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A review of wave energy converter technology

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 Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
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Journal of Power and Energy

A review of wave energy converter technology

B Drew, A R Plummer and M N Sahinkaya
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 2009 223: 887
DOI: 10.1243/09576509JPE782

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 REVIEW PAPER 887

A review of wave energy converter technology

B Drew∗ , A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK

The manuscript was received on 26 March 2009 and was accepted after revision for publication on 16 June 2009.
DOI: 10.1243/09576509JPE782

Abstract: Ocean waves are a huge, largely untapped energy resource, and the potential for
extracting energy from waves is considerable. Research in this area is driven by the need to meet
renewable energy targets, but is relatively immature compared to other renewable energy tech-
nologies. This review introduces the general status of wave energy and evaluates the device types
that represent current wave energy converter (WEC) technology, particularly focusing on work
being undertaken within the United Kingdom. The possible power take-off systems are identified,
followed by a consideration of some of the control strategies to enhance the efficiency of point
absorber-type WECs. There is a lack of convergence on the best method of extracting energy from
the waves and, although previous innovation has generally focused on the concept and design
of the primary interface, questions arise concerning how best to optimize the powertrain. This
article concludes with some suggestions of future developments.

Keywords: wave energy converter, power-take-off, wave power

1 INTRODUCTION been tested at large scale, deployed in the oceans. The

LIMPET shoreline oscillating water column (OWC),
Despite being discussed in patents since the late 18th installed at Islay, Scotland, in 2000 represents one sys-
century [1], modern research into harnessing energy tem that is currently producing power for the National
from waves was stimulated by the emerging oil crisis of Grid [8]. In September 2008, another commercial wave
the 1970s (for example, see reference [2]). With global power system started operating in Northern Portugal.
attention now being drawn to climate change and the It makes use of the Pelamis power generating device
rising level of CO2 , the focus on generating electricity built by Pelamis Wave (formerly OPD) in Scotland (see
from renewable sources is once again an important section 2.4.1 for more information).
area of research.
It is estimated that the potential worldwide wave
power resource is 2 TW [3], with the UK’s realistic 1.1 Benefits
potential being 7–10 GW [4]. To put these figures into
perspective, the UK’s total grid capacity is 80 GW, with Using waves as a source of renewable energy offers
peak demand stabilized at around 65 GW (George significant advantages over other methods of energy
Ulewande, nPower, 2008, personal communication). generation including the following:
As such, up to 15 per cent of current UK electricity
demand could be met by wave energy; when combined 1. Sea waves offer the highest energy density among
with tidal stream generation, up to 20 per cent of the renewable energy sources [6]. Waves are gener-
UK demand could be met [5]. ated by winds, which in turn are generated by
There are several reviews of wave energy converter solar energy. Solar energy intensity of typically 0.1–
(WEC) concepts (for example, see references [2], [3], 0.3 kW/m2 horizontal surface is converted to an
[6], and [7]). These show that many wave energy average power flow intensity of 2–3 kW/m2 of a ver-
devices are being investigated, but many are at the tical plane perpendicular to the direction of wave
R&D stage, with only a small range of devices having propagation just below the water surface [9].
2. Limited negative environmental impact in use.
Thorpe [3] details the potential impact and presents
∗ Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical Engineering, an estimation of the life cycle emissions of a typical
University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BANES, BA2 7AY, UK. nearshore device. In general, offshore devices have
email: b.drew@bath.ac.uk the lowest potential impact.
JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy
888 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

3. Natural seasonal variability of wave energy, which considerable amount of the published academic work
follows the electricity demand in temperate cli- has been primarily on sea performance and survival,
mates [6]. as well as the design and concept of the primary wave
4. Waves can travel large distances with little energy interface. However, the methods of using the motion of
loss. Storms on the western side of the Atlantic the primary interface to produce electricity are diverse.
Ocean will travel to the western coast of Europe, More detailed evaluation of the complete system is
supported by prevailing westerly winds. necessary if optimized, robust yet efficient systems are
5. It is reported that wave power devices can generate to be developed
power up to 90 per cent of the time, compared to
∼20–30 per cent for wind and solar power devices
[10, 11]. 2 WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS

There is a large number of concepts for wave energy

1.2 Challenges conversion; over 1000 wave energy conversion tech-
To realize the benefits listed above, there are a number niques have been patented in Japan, North America,
of technical challenges that need to be overcome to and Europe [6]. Despite this large variation in design,
increase the performance and hence the commercial WECs are generally categorized by location and type.
competitiveness of wave power devices in the global
energy market.
2.1 Location
A significant challenge is the conversion of the slow
(∼0.1 Hz), random, and high-force oscillatory motion Shoreline devices have the advantage of being close
into useful motion to drive a generator with output to the utility network, are easy to maintain, and as
quality acceptable to the utility network. As waves waves are attenuated as they travel through shallow
vary in height and period, their respective power lev- water they have a reduced likelihood of being dam-
els vary accordingly. While gross average power levels aged in extreme conditions. This leads to one of the
can be predicted in advance, this variable input has to disadvantages of shore mounted devices, as shallow
be converted into smooth electrical output and hence water leads to lower wave power (this can be partially
usually necessitates some type of energy storage sys- compensated by natural energy concentrated loca-
tem, or other means of compensation such as an array tions [6]). Tidal range can also be an issue. In addition,
of devices. by nature of their location, there are generally site-
Additionally, in offshore locations, wave direction specific requirements including shoreline geometry
is highly variable, and so wave devices have to align and geology, and preservation of coastal scenery, so
themselves accordingly on compliant moorings, or be devices cannot be designed for mass manufacturing.
symmetrical, in order to capture the energy of the Nearshore devices are defined as devices that are
wave. The directions of waves near the shore can be in relatively shallow water (there is a lack of consen-
largely determined in advance owing to the natural sus of what defines ‘shallow’ water, but it has been
phenomena of refraction and reflection. suggested that this could be a depth of less than one-
The challenge of efficiently capturing this irregular quarter wavelength [4]). Devices in this location are
motion also has an impact on the design of the device. often attached to the seabed, which gives a suitable
To operate efficiently, the device and corresponding stationary base against which an oscillating body can
systems have to be rated for the most common wave work. Like shoreline devices, a disadvantage is that
power levels. Around the British Isles and the western shallow water leads to waves with reduced power,
coasts of Europe, the most common offshore waves limiting the harvesting potential.
are around 30–70 kW/m [12]. However, the device also Offshore devices are generally in deep water
has to withstand extreme wave conditions that occur although again there is little agreement about what
very rarely, but could have power levels in excess of constitutes ‘deep’ water. ‘Tens of metres’ is one
2000 kW/m. Not only does this pose difficult struc- definition [5], with ‘greater than 40 m’ [4], and ‘a depth
tural engineering challenges, but it also presents one of exceeding one-third of the wavelength’ [9] being oth-
the economic challenges as the normal output of the ers. The advantage of siting a WEC in deep water is that
device (and hence the revenue) are produced by the it can harvest greater amounts of energy because of the
most commonly occurring waves, yet the capital cost higher energy content in deep water waves [4]. How-
of the device construction is driven by a need to with- ever, offshore devices are more difficult to construct
stand the high power level of the extreme, yet infre- and maintain, and because of the greater wave height
quent, waves [13]. There are also design challenges in and energy content in the waves, need to be designed
order to mitigate the highly corrosive environment of to survive the more extreme conditions adding cost to
devices operating at the water surface [6]. construction. Despite this, it is argued that with more
Lastly, the research focus is diverse. To date, powerful waves, floating devices in deep water offer
the focus of the wave energy developers and a greater structural economy [14].

