Bengali: A Comprehensive Grammar

Bengali: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to
Bengali
Routledge Comprehensive Grammars

Bengali grammar.
It presents a fresh, accessible and thorough description of the language,

concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Bengali. The book
moves from the sounds and script through morphology and word classes
to a detailed analysis of sentence structures and semantic features such as
aspect, tense, negation and reduplication.
A Comprehensive Grammar
The Grammar is an essential reference source for the learner and user
of Bengali, irrespective of level. It is ideal for use in schools, colleges,
universities and adult classes of all types. With clear and simple
explanations this book will remain the standard reference work for years to
come for both learners and linguists alike.
The volume is organised to promote a thorough understanding of

Bengali grammar. It offers a stimulating analysis of the complexities of
the language, and provides full and clear explanations. Throughout, the
emphasis is on Bengali as used by present-day native speakers.
An extensive index and numbered paragraphs provide readers with easy

access to the information they require.
Features include:
• detailed treatment of the common grammatical structures and parts of

speech
Hanne - Ruth Thompson

• extensive exemplification
• particular attention to areas of confusion and difficulty
• Bengali-English parallels highlighted throughout the book.
Bengali
Hanne-Ruth Thompson teaches Bengali at the School of Oriental and
African Studies in London. Previous publications include Essential Everyday
Bengali: A Grammar and Glossary of Colloquial Bengali with Examples
Throughout (1999).
www.routledge.com
Bengali Language
Hanne - Ruth Thompson
an informa business
Bengali
Bengali: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to Bengali

grammar.
It presents a fresh, accessible and thorough description of the language,
concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Bengali. The book moves
from the sounds and script through morphology and word classes to a detailed
analysis of sentence structures and semantic features such as aspect, tense,
negation and reduplication.
The Grammar is an essential reference source for the learner and user of Bengali,
irrespective of level. It is ideal for use in schools, colleges, universities and adult
classes of all types. With clear and simple explanations this book will remain the
standard reference work for years to come for both learners and linguists alike.
The volume is organised to promote a thorough understanding of Bengali
grammar. It offers a stimulating analysis of the complexities of the language,
and provides full and clear explanations. Throughout, the emphasis is on
Bengali as used by present-day native speakers.
An extensive index and numbered paragraphs provide readers with easy access
to the information they require.
Features include:
• detailed treatment of the common grammatical structures and parts of
speech
• extensive exemplification
• particular attention to areas of confusion and difficulty
• Bengali-English parallels highlighted throughout the book.
Hanne-Ruth Thompson teaches Bengali at the School of Oriental and African
Studies in London. Previous publications include Essential Everyday Bengali:
A Grammar and Glossary of Colloquial Bengali with Examples Throughout
(1999).
Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages:
Bengali
Cantonese
Catalan
Danish
Dutch
Greek
Indonesian
Japanese
Modern Welsh
Modern Written Arabic
Slovene
Swedish
Ukrainian
Bengali
Hanne-Ruth Thompson
First edition published 2010
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4RN
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711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2010 Hanne-Ruth Thompson
Typeset in Sabon and Gill

by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
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ISBN 13: 978-0-415-41137-0 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-41139-4 (pbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-203-88073-9 (ebk)
ahŸcxò g†hS Mhfu xhi - ahmhfk yqfwC BhXh/
Shamsur Rahman
I go with a glass of amazement in my hand –
you have given me language.
To the children of Bangladesh

Contents
Acknowledgements xvii
Glossary xviii
Abbreviations and Glosses xxiii
PART 1 PERIPHERIES 1
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Aims and organisation of the book 3
1.2 Bangla grammar terms 5
1.3 Bangla and its speakers 8
1.4 History (language and literature) 9
1.5 The Bangla lexicon 13
1.6 Sadhu bhasha 15
Chapter 2 Script and sound 19

2.1 The Bangla Alphabet 19
2.2 Spellings and sounds 21
2.3 Phonemes 23
2.4 Sounds and phonemes 24
2.5 Vowels 31
2.6 The inherent vowel 36
2.7 Syllable structure 40
2.8 Consonants – use and occurrence 42
2.9 Conjuncts 46
2.10 Jophola 52
2.11 Other symbols 53
2.12 Punctuation 57
2.13 Sounds and spellings 60 vii
Contents Chapter 3 Morphological features 62
3.1 Duplication 62
3.2 Vowel harmony and vowel mutation 64
3.3 Prefixes and suffixes 66
3.4 Verbal patterns 73
3.5 Adjective derivations 77
3.6 Noun derivations 82
3.7 Word classes overview 85
PART 2 WORD CLASSES 89

Chapter 4 Nouns 91
4.1 Types of nouns 91
4.2 Formation of nouns 92
4.3 Gender 92
4.4 Bare nouns 95
4.5 The classifiers – overview 97
4.6 Noun paradigms 98
4.7 The classifiers – one-by-one 101
4.8 Plural formation 107
4.9 Definite – indefinite 112
4.10 Animate – inanimate 113
4.11 Ordinary – honorific 113
4.12 Count – non-count 114
4.13 Case 115
4.14 Multiple noun attachments 121
Chapter 5 Pronouns 123

5.1 Pronouns – overview 123
5.2 Types of pronouns 125
Chapter 6 Verbs 142

6.1 Verb morphology 142
6.2 Verb classes 142
6.3 Vowel mutation 143
6.4 Verb forms 145
6.5 Conjugation tables overview 147
6.6 Conjugation charts 148
6.7 Other verb endings 158
viii 6.8 Extended o-kar verbs 159
6.9 Non-finite verb forms 161 Contents
6.10 Imperatives 165
6.11 Negation 168
6.12 Incomplete verbs, verbal fragments and
isolated verb forms 170
6.13 Periphrastic tenses 171
Chapter 7 Adjectives 174

