Assignment Analytical Chemistry

Topic: Chemistry of Solutions

Submitted to: Dr. Yasmeen Gul
Submitted by: Zeshan Hanif (25), M Adnan (34), M Hasnain
(09)

THAL University Bhakkr.

 Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components in which the particle size is
smaller than 1 nm.
Solvent: The component that dissolves the other component is called the solvent.
Solute: The components that are dissolved in the solvent are called solute.
Generally solvent is present in major proportion compared to the solute. The amount of solute is
lesser than the solvent.
Homogenous mixture:
Mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout the mixture.
Example: Salt in water.
Heterogeneous mixture:
A mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout the mixture.
Example: Vegetable soup
Saturated solution: Solutions having maximum amount of solute at a given temperature.
Unsaturated solution: Solutions in which the amount of dissolved solute is less than the saturation
point of the solvent.
Supersaturated solution: Solution that contains more than the average solvent that can be
dissolved at a given temperature.
Difference between true solution suspension and colloids:

True Solution Colloids Suspension

Homogenous mixture Seems to be homogeneous but Heterogeneous mixture

actually it is heterogonous

Particle size smaller than 1nm Particle size is small and can Large particles having size
and can not be seen with also be not seen with naked 10 -7 m and can be seen with
naked eye eye naked eye.

Not show tyndall effect. Show tyndall effect. Also show tyndall effect.
Solute particles donot settle Solute particles can not settle Solute particles settle down.
down. down.
Example: salt,suger solution Starch in water, egg albumin Soil , chalk powder in water.
in water.
Common properties of solution:
. A solution has at least two or more than two components.
. Solution does not have fixed composition.
. Solution may be colourless or colored and are usually transparent.
. The components can not be separated by filtration.

Tyndall effect:
When a beam of light is directed on colloids or suspension the beam is scattered. This is called
tyndall effect. Example: When a beam of light is directed at a glass of milk, the light is scattered.
This is a great example of the Tyndall effect.
The Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Solid solubility and temperature
• Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given quantity
of solvent at a specific temperature.
• Temperature affects the solubility of most substances.

solubility increases with increasing temperature

solubility decreases with increasing

temperature

Fractional Crystallization
Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of substances into pure components on
the basis of their differing solubilities.
Suppose you have 90 g KNO3 contaminated with 10 g NaCl. Fractional crystallization:
1. Dissolve the sample in 100 mL of water at 600C
2. Cool solution to 00C
3. All NaCl will stay in solution (s = 34.2g/100g)
4.78 g of PURE KNO3 will precipitate (s = 12 g/100g).
90 g – 12 g = 78 g
Gas Solubility and Temperature
The solubility of gases in water usually decreases with increasing temperature.
O2 gas solubility and temperature
solubility usually decreases with increasing
temperature

The Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of

Gases
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution
(Henry’s law).
c = kH P where c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas and P is the pressure of the gas over
the solution kH is a constant for each gas (mol/L•atm) that depends only on temperature
low P = low c
high P = high c

A practical demonstration of Henry’s law is the effervescence of a soft drink when the cap of the
bottle is removed (air and CO2 saturated with water vapor).
Colligative Properties of Non-electrolyte
Solutions
Colligative properties (or collective properties) are properties that depend only on the number
of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of the solute particles.
The colligative properties are
• vapor-pressure lowering,
• boiling-point elevation,
• freezing-point depression,
• osmotic pressure.
we are talking about relatively dilute solutions, that is, solutions whose concentrations are ≤ 0.2
M.

Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Raoult’s law, which states that the vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution, P1, is given by the
vapor pressure of the pure solvent, P°1, times the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution, X1:
P1 = X1.P01 where P01= vapor pressure of pure solvent and X1 = mole fraction of the solvent
X1 = 1 – X2 , P1 = (1-X2)P01 , P1 = P01 - X2. P01 , P01 - P1 = Delta P = X2. P01 where X2 (solute)
We see that the decrease in vapor pressure, DP, is directly proportional to the solute concentration
(measured in mole fraction).

Boiling-Point Elevation
• The boiling point of a solution is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the
external atmospheric pressure.
• Because the presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution, it must
also affect the boiling point of the solution.
• At any temperature, the vapor pressure of the
solution is lower than that of the pure solvent
regardless of temperature.
• The boiling point of the solution is higher than
that of water.

The boiling point elevation is defined as the

boiling point of the solution (Tb) minus the boiling
point of the pure solvent (T°b):
 Delta Tb = Tb – T0b , Tb > T0b
Delta Tb > 0
T b is the boiling point of the pure solvent 0 T b is the boiling point of the solution
Delta Tb = Kb.m where m is the molality of the solution
Kb is the molal boiling-point elevation constant (0C/m) for a given solvent.

Freezing-Point Depression
• Ice on frozen roads and sidewalks melts when
sprinkled with salts such as NaCl or CaCl2. This
method of thawing succeeds because it depresses
the freezing point of water.
• Lowering the vapor pressure of the solution shifts
the solid-liquid curve to the left
Delta Tf = Kf.m

Osmotic Pressure (p)

Osmosis is the selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated one.
A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of
solute molecules.
Osmotic pressure (p) is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

π = MRT
Where M is the molarity of the
solution, R is the gas constant (0.0821
L . atm/K . mol) and T is the
temperature (in K)
Concentration units of solution
The amount of solute present in given amount of solvent is called concentration of
solution.
Unite used to express the amount of solute in solution are called concentration
units of solution.
Following are used 1. Percentage composition 2. Molarity 3. Molality 4. Mole
fraction 5. Normality 6. Formality 7. Parts per million
1. Percentage composition (% W/W)
It is the weight of solute dissolved per 100 parts by weight of solution.
Mathematically
% by weight = Mass of solute/ mass of solution*100
2. Molarity (M)
Numbers of moles of solute dissolved in 1 dm*3 of solution.
Mathematically
M = to numbers of moles of solute/ volutme of solution in dm*3
3. Molality (m)
Numbers of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
Mathematically m= numbers of moles of solute/ mass of solvent in kg
4. Mole fraction (x)
It is ratio of numbers of moles of particular components of the solution to the total
numbers of moles of all the components of the solution
Mathematically x= numbers of moles of one coomponents/ total numbers of all
components of solution
5. Normality (N)
No. of gram or mole equivalents of solute which are present in one liter of solution.
N= No. of eq. gram /volume of solution in liter
No. of gram equivalents= Weight of solute/Equivalent wright of solute
N= Molarity *Basicity
N=Molarity *Acidity
6. Formality (F)
No. of gram formula mass of solute dissolved in per liter of solution. Ii is used for
ionic substances/compounds.
Formality=No. of gram formula mass of solute/Volume of solution in liter
7. Parts per million (ppm)
It is number of parts of solute (by weight or volume) present per million parts (by
weight or volume) of solution.
Ppm=Mass of solute /mass of solution *106

References:
Physical Chemistry by Dr. Haqnawaz Bhatti
Physical Chemistry by BS Bahal
Physical Chemistry by Ghulam Rasool