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE782

 A review of wave energy converter technology 889

It is useful to note that wave energy occurs in

the movements of water near the surface of the sea
[5]. Up to 95 per cent of the energy in a wave is
located between the water surface and one-quarter of
a wavelength below it [4].

2.2 Type
Despite the large variation in designs and concepts,
WECs can be classified into three predominant types.

2.2.1 Attenuator (A)

Fig. 2 Point absorber device: OPT Powerbuoy [18]
Attenuators lie parallel to the predominant wave direc-
tion and ‘ride’ the waves. An example of an attenuator
WEC is the Pelamis, developed by Ocean Power Deliv-
ery Ltd (now known as Pelamis Wave Power [15]).
Figure 1 shows an artist’s impression of a Pelamis
wave farm. See section 2.4.1 for more details about
this particular WEC.

2.2.2 Point absorber (B)

A point absorber is a device that possesses small
dimensions relative to the incident wavelength. They
can be floating structure that heave up and down
on the surface of the water or submerged below the
surface relying on pressure differential. Because of
their small size, wave direction is not important for Fig. 3 Terminator device: Salter’s Duck [19]
these devices. There are numerous examples of point
absorbers, one of which is Ocean Power Technology’s 2.3 Modes of operation
Powerbuoy [16]. Figure 2 shows an artist’s impression
Within the categories identified above, there is a
of a wave farm using Powerbuoys.
further level of classification of devices, determined
by their mode of operation. Some significant examples
2.2.3 Terminator (C) are given below.
Terminator devices have their principal axis parallel
to the wave front (perpendicular to the predominant 2.3.1 Submerged pressure differential
wave direction) and physically intercept waves. One The submerged pressure differential device is a sub-
example of a terminator-type WEC is the Salter’s Duck, merged point absorber that uses the pressure dif-
developed at the Unviersity of Edinburgh, as shown in ference above the device between wave crests and
Fig. 3 (for more details, see section 2.4.2). troughs. It comprises two main parts: a sea bed fixed
air-filled cylindrical chamber with a moveable upper
cylinder. As a crest passes over the device, the water
pressure above the device compresses the air within
the cylinder, moving the upper cylinder down. As a
trough passes over, the water pressure on the device
reduces and the upper cylinder rises. An advantage
of this device is that since it is fully submerged, it is
not exposed to the dangerous slamming forces experi-
enced by floating devices [20], and reduces the visual
impact of the device. Maintenance of the device is a
possible issue however. Owing to part of the device
being attached to the sea bed, these devices are typ-
ically located nearshore. An example of this device is
the Archimedes Wave Swing, an artist’s impression of
Fig. 1 Attenuator device: Pelamis wave farm [17] which is shown in Fig. 4.

JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy

890 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

direction, removing the need to rectify the airflow. It

has been suggested that one of the advantages of the
OWC concept is its simplicity and robustness [4].
There are examples of OWCs as point absorbers, as
well as being built into the shoreline, where it acts as a
terminator. An example of a shoreline mounted device
is the Wavegen Limpet. The device is installed on the
island of Islay, Western Scotland, and produces power
for the national grid. Figure 6 shows the design of the
Limpet. The OWC concept has also been proposed by
Oceanlinx, an Australian wave energy developer, in a
nearshore tethered device [24].

Fig. 4 Submerged pressure differential: the Archimedes

Wave Swing [21]

2.3.2 Oscillating wave surge converter

An oscillating wave surge converter is generally com-

prised of a hinged deflector, positioned perpendicular
to the wave direction (a terminator), that moves back
and forth exploiting the horizontal particle velocity
of the wave. An example is the Aquamarine Power
Oyster [22], a nearshore device, where the top of the
deflector is above the water surface and is hinged Fig. 6 OWC: the Limpet [25]
from the sea bed. A prototype of this device has been
constructed. Figure 5 illustrates the device.

