Chapter Five

Sources and Methods of Data Collection

5.1 Secondary data and Source

Information sources are usually classified into two broad categories. They are Primary and
secondary. The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process. It is also known as published
data. Data which are not originally collected but rather obtained from published sources and
statistically processed are known as secondary data. For example data published by Central
Statistics of Ethiopia, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Chamber of Commerce
as well as international bodies such as World Bank, Asian Development Bank, International
Labor Organization etc.

There are two types of secondary data sources, internal and external. Internal sources are those
documentations that are generated within an organization by the organization. They include
internal financial and accounting reports, production summaries, sales summaries, etc. External
sources are created outside the organization and are more varied than internal sources. They do
not necessarily refer to the organization under consideration. These are, rather, publications that
are generated by other agencies like statistics authority of a country, research groups, and
professional associations.
Secondary data are used for three purposes.

 To fill a need for specific reference or citation on some point (to learn from the past).

 To minimize the costs and benefits of doing primary research.

 To serve as sole basis for a research study

ADVANTAGE
i. Less costly as data is already available.
ii. It is faster to collect and process as compare to primary data.
iii. It provides valuable insights and contextual familiarity with the subject matter.
iv. It provides a base on which further information can be collected to update it and finally
use it for the purpose of research.

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DISADVANTAGE
i. Locating appropriate source and finally getting access to the data could be time
consuming.
ii. The data available might be too vast and a lot of time may be spent going through it.
iii. It might have been originally collected for some purpose which is specific and not known
to the present researcher. To that extent, it might be erroneous to use it.
iv. It might not be updated and not of much use in a dynamically changing environment.

v. The information may not meet one’s specific needs (units of analysis, definition of
variables, sample size, etc)

vi. Question of reliability

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA
Following are the main sources of secondary data.
i) Official Publications: Publications of the Central and State Governments, Government of
foreign countries or international bodies, etc.
ii) Publication relating to Trade: Publication of the trade associations, chamber of commerce,
banks, cooperative societies, stock exchange, trade unions etc.
iii) Journal/Newspapers etc. : Some newspapers/ journals collect and publish their own data,
e.g., Indian Journal of Economics, Economist, Economic Times, Far Eastern Review etc.
iv) Data Collected by Research Agencies: Research agencies like MARG Nielsen and Gallys
also collect useful data which are available as data bases upon payment.
v) Unpublished Data: Data may be obtained from several companies, organizations, universities
etc. working in the same areas, and who have done very good work. For example Data on
demography prediction by Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency can be utilized by private and
public sector companies.
5.3 PRIMARY DATA
The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to
be original in character. Essentially they are raw material.
It is the original source from where we get first hand information. Data collected from a primary
source is called primary data.
Advantage
The advantages of primary data are:
i) Primary data is more accurate and gives detailed information according to the requirement.
ii) The explanation of terms, definition, and concepts are incorporated in primary data.
iii) Methods of collection, its limitations and other allied aspects are highlighted.
iv) It is more reliable and less prone to errors.
v) It often includes a copy of the schedule and description of the procedure used in selecting the
sample and collecting the data.

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Limitations
i) It is expensive to collect primary data.
ii) It is time consuming method of data collection.
iii) It requires experts/trained personnel to collect the primary data. Otherwise it may lead to
wrong observations/unreliable data collection.
5.3. Primary Data Collection Techniques/Methods
The following methods of data collections are generally used.
1. Observation method
2. Interview method
3. Questionnaire method.
1. OBSERVATION METHOD
 This is the most commonly used method data collection especially in studies relating
to behavioral sciences. Accurate watching and noting of phenomenon as they occur in
nature with regard to cause and effect or mutual relation is called observation method
of data collection.

 Much of what we know comes from observation. Besides collecting data visually,
observation involves listening, reading, smelling, and touching.

Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may
himself look at the watch.

There are two main types of observation, participant and nonparticipant observation. This
distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is
observing.

Participant observation is usually limited to studies of human subjects. The researcher

becomes part of the group studied and participates in their daily life and activities:
observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these situations. Conversation
is used in order to discover the subjects' own interpretations of events.

