Characteristics of Optical transducer - LDR.

AIM: To study the characteristics of optical transducer - LDR.

APPARATUS:
1. LDR
2. Resistors 1KΩ - 1, 10KΩ - 1
3. Op-amp IC 741
4. DSO
5. Function generator
6. Multimeter
THEORY:
Transducer is a device that converts variations in a physical quantity,
such as pressure or brightness, into an electrical signal, or vice versa.
The optical transducer convert light into electrical quantity. They are
also called as photoelectric transducers. The optical transducer can
be classified as photo emissive, photoconductive and photovoltaic
transducers. The photo emissive devices operate on the principle that
radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted from
the cathode surface.
The photoconductive devices operate on the principle that whenever
a material is illuminated, its resistance changes. The photovoltaic cells
generate an output voltage that is proportional to the radiation
intensity. The radiation that is incident may be x-rays, gamma rays,
ultraviolet, infrared or visible light.
An optical transducer converts light rays into an electronic signal. The
purpose of an optical transducer is to measure a physical quantity of
light and, depending on the type of transducer, then translates it into
a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device.
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-
conductive cell) is a light controlled variable resistor. The resistance
of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity;
in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and
dark-activated switching circuits.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Setup a buffer circuit (voltage follower) circuit using Op-amp.
2. Input is given (a sinusoidal wave of 1 Vpp and 1KHz) and the
output is displayed on CRO.
3. Check whether the gain is one if not op-amp is should be
replaced.
4. Then set up the circuit as given.
5. Connect LDR and 10KΩ resistor to 2 terminals (inverting
terminal). One end of LDR to terminal 6 (output terminal)
6. Connect 1V DC from DC source to terminal 3 (non inverting)
7. Connect and to 7 and 4 respectively.
8. Output is given to terminal 6 and input is grounded.
9. Measure output voltage for different lighting condition (Dark,
Ambient, High).
10. Verify the gain by measuring resistance.
Reading: -

S. Distance(cm) Voltmeter(v) Ammeter(mA) Resistance(ohm)

No
1 5 1 4 .25
2 2 6 .33
3 3 10 .30
4 4 12 .36
5 5 14 .31

1 10 1 8 .126
2 2 12 .167
3 3 16 .188
4 4 20 .200
5 5 24 .208

Graph-

RESULT:
Characteristics of optical transducer LDR is studied and the variation
of resistance with light intensity is plotted.
 Characteristics of LVDT.
AIM: To study the characteristics of LVDT
APPARATUS:
1. LVDT
2. Resistors 4.7KΩ - 3
3. 10KΩ POT - 1
4. DMM
5. Signal generator
THEORY:
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure
displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer. LVDT
consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically
mounted to a stationary form, while the core is secured to the object
whose position is being measured. The coil assembly consists of three
coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable material
can slide freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the
primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic flux
produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils,
inducing an AC voltage in each coil. The main advantage of the LVDT
transducer over other types of displacement transducer is the high
degree of robustness. Because there is no physical contact across the
sensing element, there is no wear in the sensing element.
Because the device relies on the coupling of magnetic flux, an LVDT
can have infinite resolution. Therefore, the smallest fraction of
movement can be detected by suitable signal conditioning hardware,
and the resolution of the transducer is solely determined by the
resolution of the data acquisition system.
The LVDT closely models an ideal zeroth-order displacement sensor
structure at low frequency, where the output is a direct and linear
function of the input. It is a variable-reluctance device, where a
primary center coil establishes a magnetic flux that is coupled
through a center core (mobile armature) to a symmetrically wound
secondary coil on either side of the primary. Thus, by measurement
of the voltage amplitude and phase, one can determine the extent of
the core motion and the direction, that is, the displacement. Figure
shows the linearity of the device within a range of core displacement.
Note that the output is not linear as the core travels near the
boundaries of its range. This is because less magnetic flux is coupled
to the core from the primary. However, because LVDTs have excellent
repeatability, nonlinearity near the boundaries of the range of the
device can be predicted by a table or polynomial curve-fitting
function, thus extending the range of the device.

Circuit Diagram-
PROCEDURE:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figures.
2. Internally set the core of an LVDT at center position and observe
the residual voltage of null position.
3. Minimize the residual voltage with external balance circuit.
4. Change the core displacement 1mm in one direction and observe
the output voltage in digital
multimeter.
5. Repeat the step 4 until the displacement is 5 mm, and observe
the corresponding output
voltage for various displacements in steps of 1mm etc.
6. Now it is moved towards other direction and repeat step 5.
7. Draw the graph for displacement Vs output voltage.
CASE I
When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core
is at null position then the flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in both the windings.
So, for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as e01 and
e02 both are equal. So, it shows that no displacement took place.
CASE II
When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement
to the upward of reference point) In this case the flux linking with
secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2.
Due to this e01 will be more as that of e02. Due to this output voltage
eout is positive.
CASE III
When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for
displacement to the downward of the reference point). In this case
magnitude of e02 will be more as that of e01. Due to this output eout
will be negative and shows the output to downward of the reference
point.
Observations: -

Distance(mm) Output Voltage(mV)

-5 -2.91
-4 -2.38
-3 -1.87
-2 -1.67
-1 -1.35
0 -.37
1 .90
2 1.90
3 3.30
4 4.10
5 4.98

Graph-

RESULT:
LVDT characteristics are observed and studied.
 Measurement of Strain and Load using Strain Gauge.

