3.1 Photovoltaic System PDF

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IR DR LIM BOON

PHOTOVOLTAIC HAN
PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTIC
IR DR LIM BOON HAN

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 2


Photovoltaic Effect & Electrical Characteristic

Solar Cell Technologies

PV System Components
CONTENTS
PV Applications

PV Market

PV System Design

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 3


PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) EFFECT

 A typical photovoltaic cell consists of


semiconductor material (usually silicon)
having a p-n junction
 Sunlight striking the cell raises the energy
level of electrons and frees them from their
atomic shells.
 The electric field at the p-n junction drives
the electrons into the n region while
positive charges are driven to the p region.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 4


PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) EFFECT
When light (photons) is absorbed by solar cell, electrons are excited to higher energy
level and electric field is form between p-n junction. Under the reverse electric field
created by p-n junction, these energized electrons try to flow through the external
circuit (external conductor with low resistance) to the opposite polarity site to
recombine with holes (positive charges). If they successfully flow to the opposite site,
electricity generated. However, during their way to the external circuit, they may
encounter many hurdles or obstacles. These obstacles are called recombination.
Recombination causes the electrons to combine with the holes in the material and
vanished before they reach the external circuit with lower resistance. Recombination
may due to the material itself (p-type or n-type), impurity, crystal structure and
charges close to the surface
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 5
CELL,
MODULE AND
Photovoltaic Module (solar panel)
ARRAY
PV System or PV Power Plant

Photovoltaic Array
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 6
SOLAR CELL CIRCUIT MODEL

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 7


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 8 1/28/2023 8
STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC)

 The rated power of a solar


module is measured according Irradiance = 1000 W/m2
to the STC and defined by
three limiting conditions:
Solar cell temperature
 Module rated power (Wp is 25˚C
wrong!!)
 PV modules have to be
Light spectrum AM 1.5
certified under IEC 61215

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 9


HOW TO MAKE MEASUREMENT
Voc Isc
Measurement Measurement

OR

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 10


ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF SI PV CELLS AND
MODULES

When the resistance is infinite, the current in the circuit is zero and the
voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as open circuit voltage
(Voc).

When the resistance is zero, the cells is in effect “short-circuited” and


the current reaches its maximum, known as short-circuit current (Isc).

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 11


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 12


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

I-V curve
ISC

Poc = Voc x Ioc = 0 W

Psc = Vsc x Isc = 0 W

I1

0 VOC

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 13


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

I-V curve

P1 = V1 x I1
Load line,
Slope = 1/R1

I1

0 V1

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 14


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

P2 = V2 x I2 > P1 Load line,


I2 Slope = 1/R2

0
V2

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 15


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

Load line,
I3 Slope = 1/R3

P3 = V3 x I3 > P2 > P1

0
V3
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 16
CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

Load line,
Slope = 1/R4
I4

P4 = V4 x I4 < P3

0
V4

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 17


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

Load line,
Slope = 1/R5
I5

P5 = V5 x I5 < P4 < P3

0 V5

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 18


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS AND POWER CURVE

Maximum Power Point, mpp


Load line,
Imp Slope = 1/Rmp

Pmp = Vmp x Imp

0
Vmp
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 19
CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CURVE AND POWER CURVE

Example on datasheet
I-V curve Power Maximum Power Point,
curve

Pmp = Vmp x Imp

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 20


CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS
 If we varies the load resistance between zero and infinity, the current
(I) and voltage (V) will be found to vary as shown I-V curve.
 The power output is zero at Voc and at Isc.
 Between these points it rises and falls so there is one point at which
the cell delivers maximum power.
 This maximum power point on I-V curve.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 21


OPERATING POINT OF THE CIRCUIT
 The current and voltage in the solar cell circuit are most easily found
by using a load line construction.
 I-V characteristics of the load is a straight line with a negative slope –
1/R.
 This is called load line
 The load line cuts the solar cell characteristic at P.
 At P, the load and the solar cell have the same current I’ and voltage V’.
 Point P satisfies both load line and I-V line and thus represents the operating
point of the circuit.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 22


POWER CURVE FOR A SOLAR CELL
 The power (P) produced by a solar cell is the product of the voltage and the
current for the particular operating characteristics: P=IV
 P is zero when either I or V are zero.
 This occurs at Isc, (when V = 0) and Voc (when I = 0).
 If we plot power on the I-V axes we can see how power varies in between the two
extremes.
 Maximum power (Pmp) is produced when V = Vmp at which point the current is Imp.
 This is known as the maximum power point (MPP).
 It is important to ensure that solar cells operate at or near the point of maximum power.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 23


POWER
 The power delivered to the load is Pout= I’V’
 Which is the area of the rectangle bound by I- and V- axes

 Maximum power is delivered to the load when this rectangular are is


maximized when I’=Imp & V’=Vmp
 By either changing R or the intensity of illumination.