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 In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities without
taking part themselves. When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on
his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed
as non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may
be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation).
Beside the study of human subjects, non-participant observation can also be used to study
animal behavior.

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be
observed? How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be
ensured? In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured
observation/systematic. But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to
be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation. Structured
observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the
observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.

The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the
case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies
which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their
feelings for one reason or the other.

Observation is the only option to collect certain types of data like animal and child behavior.

o No interviewer’s bias.

However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method.

Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes
unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some
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people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data
effectively.

Limitations

o It is a slow and expensive process. (Costly and time consuming)

o Observation is limited to as a way to learn about the past.

MERITS OF OBSERVATION METHOD

These are as follows
a) Common method: The method of observation is common to all the discipline of research.
b) Simplicity: The method is very simple to use.
c) Realistic: Since observation is based on actual and first hand experience, its data are more
realistic than the data of those techniques which are indirect and secondary source of
information.
d) Formulation of hypothesis: In all the business operations, the method of observation is used
as the basis of formulating hypothesis, regarding business research problem.
e) Verification: For verification of hypothesis, again we depend upon observation. Therefore, it
can be said that the problem presents itself and resolves itself through observation method.
f) Greater reliability of conclusions: The conclusions of observations are more reliable than
non-observation conclusions, because they are based on first hand perception by the eyes and can
be verified by any one by visual perception.
g) Current information: the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATIONS METHOD
a. Some events can not be objects of observation: There are certain events which are
microscopic, indefinite and may not occupy any definite space or occur at a definite time
and can not be noticed for observation purposes. For example, it is not possible to observe
emotions and sentimental factors, likes and dislikes etc.
b. Illusory observation: Since we have no depend upon our eyes for observation, we can
never be sure if what we are observing is the same as it appears to our eyes, Eyes are prone
to deception. It is well known that eyes see a mirage in desert at noon.

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c. Subjective explanation: The final results of observation depend upon, the interpretation
and understanding of the observer, the defects of subjectivity in the explanation creep in
description of the observed and deductions from it. For example, if we see a man coming
out of a wine shop, quite drunk, and he starts firing at random, we may believe that liquor
induces irrational violence in a man, which may not be the case always.
d. Slowness of Investigation: The slowness of observation methods lead to disheartening,
disinterest among both observer and observed.
e. Expensive methodology: Being a long drawn process, the technique of observation is
expensive.
f. Inadequacy: The full answer cannot be obtained by observation alone, observation must be
supplemented by other methods of study. (The information provided by this method is very
limited.
g. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
h. Cannot make generalizations – no way of judging whether the group is typical.
i. Moral, legal and injury risks associated with this method.
2. INTERVIEW METHOD
This is the most suitable method of data collection for business and economic problems.
Under this method of collecting data there is a face to face contact with the persons from whom
the information is to be obtained (known as informants). The interviewer asks them questions
pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. Thus if a person wants to collect
data about the working conditions of the workers of Addis Ababa University, he would go to
works at Addis Ababa, contact the workers and obtain the information.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVIEW METHOD
The following are the main characteristics of interview method.
a) It is a close contact or interaction including dialogue between two or more persons.
b) There is a definite object of interview, such as knowing the ideas and views of others.
c) There is a face to face contact or primary relationship between the individuals.
d) This is the most suitable method of data collection for business and economic problems.
MERITS OF INTERVIEW METHOD
As compared with other research methods, the method of interview possesses some unique
qualities. These are:

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1. In depth research: the interview studies the internal aspects of the research problem, which
are inaccessible to other methods. Accordingly, in comparison with other methods, the
interview method is a method of in-depth research.

