ME206 – Manufacturing Process I

Lecture 3 – Basic concepts in casting

Amber Shrivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Acknowledgement: Prof. Pradeep Dixit

 Metal flow in a typical casting

Vertical fall with Vortex formation Splashing against Stream splitting and
high velocity (air pocket/slag) walls (mold erosion) merging (air pockets)
• Flow of metal inside the mould cavity through Sprue, runner and gate
is important to minimize the defects
• Metal flow in casting is a transient phenomenon
– Change in pressure, velocity, temperature
• Molten metal fall against the mould cavity, vortex formation, splashing
against the mould walls, mould erosion, air aspiration, metal
solidification are key phenomenon in actual casting process
 Physical properties of molten metals

molten metals are very dense but not viscous

• Velocity of molten metal in gravity sand casting ~ few m/s (0.5-2 m/s), while
in pressure-die casting, few tens of m/s (> 20-50 m/s)

Molten metal at pouring temperature is as viscous as water (quite fluid !!)

Continuity equation applicable in metal casting
• Pressure exerted by molten metal at a depth h , P = ρgh
• Gravity casting (sand/die), P (in kPa), while in pressure die casting,
differential pressure exerted is very high (in Mpa)
• Velocity of molten metal reaching at the bottom of cavity can be
calculated by the energy balance equation (Potential eng = Kinetic eng)
• Velocity in pressure die casting is much more than in sand casting
• High velocity cause turbulence and additional defects

Flow should not separate from the mould

walls Sudden enlargement of cross-
section area should be avoided else air
pockets will be formed and will lead to
defects.
 Various losses in the molten metal flow
• Velocity of molten metal in gating channel is reduced
– due to various losses (Cd) related to sudden change in the cross-
sectional area of channel, sharp entrance, bend, junction, Sharp
turns, sudden expansion, contraction etc
• Values of discharge coefficient (Cd) in casting varies from 0.6 to 0.8

Value of k for various cases

 Flow through multiple gates
• In many cases (esp. casting volume is large), a single gate may not be
sufficient to fill the entire mold cavity in time
– Multiple gates are used in this case and are attached to the same
runner
• Flow rate will be higher on the farthest gate (due to the inertia)
– Flow rate in ‘L’ gate (last gate) is more than in ‘T’ gate (due to inertia)
– Flow rate is higher in larger gate size
 Molten metal impact in sand casting

Stress due to impact <

sand mold strength

• Velocity of molten metal should not very high, else the impact would be severe
leading to the mold erosion and defect formation
 Metal flow in mould filling
• Mould cavity filling considerations:
– Bottom‐up filling by gravity (sand / investment casting)
– Changing cross‐section area of casting
– Flow over one section to another
• Metal Flow – Bulk Turbulence
– Turbulence happens when there is less resistance to fluid low. In
case of low viscosity, high velocity, curved paths (disturbance)
– In casting, turbulence may result in formation of large number of
casting defect

blue vectors - resistance to molten metal flow

 Metal Flow – Bulk Turbulence
• Turbulence happens when the Inertia force (due to velocity) >
viscous drag force (due to viscosity)
– Turbulence causes impingement and erosion of mold, air
aspiration and mixing with molten metal
• Characterized by Reynolds number (Re)
𝜌𝑉𝑑
• 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
– : density of molten metal
– d: characteristic dimension of channel
– µ: dynamic viscosity of molten metal

• Re < 2000 laminar flow

• Re < 4000 less turbulence
• Re < 8000 Mild turbulence
• Re > severe turbulence
 Metal Flow – Surface Turbulence
• Surface turbulence cause when Inertia force > surface tension
– Results in jetting, fountaining, splashing, metal oxidation
• Characterized by Weber number (We) ratio of inertial forces to surface tension
𝜌𝑉2𝑑
• 𝑊𝑒 =
𝛾
•  : surface tension
– We < 1 : No surface turbulence
– We < 10: mild jetting & fountaining
– We > 100: severe fountaining and splashing