 Since the maximum possible current is Isc and the maximum possible
voltage is Voc, IscVoc represents the desirable goal in power delivery for
a given solar cell.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 24


FILL FACTOR
 To compare the maximum power output ImpVmp with IscVoc, the fill factor
FF, which is a figure of merit for the solar cell, is defined as
FF = ImpVmp/(IscVoc)
 FF is a measure of the closeness of the solar cell I-V curve to the rectangular
shape.
 It is advantageous to have FF as close to unity as possible
 Typical FF values are in the range 70-85%

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 25


DETERMINATION OF RS AND RSH

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 26


EFFECT OF
SERIES AND
SHUNT
RESISTANCES

Influence of series resistance on the


solar cell characteristic curve
Source K. Mertens textbook-pv.org

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 27


IV-CURVE TRACER
PV Engineering
PROVA 210

PV Module Flash Test

Solmetric PVA 1000S


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 28
ENERGY LOSSES IN SOLAR CELL
• Reflection
• Shading
Optical
• Transmission
• Thermalizing

• Contacts
Losses • Semiconductor
Ohmic
• Metal-SC
interface
Electrical
• Impurity
Recombination • Crystal structure
• Surface

Temperature
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 29
ENERGY LOSSES IN SOLAR CELL

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 30


EXTERNAL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE OF A
SOLAR MODULE
• Glass reflection
• Shading
Optical • Air mass
• Soiling
• Tilting angle

Losses • Various Contacts


Ohmic
• Cable length

Electrical
• Cell and panels
Mismatch • Shading

Temperature • Inverter
Conversion
• Battery
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 31
IRRADIANCE EFFECT
 As the irradiance varies
 There is an almost linear variation of the short circuit current.
 The open circuit voltage, however, does not change dramatically, it increases
slightly.
 The graph assumes that the cell temperature is constant ie. unaffected by the
differing irradiance.
 Because the voltage remains reasonably constant under varying
irradiance solar cells are well suited for use as battery chargers

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 32


IRRADIANCE EFFECT

 26mV  G  
 As the irradiance varies  G  Vmp 2 = Vmp 1 +  ln  2 
I sc 2 = I sc _ STC  2  
 Vmp _ single cell  GSTC 

 Almost linear variation of Isc.  GSTC 
 Voc changes slightly.
 For crystalline silicon

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 33


Technologies Pmax, g VOC, b ISC, a
(%/°C) (%/°C) (%/°C)
TEMPERATURE EFFECT
C-Si p-type -0.35~ - -0.28 ~ +0.04 ~
0.42 -0.32 +0.06  The output voltage and the efficiency
of a solar cell increases with
C-Si n-type (IBC -0.26~ - -0.235 +0.048 decreasing temperature
and HiT) 0.29 ~- ~
 Assuming same illumination level
0.245 +0.055
a-Si -0.13 -0.33 +0.12 Isc2 = Isc1[1 + a (T2 – 25)]
CdTe -0.28 ~ - - 0.28 +0.04 Voc2 = Voc1[1 + b (T2 – 25)]
0.32
Pmp2 = Pmp1[1 + g (T2 – 25)]
CIGS/CIS -0.31 -0.30 ~ +0.01
-0.31  25℃ is the ambient temperature for
Standard Test Conditions
Source: A. Virtuani, D. Pavanello, G. Friesen, 2010, “Overview of
Temperature Coefficients of Different Thin Film Photovoltaic
Technologies”, 25th EUPVSEC
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 34
TEMPERATURE EFFECT, CONT.
 For example, a Si solar cell that has Voc1 = 0.63 V at 25C will have
Voc2 at 60C given by
Voc2 = Voc1[1 – 0.003 (60 – 25)] = 0.895Voc1 = 0.564V
Pmp2 = Pmp1[1 – 0.004 (60 – 25)] = 0.86Pmp1

 As a rule of thumb, for crystalline silicon cell the output power


changes 0.4~0.45% for every 1C variation in temperature.
 Heat dissipation is very important, that is, ventilation

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 35


TEMPERATURE EFFECT, CONT.
 Temperature
dependency of a Si
solar cell as an
example of Bosch Solar
Cell M-3BB: The circles
indicate the position of
MPP

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 36


TEMPERATURE EFFECT, CONT.
Characteristic
Pmp2 = 31.9 x 4.65=148.335 W curve of the SW-
Pmp3 = 28.1 x 4.7=132 W 148.5W 165 module from
Isc2 = 5.15 A Solarworld at
Imp2 = 4.65 A
various module
temperatures
(Irradiance:
132W 1000W/m2; AM
1.5)