2. Knowledge of past and future: In interview we also learn about the outlook, aspirations
and future goals of human beings and their present abilities. Accordingly, by interview we
unravel the hidden past and prognosticate about the future.
3. Mutual encouragement: In an interview there is inflow and outflow of ideas between the
interviewer and the interviewee. This exchange proves encouraging for both the researcher
and the respondent.
4. Supra-observational: An interview gives us knowledge of facts which are inaccessible to
observation. The emotional attitude, secret motivation and incentives governing human life
come to surface in an interview though these are unobservable. Therefore interview has a
quality which may be called supra-observational. (The interviewer can collect
supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics and environment
which is often of great value in interpreting results.
5. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEW METHOD
In spite of the above-mentioned merits of the method of interview, it suffers from certain
limitations which are:
1. Inadequate information: There are certain matters which can be written in privacy but
about which one does not speak before others. If these matters are subject of an interview,
the likelihood is that only a disguised version of these will be presented. Again, there are
people who are temperamentally unable to discuss things though they are powerful writers.
These persons are also unlikely to present true facts in an interview. Certain types of
respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income groups may
not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.
2. Defects due to interviewee: If an interviewee is of low level intelligence he is unfit to give correct
information. Some persons are in the habit of talking in around about manner and it is impossible to
decipher what they say.

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 3. Prejudices of Interviewer: The prejudices of interviewers are as much problem of research as are
the inadequacies of the interviewees. If the interviewer is unable to suppress his prejudices, his
understanding and interpretation of the information given in interview will be defective.
4. One-sided and incomplete research: In the interview, certain aspects of human behaviour get
over-emphasized at the expense of others. There is a tendency to give too much importance to
personal factors and minimize the role of the environment factors. For these reasons, the research
by interview is liable to suffer from one-sidedness.
5. Interviewing is an art rather than science: Another limitation of interview method is that its
procedures cannot be standardized; there is too much room for improvision. The success of an
interview is more due to skill and tact than due to knowledge. However, the success in interview
depends exclusively on the intelligence and skill of the interviewer. Therefore, the method of
interview is more an art than science.
6. Difficulty in Persuading the Interviewee: Many people are unwilling to participate in interviews.
Under these circumstances, the first problem before the interviewer is to persuade the prospective
interviewee to extend his cooperation for the research project and agree for being interviewed.

7. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
8. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also
remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
 Types of interviews
Interviews may be classified into two categories as Structured Interviews and Unstructured
Interviews.

Structured Interview

Structured interview is the one that is based on structured set of questions and is highly
standardized in form and content. In the structured interview method information is collected by
the investigator by directly asking the respondents on the basis of a schedule. It is not only the
type of information that is prefixed but also the specific questions to be asked, the language of
the questions and their order. The answer is also structured either in the form of Yes/No
alternative answers or in the form of categorical answers.

Here the interviewer’s job is to see that the respondents answer the questions systematically and
clearly. Interviewer can clarify the questions to the respondents only by repeatedly reading out
the questions or interpreting them in specific language.

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It is always better to use open-end question, unless impossible because respondents are likely to
give answers more freely according to their real attitude. interview method is used when data is
to be collected from a large number of persons. It helps in systematic collection, comparison,
organization and analysis of data within a limited time period

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interview is not essentially preplanned, structured, or ordered. The investigators are
given some broad topics upon which they have to collect information. The respondents are free
to narrate their experiences and incidents of life. Often the arrangement and wording of the
questions are to be determined on the spot by the investigator. The type of information that one
cannot get through standardized structured interview is gained through this method. However,
being flexible it needs more skill on the part of the interviewer.

 Interview Techniques
a) Personal Interviews: An interview is called personal when the Interviewer asks the
questions face-to-face with the Interviewee. Personal interviews can take place in the home,
at a shopping mall, on the street, outside a movie theater or polling place, and so on.
b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part
in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
 Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing:

For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully selected,
trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must possess the
technical competence and necessary practical experience. Occasional field checks should be made to
ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for
performing their job efficiently.