2.3.3 Oscillating water column

An OWC consists of a chamber with an opening to the

sea below the waterline. As waves approach the device,
water is forced into the chamber, applying pressure on
the air within the chamber. This air escapes to atmo-
sphere through a turbine. As the water retreats, air is
then drawn in through the turbine. A low-pressure
Wells turbine is often used in this application as it
rotates in the same direction irrespective of the flow

Fig. 5 Oscillating wave surge converter: Aquamarine

Power Oyster [23] Fig. 7 Overtopping WEC: the Wave Dragon [26, 27]

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE782

 A review of wave energy converter technology 891

2.3.4 Overtopping device Each Pelamis is 120 m long, and contains three
power modules, each rated at 250 kW. It is designed
An overtopping device captures sea water of incident to operate in water depths of ∼50 m. The shape
waves in a reservoir above the sea level, then releases and loose mooring of Pelamis lets it orient itself to
the water back to sea through turbines. An example of the predominant wave direction, and its length is
such a device is the Wave Dragon, which is shown in such that it automatically ‘detunes’ from the longer-
Fig. 7. This device uses a pair of large curved reflectors wavelength high-power waves, enhancing its surviv-
to gather waves into the central receiving part, where ability in storms [29]. A wave farm using Pelamis
they flow up a ramp and over the top into a raised technology was recently installed in Aguçadora Wave
reservoir, from which the water is allowed to return to Park, about 3 miles from Portugal’s northern coast,
the sea via a number of low-head turbines. near Pòvoa do Vorzina. This followed full-scale pro-
totype testing at the EMEC facility in Orkney [30]. The
2.4 UK-based research and development wave farm initially uses three Pelamis P-750 machines
developing a total power of 2.25 MW.
2.4.1 Commercial operations

There are many companies currently developing wave 2.4.2 University-based research
power devices. UK-based companies are listed in Working in parallel and sometimes collaboratively
Table 1. A more exhaustive list of companies worldwide with the wave energy developer companies listed in
can be found at the European Marine Energy Centre Table 1, are universities and other research institutes.
(EMEC) website [28]. The primary ones identified in this study are listed
The Pelamis device deserves more details as it is the below.
offshore device closest to commercial operation (the
Wavegen Limpet, while it also operates commercially, 1. The University of Edinburgh: The Wave Power
is a shoreline mounted OWC). The Pelamis is a floating Group at the University of Edinburgh [31], founded
device comprised of cylindrical hollow steel segments in 1974, is very active inWEC development. Stephen
(diameter of 3.5 m) connected to each other by two Salter, one of the early pioneers in wave energy
degree-of-freedom hinged joints. Each hinged joint is research, was based at Edinburgh, and thus much
similar to a universal joint, with the central unit of work was focused on the Salter’s nodding ‘duck’
each joint containing the complete power conversion device. The Duck concept is reported to be theoret-
system. The wave-induced motion of these joints is ically one of the most efficient devices, and the pri-
resisted by four hydraulic cylinders that accommodate mary interface is able to absorb 100 per cent of the
both horizontal and vertical motion. These cylinders energy contained in a wave [20]. The efforts to effi-
act as pumps, which drive fluid through a hydraulic ciently convert motion from this device to electric-
motor, which in turn drives an electrical generator. ity have motivated research into efficient hydraulic
Accumulators are used in the circuit to decouple the drives [32, 33]. The University of Edinburgh is also
primary circuit (the pumps) with the secondary cir- involved in the EquiMar project (see below).
cuit (the motor), and aid in regulating the flow of fluid 2. Lancaster University: There is a wide range of
to produce a more constant generation. The hydraulic wave energy projects in which the Lancaster
power take off (PTO) system uses only commercially University Renewable Energy Group (LUREG) is
available components. involved. They were involved in Supergen 1 and

Table 1 UK-based wave energy developers

Company Website Device type

Aquamarine Power www.aquamarinepower.com C

AWS Ocean Energy www.awsocean.com B
Checkmate Seaenergy (Anaconda) www.checkmateuk.com/seaenergy A
C-Wave www.cwavepower.com A/C
Embley Energy (Sperboy) www.sperboy.com B
Green Ocean Energy Ltd www.greenoceanenergy.com A
Neptune Renewable Energy Ltd www.neptunerenewableenergy.com C
Ocean Navitas www.oceannavitas.com B
Ocean Power Technology www.oceanpowertechnology.com B
Offshore Wave Energy Ltd www.owel.co.uk C
ORECon www.orecon.com B
Pelamis www.pelamiswave.com A
Trident Energy www.tridentenergy.co.uk B
Wave Dragon www.wavedragon.net C
Wavegen www.wavegen.com C

JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy

892 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

now Supergen 2 (see below), along with the Car- when marine energy devices can contribute to
bon Trust’s Marine Energy Accelerator Programme emissions reduction [39]. It follows on from the
and NaREC’s development test rig (see below for Marine Energy Challenge project [5], which sup-
more information on NaREC). They work in a wide ported development and understanding of wave
range of fields within wave energy, looking at new and tidal stream energy technologies.
device designs, numerical modelling and control, 4. SuperGen (Sustainable Power Generation and Sup-
PTO development (with a focus on electrical linear ply): Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
generation), and device evaluation. Council supported research (in partnership with
3. PRIMaRE (Universities of Plymouth and Exeter): Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research
The Peninsular Research Institute for Marine Council, Economic and Social Research Coun-
Renewable Energy is a collaboration between the cil, Natural Environment Research Council, and
universties of Exeter and Plymouth to research the Carbon Trust) in sustainable power genera-
marine renewable energy [34]. This recently estab- tion and supply, enabling the UK to meet envi-
lished group undertakes inter-disciplinary research ronmental emissions targets. The Marine Energy
and is directly linked to the SWERDA-funded Wave Research Consoritum, led by Edinburgh Univer-
Hub project [35] (see below for more details). The sity, and including LUREG (Lancaster), Heriot-Watt,
University of Exeter is also involved in the EquiMar Robert Gordon University, Strathclyde and Queen’s
project (see below). University Belfast, aims to increase the knowledge
and understanding of extraction of energy from the
sea. Funding is £2.6 million over 4 years. More infor-
2.4.3 Wave energy projects and organizations
mation about the SuperGen Marine, currently in its
The list below includes some of the wave energy second phase, can be found in reference [40].
projects currently being undertaken, with links to 5. Wave Hub: The aim of the Wave Hub project is to
UK institutions and companies. The following have construct a wave farm demonstration/evaluation
technical content, but there are a number of other site off the northern coast of Cornwall [36]. The
wave energy organizations and projects that focus on budget of the project is £28 million, with £21.5
promotion, economics, marketing, and other aspects million coming from the South West of England
to speed up the introduction of marine energy (for Regional Development Agency. The project will lay
example Waveplam [36] and WavEC [37]). a high-voltage cable 10 miles out to sea and con-
nect it to the National Grid. Companies will be able
1. EMEC: The European Marine Energy Centre was to test their WECs in a leased and consented area of
set up in 2003 with funding partly from the Car- sea. It is reported that the installation of Wave Hub
bon Trust and aims to stimulate and accelerate is planned for Spring 2010.
the development of marine power devices, ini-
tially through the operation of a testing centre More details on other wave energy projects and
in Orkney [30]. Similar to the planned Wave Hub operations world wide can be found in references [3],
project, the facilities at EMEC are test berths, with [6], [7], [9] to [11], and [41].
electrical connections enabling wave energy device
developers to test full-scale prototypes.
2. EquiMar: The Equimar Project (Equitable Test-
ing and Evaluation of Marine Energy Extraction 3 POWER TAKE OFF METHODS
Devices in terms of performance, cost, and envi-
ronmental impact) is an FP7-funded (European The method of energy capture varies from device
Commission) collaborative research and develop- to device, but with the exception of linear electri-
ment project that involved a consortium of 23 cal generation, discussed later, the general method of
partners and will run for 3 years from 15 April 2008. producing electrical power is through conventional
The aim of the EquiMar project is to ‘deliver a suite high-speed rotary electrical generators [42]. One of
of protocols for the equitable evaluation of marine the major challenges of WECs is concerned with how
energy converters. These protocols will harmonize to drive these generators. Heaving- and nodding-type
testing and evaluation procedures across the wide devices are not directly compatible with conventional
variety of devices’. These protocols will be used to rotary electrical machines, and a transmission system
establish a base for future marine energy standards. is required to interface the WEC with the electrical
More details about this project can be found in generator [20].
reference [38]. In this section, different types of rotary generators
3. Marine Energy Accelerator: The Carbon Trust’s are briefly presented, followed by an overview of differ-
current Marine Energy Accelerator is an initia- ent energy transfer methods. This starts with turbine
tive to reduce the costs associated with marine transfer, moving on to hydraulic conversion methods,
energy technologies, bringing forward the time and then discussing direct electrical linear generators,

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE782

 A review of wave energy converter technology 893

Fig. 8 Alternative PTO mechanisms

which could be considered as a competing technology. As discussed above, the requirements for genera-
These different PTO mechanisms are shown in Fig. 8. tors in OWCs, such as variable speed input, are similar
to those of a wind turbine, and thus have been well
researched (for example, see references [44] to [46]).
3.1 Rotary generator types
The significant advantage of using sea water tur-
Traditional power stations use on-line synchronous bines is that leakage of fluid causes no environmental
generators (SGs), and are operated at a virtually problems. The disadvantage is that sea water is a com-
constant speed, matching the frequency of the grid plex fluid with various unpredictable constituents.
connection. Depending on the conversion system, In addition, in nearshore devices, abrasive particles
generators used for wave energy may have to cope could damage seals and valves. Cavitation could also
with variable speed. Four generator types are identi- be a problem, unless the turbine is in deep water to
fied: doubly fed induction generators (DFIG), squirrel maintain positive pressure. In low-pressure situations,
cage induction generators, permanent magnet SGs, experienced in overtopping devices, propeller-type
and field would SGs. turbines are often used, such as the Kaplan design.
O’Sullivan and Lewis [43] discuss these generator Using air as the working fluid has the advantage
options in terms of suitability for an OWC applica- of increasing the slow velocities of waves to high
tion, by examining the advantages and disadvantages air flow rate. The most popular air turbine design is
in terms of environmental, electrical, and cost factors, the Wells turbine, because of its ability to rotate in
and by using a time-domain MATLAB model. The gen- the same direction, irrespective of airflow direction.
erators in OWC devices typically operate at variable Inherent disadvantages include low efficiency (around
speed. There are similarities in this application with 60–65 per cent [47, 48]), poor starting, high noise,
the mature technologies currently used in wind tur- and high axial thrust when compared to traditional
bines. The favoured generators used in wind turbines turbines [49]. Pitch control of the turbine blades can
(DFIG driven via a gear box, and direct drive low-speed increase efficiency [50].
SG with dedicated power electronics) are possible can-
didates for use in OWC WECs. O’Sullivan and Lewis’s
3.3 Hydraulics
study concludes that the latter, the SG, are the pre-
ferred option due to its better energy yield, weight, and Another method of converting the low-speed oscil-
controllability, despite the requirement for a full fre- lating motion of the primary WEC interface is to
quency converter between the generator and the grid. employ a hydraulic system. Waves apply large forces
The significant disadvantage of the DFIG is its mainte- at slow speeds and hydraulic systems are well suited
nance requirement; DFIGs are not brushless machines to absorbing energy in these situations [51]. The use of
– a significant issue in offshore WECs. hydraulics operating at a pressure of 400 bar is a dis-
Linear electrical generators are discussed in greater tinct advantage of some types of WEC where size and
detail in section 3.4. weight are an issue [42], and the force created by these
pressures are considerably greater than those from the
best electrical machines.
3.2 Turbine transfer
Figure 9 is a circuit diagram for a basic hydraulic
‘Turbine transfer’ is the term used here to represent PTO system for a WEC. The rod of the hydraulic cylin-
the method employed in devices where the flow of der is forced up and down by a floating buoy, which
fluid (either sea water or air) drives a turbine, which forces fluid through check valves, rectifying the flow,
is directly coupled to a generator. The types of devices to a hydraulic motor. In this case, the generator could
using direct transfer include OWCs and overtopping be a constant speed device, and the hydraulic motor
devices. has variable capacity, to drive the generator at close

JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy

894 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

There are a number of challenges associated with

hydraulic conversion systems in WECs. These include
the following.