Voc2= 39.8V
Vmp2= 31.9V
Vmp3= 28.1V

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 37


EXAMPLE

 Calculate Vmp, Imp, Voc, Isc and Pmp of the module at cell temperature
0℃, 50℃ and 75℃.
 Show that your results are closed to that of deduced from the graph.
 Assume α, β, γ as +0.04%/℃, -0.31%/℃ and -0.4%/℃, respectively

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 38


CALCULATIONS
𝑉𝑜𝑐2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛽(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐶 ) 𝑃𝑚𝑝2 = 𝑃𝑚𝑝_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛾(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐶 )
𝑉𝑜𝑐2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛽(𝑇2 − 25) 0.4
𝑃𝑚𝑝2 = 165 1 − ( )(50 − 25)
0.3
100
𝑉𝑜𝑐2 = 43 1 − (100)(50 − 25)
𝑃𝑚𝑝2 = 165 1 − 0.1 = 165 × 0.9 = 148.5 𝑊
𝑉𝑜𝑐2 = 43 1 − 0.075 = 43 × 0.925 = 39.8 𝑉

𝐼𝑠𝑐2 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 25)


0.04
𝐼𝑠𝑐2 = 5.1 × 1 + ( 100 )(50 − 25)

𝐼𝑠𝑐2 = 5.1 × 1.01 = 5.151 𝐴

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 39


CALCULATIONS
𝑉𝑜𝑐3 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛽(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐶 ) 𝑃𝑚𝑝3 = 𝑃𝑚𝑝_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛾(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐶 )
𝑉𝑜𝑐3 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛽(𝑇2 − 25) 0.4
𝑃𝑚𝑝3 = 165 1 − ( )(75 − 25)
100
0.3
𝑉𝑜𝑐3 = 43 1 − (100)(75 − 25)
𝑃𝑚𝑝3 = 165 1 − 0.2 = 165 × 0.8 = 132 𝑊
𝑉𝑜𝑐3 = 43 1 − 0.15 = 43 × 0.85 = 36.55 𝑉

𝐼𝑠𝑐3 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐_𝑆𝑇𝐶 1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 25)


0.04
𝐼𝑠𝑐3 = 5.1 × 1 + ( 100 )(75 − 25)

𝐼𝑠𝑐3 = 5.1 × 1.02 = 5.2 𝐴

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 40


CALCULATIONS
0.3
𝑉𝑚𝑝3 = 35 1 − ( )(75 − 25)
100

𝑉𝑚𝑝3 = 35 1 − 0.15 = 35 × 0.85 = 29.75 𝑉 (not accurate)

0.04
𝐼𝑚𝑝3 = 4.7 × 1 + ( )(75 − 25)
100

𝐼𝑚𝑝3 = 4.7 × 1.02 = 4.8 𝐴

𝑃𝑚𝑝3 = 𝑉𝑚𝑝3 × 𝐼𝑚𝑝3 = 142.8 𝑊 (not accurate)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 41


TEMPERATURE EFFECT, CONT.
 For example, a Si solar cell that has Voc1 = 0.63V at 25C will have Voc2
at 60C given by
Voc2 = Voc1[1 – 0.003 (60 – 25)] = 0.895Voc1 = 0.564V
Pmp2 = Pmp1[1 – 0.004 (60 – 25)] = 0.86Pmp1

 As a rule of thumb, for crystalline silicon cell the output power


changes 0.4~0.45% for every 1C variation in temperature.
 Heat dissipation is very important, that is, ventilation
 Voc2 = Voc1(T2/T1) + Eg/e(1– T2/T1) (seldom use)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 42


TEMPERATURE EFFECT, CONT.
 For example, a Si solar cell that has Voc1 = 0.63V at 25C will have Voc2
at 60C given by
Voc2 = Voc1[1 – 0.003 (60 – 25)] = 0.895Voc1 = 0.564V
Pmp2 = Pmp1[1 – 0.004 (60 – 25)] = 0.86Pmp1

 As a rule of thumb, for crystalline silicon cell the output power


changes 0.4~0.45% for every 1C variation in temperature.
 Heat dissipation is very important, that is, ventilation
 Voc2 = Voc1(T2/T1) + Eg/e(1– T2/T1) (not for module)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 43


TEMPERATURE EFFECT FOR BIPV
 If PV cells (in modular form) are mounted flat on a roof it becomes difficult for
heat to be dissipated through convective cooling.
 A stand off mounting frame could be used to provide adequate ventilation around
the modules but with BIPV many customers and architects do want the solar
modules to blend in with the roof.
 Therefore, some form of ventilation should be incorporated in the design to
minimize the adverse effect of higher temperature.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 44


PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFICIENCIES

Cell efficiency, c-Si


General equation:
𝑃𝑚𝑝
:18~25%
𝜂= 𝑃𝑚𝑝,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑊 𝜂𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 =
𝐺 ( 2) × 𝐴 𝑊
𝑚 1000 ( 2 ) × 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑚

Module efficiency, c-Si System efficiency, c-Si


:16~22% :11~14%
𝑃𝑚𝑝,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑃𝑃 (𝑑𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐)
𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝜂𝑠𝑦𝑠 =
𝑊 𝑊
1000 ( 2 ) × 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐺 ( 2 ) × 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑚 𝑚
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 45
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY VS PERFORMANCE RATIO
Performance
System efficiency
Ratio
𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑃𝑃 (𝑑𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐) 𝑃. 𝑅. =
𝜂𝑠𝑦𝑠 =
𝑊
𝐺𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 (𝑃𝑆𝐻) × 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡_𝑆𝑇𝐶
𝐺 ( 2 ) × 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑚
𝑃. 𝑅. =
𝐺𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 (𝑃𝑆𝐻) × Nmod × Amod × ηmod

P.R = f low _ irr  f dirt  f temp  f mm  f inv _ avg  f dc _ cable  f ac _ cable

 P.R has considered the module efficiency. It is calculated from the expected output under STC
 System efficiency is usually to compare the technology, but less meaningful for project evaluation
 High-efficiency technology does not ensure lower levelized cost of electricity (LCOE)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 46


EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS

156.75 mm

0.15675 x 0.15675 = 0.02457 m2


72 solar cells = 5.1 W x 72 = 367.2 W
Pin = 0.02457 m2 x 1000 W/m2
= 24.57 W Area = 1.95 m x 0.995 m = 1.94 m2
Po = 5.1 W Pin = 1940 W
Eff = 367.2 W / 1940 W x 100%
Eff = Po/Pin x 100%
= 18.9%
= 5.1 W / 24.57 W x 100%
IR DR LIM BOON HAN
=20.7 % 1/28/2023 47
EXAMPLE:
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION
 Suppose that a particular family house in a sunny geographic location
over a year consumes a daily average electrical power of 500 W. If the
annual average solar intensity incident per day is about 5 kWhm–2,
and a photovoltaic device that converts solar energy to electrical
energy has a system efficiency of 12%, what is the required device
area?

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 48


SOLUTION
 Since we know the average light intensity incident,
Total energy available for 1 day = Incident solar energy in 1 day per unit area x Area x
Efficiency,
Which must equal to the average energy consumed per house in 1 day. Thus,

Enery per house


Area =
Incident solar energy per unit area  Efficiency
0.5kW  24hr.day −1
=
( )
5kW  hr  m −2 day −1  0.12
= 20m 2
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 49
SOLAR MODULES IN SERIES
 I = I1 = I2 = …… V = V1 + V2 + ..
 Series connection of solar cells: The voltages of individual cells are added together

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 50


SOLAR MODULES IN PARALLEL

 IT = I1 + I2 + …
 V = V1 = V2 = ..
 Parallel connection
of solar cells: The
voltage is the same
in all cells while the
currents add up

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 51


COMBINATION SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 An array of 2 parallel strings with 2
modules in series in each string is
shown.
 V = V1 + V3
IT = I1 + I2

I4

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 52


QUESTION

Sunlight ?
1000
W/m2, 25 C Rated 140 W, Rated 140
, AM1.5 Imp 5 A W, 5 A
Vmp = 28V 28V
Load = 20
ohm
Rated 140 Rated 140
W, 5A W, 5 A
28V 28V

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 53


DC/DC CONVERTER

Sunlight 1000
W/m2, 25 C ,
AM1.5 Rated 140 W, Rated 140
Imp 5 A W, 5 A 20 ohm

Vmp = 28V 28V 5.3 x 105


560 W
DC/DC 560 W = V^2
Converter /20
Rated 140 Rated 140 V=105.83 V
W, 5A W, 5 A
I = 105V/20
28V 28V = 5.3 A

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 54


SHADING – PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

Shading one of the three cells: The current of the overall characteristic
curve decays by the same amount as the current of Shady

Source: Konrad Mertens 2014, “Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technology and Practice”

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 55


SHADING – SERIES CONNECTIONS

Source: Konrad Mertens 2014,


“Photovoltaics: Fundamentals,
Technology and Practice”

Partial shading of a cell with series connection: As Shady acts as the


bottleneck, the overall current sinks strongly

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 56


SHADING EFFECT TO A MODULE
Source: Konrad Mertens 2014,
“Photovoltaics: Fundamentals,
Technology and Practice”

