer: 640 W
surfaces surrounding the pipe, including the sky, is estimated to
be 0°C. Determine the amount of heat lost from the steam dur- Electronic
components
ing a 10-h-long work day.
inside
Steam is supplied by a gas-fired steam generator that has an
efficiency of 80 percent, and the plant pays $0.54/therm of nat- 30°C
ural gas (1 therm  105,500 kJ). If the pipe is insulated and 90 200 m/min 65°C
percent of the heat loss is saved, determine the amount of
money this facility will save a year as a result of insulating the Air
steam pipes. Assume the plant operates every day of the year
for 10 h. State your assumptions.
1.5 m
Tsurr = 0°C

ε = 0.8
75°C 20 cm
FIGURE P7–55
10 cm Steam pipe
7–56 Repeat Problem 7–55 for a location at 4000-m altitude
where the atmospheric pressure is 61.66 kPa.
5°C 7–57 A 0.4-W cylindrical electronic component with diame-
10 km/h
ter 0.3 cm and length 1.8 cm and mounted on a circuit board is
FIGURE P7–52 cooled by air flowing across it at a velocity of 150 m/min. If
the air temperature is 40°C, determine the surface temperature
7–53 Reconsider Problem 7–52. There seems to be some un- of the component.
certainty about the average temperature of the surfaces sur-
rounding the pipe used in radiation calculations, and you are 7–58 Consider a 50-cm-diameter and 95-cm-long hot water
asked to determine if it makes any significant difference in tank. The tank is placed on the roof of a house. The water in-
overall heat transfer. Repeat the calculations for average sur- side the tank is heated to 80ºC by a flat-plate solar collector
rounding and surface temperatures of 20°C and 25°C, re- during the day. The tank is then exposed to windy air at 18ºC
spectively, and determine the change in the values obtained. with an average velocity of 40 km/h during the night. Estimate
the temperature of the tank after a 45-mm period. Assume the
7–54E A 12-ft-long, 1.5-kW electrical resistance wire is tank surface to be at the same temperature as the water inside,
made of 0.1-in.-diameter stainless steel (k  8.7 Btu/h · ft · °F). and the heat transfer coefficient on the top and bottom surfaces
The resistance wire operates in an environment at 85°F. Deter- to be the same as that on the side surface.
mine the surface temperature of the wire if it is cooled by a fan
blowing air at a velocity of 20 ft/s. 7–59 Reconsider Problem 7–58. Using EES (or other)
software, plot the temperature of the tank as a
85°F function of the cooling time as the time varies from 30 mm to
20 ft/s 5 h, and discuss the results.
1.5 kW
resistance 7–60 A 1.8-m-diameter spherical tank of negligible thickness
heater contains iced water at 0ºC. Air at 25ºC flows over the tank with
a velocity of 7 m/s. Determine the rate of heat transfer to the
tank and the rate at which ice melts. The heat of fusion of wa-
ter at 0ºC is 333.7 kJ/kg.
FIGURE P7–54E 7-61 A 10-cm-diameter, 30-cm-high cylindrical bottle con-
tains cold water at 3ºC. The bottle is placed in windy air at
7–55 The components of an electronic system are located in 27ºC. The water temperature is measured to be 11ºC after 45
a 1.5-m-long horizontal duct whose cross section is 20 cm minutes of cooling. Disregarding radiation effects and heat
20 cm. The components in the duct are not allowed to come transfer from the top and bottom surfaces, estimate the average
into direct contact with cooling air, and thus are cooled by air wind velocity.
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HEAT TRANSFER

Flow across Tube Banks Water

15°C
7–62C In flow across tube banks, why is the Reynolds num- 0.8 m/s SL = 4 cm
D = 1 cm
ber based on the maximum velocity instead of the uniform ap- Ts = 90°C
proach velocity?
7–63C In flow across tube banks, how does the heat transfer ST = 3 cm
coefficient vary with the row number in the flow direction?
How does it vary with in the transverse direction for a given
row number?