7.1 Types of adjectives 174
7.2 Attributive uses 175
7.3 Predicative uses 177
7.4 Verbal adjectives 178
7.5 Comparison of adjectives 179
7.6 Quantifiers 188
7.7 Amounts 198
7.8 Distributive adjectives 201
Chapter 8 Adverbs 203

8.1 Formation of adverbs 204
8.2 Uses of adverbs 205
8.3 Types of adverbs 207
8.4 Order of adverbs 226
Chapter 9 Postpositions 228

9.1 Common postpositions – overview 229
9.2 Case use 229
9.3 Postpositions one by one 230
9.4 Other uses 255
9.5 khC Ùfk and other places 258
Chapter 10 Conjunctions 261

10.1 Coordinating conjunctions 261
10.2 Subordinating conjunctions 266
10.3 Correlative conjunctions 267
10.4 o, ahr and ebL 269
Chapter 11 Interrogatives 271

11.1 Basic question words – overview 271
11.2 `k who 271 ix
Contents 11.3 yk what 272
11.4 `kn why 274
11.5 `kmn how 275
11.6 `khUh where 276
11.7 kfb and kKn when 276
11.8 `khn which 278
11.9 ku how much and kw how many 279
11.10 Interrogatives as indefinites 280
Chapter 12 Emphasisers, particles, interjections 281

12.1 Emphasisers 281
12.2 Particles 288
12.3 Interjections 293
PART 3 FUNCTIONS 297

Chapter 13 Noun phrase structure 299
13.1 The modifiers 299
13.2 Possessives 300
13.3 Deictics 301
13.4 Quantifiers and numbers 302
13.5 Qualifiers 303
13.6 Reversed-order quantifiers 303
13.7 bR ekth and Kvb ekth not much 304
13.8 Numbers with and without classifiers 304
13.9 ek and ekth 305
Chapter 14 Pronouns in use 307

14.1 Independent deictics 307
14.2 Indefinites 308
14.3 Personal and relative pronouns 313
14.4 Reflexivity – me, myself, on my own 317
14.5 Reciprocality (mutuality) – one another 320
Chapter 15 Verbs of being 322

15.1 Zero verb 322
15.2 ahC- exist, be present 323
15.3 Uhkh stay 325
15.4 Mowh be, become, happen, occur 325
x Chapter 16 Extended verbs 327

Chapter 17 Causative verbs 331 Contents
17.1 Causative verbs – one-by-one 332

17.2 Causative verbs in context 337
Chapter 18 Compound verbs 339

18.1 xhowh go 341
18.2 ahsh come 347
18.3 clh move 349
18.4 oTh rise, get up 350
18.5 pRh fall 352
18.6 bsh sit 353
18.7 q£hRhfnh stand 353
18.8 `qowh give 354
18.9 `nowh take 355
18.10 `Plh throw 356
18.11 ùhlh lift, raise 357
18.12 rhKh keep 357
18.13 Same sense compounds 358
18.14 Shortened participles 359
Chapter 19 Conjunct verbs 361

19.1 Conjunct verbs examples 362
19.2 Beyond conjunct verbs 369
19.3 Locative verbal conjuncts 370
Chapter 20 Verbal noun 374

20.1 Nominative verbal noun 375
20.2 Verbal noun genitive 378
20.3 Object verbal noun 383
20.4 Locative verbal noun 384
20.5 Verbal adjectives 385
Chapter 21 Imperfective participle 390

21.1 With verbs 390
21.2 With nouns and adjectives 397
21.3 Expressing simultaneous events 398
21.4 Idiomatic use: blfu 402 xi
Contents Chapter 22 Conditional participle 403
22.1 If-Conditionals 404
22.2 Temporal when-conditionals 405
22.3 Conditional participle with Mowh and clh 406
22.4 Negated conditional participle followed by nw is not 407
22.5 Followed by phrh be able to 408
22.6 Followed by o also, even 409
22.7 Followed by emphatic i 409
22.8 Followed by an imperative 410
22.9 Idiomatic use blfu `gfl so to speak 410
Chapter 23 Perfective participle 411

23.1 Sequence of events 412
23.2 Simultaneous events 414
23.3 Manner 414
23.4 Implied meanings 415
23.5 Perfective participles with different subjects 417
23.6 Word order 419
23.7 Doubled perfective participles 419
23.8 Negation 420
23.9 Individual verbs 420
23.10 From verbal sequence to compound verb 422
Chapter 24 Verb valency 426

24.1 Monovalent verbs (subject only) 429
24.2 Mowh, ahC-, zero verb 429
24.3 Bivalent verbs 430
24.4 Trivalent verbs 431
PART 4 SENTENCES 433

Chapter 25 Sentences and their components 435
25.1 Verbal predicates 435
25.2 Complements 438
25.3 Word order flexibility 440
25.4 Pro-drop 447
Chapter 26 Sentence classification 451

26.1 Internal structure (A) 451
xii 26.2 Sentence mode (B) 453
26.3 Verbal patterns (C) 456 Contents
26.4 Mixed examples 458
26.5 Sentence structure issues 460
Chapter 27 Modes 464

27.1 Declarative sentences 464
27.2 Interrogatives 465
27.3 Imperatives 470
27.4 Exclamations 477
Chapter 28 Patterns 479

28.1 Active sentences 479
28.2 Existential structures 480
28.3 Impersonal structures 485
28.4 Equational sentences 499
Chapter 29 Compound and complex sentences 510

29.1 Compound sentences 510
29.2 Contradicting compound sentences 514
29.3 Causal sentences 515
29.4 Result clauses 518
29.5 Concessives 522
29.6 Content clauses 526
29.7 Conditional sentences 533
29.8 Correlatives 541
PART 5 SEMANTIC FEATURES 561

