ORIGINAL ARTICLE

National Baseline Study on Violence against

Children and Youth (NBS-VAC) in the Philippines
Laurie S. Ramiro, MA, MMSc, PhD,1 Bernadette J. Madrid, MD2 and Patricia B. Luna3
1
Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila
2
Child Protection Network, Manila, Philippines
3
Council for the Welfare of Children, Philippines

ABSTRACT

Objectives. This study aimed to estimate the national prevalence of violence against Filipino children and youth as
experienced in various forms and settings.

Methods. About 3,866 young people aged 13-24 years from 172 randomly selected barangays (villages) nationwide
participated in the survey. The questionnaire was self-administered, interviewer-administered, or interviewer-assisted,
depending on the capability and preference of the respondent. Female respondents were interviewed or assisted by a
female field assistant, while male field assistants guided the male respondents. The questionnaire was translated into
seven local dialects and administered in the most comprehensible language to the respondent.

Results. Overall, 80 percent of the 3,866 respondents experienced any one form of violence in the home, school,
workplace, and community. More than 3 in five suffered from physical, psychological, and peer violence, while 22.4
percent were victims of sexual abuse. Ten percent were physically neglected, while a fourth felt psychologically
neglected by their caregivers. More boys claimed to have been sexually abused and physically neglected, while
more girls were bullied and witnessed psychological violence in the home. VAC prevalence was, however, found to
be highest among LGBTQ+s compared to heterosexual males and females. Despite the high prevalence, less than
10 percent of respondents disclosed their experiences of abuse, primarily to friends and parents. About one in 10
ever sought help from a professional.

Conclusion. There is a need to improve the implementation of child protection programs at the local level, where
violence issues of heterosexual boys and girls and LGBTs are addressed.

Keywords: violence, abuse, children, youth, Philippines

INTRODUCTION
Violence against children (VAC) is not an uncommon
occurrence in the Philippines. Almost every day, there are
documented reports of cases of battered and abandoned
children, children who were victims of rape and incest, and
children victims of prostitution and human trafficking, not to
mention those whose peers have bullied and harmed through
cyberspace and are victims of armed conflicts and disasters.
In the combined Third and Fourth Country Report to the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) Committee,
the Philippine government acknowledges the absence of
accurate national data on the extent and magnitude of
Corresponding author: Laurie S. Ramiro, MA, MMSc, PhD violence against Filipino children. Based on reported cases,
Department of Behavioral Sciences most current data are obtained from government and non-
College of Arts and Sciences
University of the Philippines Manila
government records. It is recognized that many incidents
Padre Faura Street, Ermita, Manila 1000, Philippines of abuse go unreported because of stigmatization and the
Email: laurie_ramiro@yahoo.com cultural notions of privacy, discipline, and appropriate

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 19

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

punishment. In the Philippines, incidents in the family, submissive and inferior role of the woman in the home and
including interpersonal and domestic violence, are considered society, in general, are also contributory factors.15-17 Problems
private affairs. Hence, Filipino families keep these events a of implementation of laws and policies such as those
“secret” to avoid damaging the family’s reputation and dignity. related to statutory rape and juvenile justice, as well as the
The local literature is not amiss with research on violence inadequacy of programs to combat violence against women
against children and youth, although many of these studies and girls, or the absence of programs related to violence
had limited focus and coverage. In 2000, a general health against the male gender, even with LGBTs, may also have
survey1 included questions on VAC and found that among engendered more space for child abuse and exploitation.
2,704 adolescents, the overall lifetime prevalence of child At the organizational level, family financial difficulties
abuse was 85.9 percent, where the majority ever experienced coupled with having large families, parental history
physical maltreatment (82.9%) and psychological abuse of childhood abuse, and authoritarian parenting were
(59.7%). associated with childhood violence.18-21 Lack of parental
While the prevalence of sexual abuse may be under- supervision, single-headed households, absentee parenting,
reported due to shame and stigma, early studies estimated and households with domestic violence are more likely to
lifetime prevalence rates ranging from 11.4 percent to increase the vulnerability of children to child violence in
13.7 percent.1-3 In research conducted by the Women’s Legal the home.22-28 Studies also found that sexual violence in the
Bureau covering 478 Philippine Supreme Court decisions on home happens when the child is alone.29 Aside from a step-
rape from 1961 to 1992, 71 percent of the 630 rapists were father's presence, mothers' perceived powerlessness to protect
known to the victims, including relatives, acquaintances, in- their daughters against sexual abuse increased children’s
laws, persons in authority, and friends.4 The 2009 National vulnerability to sexual violence.30,31 Parental substance abuse
Demographic and Health Survey indicated that more females was also cited as a risk factor for intimate partner violence.
are sexually abused and neglected, but more males are aban- In the WorldSAFE study on violence against women, heavy
doned. Physical maltreatment was common in both sexes.5 drinking significantly predicted severe physical violence.2
Among all types of violence against children, psychological Several factors also make children vulnerable to peer
violence may be the least studied in the Philippines. Available violence or bullying. Poor physical appearance, low self-
data show that 59.7 percent of adolescents experience esteem, bad temper, lack of social skills, having overprotective
psychological violence during childhood, where more males parents, and punitive or inconsistent discipline were
had such incidents than females.1 The majority of these cases indicated by Calata’s study as risk factors for bullying.32 In
of abuse were in the form of verbal insults, belittling, cursing, a survey of 1,184 high school students in Batangas City,
and embarrassments. A study on sexual coercion and violence the contributory factors to school bullying were conduct
indicated that verbal aggression precedes other forms of problems, poor socioeconomic status, gang involvement,
interpersonal violence in intimate adolescent relationships.6 drug use, and a history of bullying and violence during
Aside from the home and community, violence against childhood.33 Furthermore, children seen as more sensitive
children is common in the school setting.7 In 2008, a study and less socially bold are at an increased risk of experiencing
on violence against children in public schools showed that bullying.34,35 Poor parental discipline and communication
4 of 10 Grades 1-3 children and 7 of 10 intermediate and and lack of teacher supervision are common among bullied
high school students are likely to experience any one form elementary school children. There is also evidence that children
of violence.8 Children are bullied, labeled by their peers, with disabilities are more likely to experience violence.36
punished, and embarrassed by their teachers. More male than
female respondents indicated having personally experienced Objectives
verbal, physical, and sexual violence in the school.
Violence against children has also been shown to be a While several local studies have shown the types and
public health issue. Early childhood exposure to violence extent of child abuse and exploitation, no nationwide study
can affect brain development and increase the child’s suscep- specific to violence against children and youth has ever
tibility to various mental and physical health problems that been conducted to provide a generalized picture of the
can span into adulthood.9-12 One local study pointed out that VAC situation in the country. This study aimed to gather
adverse experiences during childhood are directly related national epidemiological data on violence against children
to health-risk behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism, drug and youth experienced in a broader range of conditions and
abuse, sexual promiscuity, and chronic diseases in later life.13 locations. It sought to:
The factors associated with violence against Filipino 1. Estimate the national prevalence of violence against
children may be structural, community-based, organizational, children and youth in various forms and settings;
interpersonal, and personal. One of these factors is social 2. Determine the prevalence of violence against children
norms which include beliefs about the use of corporal and youth by socio-demographic characteristics;
punishment to mold the values and character of the child.14 3. Assess the extent of polyvictimization of children
The concept of machismo (or toxic masculinity) and the and youth aged 13-24 years; and