Module power
sinks drastically
in the case of
shading of a
single cell

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 57


USE OF BYPASS DIODES

 Reducing shading
losses
 Prevention of
hotspots

Source: Konrad Mertens 2014, “Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technology and Practice”


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 58
NUMBER OF
CELLS PER
BYPASS
DIODE

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 59


USE OF BYPASS DIODES

Hot spot
formation

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 60


HOTSPOT FORMATION AND PREVENTION

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 61


EFFECT OF
MISMATCHING
LOSSES

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 62


SUMMARY

Standard Test There is a maximum


I-V curve should be
Conditions (STC): power point, Pmp, for a
plotted rather than
PV module under a
1000 W/m2, 25 ℃, measuring only Voc and
constant solar radiation.
AM1.5. Isc
It depends on the load.

Rated power of a PV
Five important
module is given at Pmp.
parameters – Voc, Isc,
So, the output will be
Vmp, Imp and Pmp
usually less than Pmp.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 63


SUMMARY

There are many external factors (derating factors) that cause the performance of a PV module drops from
its rated power, Pmp.

Irradiance effect – Isc is linearly proportional to the solar irradiance, voltage changes slightly at high
irradiance.

Temperature effect – Voc is negative proportional to the temperature of the solar cell under operation

Temperature coefficients are based on the type of solar cells and the design of PV module

Temperature is the major performance loss for PV module in Malaysia

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 64


Performance ratio – multiplication of all derating factors

1st year estimated electricity output = PR x Prated x GTI

MPPT + DC/DC converter are needed to maximise the electricity


output under changing irradiance and temperature.
SUMMARY
Mismatch caused by shading is a serious issue and therefore
bypass diodes are used.

Static shading can cause hotspot issue. Bypass diodes help to


reduce the effect.

However, shading should be minimised -> knowing the sun


trajectory is important.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 65


PV TECHNOLOGIES

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 66


MATERIALS AND SOLAR
CELL TECHNOLOGIES
 Silicon (c-Si)

 Amorphous Si (α-Si)

 III-V junction solar cells


 GaAs/AlGaAs
 GaAs/InGaAsP
 InP

 II-VI junction solar cells


 CuInSe2 (C
 CuInGaSe2 (CIGS)
 CdTe

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 67


Nowshad Amin et al., 2017.
Solar_Photovoltaic_Technologies_From_Incept
ion_Toward_the_Most_Reliable_Energy_Reso
urce, Encyclopedia of Sustainable
Technologies, Volume 3.
CRYSTALLINE SILICON PV INDUSTRY SUPPLY CHAINS
Crystalline-
Silicon

Mono Crystalline
Si Ingot
Mono Si Mono C-Si Solar Cell Mono C-Si PV Module
Wafer Solar Power Plant

Poly Si
Feedstock

Multi C-Si PV
Multi Crystalline Si Ingot Multi Si Wafer Multi C-Si Solar Cell Module

Chemical Material science, Semiconductor material Electronic/electri Electrical,


semiconductor electronic, science, cal, chemical, mechanical,
electronic, mechanical chemical mechanical electronic
mechanical
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 69
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 70
VARIOUS TYPE OF C-SI SOLAR CELLS
IBC

HiT
Source: pv magazine

Bi-facial
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 71
THIN FILM PV INDUSTRY SUPPLY CHAINS
Thin film production process

Alternate material Back contact +


Glass TCO or Mo Bus-bar +
deposition and laser laser scribing PV Plant
substrate for CIGS encapsulation
scribing (CdTe only)

Electronic/electri Electrical,
Chemical / Material Science, mechanical,
cal, chemical,
Optoelectronics electronic
mechanical

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 72


STRUCTURE OF C-SI PV MODULE

Al frame

Low iron glass

EVA encapsulate

Solar cell strings

EVA encapsulate

TPT back sheet

Junction box
Glass-to-glass structure
Glass-to-backsheet structure
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 73
VARIOUS TYPES OF C-SI PV MODULES
Source: pv magazine

Flexible

IBC

Shingle
Double-glass & Bifacial
Half-cell
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 74
THIN FILM PV TECHNOLOGIES

 Thin film technologies:


 Amorphous Si (a-Si:H) Si based
 Copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2/CIS)
compound
 Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS)
semiconduc
 Cadmium telluride (CdTe) tors from II-
 Dye-sensitized solar cells IV junction
 Perovskite solar cells Emerging
 Quantum dots solar cells tech.
 Organic solar cells