7–64 Combustion air in a manufacturing facility is to be pre-
heated before entering a furnace by hot water at 90ºC flowing FIGURE P7–69
through the tubes of a tube bank located in a duct. Air enters
the duct at 15ºC and 1 atm with a mean velocity of 3.8 m/s, and
flows over the tubes in normal direction. The outer diameter 7–70 Air is to be cooled in the evaporator section of a re-
of the tubes is 2.1 cm, and the tubes are arranged in-line with frigerator by passing it over a bank of 0.8-cm-outer-diameter
longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL  ST  5 cm. There and 0.4-m-long tubes inside which the refrigerant is evaporat-
are eight rows in the flow direction with eight tubes in each ing at 20ºC. Air approaches the tube bank in the normal di-
row. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit length of the rection at 0ºC and 1 atm with a mean velocity of 4 m/s. The
tubes, and the pressure drop across the tube bank. tubes are arranged in-line with longitudinal and transverse
pitches of SL  ST  1.5 cm. There are 30 rows in the flow di-
7–65 Repeat Problem 7–64 for staggered arrangement with rection with 15 tubes in each row. Determine (a) the refriger-
SL  ST  5 cm. ation capacity of this system and (b) and pressure drop across
7–66 Air is to be heated by passing it over a bank of the tube bank.
3-m-long tubes inside which steam is condensing at 100ºC. Air
approaches the tube bank in the normal direction at 20ºC and 0°C
1 atm with a mean velocity of 5.2 m/s. The outer diameter of 1 atm 0.4 m
the tubes is 1.6 cm, and the tubes are arranged staggered with 4 m/s
longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL  ST  4 cm. There
are 20 rows in the flow direction with 10 tubes in each row. Air
Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer, (b) and pressure drop ST = 1.5 cm
across the tube bank, and (c) the rate of condensation of steam
inside the tubes. 0.8 cm
SL = 1.5 cm
7–67 Repeat Problem 7–66 for in-line arrangement with
Refrigerant, 20°C
SL  ST  5 cm.
7–68 Exhaust gases at 1 atm and 300ºC are used to preheat FIGURE P7–70
water in an industrial facility by passing them over a bank of
tubes through which water is flowing at a rate of 6 kg/s. The 7–71 Repeat Problem 7–70 by solving it for staggered
mean tube wall temperature is 80ºC. Exhaust gases approach arrangement with SL  ST  1.5 cm, and compare the perfor-
the tube bank in normal direction at 4.5 m/s. The outer diame- mance of the evaporator for the in-line and staggered arrange-
ter of the tubes is 2.1 cm, and the tubes are arranged in-line ments.
with longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL  ST  8 cm. 7–72 A tube bank consists of 300 tubes at a distance of 6 cm
There are 16 rows in the flow direction with eight tubes in each between the centerlines of any two adjacent tubes. Air ap-
row. Using the properties of air for exhaust gases, determine proaches the tube bank in the normal direction at 40ºC and
(a) the rate of heat transfer per unit length of tubes, (b) and 1 atm with a mean velocity of 7 m/s. There are 20 rows in the
pressure drop across the tube bank, and (c) the temperature rise flow direction with 15 tubes in each row with an average sur-
of water flowing through the tubes per unit length of tubes. face temperature of 140ºC. For an outer tube diameter of 2 cm,
7–69 Water at 15ºC is to be heated to 65ºC by passing it over determine the average heat transfer coefficient.
a bundle of 4-m-long 1-cm-diameter resistance heater rods
maintained at 90ºC. Water approaches the heater rod bundle in Special Topic: Thermal Insulation
normal direction at a mean velocity of 0.8 m/s. The rods arc
arranged in-line with longitudinal and transverse pitches of 7–73C What is thermal insulation? How does a thermal insu-
SL  4 cm and ST  3 cm. Determine the number of tube rows lator differ in purpose from an electrical insulator and from a
NL in the flow direction needed to achieve the indicated tem- sound insulator?
perature rise. 7–74C Does insulating cold surfaces save energy? Explain.
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CHAPTER 7

7–75C What is the R-value of insulation? How is it deter- 7–85 Repeat Problem 7–85 for an outer surface temperature
mined? Will doubling the thickness of flat insulation double its of 75°C for the furnace.