20 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

4. Determine children and youth’s extent of dis- being harmed with a knife or a gun, drowned, burned, or
closure, awareness, and utilization of services related scalded, and experiencing physical harm or injury requiring
to VAC. hospitalization were also included. These physical behaviors
were evaluated based on Filipino normative practices. In the
Materials and Methods school setting, the following behaviors were added: being hit
with an eraser or chalk; being asked to go out of the classroom,
The study was a nationwide epidemiological survey and cleaning the room, toilet, or surroundings of the school.
on VAC using a 3-stage cluster design. The first stage was Concerning psychological violence, verbal abuse (i.e.,
the selection of primary sampling units (PSUs) consisting being teased, insulted, ridiculed, humiliated, called names,
of barangays (villages) with approximately 250 households threatened, cursed, or being said bad words), threats of actual
or several small contiguous barangays combined to contain abandonment, and threats of being harmed were mentioned.
about 250 households. Sexual violence was indicated by forced consummated sex and
In each barangay, secondary sampling units (SSUs), sexual harassment, which included being talked to sexually,
defined as "households," were then systematically selected being touched or fondled on sensitive parts, taking photos
from a master list provided by the local government units. or sex videos of a naked body or any sexual activity, and
Finally, the elementary units (EUs) comprised individuals experiencing attempted sexual intercourse (oral, anal, vaginal).
aged 13-24 from each sampled household. With peer violence, bullying behaviors such as verbal
One hundred and seventy-two barangays from the 17 abuse, being laughed at or made faces, being gossiped,
regions of the country were randomly selected from the 2010 being avoided during class work or play, being grabbed or
National Statistics Office records. The allocated barangays pushed, destroying personal things, being imitated, being
per region were chosen with “probability proportional to stalked, and being sexually molested were listed as indicators.
size.” A split sampling approach was used to calculate male Cyberviolence includes behaviors such as being screamed at,
and female prevalence estimates for violence victimization. insulted, belittled, ridiculed, humiliated, threatened, or cursed
Figure 1 provides a visual map of the study areas. by someone over the internet or cell phone; being shown
In each barangay, 25 household units were systematically photos or videos of sex organs or sexual activities over the
selected from the list of households obtained from the internet or cell phone; having received unpleasant messages
barangay office. In each sample household, one individual over the internet or cell phone, and having personal nude
aged 13-24 was chosen as the final respondent. If there were pictures or sexual activities posted in the internet or cell phone.
more than one eligible respondent in the household, the last Physical neglect was measured using the following
respondent was selected randomly using the KISH method. indicators: not given food even if it was available, not being
Four thousand and three-hundred (4,300) males and taken care of when sick nor brought to the doctor when needed,
females aged 13 to 24 were targeted for the survey. They and not being able to attend school even if parents can afford
must have been residents of the area for at least six months it. Meanwhile, psychological neglect was indicated by: feeling
and have given their consent to participate in the study. The not special or important to parents/guardians, feeling unloved
sample size calculation was adjusted by individual eligibility by parents/guardians, and feeling that parents/guardians did
and response rates, household eligibility and response rates, not understand or appreciate their fears and anxieties.
and household screening rate. Lastly, when a person experiences any form of demolition
The VAC questionnaire covered the following topics: or deliberate destruction of their homes and if they lived in a
socio-demographics; potential risk and protective factors place where they have seen people being shot, bombs going
such as social capital, adverse childhood experiences, and off, people fighting, or rioting, show that the respondent
health-risk behaviors; physical, psychological, and sexual has experienced collective violence.
violence; other forms such as peer violence, cyberviolence, The questionnaire was reviewed by VAC international
physical and psychological neglect, witnessing physical and and local experts, translated into seven local dialects, and
psychological violence in the home, and collective violence, as pilot-tested among a group of Filipino children and youth.
well as disclosure, awareness, and utilization of VAC services. The actual survey was conducted from June to September
Physical violence was defined in terms of having expe- of 2015. Before data collection, recruited field assistants were
rienced behaviors that bring about bodily harm, such as given 12-day training on the technical and ethical aspects of
being hit or spanked with a hand or stick, having hair pulled, the research. Permission to conduct the study was initially
being pinched, pushed or grabbed, having ears twisted, being obtained from the community political leaders. The head of
slapped in the face, kicked, hit or beaten with a belt, or other the household was also informed about the survey. The study
hard objects, being choked or smothered, being locked up in was introduced to political leaders and household heads as
a small space, tied up or chained to something, being made an opportunity to learn more about “young peoples’ health,
to stay in one position holding a heavy load, being made to safety, education, work, and other life experiences.”
kneel for a long time on any rough surface, and being made The field assistant then made an appointment with the
to do exercise as punishment. More severe forms such as selected young person in a pre-arranged place. During this

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 21

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

Note: Pink boxes denote female respondent areas, and blue boxes are areas where male respondents were interviewed.

Figure 1. Map showing sample areas, by province, by sex, Philippines, 2015.