In fact, interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every effort should be
made to create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease
while talking to and discussing with the interviewer. The interviewer must ask questions properly
and intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely. At the same time, the
interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must clear any
doubt that the latter has. The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and
unbiased. The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer but he
must keep the direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and must
make all possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

3. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

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A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed by the
researcher on a question form. Questionnaire is also a list of questions, which is handed over to
the respondent, who reads the questions and records the answers himself.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
The questionnaire may be of following types:
a) Closed questionnaire: Closed questionnaires are those in which a question is presented the
respondents with fixed response categories.

b) Open questionnaire: Here every question is not necessarily presented to the respondent in the same
wording and does not have fixed responses. Respondents are free to answer the question the way they
like. it allows the respondent to formulate and record their answers in their own words. These are more
qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems.

c) Mixed Questionnaire: This is a questionnaire which is neither completely closed nor open. It
consists of both the types of questions.

Example:

Closed choice question:

People go to a bar for different reasons; for which of the following four reasons do you most go?

· to meet friends
· to drink alcohol
· to watch sport
· to play pool or darts
What is the primary reason you applied to the AAU graduate program?

· to expand my knowledge base

· to earn a better salary
· to get a promotion
· had no specific reason, but did because my friends were applying

Open ended question:

People go to the bar for different reasons; for what reason do you most go?

..............................................................................................................

List the top five reasons why you applied to the AAU graduate program?

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..............................................................................................................

PROCEDURE OF ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire method is frequently used in gathering the data. It is used to collect data from
a large , diverse, and widely scattered group of people. The following steps are taken in
organization of research through questionnaire method.
i. Framing of questionnaire scientifically to meet the data requirements.
ii. Compiling the names and addresses of the respondents.
iii. Pre-testing of the questionnaire to judge its suitability and utility.
iv. Dispatch of the questionnaire to all the respondents.
v. A code or serial number is given to each case
vi. Receipt of questionnaire from the respondents should be recorded date wise.
vii. Proper follow up for receiving of adequate response.
viii. If proper response is not coming even after third reminder change the names of respondents
and follow the above procedure.
ADVANTAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method is an indirect method of data collection. It has certain advantages as compared to
other methods. It is merits are as follows:
i) Economical: In comparison to other methods of data collection (observation methods, case
study, interview etc.) the mailed questionnaire method is cheapest and quickest method. The cost
in this method is only that of getting the questionnaire prepared and the postage expense. There
is no need to visit the respondents personally or continue the study over a long period.
ii) Less skill of administration: The questionnaire method requires less skill to administer than
an interview, observation or case study method of data collection.
iii) Research in wide area: If the informants or the respondents are scattered in a large
geographical areas, the Questionnaire method is only means of research. The other methods of
data collection such as schedule, interview or observation method do not prove to be successful.
Even after spending large amount of money, it may not be possible to collect the information
quickly but through questionnaire method, large area can be covered.

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iv) Time Saving: Besides saving money, questionnaire method saves time. Simultaneously
hundreds of persons are approached through it whereas if they are to be interviewed it may take a
long time.
v) More reliable in special cases: This is a method of collecting data in an objective manner
through standardized impersonal questions. The respondents give free, frank and reliable
information. Moreover the informants or respondents are free to give information as and when
they want. Because of this freedom, the information that is provided is more dependable and
reliable.
vi) Free from external influence: In questionnaire method, informants or respondents are free
from external influences, as researcher is not present. They provide reliable, valid and
meaningful information based on his knowledge, views and attitudes.

vii) Suitable for special type of responses: The information about certain problems can be best
obtained through this method. For example, the research about sexual habits, marital relations,
dreams etc. can easily be obtained by keeping the name of respondents anonymous.
viii) Less errors: Chances of errors are very low, because the supply of information is done by
respondent himself.
x) Uniformity: The impersonal nature of questionnaire ensures uniformity from one
measurement situation to another.
xi) Collection of information relevant to the objective: Through this method, the questionnaire
are framed according to the object, hence data collection is also accordingly to that objective.
DISADVANTAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
The method has the following disadvantages/limitations.
a) Lack of interest: Lack of interest on the part of respondents is very common. The
respondents get disinterested due to large number of questions.
b) Incomplete response: Some persons give answers which are so brief that the full meaning is
incomprehensible.
c) Illegibility: Some persons write so badly that even they themselves find it difficult to read
their own handwriting/.
d) Useless in-depth research problems: If a problem requires deep and long study, it can not be
studied through this method.