Chapter 30 Case use 563
30.1 Nominative 563
30.2 Genitive 566
30.3 Objective 572
30.4 Locative 580
Chapter 31 Tense use 591

31.1 Simple present 593
31.2 Present continuous 595
31.3 Present perfect 597
31.4 Future tense 598 xiii
Contents 31.5 Simple past 600
31.6 Past continuous 603
31.7 Past perfect 604
31.8 Past habitual 606
31.9 Mixed tenses 608
Chapter 32 Aspect 611

32.1 Grammatical aspect 611
32.2 Lexical aspect 613
32.3 Becoming properties of Mowh 619
Chapter 33 Negation 621

33.1 nh 621
33.2 Negation and tense (yn) 622
33.3 n- (ni , no, ns, nw, nn ) is not 624
33.4 `ni -negation of existential sentences 627
33.5 Positioning of nh 629
33.6 Changed order for emphasis 633
33.7 Double negatives 634
33.8 Negation of compound verbs 635
Chapter 34 Modals 636

34.1 Subjunctive-triggering conjunctions 637
34.2 Tense changes 643
34.3 Non-finite modal structures 646
34.4 Verbal noun with qrkhr need, \ycu should ought,
kUh supposed to 654
Chapter 35 Pairings and doublings 663

35.1 . . . etcetera 663
35.2 Synonyms and near-synonyms 664
35.3 Accumulative 665
35.4 Echo words a-i pattern 666
35.5 Opposite meanings 668
35.6 Reduplication 669
35.7 Doubling of interrogatives, indefinite and adverbs 670
35.8 Doubling of non-finite verb forms 670
35.9 Doubling of finite verb forms 671
xiv
Chapter 36 Onomatopoeia 672 Contents
Chapter 37 Individual verbs 683

37.1 ahsh come and xhowh go 683
37.2 oTh get up, rise 684
37.3 khth cut – khthfnh cause to cut 685
37.4 Khowh eat 687
37.5 Gth happen, occur 688
37.6 chowh want, look at 689
37.7 zhnh know 690
37.8 `qKh see, `qKhfnh show 694
37.9 phowh get, receive 696
37.10 phrh be able to, be possible, may 698
37.11 blh say, speak, tell 700
37.12 mhnh respect, accept 703
Chapter 38 Idioms 704

38.1 kUh statement, utterance, fact 704
38.2 khz work, deed, action, result 706
38.3 khn ear 707
38.4 gh body 707
38.5 `chK eye 708
38.6 ph foot, leg 709
38.7 bvk breast, chest 710
38.8 mn mind, heart 711
38.9 mhUh head 712
38.10 mvK face, mouth 713
38.11 Mhu hand 714
38.12 k£hch raw, unripe and phkh ripe 716
38.13 bR big 716
38.14 Idioms with numbers 717
Chapter 39 Numerals 719

39.1 Fractions and percentages 719
39.2 Weights and measures 720
39.3 Collective numbers 721
39.4 Approximate numbers 721
39.5 Indefinite big numbers 723
xv
Contents APPENDICES 725
Appendix 1 150 Common Verbs 727
Appendix 2 200 Adjectives 729
Appendix 3 Extended and Causative Verbs 734
Appendix 4 Compound verbs 740
Appendix 5 Conjunct verbs 744
Appendix 6 Numbers 749
Primary sources 753

Bibliography 757
Bangla Index 762
English Index 769
xvi
Acknowledgements
Many people have helped me with this book in many different ways: those
who first taught me Bangla, those who patiently answered my many
endless questions, those who encouraged me along the way, those who
challenged me or allowed me to try out my theories on them, those who
had faith in me and those who put up with me during my times of dogged
single-mindedness.
My heartfelt thanks go to William Radice, Probal Dasgupta, Monsur

Musa, Mahbubul Haq, Niladri Shekhar Dash, Ghulam Murshid, Mina
Dan, Ketaki Kushari Dyson, Protima Dutt, William L. Smith, Swarocish
Sarker, Clinton Seely, Shanta Dey, Razima Chowdhury, Subhamay Ray,
Sahana Bajpaie, John Stevens, Nancy Stewart, from my Bangladeshi family
Prodip, Orup, Shontush, Madhobi and Shondhi, Ottul and Rima Rozario,
my husband Keith and my children Henning, Maren and Astrid-Cumki.
I am very grateful to the Harold Hyam Wingate Foundation for their

financial support over the last two years and to Routledge for publishing
the book.
xvii
Glossary
active A type of sentence which has a nominative subject and agreement

between the subject and the verb.
adjective A type of word which can describe or modify nouns the awful
truth, a beautiful mind.
adverb A type of word which is used to modify verbs, adjectives or sentences,
e.g. slowly, very, quite; when there is more than one word involved we call
them adverbials or adverb clauses, e.g. very soon, at 12 o’clock.
agreement A formal concord between a subject and a verb. First person
nouns take first person verb endings.
animate Alive: Bangla makes a distinction between animate and inanimate
nouns in, for instance, the formation of the plural.
article A class of words which qualify nouns: in English we have definite
and indefinite articles the Wizard of Oz (definite), an American in Paris
(indefinite). Bangla has, instead of articles, a small number of classifiers
which fulfil a variety of functions including the distinction between definite
and indefinite noun phrases.
aspect A grammatical category of the verb which expresses a type of tem-
poral activity, e.g. progressive (continuous) the birds are singing, perfective
the prophet has spoken.
aspiration The property of consonants which are pronounced with a puff
of air. K, G, C, Z, T, D, Z, U, Q, P, B are aspirated consonants in Bangla.
attributive Adjectives that occur as modifiers within a noun phrase, describ-
ing the noun: the blue car, the proud parents.
case A category of nouns and pronouns, marked by case endings, to show