22 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

meeting, the field assistant obtained the child’s assent (for was strictly maintained. Since child abuse is a criminal offense
minor children) or consent (for those aged 18 years and in the Philippines (RA 7610), no field staff who are considered
above) to be interviewed. This was done after explaining mandatory reporters by law were recruited. Respondents were
thoroughly to the child the purpose and mechanics of the not asked to sign their names to maintain anonymity.
survey and the ethical issues involved. Minor children with A referral response plan guided the field staff in case of
no parental consent were dropped from the list. manifestations of distress among respondents. The response
Intensive rapport was established with the respondent plan included creating a VAC advisory group for grievances,
before the interview to facilitate self-disclosure. Since the providing referrals to a regional response team, talking to a
topic is sensitive, data collection was made flexible according phone-in counselor for immediate relief, linkage with the
to the competence and preference of the target respondent. local social work and development office, and providing
The self-administered approach was used for competent respondents with a list of individuals or local organizations
respondents; the assisted self-administered method was that they can go to in case they need help. The safety of the
given to respondents who expressed a need for guidance, field staff was also assured by not assigning them to high-
and those who could not answer the questions by themselves risk areas, providing accident insurance, and daily debriefing.
or said the field assistant directly interviewed preference The VAC proposal was given ethical clearance by the
for such method. Female respondents were interviewed or University of the Philippines Manila- Review Ethics Board
assisted by a female field assistant, while male field assistants (UPM-REB).
guided the male respondents.
The questionnaire was administered in the most RESULTS
understandable language to the respondent. Three sets
of questionnaires were given to the respondents: one in Socio-demographic profile of respondents
English, another in Filipino (Tagalog), and the other in the Three thousand eight hundred sixty-six (3,863) children
local dialect commonly used in the area. For uniformity, the and youth finally participated in this study, giving an overall
respondents used or wrote their answers in the questionnaire's response rate of 90 percent. More than half (57.3%) were 18-
Filipino (Tagalog) version. Filipino (Tagalog) is the national 24, while the rest (42.7%) were 13-17 years of age. Almost
language taught in school and used as the medium of an equal percentage of males (51.2%) and females (48.8%)
instruction; hence, many Filipinos are proficient with this in both age groups answered the VAC survey, where slightly
language. The English and the local dialects were used as more than half came from rural areas. Regarding gender
references in case some questions or words were not fully identity, 4.5 percent (n=174) of the 3,866 respondents
understood in Filipino (Tagalog). identified themselves as belonging to the LGBTQ+ group.
At least two callbacks were required before the selected Slightly more than half (51.3%) had a high school education,
respondent was dropped. In case of unavailability or consistent while about a third (27.5%) reached the college level.
refusal, the field assistant was instructed to proceed to the Using the number of toilets in the house as the proxy
next sample household. indicator (WorldSAFE, 1998), the majority (84.5%) of the
A complete description of the findings, including respondents came from the middle class, with 6.9 percent
reporting frequencies and percentages on the principal from the lower class. 2,072 (53.6%) respondents have worked
variables of interest. Prevalence rates were computed to obtain with slightly more males than females. About 72.1 percent
the proportion of children and youth who have experienced of those who had ever worked were aged 18 to 24 years.
various forms of violence. School-related prevalence was
calculated using the number of responding children and Psychosocial profile of respondents
youth who attended school as the denominator. Workplace-
related prevalence used the number of responding children Social capital and relationship status
and youth who worked as the denominator. In contrast, the Family members and friends were the respondents' usual
dating-related prevalence was computed using the number sources of social support. Mothers (39.4%) were regarded as
of responding children and youth who ever dated a romantic the person in the family whom the respondents thought loved
partner. For home and community-related violence, the and supported them most, followed by the fathers (15.6%),
computation was based on the total number of respondents brothers (10.2%), and grandmothers (4.8%).
in the study. The data were calculated using sampling Concerning friendships, the majority (44.8%) had 1 or
weights to yield nationally representative estimates. For each 2 close friends, while 15.7 percent had more than five close
calculation, confidence intervals were noted. friends. Females were more prone to have a small group of
This study was conducted in conformity with esta- close friends, while more males had a bigger group. About a
blished ethical standards for conducting research among vul- fourth of the 3,866 respondents, with more males, claimed
nerable populations. Respect for persons, beneficence/non- not to have any close friends who can help them with their
maleficence, and justice were observed. Parental and child problems and other concerns in life.
consent/assent were sought. Confidentiality of information

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 23

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

Sixty-three percent of the 3,866 respondents have had

romantic partners. Of these, 49.5 percent are males, and 81.5 80.9
80
50.5 percent are females. The majority had single partners, 78.8
78.4
but two in five experienced having relationships with three
or more romantic partners. About 61.4 percent of those
who had any romantic relationship had their first boyfriend/
girlfriend when they were 15-19 years old. In contrast, one in
three had their first experience of having a romantic partner
before the age of 15 years.
Total Males Females 13-17 18-24
years years
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and health risk
behaviors
More than half of the 3,866 respondents had one or more Figure 2. Proportion of children and youth who experienced
adverse experiences during childhood. Parental separation any form of violence in their lifetime, by sex and age
was the most frequent negative experience encountered, with group, NBS-VAC Philippines, 2015.
11.8 percent of the respondents have reported this incident.
About 11.2 percent lived with an alcoholic or drug addict,
8.7 percent lived with a relative when they were children, and rienced attempted sex and forced consummated sex, with
8.3 percent had a parent who worked continuously abroad no significant differences between boys and girls.
for more than two years.
In terms of health-risk behaviors, more than half By forms of violence
(56.4%) of the 3,866 children and youth were alcohol The results of the survey further show that 3 in 5
drinkers. Approximately one in three were smokers (32.7%) Filipino children and youth aged 13-24 years experienced
and internet addicts (27.8%). About 4.6 percent were into physical (64.2%) and psychological violence (61.9%) as well
illicit drugs, and 6.8 percent had engaged in casual sex. In as peer violence (61.5%). Slightly more than a fifth (22.4%)
all health-risk behaviors, more males reported such behaviors suffered from sexual violence. One in two (51.3%) had
than females. experienced cyber violence.
Furthermore, about 10 percent of Filipino children and
Number of children and youth with experience of youth aged 13-24 years were physically neglected, while
any form of violence a fourth felt psychologically neglected by their parents
In their lifetime, 80 percent of Filipino children and or guardian. About 57.4 percent witnessed psychological
youth aged 13-24 years’ experience any form of violence, violence in the home, while 41.4 percent experienced having
whether physical, psychological, sexual, or in the form of seen or heard someone being physically harmed in the house.
bullying, cyberviolence, and/or collective violence, and Around 12.8 percent encountered collective violence in
whether the incidents happen in the home, school, workplace, their lifetime (Table 1).
community or during dating.
The estimated lifetime prevalence for males is 81.5 Table 1. Lifetime prevalence of various forms of violence
percent, while females have a prevalence rate of 78.4 percent. among children and youth aged 13-24 years, NBS-
The difference in prevalence rates between boys and girls VAC Philippines, 2015
showed a near-significant trend. 95% CI
Prevalence
Age-wise, 78.8 percent of Filipino children aged 13-17 Forms of Violence
Rate Lower Upper
years encountered these experiences of violence compared to
Physical Violence 64.2 62.5 65.9
80.9 percent among the 18-24 years old group. This study
Psychological Violence 61.9 60.2 63.6
noted no significant differences between age groups (Figure 2).
Sexual Violence 22.4 20.9 23.9
The current prevalence of VAC Peer Violence 61.5 59.7 63.2
About 3.3 percent of the 3,866 respondents aged 13- Cyberviolence 51.3 49.5 53.0
24 reported having experienced any form of physical mal- Physical Neglect 10.3 9.3 11.4
treatment during the past 12 months. Meanwhile, 2.6 Psychological Neglect 25.5 24.0 27.1
percent experienced psychological violence in verbal abuse, Witnessing Physical Violence 41.4 39.7 43.1
threats, and felt or actual abandonment in the past year.
Witnessing Psychological Violence 57.4 55.6 59.1
Of the 3,866 children and youth aged 13-24, 1.4 percent
Collective Violence 12.8 11.6 13.0
experienced unwanted touch in the past 12 months, with
more males having been significantly more exposed to these
types of sexual abuse than females. About 0.6 percent expe-