R-value? 7–87E Steam at 400°F is flowing through a steel pipe (k  8.7
7–76C How does the R-value of an insulation differ from its Btu/h · ft · °F) whose inner and outer diameters are 3.5 in. and
thermal resistance? 4.0 in., respectively, in an environment at 60°F. The pipe is insu-
7–77C Why is the thermal conductivity of superinsulation lated with 1-in.-thick fiberglass insulation (k  0.020 Btu/h · ft ·
orders of magnitude lower than the thermal conductivities of °F), and the heat transfer coefficients on the inside and the out-
ordinary insulations? side of the pipe are 30 Btu/h · ft2 · °F and 5 Btu/h · ft2 · °F, re-
spectively. It is proposed to add another 1-in.-thick layer of
7–78C Someone suggests that one function of hair is to insu- fiberglass insulation on top of the existing one to reduce the heat
late the head. Do you agree with this suggestion? losses further and to save energy and money. The total cost of
7–79C Name five different reasons for using insulation in in- new insulation is $7 per ft length of the pipe, and the net fuel cost
dustrial facilities. of energy in the steam is $0.01 per 1000 Btu (therefore, each
1000 Btu reduction in the heat loss will save the plant $0.01).
7–80C What is optimum thickness of insulation? How is it
The policy of the plant is to implement energy conservation
determined?
measures that pay for themselves within two years. Assuming
7–81 What is the thickness of flat R-8 (in SI units) insulation continuous operation (8760 h/year), determine if the proposed
whose thermal conductivity is 0.04 W/m · °C? additional insulation is justified.
7–82E What is the thickness of flat R-20 (in English units) 7–88 The plumbing system of a plant involves a section of a
insulation whose thermal conductivity is 0.02 Btu/h · ft · °F? plastic pipe (k  0.16 W/m · °C) of inner diameter 6 cm and
7–83 Hot water at 110°C flows in a cast iron pipe (k  52 outer diameter 6.6 cm exposed to the ambient air. You are to
W/m · °C) whose inner radius is 2.0 cm and thickness is 0.3 insulate the pipe with adequate weather-jacketed fiberglass
cm. The pipe is to be covered with adequate insulation so that insulation (k  0.035 W/m · °C) to prevent freezing of water in
the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation does not the pipe. The plant is closed for the weekends for a period of
exceed 30°C when the ambient temperature is 22°C. Taking 60 h, and the water in the pipe remains still during that period.
the heat transfer coefficients inside and outside the pipe to be The ambient temperature in the area gets as low as 10°C in
hi  80 W/m2 · °C and ho  22 W/m2 · °C, respectively, deter- winter, and the high winds can cause heat transfer coefficients
mine the thickness of fiber glass insulation (k  0.038 W/m · as high as 30 W/m2 · °C. Also, the water temperature in the
°C) that needs to be installed on the pipe. pipe can be as cold as 15°C, and water starts freezing when its
Answer: 1.32 cm temperature drops to 0°C. Disregarding the convection resis-
tance inside the pipe, determine the thickness of insulation that
7–84 Reconsider Problem 7–83. Using EES (or other)
will protect the water from freezing under worst conditions.
software, plot the thickness of the insulation as a
function of the maximum temperature of the outer surface of 7–89 Repeat Problem 7–88 assuming 20 percent of the water
insulation in the range of 24ºC to 48ºC. Discuss the results. in the pipe is allowed to freeze without jeopardizing safety.
Answer: 27.9 cm
7–85 Consider a furnace whose average outer surface
temperature is measured to be 90°C when the av- Review Problems
erage surrounding air temperature is 27°C. The furnace is 6 m
long and 3 m in diameter. The plant operates 80 h per week for 7–90 Consider a house that is maintained at 22°C at all times.
52 weeks per year. You are to insulate the furnace using fiber- The walls of the house have R-3.38 insulation in SI units (i.e.,
glass insulation (kins  0.038 W/m · °C) whose cost is $10/m2 an L/k value or a thermal resistance of 3.38 m2 · °C/W). During
per cm of thickness for materials, plus $30/m2 for labor regard- a cold winter night, the outside air temperature is 4°C and wind
less of thickness. The combined heat transfer coefficient on the at 50 km/h is blowing parallel to a 3-m-high and 8-m-long wall
outer surface is estimated to be ho  30 W/m2 · °C. The furnace of the house. If the heat transfer coefficient on the interior
uses natural gas whose unit cost is $0.50/therm input (1 therm  surface of the wall is 8 W/m2 · °C, determine the rate of heat
105,500 kJ), and the efficiency of the furnace is 78 percent. The loss from that wall of the house. Draw the thermal resistance
management is willing to authorize the installation of the thick- network and disregard radiation heat transfer.
