IN THE NAME OF

ALLAH
Advanced Thermodynamic

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REFERENCES 1

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 2 3

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EVALUATION

1-Midterm: 6 Points
2-Final: 8 Points
3-Home work: 2 Points
4-Project 4 Points

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HEADLINES
1- The first law of thermodynamics
2- The second law of thermodynamics
3- Entropy generation and exergy destruction
4- Thermodynamics relations
5- Equation of state for real gases
6- Multi component systems
7- Reaction equilibrium
8- Statistical thermodynamics

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CHAPTER 1

The First Law

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 Discontinuity of entropy transfer through an
incorrect boundary
consider the heat interaction Q
between two fluid masses
whose absolute temperatures
are different, TH > TL. The
temperature drop TH − TL
occurs through the wall.
Unlike the heat transfer Q, the
entropy transfer Q ∕ T is not
conserved as it passes
through the boundary.
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Continuity of entropy transfer, heat transfer, and
temperature through correct boundaries

Because the temperature varies continuously across each 8

boundary, the heat transfer and the entropy transfer are
conserved
• In Fig. a the wall (the temperature drop) is
situated outside the TH system, and for this
reason the entropy generation due to the
system–environment heat interaction can be
termed “external.”
• The opposite choice is made in Fig. b, where
the entropy generation effect is “internal”
relative to the TH system.
• Figure c shows that the system can be
divided further into subsystems if the precise
identification of the source of entropy
generation (the wall) is one of the objectives
of the thermodynamic analysis.
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• A system defined by a boundary impermeable to mass flow is a closed
system.

• Systems whose defining boundaries can be crossed by the flow of mass are
open systems, or flow systems or control volume.

• The condition, or the being, of a thermodynamic system at a particular point

in time is described by an ensemble of quantities called thermodynamic
properties.

• Thermodynamic properties whose values depend on the size of the system

are called extensive properties. (e.g., volume, entropy, and internal energy).

• Intensive properties are those whose values do not depend on the size of the
system (e.g., pressure and temperature).

• A certain phase of a system is the collection of all the parts of the system that
have the same intensive state and the same per-unit-mass values of the
extensive properties.
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• Process means the change of state from an initial state to a final state.
CLOSED
SYSTEMS

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 Another way to stress this difference is to use a different notation for the
infinitesimal increments in work and heat transfer relative to the exact
differential notation that applies to the infinitesimal change in E.

In the same notation, the energy interactions on the left side of above eq. are:

The alternative is to introduce the concept of time in the description of the

process:

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 Path dependence of the energy interactions Q1–2 and W1–2

If the process executed by the closed system is a cycle, the first law
reduces to:

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 WORK TRANSFER
W = −F dr
Two features must be present simultaneously if a system is to experience a
work interaction with its environment: (1) A force must be present on the
boundary and (2) the point of application of this force (hence, the boundary)
must move.

Examples of P dV work transfer:

In General:

Yi and Xi are the generalized forces

and the generalized displacements 14
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HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the energy interaction driven by the temperature
difference between the system and its environment.

Adiabatic
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ENERGY CHANGE

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Example 1.1 Consider a rigid and evacuated container (bottle) of volume V that is
surrounded by the atmosphere (T0, P0). At some point in time, the neck valve of the
bottle opens, and atmospheric air gradually flows in. The wall of the bottle is thin and
conductive enough so that the trapped air and the atmosphere eventually reach thermal
equilibrium. In the end, the trapped air and the atmosphere are also in mechanical
equilibrium, because the neck valve remains open. Determine the net heat interaction
that takes place through the wall of the bottle during the entire filling process.