a grammatical relationship. In English, pronouns have some case distinctions,
e.g. he, his, him but nouns only distinguish the genitive the girl’s. Bangla
has four cases: nominative, genitive, objective and locative.
causative Verbs expressing a causal relationship, e.g. in English the verb lie
has a causative lay.
xviii
classifier Noun attachments which determine properties like singular and Glossary
plural, definiteness and indefiniteness in Bangla: th, yt, zn, Khnh, tvkv, gvflh are
classifiers in Bangla.
clause A group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning
as part of a complex or compound sentence.
complement The predicate in equational (copulative) sentences.
compound Two words of the same class used together to express one
meaning.
compound maker One of a small number of verbs which can combine with
the perfective participle of other verbs to form a compound verb.
compound verb A type of verb in Bangla which combines a perfective par-
ticiple with a compound maker.
conditional Expressing a condition: if you come.
conditional participle The non-finite verb form in Bangla which ends in
-le krfl, `gfl, Mfl.
conjugation The systematic change of verb stems to express, e.g., tense,
person, degree of politeness.
conjunct Consonant clusters.
conjunction Joining, connecting words, e.g. and, but, although, because.
conjunct verb A type of verb in Bangla which consists of a noun or adjec-
tive plus a common verb.
consonant A sound which is produced by closing part of the vocal tract,
as opposed to → vowel.
content clause A type of subordinate clause which is introduced by that
in English, `x in Bangla.
copula A type of verb which serves to connect two equal parts of a sentence,
e.g. the day is done, nothing seems right, if I were a rich man →
equational.
deictic (Pronounced as in dyke, dike) showing, pointing. A word specifying

identity or spatial or temporal location from the perspective of a speaker
in a given context. Examples are words like I, you, here, there, this, that,
today, yesterday.
demonstrative An alternative term for deictic, which is commonly used for
pronouns.
direct object The part of the sentence which is the goal of the verbal action,
e.g. to kill a mockingbird, tie a yellow ribbon.
equational The type of sentence which has a → copula how green was my
valley.
experiencer A human being involved in an event. In many Bangla sentences
this experiencer is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. experiencer
contrasts with subject in impersonal sentences.
xix
Glossary extended verb A type of verb in Bangla which has a two-syllable verb
stem.
familiar Form of address, in many languages distinct from a polite or

honorific form.
finite Verb forms which contain endings for person and tense – most
sentences contain a finite verb form → non-finite.
genitive A noun case, can express possession ( Jenny’s skirt) or association

(Gulliver’s travels).
head A noun or pronoun which appears before a relative pronoun, i.e. we

who have seen the film, ahmrh xhrh Cybth `qfKyC. Bangla can form relative clauses
without a head xhrh efsfC those who came.
honorific Polite form of address → polite → familiar.
imperative In an order-giving mode meet me in St Louis, don’t look now.

imperfective participle The → non-finite verb form in Bangla which ends
in -te krfu, `xfu, Mfu.
impersonal A type of sentence which does not have a ‘doing’ subject, e.g.
it makes sense.
indirect object The part of the sentence for or towards whom the action
is performed; in the sentence I gave you my heart we have a direct object
my heart and an indirect object you.
infinitive A → non-finite verb form, in English the base form of a verb or
used with to, e.g. you can’t take it with you or nowhere to hide, an affair
to remember.
interrogative Relating to questions.
locative A case of the noun, used, for instance, to express place.
modality Sometimes also referred to as mood, the dimension of language

that deals with the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying. Anything that
goes beyond a mere stating or questioning of facts, such as suggestions,
commands, suppositions, promises or threats, counts as a modal feature.
modifier Anything that stands in a subservient and modifying relationship
to a noun.
morphology The branch of grammar which studies the structure (or com-
position) of words.
need to know A principle which underlies many Bangla sentence structures

such as pro-drop, singular and plural formation and structures involv-
ing case. It means that grammatical information is restricted to what we
xx need to know in order to understand a sentence.
nominative The base form of nouns and pronouns → case. Glossary
non-finite Verb forms which are not conjugated and do not stand alone
in a sentence → finite.
noun The word class which names a person, place or thing; nouns can func-
tion as subjects and objects, take determiners and can have number, gender,
case.
object The sentence part towards which the action of the verb is directed:
I asked him, he denied his statement. We can distinguish between → direct
(accusative) object and → indirect object.
participle A non-finite verb form which functions as a clause or an adjective

towering inferno, gone with the wind.
particle A grammatical term which is used for non-essential short, indeclin-
able words.
passive Derived from active structures: he built the house: the house was
built (by him).
perfective participle The non-finite verb form in Bangla which ends in
-e kfr, ygfw, Mfw.
phoneme The smallest sound unit in language which makes a difference in
meaning.
phonology The study of the sound systems of languages.
phrase A group of two or more grammatically related words that form a
sense unit expressing a thought. A phrase goes with a single part of speech
such as a noun, a verb, an adverb or a postposition.
plural Referring to more than one.
polite Respectful form of address (many languages distinguish between a
familiar and a polite form).
possessive Expresses belonging.
postposition Has the same function as a → preposition, but comes after
the noun phrase; a language has either pre- or postpositions.
predicate The part of the sentence which is not the subject. subject and
predicate together form a sentence. A predicate can consist of a verb,
with or without objects, or of a complement.
predicative Adjectives are often used as complements in a sentence: the
children were asleep, the climb is dangerous. predicative adjectives contrast
with attributive adjectives.
preposition A type of word which positions a noun, e.g. in, against, for,
beyond; prepositions form prepositional phrases on the waterfront, within
our lifetime, under the influence.
pro-drop Omission of nominative and sometimes objective pronouns where
their reference can be inferred from the context.
progressive A type of aspect: expressing an ongoing or repeated process
they were talking, he was knocking. xxi
Glossary pronoun A type of word which can take the place of a previously mentioned
noun phrase, e.g. John was angry, but he didn’t know why.
reflexive Referring back to itself, e.g. he is washing himself, they hate each
other.
relative A kind of pronoun relating to something already mentioned, e.g.
the man who knew too much.
root The basic unit which carries the meaning, e.g. from the Latin root
flux flow we have English words like fluent, influence, fluctuate, fluid.
semantics The study of meaning of language.