24 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

By setting and witnessing psychological violence in the home. Boys

Table 2 shows that most forms of physical and psycho- had considerably more sexual violence and physical neglect
logical violence occurred in the home and school settings. incidents, while girls received more harm from peers and
However, sexual violence was more common in the commu- saw more psychological violence in the home (Table 3).
nity, with more males (15.1%) experiencing this. More males
(10.2%) than females (6.9%) also experienced sexual violence By gender identity
in the home. However, 9.5 percent of respondents dating VAC prevalence was reported to be highest among the
experienced sexual violence, predominating females (9.7%). LGBTQ+s compared to heterosexual males and females.
Age-wise, respondents aged 13-17 years encountered Seventy-five percent of the 174 LGBTs claimed to have
sexual violence mainly in the home (10.1%), while the been physically maltreated, compared to 65.9% and 61.8%
majority of those aged 18-24 years had this experience in the of heterosexual males and females. About 78.5 percent were
community (11.0%) and during dating (10.3%). psychologically abused, while more than a third (33.8%)
In terms of types, sexual harassment was most common claimed to have been sexually violated. In contrast, 63.7% of
in the community (7.6%) and during dating (6.6%). Forced heterosexual males and 60% of heterosexual females suffered
consummated sex occurred the most during dating (6.7%). psychological violence, while 28.8% of the former were
sexually violated compared to 21.4% among the latter.
By sex Among the LGBTQ+s, 82 percent of gays compared
Males and females differed significantly in their to 70.2 percent of lesbians and 71.3 percent of bisexuals
experiences of sexual and peer violence, physical neglect, claimed to have been physically maltreated in their life-
time. Similarly, more gays were psychologically abused
Table 2. Lifetime prevalence of physical, psychological, and (gays=85.1%; lesbians=75.8%; bisexuals=72%) and sexually
sexual violence among children and youth aged 13- violated (gays=36.7%; lesbians=23%; bisexuals=25.8%).
24 years, by setting, NBS-VAC Philippines, 2015
Physical Psychological Sexual By age
Setting violence violence violence The findings further indicated that the majority of
% (95% CI) % (95% CI) % (95% CI) young people aged 18-24 experienced more incidents of
in the Home (N=3,866, 56.5 36.9 9.1 psychological violence, sexual violence, cyber violence,
M=1,979, F=1,887) (54.8–58.2) (35.2–38.5) (8.2–10.2) collective violence, and witnessing psychological violence in
in School (N=3,839, 16.2 34.4 4.4 the home. In contrast, those aged 13-17 had predominantly
M= 1,876, F=1,963) (14.9–17.6) (32.8–36.1) (3.7–5.2) suffered from physical maltreatment, peer violence, psycho-
in the Community (N=3,866, 12.2 23.6 9.6 logical neglect, and witnessing physical violence in the home
M=1,979, F=1,887) (11.1–13.4) (22.2–25.2) (8.6–10.8)
(Table 4).
in the Workplace (N=2,072, 6.8 27.0 3.4
M=1,126, F=946) (5.5–8.3) (24.7–29.4) (2.6–4.4)
during Dating (N=2,433, 6.9 12.5 9.5 Table 4. Lifetime prevalence of various forms of violence
M=1,206; F=1,227) (5.7–8.3) (11.0–14.2) (8.2–11.0) among children and youth aged 13-24 years, by forms
of violence, by age, NBS-VAC Philippines, 2015
13-17 years 18-24 years
Table 3. Lifetime prevalence of various forms of violence Forms of Violence
% (95% CI) % (95% CI)
among children and youth aged 13-24 years, by sex,
NBS-VAC Philippines, 2015 Physical violence 66.0 (64.0–67.9) 62.9 (60.3–65.4)

Male Female Psychological violence 58.2 (56.1–60.2) 64.7 (62.2–67.2)

Forms of Violence
(n=1,979) (n=1,887) Sexual violence 19.1 (17.5–20.8) 24.9 (22.6–27.2)
Physical violence 66.2 (63.8–68.6) 62.1 (59.7–64.4) Peer violence 65.0 (63.0–66.9) 58.9 (56.2–61.4)
Psychological violence 64.1 (61.7–66.4) 59.7 (57.2–62.0) Cyberviolence 43.8 (41.8–45.9) 56.8 (54.2–59.4)
Sexual violence* 26.4 (24.2–28.7) 18.2 (16.3–20.2) Collective violence 11.8 (10.5–13.3) 13.4 (11.8–15.3)
Peer violence * 57.5 (55.0–59.9) 65.7 (63.2–68.0) Physical neglect 10.1 (8.9–11.4) 10.5 (9.0–12.2)
Cyberviolence 53.1 (50.6–55.5) 49.4 (46.9–51.8) Psychological neglect 26.8 (25.0–28.6) 24.6 (22.4–26.9)
Physical neglect* 12.1 (10.6–13.8) 8.5 (7.2–10.0) Witnessing physical 41.9 (39.9–44.0) 41.0 (38.5–43.7)
Psychological neglect 25.0 (22.9–27.2) 26.0 (24.0–28.2) violence in the home

Witnessing physical 39.5 (35.8–43.2) 43.5 (39.2–47.3) Witnessing psychological 55.8 (53.7–57.8) 58.6 (55.9–61.2)
violence at home violence in the home

Witnessing psychological 53.5 (51.0–56.0) 61.4 (59.0–63.8) Note: a test of significant differences may not be possible with the age
violence at home* groups because the time frame for those aged 18-24 years is longer,
resulting in biased conclusions
Collective violence 12.6 (11.1–14.4) 12.9 (11.3–14.6)