3.3.1 Fluid containment

Containment of hydraulic fluid is of great importance,
as is ingress of sea water. The UK Department of Trade
and Industry (DTI) Wave Energy Programme spon-
sored a report to review the current status of wave
energy technologies [52]. This report highlighted fluid
containment as an issue for performance and environ-
mental reasons, with a recommendation to investigate
the development of hydraulic systems based on water
Fig. 9 Typical hydraulic circuit for WEC or other environmentally acceptable fluid. The Carbon
Trust Guidelines on design and operation of WECs [53]
indicate pressure containment as the primary consid-
to constant speed despite a variable flowrate. The eration for the hydraulic system. There are a number of
control of the motor capacity could be based on mea- alternative biodegradable fluids, but each comes with
sured or predicted sea states around the WEC, or fluid various benefits and disadvantages. In addition, the
flow measurements within the system. Additionally, a compatibility of the fluids with the components and
throttling valve could also be used to control the flow to seals must be ensured. Using sea water as the work-
the motor. Accumulators are included in the circuit to ing fluid may be the most environmentally friendly
provide energy storage and to maintain constant flow method, but there are limitations in terms of leakage,
to the hydraulic motor. In addition, the low-pressure sealing, temperature, pressure, speed, size, cycling,
accumulator provides a small boost pressure to reduce deposition of solids, biological growth, lubrication,
the risk of cavitation on the low-pressure side. and corrosion.
If the incident waves are close to sinusoidal, then The Pelamis WEC uses hydraulic fluid that is
the flow from one port of the actuator is represented biodegradable in the marine environment (biodegrad-
in Fig. 10(a). Rectification through the check valves able transformer fluid). In addition, there is reported to
results in the flow represented in Fig. 10(b). The accu- be two levels of egress/ingress protection in the form of
mulator would then smooth this, with the variable flexible rubber bellows that would have to fail to allow
capacity motor driving the generator. water to ingress to a point where fluid could escape to
The hydraulic circuit employed in the Pelamis WEC the outside environment [51].
(see section 2.4.1 for further details) essentially follows
the design shown in Fig. 9. The accumulators provide
3.3.2 Sealing
a decoupling between the hydraulic cylinders and the
motors, providing enough energy storage to supply the The issue of sealing is linked to fluid containment.
pumps with a relatively constant energy supply. Active In addition, however, standard dynamic seals are
valves are employed to rectify the flow, and are also designed to operate at velocities lower than a typical
used to vary the reaction torque. In reference [51], it is WEC [42]. The temperature rise caused by shear loss
noted that losses in the primary transmission can be and friction at the moving interface is a serious con-
kept below 20 per cent over a wide range of operating tributor to seal wear; the life of the seal is inversely
conditions. related to the speed, distance, and length of its appli-
cation, which in turn has an impact on maintenance
requirements. It is argued that the lack of ‘land-based
demand’ for high-velocity seals, rather than any tech-
nical difficulty, is the reason for the high-speed issues
with seals [50].

3.3.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of the PTO system is vital to the abil-
ity to harness the energy of the device. Traditional
hydrostatic transmissions tend to use coupled vari-
able displacement pumps and motors, which have an
ideal operating point and a peak efficiency of around
Fig. 10 Flow-time representations for hydraulic WEC 80 per cent. Away from this ideal operating point,

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 A review of wave energy converter technology 895

efficiency drops away; the part-load losses (including from the offshore or nearshore device to shore, and the
coulomb and viscous friction, leakage, and compress- associated significant power loss.
ibility) are significant. Although the hydraulic system
may have a high rating, it is reasonable that the device 3.3.5 End-stop
will spend most of the time operating at a fraction
of this rating, and therefore the system must have The end-stop issue is not exclusive to devices employ-
the highest part-load efficiencies [54]. The DTI report ing a hydraulic PTO system; it applies to all moving
[52] also highlights the efficiency issue of hydraulics, body converters with rigid connections to PTOs. The
recommending that work should focus on the devel- problem arises from the oscillating interface exceed-
opment of dedicated hydraulic motors with low part- ing its design travel. With a hydraulic transfer system,
load losses and high torque pumps. In addition, the the oscillating interface could be connected to linear
check valves used to rectify the flow, and the throttling hydraulic rams used to pump fluid to the motor. The
valve to control the flow, have pressure drops associ- high forces and corresponding energy experienced
ated with their orifices, leading to a loss in power and in extreme conditions cannot be suddenly absorbed
reduced efficiency. by hitting the end of cylinder stroke, damaging the
Driven by the need for very high-efficiency high- system. Mitigating this by employing high-stroke actu-
pressure bi-directional oil hydraulic transmissions ators is compromised by their mass and expense, and
that could implement the advanced control algo- their stroke capability will not be exploited most of
rithms required to obtain the most energy out of the time. Buckling of extended stroke actuators may
waves, a novel digital displacement pump–motor con- also be an issue, particularly if side loads are present
cept was developed [32, 50, 55]. The basic structure at maximum extension.
of the pump–motor is similar to a conventional Methods to mitigate end-stop issues with hydraulic
radial piston pump–motor, but includes electro- actuators include specific designs that mechanically
magnetically operated poppet valves for each cylinder, limit the stroke (Pelamis uses this technique), or are
allowing the device to go from full output to zero based on rotation, in which case a radial piston pump
output in one revolution. Part-load efficiency is also can be employed (the SEAREV [59] uses this method).
greatly increased due to the complete deactivation of A winch mechanism could also be employed to drive
cylinders. A prototype digital displacement transmis- a rotary pump, and Salter has also examined a rotary
sion is currently being developed for a wind turbine machine for use with the duck WEC [50].
application, obviating the need for heavy gearboxes There are other designs such as the inter project
or full-power electronics and frequency converters service heaving buoy [21] (such as AquaBuOY [60])
for low-speed electrical generators [56]. A similar that does not suffer from the end-stop issue. The inter
device is currently being developed for marine energy project service concept consists of a long tube, open at
applications [57, 58]. both ends attached to a floating buoy. Within the tube
is a piston. As the buoy heaves, the water within the
tube forces the piston to move relative to the buoy. As
3.3.4 Maintenance the tube is open at both ends, the concept does not
suffer from the ‘end-stop’ issue.
Carrying out maintenance in the marine environ-
ment is expensive, time-consuming, and poses many 3.3.6 Energy storage
risks. In a hydraulic conversion system, there are likely
to be several stages between the primary interface Some form of energy storage is usually incorporated
and the electrical generator, each comprising mov- in a PTO system, as the fluctuations in absorbed wave
ing parts, and thus may require maintenance. It is power will result in very variable electrical power
important that the required maintenance is mini- output, which is unsuitable for the grid [61]. Accu-
mized, preferably only requiring inspection annually mulators can function as short-term energy storage
or less [52]. In addition, metal surfaces and compo- as part of the hydraulic system. By storing energy,
nents must be protected from corrosion and erosion. accumulators would help the system deal with the
Ceramic coatings (such as Ceramax, manufactured high level of variance, reducing the capital cost and
by Bosch Rexroth) offer a promising method of pro- power losses of all subsequent powertrain elements
tecting the components in direct contact with sea [50]. The Pelamis hydraulic PTO system uses accu-
water. mulators to provide a ‘smooth’ flow to the hydraulic
One method that could be employed to minimize motors, and are used to separate the primary transmis-
maintenance costs (and potentially reduce the possi- sion (hydraulic cylinders and their controls) from the
bility of leakage from hydraulic devices) would be to secondary transmission (hydraulic motors and elec-
position the hydraulic PTO system at the shore. This tric generators). It is argued that this separation allows
has received limited interest due to the long, costly, for efficient absorption over a large range of incident
and inefficient pipework required to transport the fluid power; up to 80 per cent is reported [51].