sentence A grammatically self-contained unit of speech or writing.
singular Referring to one.
stem The base form (usually of a verb) to which endings are added.
subordinate clause (Dependent clause) A sentence which cannot stand on
its own, e.g. *why we fight.
subject The noun, pronoun or noun phrase in the sentence which is usually
in the nominative and which has agreement with the finite verb. Bangla also
has genitive experiencer subjects without verb agreement.
syntax Sentence structure.
tense Expression of time in verbs; the most basic tenses are past, present,
future.
transitive The type of verb which can take a direct object.
verb Word class (doing or action words) ride, consider, forget, destroy.
verb ending Added to the stem of the verb for use in sentences, e.g. walk:
we walk-ed home, he was walk-ing away.
verbal noun A non-finite verb form which is used as a noun krh, xhowh,
Mowh.
vowel A sound which has no audible constriction, e.g. a, e, i, o, u, as opposed
to → consonant.
word class A group of words which share the same syntactic features.
zero verb The copula in simple present equational sentences in Bangla.
xxii * an asterisk indicates that an example is ungrammatical.

Abbreviations and Glosses
ADJ adjective i.e. id est = namely

ADV adverb IMP imperative
ANM animate INANM inanimate
ASP aspect INDO indirect object
baVN ba forms of the verbal INT interjection
noun krbhr, xhbhr IP imperfective participle
CAUS causative LOC locative
CJV conjunct verb N noun
CL classifier NEG negative
COMP compound NOM nominative
CONC concessive NP noun phrase
CONJ conjunction NUM numeral
COP copula OBJ objective
CP conditional participle OBL oblique
CR correlative (= non-nominative
CV compound verb cases, i.e. genitive
DEI deictic and objective case)
DEM demonstrative ONOM onomatopoeia
DO direct object ORD ordinary
e.g. exempli gratia = P past
for example PC pro-copula
EMP emphasiser P-C past continuous
F familiar P-HABIT past habitual
FUT future P-PERF past perfect
FUT-IMP future imperative P-S simple past
GEN genitive PL plural
HAB habitual POL polite
HON honorific POS positive
I intimate POSS possessive xxiii
Abbreviations POSTP postposition R relative
and Glosses PP perfective participle REFL reflexive
PR present SG singular
PR-C present continuous SUBJ subject
PR-IMP present imperfective V verb
PR-P present participle VA verbal adjective
PR-PERF present perfect VN verbal noun
PR-S simple present * An asterisk *
PRED predicate indicates that an
PRON pronoun example is
PS person ungrammatical
QU quantifier
Glosses
Nouns
th, yt, zn, tvkv are marked as -CL (classifiers), gvflh and gvyl as -PL-CL (plural
classifier), rh and `qr are marked as -PL (plural) and PL-CASE (plural-case),
respectively.
Pronouns
Grammatical information in the glosses is kept to the minimum. This means

that if a 3rd person pronoun is present in the gloss, only the 3H (honorific)
label is marked. In all other cases, the pronoun is ordinary. With second
person pronouns uvym is unmarked, ahpyn and uvi are marked 2H and 2I,
respectively. Singular is unmarked, plural is marked. Case is only given
where case endings are present.
Bangla does not distinguish gender in its personal pronouns. In the trans-
lations, gender has to be assigned and I have variously assigned he or she.
In cases where a genitive pronoun is clearly attributive and followed directly by

a noun phrase, I have given my, your, our rather than I-GEN, your-GEN, etc.
xxiv
Abbreviations
Verbs
and Glosses
For conjugated verb forms, the following abbreviations are used:
1 first person ahym, ahmrh

2I second person intimate uvi, ùhrh
2 second person familiar uvym, ùhmrh
3 third person ordinary `s, uhrh
2H, 3H second person polite ahpyn, ahpnhrh and third person
honorific yuyn, u£hrh
tenses PR-S simple present

PR-C present continuous
PR-IMP present imperative
PR-PERF present perfect
FUT future tense
FUT-IMP future imperative
P-S simple past
P-C past continuous
P-PERF past perfect
P-HABIT past habitual
non-finites VN verbal noun

VA verbal adjective
IP imperfective participle
PP perfective participle
CP conditional participle
Verb glosses are always given in full except with some particular verb
forms from incomplete verbs: forms of ahC- [exists] or [is present], `ni [is
absent] and nw [is not] yCl [was/were] are given in square brackets.
Verb forms with a following yn (negation of present and past perfect) are
given as not verb-PERSON-TENSE rather than verb-PERSON-TENSE not to
show the close connection between the verb and the negation.
For conjunct verbs the noun and verb are linked with a hyphen, e.g.
pyr©khr krfl clean-do-CP