Answer: 122 W
est insulation (in whole cm) that will pay for itself (materials and
labor) in one year. That is, the total cost of insulation should be 7–91 An automotive engine can be approximated as a 0.4-m-
roughly equal to the drop in the fuel cost of the furnace for one high, 0.60-m-wide, and 0.7-m-long rectangular block. The
year. Determine the thickness of insulation to be used and the bottom surface of the block is at a temperature of 75°C and has
money saved per year. Assume the surface temperature of the an emissivity of 0.92. The ambient air is at 5°C, and the road
furnace and the heat transfer coefficient are to remain constant. surface is at 10°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer from the
Answer: 14 cm bottom surface of the engine block by convection and radiation
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HEAT TRANSFER

as the car travels at a velocity of 60 km/h. Assume the flow to 7–94 Consider a person who is trying to keep cool on a hot
be turbulent over the entire surface because of the constant summer day by turning a fan on and exposing his body to air
agitation of the engine block. How will the heat transfer be flow. The air temperature is 32°C, and the fan is blowing air at
affected when a 2-mm-thick gunk (k  3 W/m · °C) has a velocity of 5 m/s. The surrounding surfaces are at 40°C, and
formed at the bottom surface as a result of the dirt and oil the emissivity of the person can be taken to be 0.9. If the
collected at that surface over time? Assume the metal person is doing light work and generating sensible heat at a rate
temperature under the gunk still to be 75°C. of 90 W, determine the average temperature of the outer
surface (skin or clothing) of the person. The average human
Engine body can be treated as a 30-cm-diameter cylinder with an
block exposed surface area of 1.7 m2. Answer: 36.2°C
Air
60 km/h 7–95 Four power transistors, each dissipating 12 W, are
5°C
75°C mounted on a thin vertical aluminum plate (k  237 W/m · °C)
Gunk 22 cm 22 cm in size. The heat generated by the transistors is
to be dissipated by both surfaces of the plate to the surrounding
2 mm
ε = 0.92 Road air at 20°C, which is blown over the plate by a fan at a velocity
10°C of 250 m/min. The entire plate can be assumed to be nearly
isothermal, and the exposed surface area of the transistor can
be taken to be equal to its base area. Determine the temperature
FIGURE P7–91 of the aluminum plate.
7–96 A 3-m-internal-diameter spherical tank made of 1-cm-
7–92E The passenger compartment of a minivan traveling at thick stainless steel (k  15 W/m · °C) is used to store iced
60 mph can be modeled as a 3.2-ft-high, 6-ft-wide, and 11-ft- water at 0°C. The tank is located outdoors at 30°C and is
long rectangular box whose walls have an insulating value subjected to winds at 25 km/h. Assuming the entire steel tank
of R-3 (i.e., a wall thickness–to–thermal conductivity ratio of to be at 0°C and thus its thermal resistance to be negligible,
3 h · ft2 · °F/Btu). The interior of a minivan is maintained at an determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the
average temperature of 70°F during a trip at night while the tank and (b) the amount of ice at 0°C that melts during a 24-h
outside air temperature is 90°F. The average heat transfer period. The heat of fusion of water at atmospheric pressure is
coefficient on the interior surfaces of the van is 1.2 Btu/h · ft2 · hif  333.7 kJ/kg. Disregard any heat transfer by radiation.
°F. The air flow over the exterior surfaces can be assumed to be
turbulent because of the intense vibrations involved, and the Troom = 30°C
heat transfer coefficient on the front and back surfaces can be
25 km/h
taken to be equal to that on the top surface. Disregarding any
Iced
heat gain or loss by radiation, determine the rate of heat Water
transfer from the ambient air to the van.