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OPEN SYSTEMS
An open system (control volume) allows the mass to be moved in certain parts of the
system boundary.
Fig. 1.7

Figure shows the main features of an open system: heat interactions per unit time, ;
work interactions per unit time, ; and portions of the boundary that are crossed by the
flow of mass. The control volume, is the region contained between the inlet and outlet
ports. The work transfer rate refers to any mode or combination of work modes, P
dV/dt, electrical, magnetic, and so on.
The first-law statement applies strictly to closed systems, we seek a system with a fixed
mass inventory that is related to the open system of interest. If Mopen is the mass inventory
of the open system at a certain point in time t, we can think of the fixed mass inventory
Mclosed that flows at time t through the control volume. According to Fig. 1.7, the
relationship between Mopen and Mclosed is:

Mclosed constant = Mopen,t +ΔMin = Mopen,(t+Δt) +ΔMout (1.14)

For the process from state 1 (time t) to state 2 (time t +Δt) executed by the closed
system, the first law of thermodynamics (1.1) reads:

Eclosed,(t+Δt) − Eclosed,t = Δt − Δt + (P ΔV)in − (P ΔV)out (1.15)

The last two terms on the right side account for the P dV type of work transfer
associated with the deformation of the closed system from time t to time t +Δt.
Relations similar to eq. (1.14) express the relative size of the energy inventories of the
closed and open systems:

Eclosed,t = Eopen,t +ΔEin (1.16)

Eclosed,t+Δt = Eopen,(t+Δt) +ΔEout (1.17)

The ΔE’s and ΔV’s can be rewritten in terms of their per-unit mass as e and v, 21
(ΔE)in,out = (eΔM)in,out and (ΔV)in,out = (vΔM)in,out (1.18)
Eliminating the terms Eclosed by combining eqs. (1.15)–(1.17) we obtain:
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Invoking the limit Δt → 0, writing for the mass flow rate ΔM ∕ Δt, dropping the subscript
“open” from the energy inventory of the control volume, and assuming that more than
one inlet port and outlet port exist, we arrive at the most general statement of the first
law of thermodynamics for an open system:
The term (e + Pv) represent the energy transfer associated with the flow of mass
across the system boundary. In the absence of energy other than kinetic and
gravitational, the specific energy e can be decomposed into (u + 1/2V 2 + gz). The result
of this decomposition is that the specific enthalpy:
h = u + Pv (1.21)
Therefore:

In the fields of gas dynamics and compressible fluid mechanics, the group (h + 1/2V 2)
is recognized as the local stagnation enthalpy of the flowing fluid.
Example 1.2. Consider again the problem stated in Example 1.1, this time in the context
of open systems: This phenomenon is the common “filling” process. The object is to
determine the heat interaction that occurs across the bottle wall during
the filling process.
The system has one inlet port (the neck valve), and the operation of the system is
unsteady. The mass conservation equation and the first law:

where 1 and 2 denote the start and finish of the filling operation, respectively. Combining
eqs. (a)–(c):

Since the open system is initially evacuated (U1 = 0, M1 = 0):

Finally, we note that U2 = M2u0, where u0 is the specific internal energy of air at T0 and P0
(recall that T2 = T0 and P2 = P0). Combining eq. (e) with the definition of enthalpy:

and noting that V = M2v0:

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 EXERCISE
Two masses (m1, m2) travel in the same direction at different velocities (V1, V2). They
happen to touch and rub against each other, and after a sufficiently long time they
acquire the same velocity (V∞). Consider the system composed of m1 and m2, and also
consider the process (a)–(b) illustrated in Fig. P1.6. There are no forces between the
system and its environment. Determine the ratio = KEb∕KEa as a function of m2/m1 and
V2/V1, where KE is the kinetic energy inventory of the system. Show that < 1 when V2 ≠
V1 and is of order 1 when m2∕m1 is of order 1. Next, assume that the masses m1 and m2
are incompressible substances and that (a) and (b) are states of thermal equilibrium with
the ambient of temperature T0. Determine an expression for the heat transfer between
the system and the environment.

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 HOME WORKS
Homework of Chapter 1 from Adrian Bejan 4th edition:

1-3, 1-5, 1-8, 1-10

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