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 75


VARIOUS TYPES OF II-VI JUNCTION PV MODULES
CIGS on glass
CdTe

Amorphous Si
IR DR LIM BOON HAN CIGS on polymer 1/28/2023 76
VARIOUS TYPES OF EMERGING SOLAR CELLS
Dye-sensitized solar cells

Organic Photovoltaic

Quantum
Perovskite solar cells Dots
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 77
III-V JUNCTION PV:
GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GAAS)
 GaAs (compound semiconductor)
 has a high light absorption coefficient, so only a thin layer is required.
 more efficient than mono-crystalline Si cells
 can operate at relatively high temperatures without the appreciable reduction
in efficiency
 GaAs are substantially more expensive than Si cells.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 78


CONCENTRATED PV SYSTEM
 Another way of getting more energy out of a given number of PV cells is to use
mirrors or lenses to concentrate the incoming solar radiation onto the cells –
Concentrated PV (CPV)
 This has the advantage that substantially fewer cells are required to an extent
depending on the concentration ratio
 Vary from two to several hundred or thousand times
 Due to high cost and high efficiency of III-V multi-junction solar cells, they are
more suitable to be used as CPV system

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 79


III-V MULTI-JUNCTION PV CELLS AND CONCENTRATED PV (CPV)

Bypass
diode AIN

CPV

Conductor
Direct-bonded
Copper, DBC

Theoretically, such cells


have a much higher
efficiency, possibly as high
as 66% for an infinite
Source: K. Mertens: number of junctions
textbook-pv.org
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 80
CONCENTRATED PV SYSTEM

 High efficiency at high concentration of sun, 50~1000x

 Low Concentration PV (LCPV) : 2~50x

 III-V triple junction achieve 46% by Soitec and 44% by Sharp in 2014,
43.5% by Solar Junction in 2013.
 GaInP/GaAs/Ge , GaInP/GaInAs/Ge , GaInP/GaAs/GaInNAs/Ge ,
InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs ….

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 81


CONCENTRATED PV SYSTEM
 In concentrating PV systems, the cells usually need to be cooled,
either passively or actively, to prevent overheating
 Systems with the highest concentration ratios use complex sensors,
motors & controls
 to allow them to track the sun on two axes: azimuth and elevation.
 ensuring the cells always receive the maximum amount of solar radiation
 System with low concentration ratios often track the sun on one-axis

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 82


83

CPV SYSTEMS

Parabolic Dish + CPV


dense array module

Source: http://cpvrs.com/
Source: Solar Systems Pty Ltd.
Single-cell CPV + Fresnel lens

Source: Spectrolab
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 83
UTAR - CPVT

Dense-array CPV
+ CCPC

Source: UTAR
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 84
Source: Anuhui YingTian Renewable Energy Co., Ltd. 1MW LCPV Power Plant

LOW
CONCENTRATION
PV (LCPV)

1.5kW LCPV System

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 85


HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
1839 - Becquerel: 1954 - Bell Lab; 6% Si 1970 – First highly 1980 - Thin film solar 1994 – NREL>30% GaAs Significant drops of prices
Photogalvanic effect solar cells effective GaAs solar cells cells > 10% types cells
2014 – HiT solar cells
1883 - Charles Fritts 1957 - Hoffman 1976 – David Carlson and 1981 - First bifacial solar Martin Green’s group, 25.6%
creates 1st 1% efficient Electronics: 8% 1st Christopher Wronski: first cells 21~24.5% PERX cells
solar cells industrial solar cells, amorphous silicon cells 2015-2016 Solar Impusle
1982 – Kyocera – mass 1996 Michael Grätzel 2 first round the world
1958 - Vanguard I, the 1978 – first solar- produce cast polysilicon 11% DSSC
first solar powered powered calculators 2016 – 2017 all major
1985 – Martin Green’s 1999, world total types cells break 22%
satellite was launched team > 20% Si cells installation > 1GW records
1960 – Hoffman 1988 – Michael 2006, >40% solar cells
Electronics: 14% 2017 – Global production
Grätzel and Brian 2007 – SunPower volume > 100 GW
conversion efficiency O'Regan: dye-sensitized production of 22.4% IBC 2020 – Solar take over
1963 - Sharp Cor. A viable cells Si cells
Si solar cells PV module. wind as largest capacity
1985 – 1988 Stanford modern RE
Uni. 25%~28.3% Si solar
cells with IBC tech.

Before 1990s – After


1800s 1970s
1970s 1980s
2000s 2010s

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 86


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 87
PV SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS
PV SYSTEM

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 89


PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

PV Array
• To convert sunlight to electricity

Inverter
• To convert DC power from solar PV panels to AC power

Foundations and Mounting Rack


• To support PV panels

PV Cable
• To transmit generated electricity to a specific location
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 90
PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

Combiner Box / Array Junction Box


• to parallel connecting a few strings before connecting to inverter

Lightning protection and grounding


• To protect PV system from lightning strikes.