AIM: To measure strain and load using Strain gauge.

APPARATUS:
Strain measuring trainer kit, Load measurement trainer kit and
associated weights.
THEORY:
A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force;
it converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured. When external
forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the
result. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive,
such as cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed,
causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change,
usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain
by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
Strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical
conductance and its dependence on the conductor's geometry.
When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its
elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will
become narrower and longer, which increases its electrical resistance
end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that,
it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, which decreases its
electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical
resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of induced stress may be
inferred.
A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-
zag pattern of parallel lines. This does not increase the sensitivity,
since the percentage change in resistance for a given strain for the
entire zig-zag is the same as for any single trace. A single linear trace
would have to be extremely thin, hence liable to overheating (which
would change its resistance and cause it to expand), or would need
to be operated at a much lower voltage, making it difficult to measure
resistance changes accurately.

Load cell:
A load cell is a type of force gauge. It consists of a transducer that is
used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured. The various load cell types
include hydraulic, pneumatic, and strain gauge.
Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry. These load
cells are particularly stiff, have very good resonance values, and tend
to have long life cycles in application. Strain gauge load cells work on
the principle that the strain gauge (a planar resistor) deforms when
the material of the load cells deforms appropriately. Deformation of
the strain gauge changes its electrical resistance, by an amount that
is proportional to the strain. The change in resistance of the strain
gauge provides an electrical value change that is calibrated to the
load placed on the load cell. A load cell usually consists of four strain
gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one strain
gauge (quarter bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also
available.

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the equipment.
2. Test the strain gauge in different load condition and do the
calibration procedure.
3. Now unload it fully and calibrate.
4. Load the strain Gauge using assorted weight and received the
reading.
5. After fully load, take the unloading readings.
6. Plot the graph and we may obtain straight line.
Observation-

S. Load (Kg) Output Voltage(mV)

No
1 .1 50
2 .2 58
3 .3 62
4 .4 66
5 .5 70
6 .6 75
7 .7 80
8 .8 85
9 .9 89

Graph-

RESULT:
Strain and Load using strain gauge is measured and graph is
plotted.
 Characteristics of Thermocouple

AIM: To study the characteristics of thermocouple.

APPARATUS:
1. Thermocouple
2. Resistors 1KΩ - 1, 5.6KΩ - 1
3. Op-amp IC 741
4. Thermometer
5. Power Chord.
6. Digital multi meter
THEORY:
Theory Of Thermocouple: The thermocouple is one of the simplest
and most commonly used methods of measuring process
temperatures. The operation of a thermocouple is based upon
Seeback effect which states that when heat is applied to junction
(hot junction) of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated which
can be measured at the other junction (cold junction). The two
dissimilar metals form an electric circuit, and a current flow as a
result of the generated emf as shown in Figure1.

The emf produced is function of the difference in temperature of

hot and cold junctions and is given by: E = aΔθ
 Where a = photoelectric constant. Δθ = difference between
temperatures of hot and cold junctions.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Check the op-amp by arranging buffer circuit (Gain = 1).
3. Connect the kettle full with of the kettle and immerse the
thermometer and thermocouple to it.
4. Note output voltage from multimeter for different temperature
(up 1000 to).
5. Draw the graph with temperature at x axis and output voltage as
y axis.

Observation-

S. No Thermocouple Thermometer
reading(0C) reading(0C)
1 75 72
2 70 66
3 65 60
4 60 54
5 55 48
6 50 42
7 45 37

RESULT:
The characteristics of thermocouple is studied and is plotted.

Characteristics of Thermistor

AIM: To study the characteristics of the given thermistor.

APPARATUS:
1. Thermistor.
2. Thermometer
3. Multimeter.
4. Heater.
THEORY:
The thermistor is also a temperature sensitive resistor. While the
thermocouple is the most versatile temperature transducer and the
PRTD is thus sensitive. Of the three major categories of sensors, the
thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter change with
temperature. Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor
materials. Although positive temperature coefficient units are
available, most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient
(TC); that is, their resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
The negative T.C. can be as large as several percent per degree
Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an RTD or
thermocouple circuit. The price we pay for this increased sensitivity
is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear device
which is highly dependent upon process parameters. Consequently,
manufacturers have not standardized thermistor curves to the
extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been standardized.

PROCEDURE:
1. Thermistor and thermometer are dipped into a beaker containing
water.
2. Water is heated using heater.
3. Thermistor is connected to digital multi-meter and kept in
resistance mode.
4. Initially at 30oC temperature resistance.
5. For every 5 o C increase, resistance is noted.
6. After taking reading till 80o C water is cooled.
Observation-

S.No. Temperature Resistance

1 70 19
2 65 24
3 60 28
4 55 32
5 50 41
6 45 48
7 40 57

RESULT:
The characteristics of thermistor is studied and the graph is plotted