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 25

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

By residence location In the community, neighbors (29.5%), people not

In terms of residence location, more respondents in familiar with the respondents (22%), and gangsters (2.3%)
both age groups who come from the urban areas experienced were reported to be the common perpetrators of any form
physical maltreatment (68.4% vs. 60.9% rural), psychological of sexual violence against children and youth. About 12.7
abuse (65.1% vs. 59.4% rural), and sexual molestations (24.5% percent of males compared to 6.4 females claimed to be
vs. 20.7% rural). victims of sexual violence in the community. Unwanted
touching was experienced by 7.6 percent, followed by
Polyvictimization of children and youth aged 13-24 attempted sex (4.6%) and forced consummated sex (1.4%).
years Verbal insistence (20%), being sweet-talked (17%), verbal
About 15.6 percent of the 3,866 children and youth aged deception (13%), being threatened to tell secrets or exposed
13-24 encountered incidents of physical, psychological, and to shame (11%), and bribery through giving gifts, money, and
sexual violence simultaneously. Males (18.5%) had signi- other favors (10%) were the usual techniques used by these
ficantly more experiences of polyvictimization compared to community perpetrators. About 8 percent were drugged or
females (12.5%). made to drink alcohol, 5 percent were physically assaulted,
and 3 percent were threatened with a weapon.
Perpetrators and techniques of instilling violence Sweet talking (37.8%), verbal insistence (29.1%), and
against children and youth deception (16.4%) were most common among dating partners.
In the home, fathers (20.8%) and mothers (20.9%) Females were more prone to these coercion techniques,
were the usual perpetrators of physical violence. Mothers including being threatened with a weapon (2% vs. 0.8 males),
commonly inflicted milder forms of corporal punishment, but although more males claimed to have experienced slapping,
fathers (23.8%) were the usual perpetrators of severe physical hitting, or physically assault (3.7% vs. 2.0% females).
violence, including those needing medical treatment. The
most common forms of physical maltreatment were hitting Disclosure of Abusive Experiences
or spanking with a hand or stick, pulling hair, pinching, Only 6.3 percent of the 3,866 respondents disclosed
pushing, grabbing, or twisting of ears (51.0%), and being their abusive experiences to someone, with an almost equal
slapped in the face, kicked, hit, or beaten with a belt or other proportion among males and females (Table 5). Psychological
hard object (30.4%). About 3.8 percent were threatened or violence was most commonly reported among the various
harmed with a knife or gun, drowned, burned, or scalded, and types of violence, followed by physical violence. The least
received physical harm or injury requiring hospitalization. disclosed abusive experience was sexual violence, with only
In the school, teachers usually hit the school children with 3.3 percent of respondents revealing the experience to
an eraser or chalk (31.8%), twisted ears (26.0%), or pinched someone.
(32.8%). In the community, 11.1 percent were slapped, hit with Specifically, more males disclosed their experiences
a fist, beaten, and kicked, while 1.6 percent were physically of physical and sexual violence to someone, while females
harmed, which required hospitalization. Neighbors (22.1%) found it easier to tell their abusive psychological experiences.
and strangers (11.5%) were the most common perpetrators Younger respondents found it easier to admit their physical
of physical violence in the community, while slightly more (7.2%) and psychological (9.1%) abusive experiences, while
than 3 percent were police (3.7%) and local officials (3.6%). more among the older group told other people about their
With psychological violence, children and youth suffer sexual experiences (3.8%).
from verbal abuse (33.3%) from mothers (44.5%) and fathers The persons whom they made their first disclosure were
(39.8%). Fathers were also the common sources of severe their friends (44.8%), followed by their mothers (11.6%) and
psychological violence, such as abandonment (6.4%). fathers (8.7%). Except for the teacher (1.8%), disclosure to
The commonly-cited perpetrators of widespread sexual professionals and community leaders such as religious and
violence in the home were cousins (8.4%), brothers (8.3%), political community leaders was minimal.
other relatives (7.1%), and fathers (5.9%). Among boys, the
brother (8.1%), cousin (8.0%), other relatives (6.8%), and
Table 5. Disclosure of violence as reported by 13 to 24-year-
father (4.6%) were mentioned most frequently. In comparison,
old respondents, by sex, 2015 NBS-VAC Philippines
cousins (9.2%), brothers (8.7%), other relatives (7.6%),
Overall %a (95% CI§)
stepbrothers (7.2%), stepfathers (6.4%), and fathers (4.6%)
Type of violence Total Males Females
were mostly reported to be the perpetrators of widespread
(n=3,866) (n=1,979) (n=1,887)
sexual violence among girls. For forced sexual attempts, father
Overall 6.3 6.2 6.5
(15%), grandfather (12%), and cousin (9%) were among those
who predominantly attempted forced sex. Cousins (9%), other Physical violence 7.0 (6.2–8.0) 7.5 (6.3–8.9) 6.5 (5.4–7.8)
relatives (9%), fathers (7%), as well as brothers, stepbrothers, Psychological violence 8.7 (7.8–9.7) 7.5 (6.4–8.8) 9.9 (8.5–11.4)
and stepfathers (5%) were cited as the usual perpetrators of Sexual violence 3.3 (2.7–4.1) 3.6 (2.7–4.6) 3.1 (2.2–4.2)
forced consummated sex.