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896 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

3.4 Electrical linear generation 3.4.1 Linear generator types

During early wave power research, the possibility of The need for very low maintenance machines implies
using electrical linear generators was investigated. The the use of brushless generators. Baker and Mueller rule
conclusions at this stage were that these machines out induction machines (induction machines have
would be too heavy, inefficient, and expensive. New been used in wind turbines, because of their ability
magnetic materials and the reduced costs of frequency to cope with varying speeds), which require a large
converting electronics mean that this technology may minimum pole pitch to achieve sufficient flux density
now be possible. It is argued that the increased com- and so are too large, and reluctance machines, owing
plexity of hydraulic or turbine systems introduce reli- to their very small airgaps, which are difficult to main-
ability and maintenance issues, which are important tain. The focus lies in permanent magnet machines
to minimize in offshore environments [20, 62]. [20]. The development of high-energy density per-
A linear SG offers the possibility of directly convert- manent magnets such as Neodymium–Iron–Boron
ing mechanical energy into electrical energy. The elec- (Nd–Fe–B), which can produce high magnetomotive
trical direct drive PTO alternative, as shown previously force for a relatively small magnet height, has sig-
in Fig. 8, is much simpler than hydraulic systems, with nificantly improved the power density of permanent
no intermediate steps between the primary interface magnet machines.
and the electrical machine. Part of the SuperGen project, mentioned in section
Conventional electrical machines are designed to 2.4.3, covers PTO and conditioning, and confirms that
be driven with high-speed rotary motion. The airgap induction machines are not suitable because of the
speed between the rotor and stator in these machines low-speed motion of WECs. Permanent magnet gen-
can be high (upwards of 60 m/s) allowing for easy con- erators exhibit high part load efficiencies and, while
version into a rapid change in flux. Linear oscillatory they have been demonstrated at sea to a limited extent,
motion from a WEC, however, is expected to have designs are not yet fully optimized [40].
a peak of around 2 m/s [43]. Developments for the There are three main topologies of linear electrical
wind power industry have focused on direct drive gen- generators:
erators (to replace unreliable and heavy gearboxes).
These direct drive generators have an airgap speed (a) longitudinal flux permanent magnet generators;
of 5–6 m/s. The development of linear electrical gen- (b) variable reluctance permanent magnet generators
erators requires continuing research into slow-speed (with transverse flux permanent magnet genera-
electrical machines. tors as a subset of these);
The basic concept of a linear generator is to have (c) tubular air-cored permanent magnet generators.
a translator (what would be the rotor in a rotary The design of electrical generators for direct drive
machine) on which magnets are mounted with alter- WECs was examined by Mueller [42], by comparing
nating polarity directly coupled to a heaving buoy, with the longitudinal flux permanent magnet machine with
the stator containing windings, mounted in a rela- the transverse flux permanent magnet machine. He
tively stationary structure (connected to a drag plate, identified that the transverse flux machine as having
a large inertia, or fixed to the sea bed). As the heav- the best potential, owing to the design having higher
ing buoy oscillates, an electric current will be induced power density and efficiency, compared to the longi-
in the stator. The schematic of this device is shown tudinal design. Despite the high shear stress offered
in Fig. 11. by transverse flux machines (up to 200 kN/m2 [63]),
their topology requires structural support and they
suffer from low power factor requiring reactive power
compensation [64].
Baker et al. [65] discuss the permanent magnet
vernier hybrid machine (a type of variable reluc-
tance permanent magnet generator) and the air-cored
machine, both of which attempt to solve some of the
issues with the transverse flux machine. Although the
vernier hybrid machine offered a high shear stress,
it suffered from a low power factor, requiring a high
rating power electronic converter, and bearing issues
owing to large magnetic attraction forces. The tubular
air-cored machine, being developed at the Univer-
sity of Durham, has no attraction forces (and thus a
less complex support structure) and low inductance,
Fig. 11 A schematic of a linear electrical generator based which results in a high power factor (thus necessitating
on a permanent magnet generator a lower rated power electronic converter), but suffers