1 cm
Air Di = 3 m
60 mph
90°F Tin = 0°C

FIGURE P7–96
7–97 Repeat Problem 7–96, assuming the inner surface of
FIGURE P7–92E the tank to be at 0°C but by taking the thermal resistance of the
tank and heat transfer by radiation into consideration. Assume
7–93 Consider a house that is maintained at a constant the average surrounding surface temperature for radiation
temperature of 22°C. One of the walls of the house has three exchange to be 15°C and the outer surface of the tank to have
single-pane glass windows that are 1.5 m high and 1.2 m long. an emissivity of 0.9. Answers: (a) 9630 W, (b) 2493 kg
The glass (k  0.78 W/m · °C) is 0.5 cm thick, and the heat 7–98E A transistor with a height of 0.25 in. and a diameter of
transfer coefficient on the inner surface of the glass is 0.22 in. is mounted on a circuit board. The transistor is cooled
8 W/m2 · C. Now winds at 60 km/h start to blow parallel to the by air flowing over it at a velocity of 500 ft/min. If the air
surface of this wall. If the air temperature outside is 2°C, temperature is 120°F and the transistor case temperature is not
determine the rate of heat loss through the windows of this to exceed 180°F, determine the amount of power this transistor
wall. Assume radiation heat transfer to be negligible. can dissipate safely.
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CHAPTER 7
Air, 500 ft/min 7–101 The boiling temperature of nitrogen at atmospheric
120°F pressure at sea level (1 atm pressure) is 196°C. Therefore,
nitrogen is commonly used in low-temperature scientific
studies, since the temperature of liquid nitrogen in a tank open
to the atmosphere will remain constant at 196°C until it is
Power depleted. Any heat transfer to the tank will result in the
transistor 0.22 in. evaporation of some liquid nitrogen, which has a heat of
Ts ≤ 180°F vaporization of 198 kJ/kg and a density of 810 kg/m3 at 1 atm.
Consider a 4-m-diameter spherical tank that is initially filled
0.25 in. with liquid nitrogen at 1 atm and 196°C. The tank is exposed
to 20°C ambient air and 40 km/h winds. The temperature of the
thin-shelled spherical tank is observed to be almost the same as
FIGURE P7–98E the temperature of the nitrogen inside. Disregarding any radia-
tion heat exchange, determine the rate of evaporation of the
liquid nitrogen in the tank as a result of heat transfer from the
7–99 The roof of a house consists of a 15-cm-thick concrete
ambient air if the tank is (a) not insulated, (b) insulated with
slab (k  2 W/m · °C) 15 m wide and 20 m long. The
5-cm-thick fiberglass insulation (k  0.035 W/m · °C), and
convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface of the
(c) insulated with 2-cm-thick superinsulation that has an effec-
roof is 5 W/m2 · °C. On a clear winter night, the ambient air is
tive thermal conductivity of 0.00005 W/m · °C.
reported to be at 10°C, while the night sky temperature is 100
K. The house and the interior surfaces of the wall are
maintained at a constant temperature of 20°C. The emissivity N2 vapor
of both surfaces of the concrete roof is 0.9. Considering both
radiation and convection heat transfer, determine the rate of Tair = 20°C
heat transfer through the roof when wind at 60 km/h is blowing
over the roof. 40 km/h
If the house is heated by a furnace burning natural gas with
an efficiency of 85 percent, and the price of natural gas is
1 atm
$0.60/therm (1 therm  105,500 kJ of energy content),
determine the money lost through the roof that night during a
Liquid N2
14-h period. Answers: 28 kW, $9.44
–196°C

Tsky = 100 K

Tair = 10°C
Concrete
15 cm ·
roof Q
60 km/h 20 m Insulation
15 m
ε = 0.9 FIGURE P7–101

Tin = 20°C
7–102 Repeat Problem 7–101 for liquid oxygen, which has a
boiling temperature of 183°C, a heat of vaporization of 213
kJ/kg, and a density of 1140 kg/m3 at 1 atm pressure.
FIGURE P7–99
7–103 A 0.3-cm-thick, 12-cm-high, and 18-cm-long circuit
7–100 Steam at 250°C flows in a stainless steel pipe (k  15 board houses 80 closely spaced logic chips on one side, each
W/m · °C) whose inner and outer diameters are 4 cm and 4.6 dissipating 0.06 W. The board is impregnated with copper
cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with 3.5-cm-thick glass fillings and has an effective thermal conductivity of 16
wool insulation (k  0.038 W/m · °C) whose outer surface has W/m · °C. All the heat generated in the chips is conducted
an emissivity of 0.3. Heat is lost to the surrounding air and across the circuit board and is dissipated from the back side of
surfaces at 3°C by convection and radiation. Taking the heat the board to the ambient air at 30°C, which is forced to flow
transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be 80 W/m2 · °C, over the surface by a fan at a free-stream velocity of 400
determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length of m/min. Determine the temperatures on the two sides of the
the pipe when air is flowing across the pipe at 4 m/s. circuit board.