26 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

Awareness and utilization of child protection services makes the Philippine VAC results distinctive is the high
Among the 3,866 respondents, about 32 percent prevalence of violence reported by boys compared to girls,
(n=1,237) were aware of the child protection services they showing a significant statistical trend. There is a general
can utilize for their needs. More girls (34.3%) were aware belief that girl children are more at risk, especially for sexual
of these services than boys (29.8%). Expectedly, more among violence.39 However, past Philippine studies have shown that
the older age group (34.2%) were conscious of these services. males are as vulnerable to different forms of abuse with high
Among the 1,237 respondents aware of child protection reported numbers.1,6 This phenomenon may be true in the
services, 11.5 percent have consulted or utilized Child Asian context as results from other Southeast Asian coun-
Protection Units or Woman/Child Protection Units in their tries that have done VAC studies show the same trend.40-42
province or region (13.3% females vs. 9.5% males). About The evidence underscores the importance of developing
35.7 percent have attended orientation seminars, training, response and support programs, interventions, and advocacy
awareness programs, and other services on child protection strategies that are appropriate for boys as much as girls.
and child welfare conducted by the government for young The results also confirm earlier studies that corporal
people. Almost the same number of males (34.3%) and punishment is common among Filipinos.1,37,43 Many Filipinos
females (37%) attended these since most of the school's view corporal punishment as a manifestation of parental love
seminars and awareness programs were conducted. and concern and are culturally considered a “normal and even
necessary” disciplinary technique.44,45 Children even regarded
Help-seeking corporal punishment as “acceptable,” even more than the
Several respondents sought help from a professional for degree of acceptability by parents and professionals.3,14 These
their various concerns, including health, safety, education, views were also noted in this study, where conversations with
family, and social relationships. Among the persons whom the community leaders and teachers expressed their concerns that
young people sought help from were teachers (15.2%) and children may become “disrespectful and unruly” because of
guidance counselors (6.3%), which makes the school a pre- the legal prohibition of harmful disciplinary acts in schools.
ferred venue for consultations and advice. They were followed The issue of corporal punishment and other forms of vio-
by religious people (3.6%) and barangay officials (3.6%). lence in the home also reflects a well-known and researched
Among those who did not seek help, a majority (41.6%) pattern of violence that is intergenerational.46 Parents who
did not consider the abusive act a problem. Others were shy were victims of childhood violence continue to practice violent
or afraid to consult (16.4%), were confident that they could discipline with their children as this is what they have been
solve the problem by themselves (18.5%), or had someone conditioned to. The Parenting across Cultures Study cited that
to confide with (13.5%) who are primarily friends, family “beliefs in the normalcy and necessity of corporal punishment
members, and other relatives. predict both mother’s and father’s use of corporal punish-
Some other reasons why the respondents did not ask for ment.47 The data in this study indicate a higher likelihood that
help from professionals were: didn’t want more trouble, no time these children may also use corporal punishment and other
to consult, a person might not believe, not comfortable with forms of violence in the home with their future children,
them, were afraid of being blamed, did not personally know perpetuating intergenerational violence against boys and girls.
them, could not trust them and perpetrator makes threats. Similarly, verbal abuse was perceived as an everyday
occurrence in many settings. For instance, cursing and
DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION shouting at a child are often regarded as “natural reactions” in
classroom situations and seen as typical expressions of anger.8
The NBS-VAC survey shows a high overall prevalence, The same can be said with parent-child and intimate partner
with 80 percent of Filipino children and youth have relationships.1,6,48
experienced any one form of violence in their lifetime. More Despite the high prevalence of violence among boys
than 60 percent are physically and psychologically abused and girls, disclosures are low at 6.3 percent. Most of them
and bullied, and almost one in four children and youth are disclosed their abusive experiences to their friends and, to
sexually violated. These findings were similar to previous some extent, to mothers and fathers. They rarely revealed the
studies where a high prevalence of violence among Filipino violence they experienced to professionals, but when they did,
children and youth was noted.1,37,38 The study also shows teachers were the usual persons they disclosed to and sought
that polyvictimization is common among children who help from. Teachers are often approached because schools
experience violence. This means that experiencing one form conduct seminars on child rights, and children spend most
of violence puts the child at risk of encountering other forms of their time in school. However, community interviews
of violence. Therefore, prevention and intervention services revealed that several teachers lack appreciation and under-
should target all violence against young people. standing of children’s rights. According to the teachers talked
Both Filipino boys and girls, including LGBTQ+s, to, when children become aware of their rights, they become
are at high risk of experiencing physical, psychological, and more "hard-headed," and some children (and parents)
sexual violence in any setting. But perhaps, one finding that would even “threaten the teachers of being reported to the

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 27

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

Department of Social Work and Development (DSWD).” toward building a safe, nurturing, and protective
Statistics from the Women and Child Protection Units also environment.
show that teachers report the least among professionals.49 2. Children and adolescents demonstrate personal skills
These results imply that access and awareness of where in managing risks, protecting themselves from violence,
to report abuse and violence must be scaled up among young reporting their experience of violence, and seeking
people and professionals. There is also a need to educate young professional help when needed.
people about what is acceptable behavior and what is not and 3. All children in need of special protection have access to
to lower tolerance toward the use of violence in all settings. appropriate and quality protective, social, mental, health,
Appropriate methodologies to reach boys in interventions legal, economic, and judicial services, ensuring that
and advocacies also need to be developed. However, more violence and trauma are prevented from recurring.
research must be done on what kind of support is required 4. Well-developed and effectively managed Monitoring
to increase reporting and access to child protection services and Evaluation system for PPAEVAC is in-place.
among children, specifically on “what works” for boys and 5. All VAC-related laws are in place and are effectively
young men. Furthermore, frontline professionals who deal enforced.
with children, such as teachers, health professionals, and 6. Multi-stakeholder child protection structures and
daycare workers, must be required to undergo a training systems are operational and effectively functioning at the
program on the recognition, reporting, and referral of child national, provincial, municipal, city, and barangay levels.
abuse cases. Teachers and other professionals should also be
trained to respond to the child in a child-sensitive manner All sectors of society must work together for the key
without revictimizing them. result areas to be achieved. Each key result area has a lead
The results of this study led the Council for the Welfare government agency, such as the Department of Social Welfare
of Children (CWC) and the National Network to End and Development (DSWD), leading KRA 1, which is on
Violence against Children (NNEVAC), a multi-sectoral body, practicing evidence-based parenting skills. While DSWD
to translate the study's findings into specific actions.50 The leads this KRA, all other government agencies (NGOs,
Philippine Plan of Action to End Violence against Children faith-based organizations, academe, and others) have specific
(PPAEVAC) was developed by UNICEF and CWC, taking roles to play in accomplishing this goal. This collaboration
into consideration all existing government policies, such calls for political will and extraordinary leadership from
as the National Strategic Framework for Action to End government and all sectors of society.
Violence against Children, consistent with the vision, goal, The NNEVAC also recognizes the importance of
and strategies of Child 21 and the National Plan of Action achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in
for Children, and following the Comprehensive Program for attaining the Philippine Plan of Action to End VAC. Three
the Protection of Children. The PPAEVAC is also guided SDG targets address violence directly (one, under Goal 5
by the ASEAN Guidelines for a Non-Violent Approach on achieving gender equality and empowering women and
to Nurture, Care, and Development of Children in All girls, and two, under Goal 16 on promoting just, peaceful and
Settings and the ASEAN Regional Plan of Action on the inclusive societies). The three targets are:
Elimination of Violence against Children.51 Importantly, • Target 16.2: End abuse, exploitation, trafficking, and
INSPIRE, the seven strategies shown to have evidence violence against children.
on reducing violence against children, helped frame the • Target 5.2: Eliminate all forms of violence against
PPAEVAC. Regional consultations with parents, children, women and girls in public and private spheres, including
caregivers, and service providers collectively shaped a common trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
vision for a society free from violence against children. • Target 16.1: Significantly reduce all forms of violence
The results of this study were also used for the Safe and related death rates everywhere.
Schools project with the Department of Education. The
project trains teachers on the 4Rs of child abuse. This involves However, all the other SDGs are just as crucial in
training on the potential signs of abuse (recognition), taking addressing the pre-conditions to end VAC such as SDG
note of abusive acts (recording), sharing these observations 1 (elimination of poverty), SDG 3 (good health), SDG
with others (reporting), and contacting authorities for 4 (quality education), SDG 8 (decent work and economic
immediate intervention (referring). The prevention of sexual growth), SDG 10 (reduced inequalities), and SDG 11
abuse, victimization, and offending behavior, was also included (sustainable cities and communities). The PPAEVAC uses
in the curriculum for grades 7 and 8. Thomas Frieden’s Health Impact Pyramid to reflect the
Six pre-conditions, outcomes, and key result areas (KRAs) primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions needed in
were validated by these regional consultations necessary to the population to reduce the prevalence of violence against
reduce VAC in the country. children, with the SDGs serving as the base of the pyramid
1. Parents and caregivers are aware of and are practicing as illustrated in Figure 3.52
evidence-based parenting skills and positive discipline