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e) Inelastic: This method is very rigid since no alteration may be introduced.
f) Prejudices and bias of the researcher influences the questions: Since researcher frames the
questions his personal views, prejudices and the influence the questions and he instead of
becoming objective and impersonal becomes bias and prejudicious.
g) Poor response and lack of reality: All the informants do not give answer or do not fill the
questionnaire. There is a large percentage of those who do not send back the questionnaire. This
makes the study unreliable.
h) The incompleteness of the form of questionnaire: Sometimes the questionnaire is itself
incomplete and some of the important aspects about which the information is required are not
given, hence data collected is neither reliable nor helpful for the study.
i) Lack of personal contact: There is no provision in this method for coming face to face with
the respondent. This may result manipulation of replies by the respondents.
General tips/ guidelines for constructing questionnaires:

1. Get the beginning right - this will encourage respondents to read on. One should state what
the survey is about and roughly how long it will take to complete.

2. Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a cramped appearance.

3. Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple - the wording of the questionnaire
is very important. Avoid leading questions which direct the respondent in a particular way
e.g. isn’t it true to say that

4. Avoid Ambiguity, Confusion, and Vagueness- Ambiguity and vagueness plague most
question writers. A researcher might make implicit assumptions without thinking of
respondents’ perspectives. For example, the question, “what is your income?” could mean
weekly, monthly, or annual: family or personal; before taxes or after taxes; for this year or
last year; from salary or from all sources. The confusion causes inconsistencies in how
different respondents assign meaning to and answer the question.

Another source of ambiguity is the use indefinite words or response categories. Consider the
words such as often, occasionally, usually, regularly, frequently, many, good, fair, and poor.
Each of these words has many meanings. For one person frequent reading of Time magazine
may be reading six or seven issues a year; for another it may be two issues a year. The word
fair has great variety of meanings; the same is true for many indefinite words.
5. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
Make each question about one and only one. A double barreled question consists of two
or more questions joined together. It makes the respondent’s answer ambiguous. For
example, if asked, “Does this company have pension and health insurance benefits?” a
respondent at the company with health insurance benefits only might answer either yes or
no. The response has an ambiguous meaning and the researcher cannot be certain of the

13
 respondent’s intentions. When multiple questions are asked in one question, the results
may be exceedingly difficult to interpret.
6. Avoid Leading / suggestive questions
Make respondents feel that all responses are legitimate. Do not let them aware of an
answer that the researcher wants. A leading question is the one that leads the respondent
to choose one response over another by its wording. For example, the question, “you
don’t smoke, do you?” leads respondents to state that they do not smoke. “Don’t you
think that women should be empowered?” ‘Degree level education is a good idea. Isn’t
it?’ In most the cases the respondent is likely to agree with the statement.
7. You must pre-test the questionnaire and give time to conduct critical evaluation.
8. Avoid long passages of text- Keep it short.
9. Avoid Loaded Questions -Loaded questions suggest a socially desirable answer or are
emotionally charged. “Should the city government repair all the broken streets?” Most of
the people are going to agree with this question simply because this is highly socially
desirable. A question which may be challenging the traditionally set patterns of behavior may
be considered as emotionally charged i.e. it is loaded with such material which may hit the
emotions of the people. Look at some behaviors associated with masculinity in Pakistani
society. Let us ask a husband “Have you ever been beaten up by your wife?” Straight away
this question may be considered to be a challenge to the masculinity of the person. Hence it
may be embarrassing for the person to admit such an experience. Therefore, even if the
husband was beaten up by his wife, he might give a socially desirable answer.

 Types of interviews
i. Structured interviews
 involve the use of a set of predetermined questions
 highly standardized techniques of recording.
 interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down (asking questions in a form and order
prescribed).
 in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured interview
ii. Unstructured interviews
 are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning
 do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording
information.
 interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask
 But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another
 the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-consuming
 also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer.
 They are important in case of exploratory or formulative research studies

Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing:

In fact, interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles.