Procopula forms of Mowh be, become are given as PC-PERSON-TENSE
xxv
Abbreviations Correlatives
and Glosses
Relative and correlative pronouns and conjunctions are marked as such
only where they are the topic of discussion.
Emphasisers
o, ùh and i are all given as -EMP (emphasiser) except when they are the
topic of discussion. When o is used as a conjunction it is given as also or
even.
Glosses are given where they are deemed helpful in understanding sentence
structures.
xxvi
Part 1
Peripheries
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Aims and organisation of the book
This book offers a descriptive outline of Bengali grammatical features at

the beginning of the twenty-first century. The first step is to change from
the term Bengali to Bangla. This changeover has been occurring over the
past sixty years and reflects the rightful claim Bengali scholars and linguists
make on their own language. In the English speaking linguistic community
Bangla is now the more common term and calling the language Bangla
also enables us to distinguish between the language and the people. A new
grammar of modern Bangla is urgently needed and has been eagerly awaited
by Bengalis and foreign learners of Bangla alike. No one book can fulfil
everyone’s expectations, so in order to prevent disappointment, here is a
brief background and rationale of this present book.
I have been engaged in learning, teaching and researching the Bangla

language for almost eighteen years. I learnt to speak the language mainly
in Bangladesh but I have also been to Kolkata several times and have on-
going linguistic contacts in Kolkata. The political divide between Bangladesh
and West Bengal is something which, in my perception, is not mirrored in
the language. This may change in the future, but at the beginning of the
twenty-first century, the linguistic differences between West Bengal and
Bangladesh are relatively minor. Whether we say zl or phyn for water, anhU
or eyum for orphan, esyC or ahiyC for I have arrived, o£r or \nhr for his, qvfth
or qvth for two, ycbfnh or ycbhfnh for chew, kvyR or ybS for twenty, use a bit
more or less nasalisation; none of these cause an identity crisis for the
Bangla language. The interpretation in this book is therefore, quite deliber-
ately, based on a rather vague concept of current Standard Colloquial Bengali
and takes neither historical aspects nor dialects into account. I consider
this to be important groundwork on which other findings can be based. 3
1 What I have done in this book, to the best of my ability, is to observe,
Introduction listen, read, record, analyse and interpret. I want this book to help foreigners
learn Bangla – that is why there are some comparisons with English.
I want this book to be useful to Bengalis who are interested in their
language – that is why I have largely adhered to traditional terminology. I
want this book to be practical – that is why examples take precedence over
theoretical explanations. I want this book to be a contribution to linguistic
thinking about Bangla – that is why I have tried to structure it in a clear
progressive system.
The whole book is organised around examples – lots of examples. This has
four basic reasons:
1 There has been a tendency in previous books to focus on well-established,

traditional example sentences for particular structures to such an extent
that the relationship with the living language was in danger of getting
lost.
2 Lots of examples give the reader the opportunity to see for himself or
herself, to judge the accuracy or felicity of my interpretations and see
things I may have missed.
3 For learners of a language the exposure to actual language patterns is,
in my own experience, much more valuable than long explanations.
4 Bengali grammar books invariably display what I call the etcetera symp-
tom: they give one or two examples and then iujhyq or —Béyu etcetera,
which is perfectly adequate for them but can be intensely frustrating to
a foreign learner.
The example sentences used in this book come from a great variety of
sources. Quite a few are from spoken language. Early on in my research
I gave up on the idea of asking people’s opinion on different language
structures. Replies to these types of questions tend to be varied and con-
tradictory, and there is a considerable gap between what people perceive
to be ‘good language’ and the way they themselves speak. Instead of
asking, I listened and kept a record. My readings have gone from essays
to popular magazines, from great literature to children’s stories, from
scholarly discussions to advertisements on the Metro in Kolkata. I have
been reading `qS (Kolkata), —Um ahflh and khyl o klm (Dhaka) and count-
less stories and novels. I lost my heart to Buddhadeva Bose and Sunil
Gangopadhyay and greatly enjoyed reading Bimal Mitra, Ashapurna Devi,
Praphulla Ray, Sankar, Mahasveta Devi, Bimal Kar, Kabita Singh, Hasan
Azizul Haque and many other writers. My initial resolve not to use any
4 texts more than fifty years old crumbled before Buddhadeva’s mesmerising
language and assured mastery of complex sentence structures which are a
joy to read and to analyse. Some of his sentences, as also some examples Bangla
from Tagore and Bibhutibhusan, have found their way into this book. grammar
With all my reading, the structures of the language, the way sentences are terms
formed and words put together were my primary interest and form the
basis of my interpretation. As is almost inevitable with this kind of work,
some questions, grey areas, uncertainties and, no doubt, blind spots remain.
They are part of the learning process and will, I hope, challenge and
encourage others to recognise that there is still a lot to discover in the field
of Bangla language structures.
Organisation of the book
Part 1 – Peripheries – deals briefly with the areas of language that cannot
properly be classified as grammar: background, history, sounds and script,
and some broad morphological features such as prefixes and suffixes, verb,
noun and adjective formation. It ends with an overview of the morpho-
logical features of Bangla.
Part 2 – Word Classes – gives us the word classes of Bangla, their sub-
categories and their morphological features – it is in this section that you will
find paradigms and charts, conjugation patterns and the main forms of the
language. The non-declinable word classes (adjectives, adverbs, postpositions,
conjunctions, emphasisers, particles, interjections) are dealt with in this part.
Part 3 – Functions – (phrase structure) expands on the description of nouns,

pronouns and verbs to show their function in sentences.
Part 4 – Sentences – moves away from individual word classes to an

analysis and typology of sentences.
Part 5 – Semantic Features – here we look at a number of semantic features,

such as negation, tense and case, aspect and modality. We find out about
idiomatic uses of particular words and the range of some of the important
verbs in Bangla. Onomatopoeia are also given here.
Part 6 – Appendices is a collection of lists of different types of verbs,

adjectives and numbers.
1.2 Bangla grammar terms
The following is a list of grammatical terminology which is generally found