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE782

 A review of wave energy converter technology 897

from having significantly less shear stress. These two be increased if the power factor is not equal to one,
topologies are also discussed in reference [66]. which can be accommodated by an active rectifier.
Leijon et al. [67] have conducted multiphysics simu- The method of converting the current through power
lations of a three-phase linear permanent magnet gen- electronics is beyond the scope of this review, but is
erator (using the Archimedes Wave Swing as the target covered in more detail by Baker et al. [65], Brooking
device), with the results confirming its potential. This et al. [70], and Ran et al. [71].
work was followed by an experimental setup that suc-
cessfully verified the simulations [13]. The work also
briefly discussed the interconnection scheme when 4 CONTROL
dealing with an array of devices. Polinder et al. [68]
also discuss the linear permanent magnet generator In regular waves, energy is captured most efficiently
designed for use with the Archimedes Wave Swing. The in a point-absorber-type WEC when the undamped
authors highlighted that such a machine was chosen natural frequency of the device is close to the domi-
because of its high force density, reasonable efficiency nant frequency of the incident wave [72]. At resonance,
at low speeds, the availability of cheaper magnets with the velocity of the oscillator is in phase with the
high power density, and the lack of electrical contact dynamic pressure (and hence force) of the incoming
to the translator. Reasonable correlation between cal- wave, resulting in a substantial transfer of energy from
culated results from simulations and measured results the wave to the oscillator [73]. The behaviour of the
from experimental testing indicates that the generator device therefore is dependent on the damping. For
is appropriate [69]. most power extraction, damping must be adjusted to
achieve maximum energy conversion efficiency. If the
damping is too high then the motions are limited and
3.4.2 Signal processing
little power is produced. If the damping is too light,
One issue of linear electrical generators is converting then the damper absorbs little power and little power
the signal to one appropriate for grid connection. If is taken off. With any PTO system, the correct damping
the motion of the WEC is sinusoidal, the induced EMF is vital for an efficient system.
varies in amplitude and frequency during a wave cycle. Real seas, however, rarely exhibit regular conditions.
As the translator reciprocates, the speed is continu- Instead, waves are continually changing in height and
ously changing, resulting in a varying frequency of the frequency, and thus the requirement is a device that
induced voltage. Figure 12 from reference [20] shows a can adapt to behave as if resonant over the wide range
typical EMF plot from a variable reluctance permanent of frequencies. It is noted that major improvements
magnet machine excited by a sinusoidal displacement. in efficiency (and hence cost-effectiveness) of WECs
For grid connection, this waveform, which is vari- are possible with the implementation of active control
able in both frequency and amplitude, must be recti- of the dynamics [14], along with potential improve-
fied before conversion into a sinusoidal fixed voltage ment in year-round productivity [74]. The level of
and frequency waveform using power electronics. The device tuning can range from adjusting parameters for
rectification can be passive or active. A passive rectifier a particular sea state to wave-by-wave adaptation (also
can be a simple diode bridge, and this is characterized known as fast tuning). This section covers some of the
by having a power factor of one. The active power can techniques that can be employed to achieve efficient
energy conversion.
Salter et al. [50] review a range of different con-
trol strategies with varying degrees of sophistication.
Although many are suitable for specific incident wave
frequencies and amplitudes, the range of frequencies
and amplitudes that each can deal with gives the more
advanced strategies their advantage. Instead of restat-
ing the details in this review, more focus is given to
some selected strategies that have attracted greater
attention in the literature.

4.1 Latching control

Latching control was first examined by Budal and
Falnes in reference [75]. The objective behind latching
control is to stall (i.e. latch) the motion of the device at
the extremes of its movement (when velocity is zero),
and release it when the wave forces are in good phase
Fig. 12 Typical EMF plot [20] to maximize energy extraction. This control strategy

JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy

898 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

a natural method of achieving latching: the body

remains stationary for as long as the hydrodynamic
forces on its wetted surface are unable to overcome the
resisting force (gas pressure difference multiplied by
the cross-sectional area of the ram) of the PTO system.
The control strategy was effective, and demonstrated
in simulation a significant increase in absorbed energy.
Fig. 13 Latching control
The system would need to be optimized through
experimental prototype testing, but such a system
allows for a device whose natural frequency is higher could be implemented in a real WEC.
than the exciting wave frequency (and hence, may Korde [14] conducted an experimental study
have a smaller mass). Latching control is discrete, of latching control, demonstrating an efficiency
highly non-linear, and by its nature sub-optimal. It improvement. With irregular waves, some method for
is illustrated in Fig. 13 (based on an illustration in predicting the incoming wave profile is necessary.
reference [76]). He also notes that the only external force required
In Fig. 13, curve a is the elevation of the water surface is to lock the actuator, resulting in easier practical
caused by the incident wave; curve b is the vertical implementation than other control strategies.
displacement of a heaving buoy whose mass is so large In the same paper, Korde also discusses the diffi-
that its natural frequency matches that of the wave culty of predicting the future wave profile. In regular
(the ideal condition of resonance); and curve c is the waves, prediction is not an issue, but in irregular
vertical displacement of a body with a smaller mass, waves, future oscillations cannot be known. Various
and hence a higher natural frequency, being latched approaches are reviewed, but the article concludes
at the extremes of travel. The buoy would be released that attaining accurate and reliable techniques to pre-
when the wave force had built up to a suitable level, dict incident waves or device oscillations remains a
so that its velocity would be nearly in phase with the challenge.
exciting force of the wave. The velocity of the buoy is The use of an actively controlled platform has
at its maximum at the wave crest or trough. A device advantages in deep sea offshore sites, as mooring part
with negligible mass would follow curve a. Salter notes of the wave energy device on the sea bed is challeng-
that the latching system that holds and releases the ing. Korde investigates this in reference [81], followed
buoy has to react very quickly, a requirement easily by an examination of latching control of a WEC with an
achievable with a hydraulic PTO system [50]. on-board, actively controlled motion-compensated
Latching control has been the subject of many simu- platform as a reference [82]. Comparisons are made
lation studies. The challenge with the strategy is deter- between this active reference and a sea-bottom fixed
mining the optimum time to release the buoy from reference. For the irregular wave case, the exciting
the latched phase; this is the control variable. In regu- force is assumed to be known far enough into the
lar waves, using half the difference between the wave future. The absorbed energy using the active reference
period and the natural period of the device gives a good was found to be less than latching using a sea-bottom
approximation of the latching delay required [77]. reference, but worthwhile pursuing in light of the
Babarit et al. [78] conducted a study to examine results presented.
three different latching strategies in random seas. The opposite of latching control, dubbed unlatching
Their simulation assumed a single degree of freedom or declutching is where the primary moving element
(DOF) heaving body, a simple PTO system, repre- is allowed to move freely for part of the cycle, with the
sented as a linear damper, and that the excitation force PTO mechanism only being engaged at the desired
of the future waves was known (a general assumption velocity. It is the subject of a paper by Babarit et al.
in much of the literature); they acknowledge that pre- [59], who examined, in simulation, declutching con-
diction algorithms exist. They found that the discrete trol of the SEAREV device. In this device (which uses
latching control significantly increases the amplitude a hydraulic PTO system), unlatching is achieved by
of the motion, and improves the efficiency of the sys- bypassing the pumps at certain moments, effectively
tem over a uncontrolled heave motion by up to three meaning that the PTO force is zero at these times.
times. Later work by Babarit and Clément [79] applied These moments are determined by the optimal com-
latching control to a four-DOFWEC (dubbed SEAREV). mand theory. It is shown that efficiency is improved by
With latching control, the mean absorbed power in a factor of two for some wave conditions.
a random sea increased by a factor of two over the
uncontrolled result.
In reference [80], Falcão applies latching control to
4.2 Reactive loading control
a wave energy device with a high-pressure hydraulic
PTO system, as previously developed in reference [61]. Reactive loading control is used to widen the efficiency
He notes that the hydraulic PTO system provides range of a WEC on either side of the resonant