Step-up station
• to step-up the AC voltage after inversion to the level of the grid voltage

Data logging and monitoring


• to monitor the performance of the PV system and to store data for future analysis or display
purpose

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 91


GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEM
oC sensor Solar Array HV Grid
G meter

Combiner Box

Step-up
DC Cabinet Inverter Station

Data Monitoring

Computer Internet Remote Computer

Source: http://en.zkenergy.com/product/solugds/323.html
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 92
STAND-ALONE (OFF-GRID) PV SYSTEM

Source: DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24352.07689


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 93
PV MODULES
 No. of cells: 60 cells, 72
cells
 Power: 280 ~380 W, 330 ~
550 W
 Size: 1 m x 1.7 m, 1 m x 2 m

 Solar cells tech.:


 Mono c-Si
 Multi c-Si
 CdTe
 CIS, CIGS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 94


PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
CheetahPerc JKM315-335M-60-A2-EN

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 95


PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

CheetahPerc JKM315-335M-60-A2-EN

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 96


PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

CheetahPerc JKM315-
335M-60-A2-EN

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 97


PHOTOVOLTAIC
MODULE

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 98


 Converting DC into a possibly sinusoidal-form AC
 Achieving high efficiency in partial and peak loads
 MPPT tracking;
 Feeding the current synchronously with the grid
TASKS OF THE frequency

INVERTER  Monitoring the grid


 Anti-islanding protection;
 Low voltage ride through, zero voltage ride
through, high voltage ride through capabilities
 Data logging and external communications
 Measures for personnel protection

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 99


INVERTER
STRUCTURES

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 100


MAXIMUM POWER
POINT TRACKING

 Principle of MPPT: The


output power is maximized
by measuring the current
and voltage with
simultaneously variation of
the duty factor

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 101


MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Source: Konrad Mertens


2014, “Photovoltaics:
Fundamentals, Algorithm of Perturb and Observe
Technology and Practice”

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 102


DC/AC CONVERSION

The DC is chopped into pulses of varying widths using PWM technique and
then filtered by means of low pass filters so that a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage
is achieved
Source: Konrad Mertens 2014, “Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technology and Practice”

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 103


Types of
Inverters

Central Inverter

String Inverter

Modular Power Electronics –


Microinverter or Power
Optimiser

Bi-directional Inverter
Bi-directional Inverter
CONNECTION TO GRID

Source: Konrad Mertens


2014, “Photovoltaics:
Fundamentals,
Technology and Practice”

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 106


SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER / BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(BMS)

 A key component directs the output of the


PV array to the load and to battery
recharging when electricity is being
generated
 When the array is not generating, it
extracts electrical energy from the battery
for the load
 It also provides the capability to direct
battery power to an inverter for AC loads.

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 107


COMBINER BOX AND COMPONENTS

Source: http://solarcombinerbox.sell.curiousexpeditions.org/

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 108


COMBINER BOX AND COMPONENTS

Isolator switch Surge protection devices Fuses

Blocking diode
MCB DC Circuit Breaker
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 109
DC SWITCHGEAR/ SWITCH CABINET

Current AC220V 50HZ


Monitoring
Module RS485
Circuit
Breaker
… Diodes

K1 D1

DC Output, +
DC
Volt
K2 D2 mete
Connected to
r V Inverter

DC Output, -

K2 D2 Surge
5 5 Protec
tion
Device
PC

DC Switchgear
Source: http://www.smart-energy.ag/
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 110
PV CABLES
 600 V, 1000 V, 1500 V
 2.5 mm2, 4 mm2, 6 mm2, 10
mm2, 25 mm2
 Features
 Double-insulated
 UV, ozone, hydrolysis resistant
 Halogen free
 Flame retardant
 High-temperature resistance
 Cross-linked
Long service life, > 25 years at
• Current carrying capacity vs ohmic losses

90℃

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 111


CABLES AND CONNECTORS

http://www.mc-pv-portal.com/

Source: Wikipedia
IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 112
AC SWITCHGEAR

CB
AC
Output
CB CB
1
AC Grid AC
Output
2
AC 415/240, 50 Hz CB
AC
Meter Output
SPD 3

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 113


MONITORING AND
DATA
COMMUNICATIONS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 114


VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

https://www.nuanceenergy.com/solar-blog/structural-overview-of-earth-anchors-for-pv-ground-mounted-arrays

http://www.ino-
via.com/index.php/en/
ground-mounting-
system

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 115


MOUNTING RACK
Chiko’s rack

Schletter’s Uno

Unirac Schletter’s Duo


IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 116
BAPV STRUCTURE (RETROFITTED)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 117