Jetting or
fountaining effect
 Control Numbers – metal filling under gravity
• In case of aluminum alloy casting, average metal velocity 𝑣 = 0.5 m/s
• For a channel size 𝑑 = 2 cm, Aluminum density 𝜌 = 2500 kg/m3,
• Surface tension 𝛾 = 1.3 N/m, Dynamic viscosity 𝜇 = 1.38 x 10‐3 kg/m‐s
𝜌𝑉𝑑
– Reynold number 𝑅𝑒 = = 18115
𝜇
• Highly Turbulence in metal casting >> leads to defects
• From several sets of experiments, it is concluded that
– Limiting velocity of molten metal < 0.5 m/s (non-ferrous), < 1.0 m/s
(ferrous)
 Metal Flow ‐ Concept of fluidity
• Ability of liquid metal to flow through a given mould passage and fill
the cavity to reproduce the design details.
– Determined by distance : spiral test/ honeycomb test
• Influencing Factors
– Metallostatic pressure (head) 
– Pouring temperature (viscosity) 
– Metal cleanliness (surface tension) 
– Mold heat absorption (diffusivity) 
– Mold coating (friction) 
– Venting (back pressure) 
• Fluidity can be increased by
– increasing pressure,
– pouring temp

Fluidity tests for Aluminum

 Parameters affecting fluidity in metal casting*
Pouring temperature has more
influence on fluidity than the
pressure head (height of sprue)

*Results – Dr. Durgesh Joshi,

SGS Indore
 Effect of composition and mould on fluidity

(temperature above the MP)

• Grey Iron has very high fluidity than steel but poor strength
• Simple thumb rule, fluidity for grey iron: 1 m, for steel: 0.6m
• Pure metals have larger fluidity than alloys
– Number of gates can be increased if fluidity is low
• Thicker mould thickness > lower thermal loss (heat transfer) > more
heat be preserved >> more fluidity
• Higher superheat (higher pouring temp) >> more fluidity
 Calculation of fluidity for pure metal
• Spiral test/honeycomb test are carried out to measure fluidity
• Consider a metal at its melting point 𝑇𝑚, poured in a channel of radius
‘𝑎’ and average flow velocity ‘𝑉’.
• The metal solidifies at a distance 𝐿𝑓 in time ‘𝑡’ by loosing the latent heat
to the mold.
• The rate of heat released by solidifying metal (latent heat) is equal to
the rate at which heat is transferred between mold-metal interface.
• The thermal resistance at the mold-metal interface is specified by the
heat transfer coefficient ‘𝑕’.
• Heat lost per unit time when the length 𝐿𝑓 solidifies in time ‘𝑡’ can be
expressed as: (total solidified mass x change in enthalpy)
– Total solidified mass = (density x area of channel x avg flow velocity)
– Mass = 𝜌𝑚 𝜋𝑎2 𝑉
– Heat lost per unit time = 𝜌𝑚 𝜋𝑎2 𝑉Δ𝐻 ……. (1)

where, Δ𝐻 is the Enthalpy of liquid metal in kJ/kg.

 Calculation of fluidity
• Heat transferred through convection across mold-metal interface in
time ‘𝑡’ considering the resistance between mold-metal interface
only, is given by:
2𝜋𝑎𝐿𝑓 𝑕 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑜 … … … (2)
Eq 2 is considering the heat from the solidified metal through convective
heat transfer from the channel surface area of the solidified metal.
𝜌𝑚 𝑉Δ𝐻𝑎
𝐿𝑓 =
2𝑕(𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑜 )
• This expression is valid for the solidification of pure metals
• Fluidity of alloys when solid grains are moving, can be expressed as:
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟 𝑉𝑡𝑠
where, 𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟 is the critical fraction of solid at which the fluid stops.
 Pouring time
• Pouring time : too long (will require higher pouring temp), too short –
higher speed, mold erosion, turbulence
• Depends on the material, weight of casting, complexity
• Optimum pouring time
– known from practical experience
 Aspiration effect in mold filling
• For a mold made of permeable material (e.g., sand), the pressure
anywhere in the liquid metal stream must not fall below the
atmospheric pressure.
– Otherwise, gases originating from baking of the organic compounds
in the mold will enter the molten metal stream, producing porous
castings. This is known as the Aspiration effect.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 2
and 3
……… (1)