28 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

Strategy to Promote
Non-violent Norms
and Behaviors

Women Women
Alcohol Drug Mental
and Child and Child
Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Health
Protection Protection
Program Program Program
Units Desks

Early Childhood Care

Home Visitation
Parenting Programs and Development Special Education
Program Programs

Reducing
Reducing Family-
supply of Ban corporal
alcohol supply friendly work
drugs punishment
and access policies

Figure 3. Impact pyramid for interventions to reduce physical violence against children.
Source: Frieden, Thomas R. Framework for Public Health Action: The Health Impact Pyramid. American Journal of Public Health, April 2010, Vol 100,
No. 4; 590-595.

To conclude, single solutions cannot solve a multi- Funding Source

factorial issue such as child abuse and exploitation; neither can The study was funded by the UNICEF, Consuelo
solutions be lodged in just one department, ministry, or sector Zobel Alger Foundation, and Institute of Health Policy
of society. There should be a national-level priority-setting and Development Studies, National Institutes of Health,
body with the capacity to allocate the resources necessary University of the Philippines Manila.
to develop a sustainable and accountable infrastructure to
achieve the goal of significantly reducing VAC by 2030. REFERENCES

Acknowledgments 1. BSNOH:Department of Health-NIH-UPManila. Baseline Surveys

for the National Objectives for Health, Project Report, 2000.
This work was supported by UNICEF-Philippines, 2. Ramiro LS, Madrid BJ, Amarillo Ma.LE Domestic Violence in Urban
Consuelo Zobel Alger Foundation, and the Institute of Filipino Families, Asian Journal of Women Studies. 2004; 10 (2), 97-
Health Policy and Development Studies of UPM-NIH. 119.
We also thank the NBS-VAC Steering Committee for their 3. Santos Ocampo PS, Ramiro LS, Madrid BJ. An Epidemiological
Study of Child Abuse and Neglect in Selected Schools in Urban and
technical and moral support of the project. Rural Settings. Project Report, 2000.
4. Women’s Legal Bureau, Inc. Understanding Incest in the Philippines
Statement of Authorship (1998). Available from: http: www.childprotection.org.ph August 2002
All authors contributed in the conceptualization of work, 5. National Statistics Office (NSO) [Philippines], and ICF Macro. 2009.
National Demographic and Health Survey 2008. Calverton, Maryland:
acquisition and analysis of data, drafting and revising and National Statistics Office and ICF Macro.
approved the final version submitted. 6. Ramiro LS. Physical Intimacy and Sexual Coercion among Adolescent
Intimate Partners in the Philippines. Journal of Adolescent Research.
Author Disclosure 2003; 20 (4), 476-96.
7. Theoklitou D, Kabitisis, N., Kabitsi, A. Physical and Emotional Abuse
All authors declared no conflicts of interest. of Primary School Children by Teachers. Child Abuse & Neglect.
2011; V. 36, 64-70.