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 interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed
 Create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at
ease while talking to and discussing with the interviewer.
 The interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently
 The interviewer must record the responses accurately and completely.
 At the same time, the interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the
respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.
 The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased.
The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer but
he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand,
 discouraging irrelevant conversation and must make all possible effort to keep the
respondent on the track.

15
CHAPTER 6. SAMPLING

Sampling for quantitative studies

Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined

study population. Often research focuses on a large population that, for
practical reasons, it is only possible to include some of its members in the
investigation. You then have to draw a sample from the total population. In
such cases you must consider the following questions:

· What is the study population you are interested in from which we

want to draw a sample?
· How many subjects do you need in your sample?
· How will these subjects be selected?

The study population has to be clearly defined. Otherwise you cannot do

the sampling. Apart from persons, a study population may consist of
villages, institutions, plants, animals, records, etc. Each study population
consists of study units. The way you define your study population and your
study unit depends on the problem you want to investigate and on the
objectives of the study.

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The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the
extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from
the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other
situations with other people or situation. Sampling is critical to external
validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to
people or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize
validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that
the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of
several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample it is meant that
the probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population
must be given a priori. All probability samples involve the idea of random
sampling at some stage. Probability sampling requires that a listing of all
study units exists or can be compiled. This listing is called the sampling
frame. Of course, at times, it is impossible to obtain a complete list of the
population.

Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal

validity—the extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the
variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from
other variables not systematically treated. Without probability sampling,
error estimates cannot be constructed. Perhaps the key word in sampling is
representative. If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid for
the whole study population, which requires a quantitative study design,
they should take care to draw a sample in such a way that it is
representative of that population. A representative sample has all the
important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Examples of probability sampling Simple

random sampling

The guiding principle behind this technique is that each element must have
an equal and nonzero chance of being selected. This can be achieved by
applying a table of random numbers or a computer generated random
numbers to a numbered sampling frame. Another approach involves
drawing numbers from a container. The product of this technique is a
sample determined entirely by chance. It should be noted, however, that
chance is “lumpy”, meaning that random selection does not always produce
a sample that is representative of the population. Imagine, for example, a
sampling frame comprising 10,000 people. Furthermore, consider that
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altitude is a critical variable, and that the composition of the sampling
frame is as follows: 1,500 are from high altitude ; 7,500 are from medium
altitude white, and 1,000 are from low altitude. You are going to select a
sample of 500 people from this sampling frame using a simple random
sampling technique. Unfortunately, the simple random selection process
may or may not yield a sample that has equivalent altitudinal proportions
as the sampling frame. Due to chance, disproportionate numbers of each
altitudinal category may be selected.

Systematic sampling

The systematic random sampling technique begins with selecting one

element at random in the sampling frame as the starting point; however,
from this point onward, the rest of the sample is selected systematically by
applying a predetermined interval. For example, in this sampling
technique, after the initial element is selected at random, every “k th”
element will be selected (k th refers to the size of the interval—the ratio of
the population to sample size) and becomes eligible for inclusion in the
study. The “k th ” element is selected

through the end of the sampling frame and then from the beginning until a
complete cycle is made back to the starting point (that is, the place where
the initial random selection was made). If there is a cyclic repetition in the
sampling frame, systematic sampling is not recommended.

Stratified sampling

Stratified random sampling begins with the identification of some variable,

which may be related indirectly to the research question and could act as a
confounder (such as geography, age, income, ethnicity, or gender). This
variable is then used to divide the sampling frame into mutually exclusive
strata or subgroups. Once the sampling frame is arranged by strata, the
sample is selected from each stratum using simple random sampling or
systematic sampling techniques. It is important that the sample selected
within each stratum reflects proportionately the population proportions;
thus, you can employ proportionate stratified sampling.

Cluster sampling

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It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random sample of the
units of the study population at random, because a complete sampling
frame does not exist. Logistical difficulties may also discourage random
sampling techniques (e.g., interviewing people who are scattered over a
large area may be too time-consuming). However, when a list of groupings
of study units is available (e.g., villages or schools) or can be easily
compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly selected. Then all
study units in the selected clusters will be included in the study.