TYPES OF PV
SYSTEMS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 118


Applications of Photovoltaics

Infrastructure Supply
Electric Power Generation Street lighting
Smart city applications
❖ Utility
❖ Distributed Generation
• BIPV, BAPV, Ground-mounted
. Specialized
Applications
Rural Electrification Satellite power supply
Stand-alone PV. Water pumping

Domestic use
Transportation Wearable electronics power supply
E-vehicle Charging Phone/Laptop charging
Mobile electricity
TYPES OF PV PLANTS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 120


https://sinobeacon.en.made-in-china.com/product/hBtQXkloHSYx/China-
Solar-Greenhouse-Photovoltaic-Glass-Greenhouse-with-Hydroponic- https://www.altenergymag.com/article/2019/07/literal-solar-
Systems.html farms-when-agriculture-and-solar-meet/31347

AGRIVOLTAICS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 121


PV PLANTS WITH SUN-TRACKERS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 122


BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAIC (BIPV)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 123


REMOTE AREA
POWER SUPPLY
 Mining – reducing
diesel consumption
 Remote area
hospital/medical
camp – reducing
diesel consumption

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 124


RURAL ELECTRIFICATION

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 125


MOBILE
ELECTRICITY
Many special missions undergo in
remote areas, where the operation has
to be carried out for a number of days or
even weeks. Continuity of electricity
supply will be precious, and this can
easily be served by the photovoltaic
system

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 126


https://www.sistinesolar.com/technology
SOLAR LIGHTING
AND SMART CITY
APPLICATIONS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 127


SOLAR WATER PUMPING SYSTEM

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 128


SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS
Many special missions underwent in remote areas, where the
operation has to be carried out for a number of days or even weeks.
Continuity of electricity supply will be precious, and this can easily
be served by a photovoltaic system

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 129


INNOVATIVE SOLAR CELLS Spherical Solar Cells

V3Solar’s 3D
solar

Miasole Flexible PV
modules

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 130


DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 131


PV MARKET

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 132


PV MODULE COST REDUCTION HISTORY

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 133


JOBS CREATION

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 134


SOLAR PV GLOBAL CAPACITY

2021: 942 GW

Source: REN21, Renewables 2021 Global Status Report

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 135


SOLAR PV GLOBAL CAPACITY BY CONNECTION

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 136


SOLAR PV INSTALLED CAPACITIES
https://www.statista.com/statistics/873026/
solar-energy-capacity-malaysia/

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 137


NET ENERGY METERING 3.0

Net credit or net


consumption =
[Energy
consumed from
DL (kWh) –
Energy Exported
to DL (kWh)] x
Gazetted Tariff

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 138


LSS4 Raw Bids ( 7 – 50 MW)

LARGE-SCALE SOLAR FARM (LSS)


0.4
0.35
0.3

RM/kWh
0.25
0.2
Mean Bids 0.15
0.1
0.5 0.05
0
0.45

1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
0.4 Raw Bids Mean Bid
Mean bids (RM/kWh)

0.35
0.3 LSS3 Raw Bids (5 – 100 MW)
0.25 0.4
0.35
0.2 0.3

0.15 0.25

RM/kWh
0.2
0.1 0.15
0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0

16

56
1
6
11

21
26
31
36
41
46
51

61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
111
LSS1 LSS2 LSS3 LSS4
LSS Plants Raw Bids Mean Bid

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 139


Incentives (Capital allowance, import duty etc.)
Feed-in Tariff (FiT)
POLICY AND Income Tax Credit (ITC)
SUPPORTING
Net Energy Metering (NEM)
SCHEMES IN
MALAYSIA SELF-Consumption (SELCO)
Green Building Index (GBI)
Power Purchasing Agreement (PPA)

IR DR LIM BOON HAN 1/28/2023 140


Market and
Photovoltaic Capacity Growth

Electrical Solar Cells PV System & PV System


Applications
Characteristic Tech. Components Design
• Utility
Photovoltaic generation
Effect Grid- • Distributed
Stand-alone generation
connected
Cell, Module & • Rural
Array electrification
Module • Mobile
I-V Curve & electricity
Power Curve • Lighting
Inverter • Water
Types of Irradiance pumping
Performance Effect Types of • Mining
Losses PV Plants • Desalination
Temperature and filtering
STC & NOCT Effect • Special tasks
BOS
Efficiencies Mismatch &
Shading Solar
Series & Charger
Parallel
Ir Dr Lim Boon Han Battery 1/28/2023 141

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