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 A review of wave energy converter technology 899

frequency [50]. This theoretically optimal control followed by reactive control, with latching increasing
strategy involves adjusting the dynamic parameters of the efficiency further, and feedback linearization pro-
the primary converter, such as the spring constant, viding the greatest improvement. Feedback lineariza-
inertia, and energy absorbing damping, to enable tion, however, requires detailed knowledge of the
maximum energy absorption at all frequencies. Korde machine dynamics and characteristics, and as such
considers reactive control in reference [14], and found is not practical.
that velocity feedback could be used to adjust the Another reason why, in practice, it is not possi-
damping coefficient provided by the PTO system to ble for reactive control to be fully optimal, is due to
balance the radiation damping of the device to enable velocities that could become extremely high. As such,
maximum permissible energy absorption. Optimal constraints are necessary to safeguard against hazards
power absorption requires that the primary converter of mechanical/electrical overdriving [74].
feels no reactive force (as at resonance) and that the
energy absorption rate (damping) equals the rate at
which kinetic energy is being radiated from the device. 4.3 Simulation for controller development
Reactive loading introduces a phase shift into the Some considerations are necessary concerning the
PTO force to cancel some of the undesirable stiff- modelling of WECs and the assessment of control
ness or inertia. Either side of the resonant frequency, strategies using these simulations. Yavuz et al. [84]
the wave force goes into deflecting the ‘spring’ of the present a time-domain model of a single-DOF heav-
device (a semi-submerged float represents a spring), ing buoy WEC to investigate the effect on performance
or accelerating the inertia, reducing overall efficiency. of a dynamically changing sea wave frequency. A
Maximum efficiency is achieved if the force is in phase time-domain simulation study is necessary, as single-
with the velocity of the device, as at resonance. frequency-based mathematical models of WECs are
Through simulation, Korde studied reactive con- not suitable to predict the performance of real systems,
trol of wave energy devices in irregular waves [74] as real sea waves are complicated and ever changing.
and later in reference [72], using a time history of This need is confirmed by Falcão [61], who investigates
past velocity measurements to estimate future veloc- the modelling and control of a heaving buoy WEC with
ity of the primary energy converter. In reference [72], a hydraulic PTO, by stating that the WEC examined
two approaches are considered: where only the static is highly non-linear, which requires a time-domain
reactive components due to calm-water inertia and model consisting of a set of coupled equations: (a)
hydrostatic spring are cancelled by the control force an integral-differential equation that accounts for the
at constant damping; and where, in addition, further hydrodynamics of wave energy absorption and (b)
improvement is sought using estimates of future oscil- an ordinary differential equation that models various
lations (derived from past oscillations). Significant aspects of the hydraulic system (including accumula-
efficiency gains were observed in the first approach, tors, valves, flows, and viscosity effects). Josset et al.
with further gains with estimations of future oscil- [85] constructed a ‘wave to wire’ time-domain model
lations. A better prediction strategy or estimation of the SEAREV WEC, including the PTO system, to
algorithm is needed. study the various elements of the complete device.
Valério et al. [83] compares reactive control, phase With respect to the hydrodynamics, many simu-
and amplitude control (another theoretically optimal lation studies treat the incident waves using linear
strategy), latching control, and feedback lineariza- models. It is generally agreed that this is suitable for
tion control (two intrinsically sub-optimal strate- relatively calm seas, but in extreme conditions, this
gies), using the Archimedes Wave Swing as the target linear approximation is not accurate, as non-linear
device. Reactive control and phase and amplitude factors dominate (personal communication, Jun Zang,
control are examined, but since the implementa- University of Bath, 4 July 2008). Work is ongoing at the
tion of these devices require approximations, and University of Bath, and elsewhere, investigating the
both strategies rely on energy to be added to the modelling of these non-linear sea states (for example,
device (essentially supplying energy to the waves), see reference [86]).
reducing overall efficiency, the strategies are ren- In terms of supplying models with an accurate
dered sub-optimal. Latching is achieved through the wave spectrum, many authors have used the Pierson–
use of water dampers so as to prevent the floater Moskowitz spectrum [87], which accurately models
from moving. Feedback linearization control aims to the behaviour of real sea waves [76].
provide a control action chosen to cancel the non-
linear dynamics of the plant, so that the closed-loop
dynamics will be linear. Simulations were carried 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
out to test the strategies, with the assumption that
the behaviour of the incident waves is known. All The potential for generating electricity from wave
strategies improved the efficiency of the device, with energy is considerable. The ocean is a huge resource,
phase an amplitude providing the least improvement, and harnessing the energy in ocean waves represents

JPE782 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part A: J. Power and Energy

900 B Drew, A R Plummer, and M N Sahinkaya

an important step towards meeting renewable energy Sjöström, P., Søresen, H. C., and Thorpe, T. Wave energy
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