Multistage sampling

Multistage cluster sampling is used when an appropriate sampling frame

does not exist or cannot be obtained. Multistage cluster sampling uses a
collection of preexisting units or clusters to “stand in” for a sampling frame.
The first stage in the process is selecting a sample of clusters at random
from the list of all known clusters. The second stage consists of selecting a
random sample from each cluster. Because of this multistage process, the
likelihood of sampling bias increases. This creates a lack of sampling
precision known as a design effect. It is recommended to consider the
design effect during sample size determination.

Observation studies

Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or

situations. The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals
or groups of people or animals (and in some instances inanimate objects)
behave, act or react.

There are two main types of observation - participant and nonparticipant:

Participant observation is usually limited to studies of human subjects.

The researcher becomes part of the group studied and participates in their
daily life and activities: observing their everyday situations and their
behavior in these situations. Conversation is used in order to discover the
subjects' own interpretations of events.

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In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities
without taking part themselves. Whilst this has the advantage of
preventing the researcher from unduly influencing or becoming involved in
activities they may not wish to take part in (for example dangerous or
criminal actions), they are less likely to understand fully the meanings
behind behavior in the group studied. Beside the study of human subjects,
non-participant observation can also be used to study animal behavior.
The observation and recording of natural phenomenon can also be

Advantages and disadvantages of observation studies are

Advantages Disadvantages
Requires little training or familiarization.Time consuming.

Can understand meanings behind

actions. Problems with recording data.

Behavior can be observed in its

Can only study a small group.
natural

Cannot make generalizations –

Can study deviant groups. no way of judging whether the
group is typical.

Flexibility - researcher may come

across conditions and events previously If covert is it ethical?
not comprehended.

Moral, legal and injury risks

associated with this method.

2.2. Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to

questions posed by the researcher on a question form. A number of

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respondents are asked identical questions, in order to gain information that
can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.

Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used to gather

information on almost any topic involving large or small numbers of people.
The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed
questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an
option from a number of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling
an answer. These types of questionnaires only gather straightforward,
uncomplicated information, and only simple questions can be asked. The
open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to
formulate and record their answers in their own words. These are more
qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems.

Example:

Closed choice question:

People go to a bar for different reasons; for which of the following four reasons
do you most go?

· to meet friends
· to drink alcohol
· to watch sport
· to play pool or darts
What is the primary reason you applied to the AAU graduate program?

· to expand my knowledge base

· to earn a better salary
· to get a promotion
· had no specific reason, but did because my friends were
applying

Open ended question:

People go to the bar for different reasons; for what reason do you most
go?

..............................................................................................................

List the top five reasons why you applied to the AAU graduate
program?

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..............................................................................................................
There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of
method. Open ended questions give a greater insight and
understanding of the topic researched but may be difficult to classify
and quantify and must be carefully interpreted. Fixed choice
questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time, effort
and ingenuity to answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify,
develop or clarify their answers.

Advantages Disadvantages
Quick. Limited answers only can be given.
Cheap. Lack of qualitative depth results in
superficiality.
No way of probing for more information
Efficient.
in
Can reach a largeNot always accurate - not possible to
number verify what

of people. appears to be an inaccurate answer and

Consistent formatlittle
Predetermined boxes may not be
means
appropriate.
there is little scope for
bias Low response rate.
Construction difficult - instructions
must be clear

and unambiguous and questions

General tips for constructing questionnaires:

Get the beginning right - this will encourage respondents to read on. One
should state what the survey is about and roughly how long it will take to
complete.

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Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a
cramped appearance.

Use a large enough type size and avoid block capitals so that questions can
be easily read.

Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple - the wording of

the questionnaire is very important. Avoid leading questions which direct the
respondent in a particular way e.g. isn’t it true to say that

Avoid jargon and technical terms - make sure the question is unambiguous -
each question should only have a single interpretation.

Watch out for double questions - that is those asking two separate

questions at once.

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