in Bengali grammar books. Not all of them overlap with the terminology 5
used in this book.
1
English Bangla example \qhMrN, qé§h™
Introduction
accusative kmò khrk `mfwfk, ahmhfk

adjective ybfSXN sv~qr, bR, lhl
animate zYb™ mhnvX, pSv
aspirated consonanant mMh—hN bNò K, G, C, Z
case khrk kuòh, kmò, ayQkrN
classifier pqhySîu ynfqòSk th, yt, Khnh, zn, tvkv, gvflh
comparative uvlnhmVlk \Écur
comparison ybfSXfNr uhrumj uhr `cfw bR
compound `xHygk
compound verb `xHygk yœwh cfl xhowh, `Pfl `qowh
conditional participle shfpÇ sL`xhzk asmhypkh `gfl, yqfl, Mfl
conjunct xv∆hÇr Ç, Ã, ∆, µ, Ä, í
conjunction sLfxhzk ahr, ebL, yk≤, svurhL
consonant bjńQáyn k, K, g, G
correlative ynujsmáíY Sûq xKn -uKn, `xmn - ùmn
definite ynfqòSk mhnvXyt, `cwhrth, biKhnh
deictic `bhQk `s, `si, e, ei, o, oi
dental q™j u, U, q, Q, n, s
familiar Gyn©ThUòk uvym, ùhmrh
finite verb form smhypkh yœwhpq bfkjr —Qhn yœwh
first person \≠m pvrßX ahym, ahmrh
flap uhRnzhu Qáyn R, ƒ
future tense BybXJ khl krfbh, Mfb, Uhkfbn
gender ylÃ pvylÃ, ã«YylÃ
genitive smáí uhr, ahmhr, bhbhr, mhfwr
honorific sôBîmhuÖk ahpyn, yuyn
imperative anv“h ahfqS `qowh: xho, efsh etc
imperfective participle ynym≠hUòk asmhypkh `xfu, Uhkfu, chifu
inanimate zYb™ nw `x yzyns
indeclinables abjw Sfûqr pyrbuòn Mw nh
indefinite aynŸcwsVck `k\, `khUho, khro
interjection sfmáhQnsVck abjw `r, ùh, bhA, Mhw etc
interrogative —SähuÖk xh —Sä kfr
interrogative pronoun —SähuÖk sbònhm `k, yk, kKn, `kn
intimate uvÉChUòk uvi, ùhrh
intransitive verb akmòk yœwh Gvmhfnh, k£hqh, Mhsh
labial o©T p, P, b, B, m
locative ayQkrN khrk bhyRfu, bhshw
morphology r∑puµ
nasal c~qîyb~qv £
nasal sounds anvnhysk Qáyn W, õ, N, n, m
negative nh-bhck (nõUòk) nh, yn, `ni, nw
nominative kuòh khrk ahym, mhnvX, khz
non-finite verb form asmhypkh yœwh xhowh, `gfl, ygfw, `xfu
noun ybfSXj nqY, `lhMh, mhnvX
number bcn ekbcn, bMvbcn
6 numerals sLKjhbhck ybfSXN ek, qvi, Mhzhr
Bangla
objective kmò khrk uhfk, `mfwfk grammar
palatal uhlbj c, C, z, Z
past continuous Gtmhn auYu xhyÉClhm, kryCl terms
past habitual ynujbé≠ auYu kru, `xfun, zhnuhm
past participle pVbòyœwh Svfw, `qfK, ygfw, `zfn
past perfect pvrhGytu auYu ygfwyCfl, ÙfmyCl
person pvrßX —Um, mQjm, \≠m
personal pronoun bjy∆bhck ahym, ahpyn, \yn
phonology Qáynuµ
plosives ãpSò bNò from k to B except nasals
plural bMvbcn `cwhrgvflh, sb `Cfl
possessive pronoun smáí sbònhm uhr, ahmhr, ùhmhfqr
postposition anvsgò ynfc, \pfr, sfÃ, zfnj etc
predicate ybfQw
prefix \psgò an-, ayB-, \p-
present continuous Gtmhn buòmhn xhyÉC, ahsfCn, blC
present perfect pvrhGytu buòmhnkhl kfryC, ygfwfC
pronoun sbònhm `s, uhr, uhfk, uh, yk, `k
quantifier pyrmhN ybfSXN ykCv, ku, eu, sb etc
reflexive pronoun ahuÖbhck sbònhm ahpn, ynz
relative pronoun shfpÇ sbònhm `x, xhr, xhfqr
retroflex mVQònj t, T, d, D, N
root mVl xh Ùfk anj Sûq Gtn Mw, Qhuv
second person mQjm pvrßX uvi, uvym, ahpyn
semi-vowel a™Añ x, r, l, b
sibilant ySSQáyn S, X, s
simple past shQrN auYukhl `gl, `Klhm, yqfl
simple present shQhrN buòmhnkhl xhi, oT, kfrn, Kho etc
singular ekbcn klmyt, `tyblth
spirant \XÖQáyn S, X, s, M
stem r∑p, Qhuv kr, Uhk, Kh
suffix ybBy∆ -`k, -ù, -r, -rh, -gvyl etc
subject \fØSj
subordinate clause aQYnbhkj xh MfwfC
superlative um-—ujwh™ qvbòlum, \Écum
syntax bhkjuµ
tense khl buòmhn, auYu, BybXJ
third person —Um pvrßX `s, uhrh, yuyn, orh
transitive verb skmòk yœwh `qowh, krh, khth
unvoiced consonant afGhX Qáyn k, K, c, C, t, T, u, U, p, P
velar k∂TQáyn k, K, g, G
verbal adjective yœwh ybfSXN MhR-bhr-krh `cMhrh
verbal noun yœwh ybfSXj xhowh, blh, `qowh etc
voiced consonant `GhXQáyn g, G, z, Z, d, D, q, Q, b, B
vowel …rQáyn a, ah, i, \
vowel harmony …rsÃyu
vowel mutation ayBSîßyu
word class Sûq `SîNY ybfSXj, sbònhm, yœwhpq
7
1
1.3 Bangla and its speakers
Introduction
Bangla is a world language. In terms of numbers of speakers it ranks fifth