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7–104E It is well known that cold air feels much Design and Essay Problems
colder in windy weather than what the ther- 7–106 On average, superinsulated homes use just 15 percent
mometer reading indicates because of the “chilling effect” of of the fuel required to heat the same size conventional home
the wind. This effect is due to the increase in the convection built before the energy crisis in the 1970s. Write an essay on
heat transfer coefficient with increasing air velocities. The superinsulated homes, and identify the features that make them
equivalent windchill temperature in °F is given by (1993 so energy efficient as well as the problems associated with
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Atlanta, GA, p. 8.15) them. Do you think superinsulated homes will be economically
Tequiv  91.4  (91.4  Tambient)(0.475  0.0203  0.304 ) attractive in your area?
7–107 Conduct this experiment to determine the heat loss co-
where  is the wind velocity in mph and Tambient is the ambient efficient of your house or apartment in W/ºC or But/h  ºF. First
air temperature in °F in calm air, which is taken to be air with make sure that the conditions in the house are steady and the
light winds at speeds up to 4 mph. The constant 91.4°F in the house is at the set temperature of the thermostat. Use an out-
above equation is the mean skin temperature of a resting person door thermometer to monitor outdoor temperature. One
in a comfortable environment. Windy air at a temperature Tambient evening, using a watch or timer, determine how long the heater
and velocity  will feel as cold as calm air at a temperature was on during a 3-h period and the average outdoor tempera-
Tequiv. The equation above is valid for winds up to 43 mph. ture during that period. Then using the heat output rating of
Winds at higher velocities produce little additional chilling your heater, determine the amount of heat supplied. Also, esti-
effect. Determine the equivalent wind chill temperature of an mate the amount of heat generation in the house during that pe-
environment at 10°F at wind speeds of 10, 20, 30, and 40 mph. riod by noting the number of people, the total wattage of lights
Exposed flesh can freeze within one minute at a temperature that were on, and the heat generated by the appliances and
below 25°F in calm weather. Does a person need to be equipment. Using that information, calculate the average rate
concerned about this possibility in any of the cases above? of heat loss from the house and the heat loss coefficient.
7–108 The decision of whether to invest in an energy-saving
measure is made on the basis of the length of time for it to pay
Winds It feels for itself in projected energy (and thus cost) savings. The easi-
40°F like 11°F est way to reach a decision is to calculate the simple payback
35 mph period by simply dividing the installed cost of the measure by
the annual cost savings and comparing it to the lifetime of the
installation. This approach is adequate for short payback peri-
ods (less than 5 years) in stable economies with low interest
rates (under 10 percent) since the error involved is no larger
than the uncertainties. However, if the payback period is long,
it may be necessary to consider the interest rate if the money is
to be borrowed, or the rate of return if the money is invested
elsewhere instead of the energy conservation measure. For ex-
ample, a simple payback period of five years corresponds to
5.0, 6.12, 6.64, 7.27, 8.09, 9.919, 10.84, and 13.91 for an inter-
est rate (or return on investment) of 0, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and
18 percent, respectively. Finding out the proper relations from
engineering economics books, determine the payback periods
for the interest rates given above corresponding to simple pay-
back periods of 1 through 10 years.
7–109 Obtain information on frostbite and the conditions
under which it occurs. Using the relation in Problem 7–104E,
FIGURE P7–104E prepare a table that shows how long people can stay in cold and
windy weather for specified temperatures and wind speeds
before the exposed flesh is in danger of experiencing frostbite.
7–l05E Reconsider Problem 7–104E. Using EES (or 7–110 Write an article on forced convection cooling with air,
other) software, plot the equivalent wind chill helium, water, and a dielectric liquid. Discuss the advantages
temperatures in ºF as a function of wind velocity in the range and disadvantages of each fluid in heat transfer. Explain the
of 4 mph to 100 mph for ambient temperatures of 20ºF, 40ºF circumstances under which a certain fluid will be most suitable
and 60ºF. Discuss the results. for the cooling job.