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 29

VAC Philippines: Baseline study

8. UNICEF-PLAN International Inc. National Baseline Study on de Davao University. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review
Violence Against Children in Selected Public Schools, Project Report. of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
2008 26. Curamen RM. (2009). Appropriateness of the Programs and Services
9. Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, of Nueva Ecija Home for Sexually Abused Children. Baguio City:
Edwards V, et al. Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household University of the Cordilleras. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic
Dysfunction to Many Leading Causes of Death in Adults: the Adverse Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive 27. Garvida PUF, Roa PLA (2008).The Personal Report of Communication
Medicine 1998;14:245–58. Apprehension (PRCA) and the Behavioral Assessment of Speech
10. Chapman DP, Whitfield CL, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Edwards VJ, Anda Anxiety (BASA) of Child Victims of Sexual Abuse in Baguio City.
RF. Adverse Childhood Experiences and the Risk of Depressive Baguio: University of the Philippines Baguio. Cited in: UNICEF
Disorders in Adulthood. J Affect Disord. 2004; 82(2):217-25. doi: (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting
10.1016/j.jad.2003.1 2.013. PMID: 15488250. Children in the Philippines.
11. Anda RF, Croft JB, Felitti VJ, Nordenberg WH, Giles BF, Williamson 28. Ventura LL (2014). Self-concept of Sexually Abused Children. Baguio
GA, et al. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Smoking during City: University of the Cordilleras. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A
Adolescence and Adulthood. JAMA. 1999; 282: 1652-8. 10.1001/ Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in
jama.282.17.1652. the Philippines.
12. Brown DW, Anda RF, Tiemeier H, Felitti VJ, Edwards VJ, Croft 29. Terol EH. Cases of Sexually Abused Adolescent Girls with Mental
JB, et al. Adverse Childhood Experiences and the Risk of Premature Metardation in the Philippines. Journal of Child and Adolescent
Mortality. Am J Prev Med. 2009; 37(5):389-96. doi: 10.1016/j. Trauma. 2009; 2(3): 209-227. DOI:10.1080/19361520903120525.
amepre.2009.06.021 30. Fuentes AS (2005). Bodies as Site of Violence, Resistance and Power:
13. Ramiro LS, Madrid BJ, Brown DS. Adverse Childhood Experiences A Study on the Negotiation Process of Girl-Child Prostitution in
(ACE) and Health-Risk Behaviors among Adults in a Developing Three Cities (Davao City, General Santos City, and Cagayan de Oro
Country Setting, Child Abuse & Neglect: International Journal. 2010; City). Davao City: Ateneo de Davao University Graduate School.
34: 842–85 Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of
14. PLAN Philippines. Understanding Child Discipline and Child Abuse: Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
Comparing Perspectives of Parents, Children, Professionals and 31. Canieso RL (2003). The Healing Process of Incest Survivors and
Community Leaders. Project Report, 2005. Factors Mediating the Impact of Incest and the Healing Process: A
15. Angeles L. (2001. The Filipino Male as “Macho-Machunurin”: Retrospective Study. Davao City: Ateneo de Davao University. Cited
Bringing Men and Masculinities in Gender and Development Studies, in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence
Kasarinlan. 2001; 16 (1) Affecting Children in the Philippines.
16. Yacat J (2016). Masculinity and Machismo. Presentation during the 32. Calata JV (2013). Attitudes and Perceptions of Teachers and Student-
VAC Research Forum. Manila Hotel, Philippines, April 2016. Perpetuators Toward School Bullying: A Basis for the Development
17. Aguiling-Dalisay G, Mendoza RM, Mirafelix EJL, Yacat JA, Sto. of Bullying Prevention Program. Manila: University of Santo Tomas.
Domingo MR, Bambico FR. Pagkalalake: Men in Control? Filipino Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of
Male Views on Love, Sex and Women. Pambansang Samahan sa Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
Sikolohiyang Pilipino, 2000. 33. Ong JS (2008). Antisocial Behavior on School Violence: Prevalence,
18. Navarroza MR. (2006). Perception on the Effects on Self-confidence Correlates, and Predictors Among High School Students of Selected
of Physical Punishment as a Means of Correcting Negative Behavior. Public Schools in Batangas City. Manila: University of Santo Tomas.
Davao City: University of Southeastern Philippines Cited in: UNICEF Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of
(2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
Children in the Philippines. 34. Garingo AS. Manila: (2007). Bullying Among Selected Public and
19. Jungco R, Garingo K, Gregore MJ. (2013). A Comparative Analysis Private Elementary and High School Students in Bacoor, Cavite.
of Child Abuse Incidence in Iloilo City. Iloilo: Western Visayas. Cited Manila: University of the City of Manila. Cited in: UNICEF (2016).
in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in
Affecting Children in the Philippines. the Philippines.
20. Fernandez BJ, Kaquilala C, Joo CL, Musa W. (2004). Physical Abuse: 35. Bayhon, GA (2001). Bullying in an Elementary School: An Exploratory
Experiences and Responses. Davao City: Ateneo de Davao University. Study. University of the Philippines. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A
Cited in: UNICEF (2016), A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in
Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines. the Philippines.
21. Mendiola EP. (1999). Filipino Concepts and Practices of Child 36. Tumadiang, N. S. (2009). Bullying and Learners with Attention
Discipline and Child Abuse. Manila: De La Salle University. Cited Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder in A Regular School. University of the
in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Philippines. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the
Affecting Children in the Philippines. Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines.
22. Balana GY, Moreno DM. (2009). Situational Analysis of Children 37. Lansford JE, Alampay LP, Al-Hassan S, Bacchini D, Bombi AS,
in Sex Trade. Davao City: Ateneo de Davao University. Cited in: Bornstein MH, et al. Corporal Punishment of Children in Nine
UNICEF (2016).. A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Countries as a Function of Child Gender and Parent Gender Hindawi
Affecting Children in the Philippines. Publishing Corporation, International Journal of Pediatrics 2010.
23. Banez MA (2015).The Status of the Well-Being of 7 to 17 Year Old doi:10.1155/2010/672780
Girls in 7 Davao City Barangays. Davao City: Talikala Inc. & Awo 38. Runyan D, Viswanathan S, Hunter W, Ramiro L, Hassan F, Bordin I. et
International. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). A Systematic Review of the al, International Variations in Harsh Child Discipline, PEDIATRICS.
Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in the Philippines. 2010; 126, (3), 701-11
24. Calma FA, Don M, Dy KR. (2010). La Nina Ingrata: A Case Series on 39. Jewkes R, Levin J, Mbananga N, Bradshaw D. Rape of girls in South
the Forms of Abuse among Prostituted Children in Davao City. Davao Africa. Lancet. 2002; (359) 319-20.
City: Davao Medical School Foundation. Cited in: UNICEF (2016). 40. Hutt D. Sexually abused males in Cambodia, Southeast Asia,
A Systematic Review of the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in 2015. Available from:http://sea-globe.com/sexual-abuse-of-males-
the Philippines. cambodia-southeast-asia-globe/
25. Caina GYK, Nasa JA, Padilla G. (2011). The Social Functioning of 41. Pembaruan S. May 4, 2014. KPAI: 400 Anak Per Tahun Jadi Korban
Rape Victims Before and After the Intervention. Davao City: Ateneo Kekerasan Seksual

30 VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022

 VAC Philippines: Baseline study

42. Canave B. July 31, 2013. The New Asian Media, TAIWAN: Yes, Young 47. Alampay, LP. Parenting in the Philippines. In H. Selin and P.
Man, You Could Be a Rape Victim, Too. Schvaneveldt (Eds.), Parenting Across Cultures: Childrearing,
43. Hassan F, Sadowski LS, Bangdiwala SI, Vizcarra B, Ramiro LS, De Motherhood, and Fatherhood in Non-Western Cultures. The
Paula CS, Bordin IAS. Physical Intimate Partner Violence in Chile, Netherlands: Springer. 2014
Egypt, India, and the Philippines. Inj Control and Saf Promot 2004; 48. Ramiro LS, Hassan F, Peedicayil A. Risk Markers of Severe
11 (2) 111-6. Psychological Violence against Women: A WorldSAFE Multi-
44. Madrid BJ, Ramiro LS, Hernandez SS, Basilio N, Go J (2013). Child Country Study. Inj Control and Saf Promot 2004;11(2), 131-9
Maltreatment in the Philippines: A Situationer. Acta Med Philipp, 49. Child Protection Network Annual Report, 2015, Manila, Philippines.
47;1 (23 Jan-March). 50. Council for the Welfare of Children, Philippines. 2nd National Plan of
45. Jocson RM, Alampay LP, and Lansford JE. Predicting Filipino Action for Children 2012.
Mothers' and Fathers' Reported Use of Corporal Punishment from 51. Council for the Welfare of Children, Philippines. National Strategic
Education Authoritarian Attitudes, and Endorsement of Corporal Framework to End Violence Against Children 2009.
Punishment International Journal of Behavioral Development 2012; 52. Frieden, Thomas R. Framework for Public Health Action: The Health
36: 137 Impact Pyramid. American Journal of Public Health, April 2010; (100)
46. Overlien, C. “Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: Conclusions 4; 590-595.
from the Literature and Challenges Ahead” Journal of Social Work,
2010; 10, 80-97.

VOL. 56 NO. 15 2022 31