……… (2)

If the pressure at point 3 is equal to atmospheric

pressure and 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 (from continuity equation),
then:

It is a negative pressure and hence the design

is not acceptable which will cause the nearby fluids to get suked
Mould cavity open to atmosphere up in the low pressure pockets
 Aspiration effect in mould filling
• In a limiting case, if 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0, then eq 2 ……… (3)
• From continuity equation:
• 𝐴2𝑣2 = 𝐴3𝑣3 ; 𝑣2 = 𝑣3. (𝐴3/𝐴2) ; 𝑣2 = 𝑅𝑣3

• Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 3

• Ideally, the sprue profile should be as

shown by a solid line in the adjacent
figure. In this case, pressure through out
the metal stream is atmospheric
• Tapered profile is easy to manufacture and
is more commonly used.
 Aspiration effect in mould filling
• Sudden change in flow direction also causes
aspiration effect.
• The liquid metal stream contracts around a
sharp corner due to the momentum effect
• Constricted region is termed as ‘Vena
contracta’
• To avoid the creation of vacuum around point Mechanism of vacuum generation
2, the mold is made to fit the vena contracta.
Thus, sharp changes in flow direction must
be avoided.
• If the runner diameter is 𝑑 and diameter at
entrance is 𝑑’, then 𝑑’/𝑑 = 1.3, radius of
curvature 𝑟 ~ 0.15𝑑 (Ref: R.A. Finn,
fundamental of metal casting)

trade-off for making a smaller mould at the vena contracta point is the lower rate of flow of molten metal and hence, lower
production rate

Outlet dimensions to prevent

vacuum generation
 Types of Gates

• Gates : opening through which the molten metal enters into the
mold cavity
• Types: top, bottom, middle and sideway gates
Gating design : time to fill mold cavity

better design - include a riser

time taken
Vertical gating design
Assumptions:
Frictionless fluid flow.
Mold is initially kept at an atmospheric
pressure.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1)
and (3),

ρ is density of liquid metal

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡𝑓) =
𝑨𝒈𝒗𝟑

where, 𝑨𝒈 is the area of gate at point 3 (exit of

sprue).
 Bottom gating design
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and
(3),

Bernoulli’s equation at points (3) and (4),

Assuming that all the kinetic energy at point 3 is lost as the liquid metal
enters the mould, and pressure at point 4 is equal to atmospheric
pressure

*Because of the height in the mould cavity (h), molten metal will have back
velocity (opposite to Vg), therefore the net velocity would be the 𝑣 = 2𝑔(𝑕𝑡 − 𝑕)
 Bottom gating design (II)
• Assuming that the metal level in the mold move up through a height
𝑑𝑕 in a time interval 𝑑𝑡.
– If 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑔 are the cross section areas of mold and gate,
respectively, then volume change will be same :

• On substituting the value of 𝑣𝑔 we can write:

• At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑕 = 0 and at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 (filling time), 𝑕 = 𝑕𝑚.

• Therefore, the filling time 𝑡𝑓 in bottom gate design will be :
 Pouring basin : impurities
• How to remove impurities from entering in mould cavity?
 Gating ratio
• Gating ratio:
– Sprue area : runner area : gate area
– Defines whether a gating system is increasing in area
(unpressurized) or constricting (pressurized).
• Common unpressurized gating ratios: 1:4:4 or 1:4:8
• A typical pressurized gating ratio is 2: 4 : 3
• Choke area : Smallest cross-section area in a gating system which
determines mould filling time

Gate-runner pressurized system Sprue-runner un-pressurized system

 How to calculate choke area
𝑊
• Choke area =
𝜌𝑡𝐶 2𝑔𝐻

– W: casting mass, t: pouring time,  : mass

density of molten metal, C : efficiency of
the gating system
• Value of H is different for different gating
systems:
– For top gate 𝐻 = 𝑕,
– For bottom gate 𝐻 = 𝑕 − 𝑐/2
𝑝2
– For parting line gate 𝐻 = 𝑕 −
2𝑐