or sixth among the world’s languages. Bangla is the national language of
Bangladesh with a population of over 150 million people. It is one of the
official languages of India with about 80 million speakers in West Bengal.
There are substantial Bengali communities in the USA, Europe, Australia
and the Middle East. Although Bangladesh has been politically separated
from West Bengal for over sixty years, the Bangla language belongs to
both Bangladesh and West Bengal equally. For the purpose of studying the
language, therefore, the area where Bangla is spoken is referred to as Bengal
and the people who speak Bangla as Bengalis in this book.
Bengal is situated in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra river delta, the

world’s largest delta and one of the most fertile areas on earth. Bengal is
densely populated but its lush vegetation, its villages, vast rivers and open
fields make it a place of great natural beauty. Bengal has borders with
Assam, Sikhim, Bhutan and Myanmar (Burma) in the east and Orissa,
Bihar, Jharkand and Nepal in the west. In terms of land use most of both
Bangladesh and West Bengal are rural, with the main crops being rice,
jute, tea, wheat and sugar-cane. The two capitals are Kolkata in West
Bengal with a population of almost eight million and Dhaka in Bangladesh
with a population of six and a half million. Poverty and illiteracy are still
pressing problems in both Bangladesh and West Bengal.
What Bengal lacks in material wealth it makes up for a hundredfold in

the richness of its literature and culture, the energy and zest for life of its
people and the enchanting beauty of its language. Bengalis are very aware
of this beauty, and pride in their language is an inalienable part of their
identity. This is equally true for West Bengal and for Bangladesh, and it
was particularly visible in the early years after Indian independence in
1947.
India was split into two countries, India and Pakistan. East Bengal – then
East Pakistan, now Bangladesh – became one of the provinces of the new
Muslim state of Pakistan. This was at first welcomed by East Bengali
Muslims but the geographical distance between them and the rest of the
country – with the whole of India between the two halves of the country
– as well as economic inequalities soon started to cause discontent and
resentment in East Pakistan. Much more divisive, however, was the language
8 question.
Having Urdu as the only state language in Pakistan imposed on them History
by the Pakistan government woke East Bengali Muslims to their own (language and
identity. From 1948 onwards a language movement started, led by students literature)
and professors of Dhaka University, with the express purpose of making
Bangla a state language. This movement culminated in a violent clash
between protestors and the police on 21 February 1952 in which five
students were killed. This was the first time in Bengali history that lives
were lost in the cause of a language. In the immediate wake of these events,
throughout the whole province, a new Bengali consciousness emerged,
based on language and culture rather than on religion. Bangla became a
state language of Pakistan in 1956 but it was another 15 years later, in
1971, that Bangladesh became an independent country with a secular
constitution. 21 February is still celebrated in Bangladesh every year and
in 1999 it was made International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in
memory of the events in 1952 and to promote linguistic and cultural
diversity and multilingualism.
1.4 History (language and literature)
The Bangla language is, like most other Indian languages, a descendant of
Sanskrit, one of the oldest known languages with records dating back as
far as 1500–1000 bc. It is not very clear where Sanskrit originated, but
scholars place it in the Indus Valley, in what is now Pakistan and north-
western India. Sanskrit is an Indo-Aryan language and the relationship
between Bangla and Sanskrit in terms of grammar and vocabulary is com-
parable to the relationship between French and Classical Latin. Although
Sanskrit still counts as one of the official languages of India, it was always
more a scholarly and devotional language rather than a means of com-
munication. The Rig Veda, the oldest sacred writing of Hinduism, was
written in an early form of Sanskrit, now called Vedic Sanskrit.
Sometime around the fifth century bc the grammarian Panini standardised

the language into a new form, referred to as Classical Sanskrit, and wrote
what we now consider the first scientific grammar. In addition to this,
many religious works, influential poetry and drama, and early scientific and
mathematical documents were written in Sanskrit.
From this mainly written and scholarly language, spoken or vernacular

forms developed between 500 bc and ad 500. While Sanskrit sLãkéu put
together, composed was described by Panini as correctly and perfectly 9
1 formed in all its elements, roots and suffixes, these off-shoots are called
Introduction Prakrits (—kéyu nature), indicating that they were closer to actual lan-
guage. They are divided into three major branches: Sauraseni, Magadhi and
Maharashtri. Bangla, alongside Assamese, Oriya and Bhojpuri (Bihari),
developed out of the Magadhi branch, also known as Eastern Indo-Aryan.
The Bangla language can be dated back as far as 1000 years ago. The
oldest texts which can be identified as being written in Bangla were found
in Nepal by the Bengali scholar Haraprasad Shastri and published in 1909.
They are Buddhist devotional songs known as Charyapada and dated
between ad 900 and 1100. It was during this period that Assamese, Oriya
and Bangla split off from Sanskrit and from one another. The reasons
for claiming the Charyapada for Bangla rather than for Assamese or Oriya
are related to word formation, pronouns, case endings and emerging post-
positions which seem to point the way for later forms in Bangla. The
period between ad 900 and 1400 is called Old Bengali. Verb inflections
were starting to appear and pronouns like ami and tumi were formed.
Also around that time the Bengali script started to develop its own charac-
teristic features, separating it from Devanagari. Both Devanagari and the
Bangla script were designed and used primarily for writing Sanskrit.
Following the thirteenth century invasion of Bengal (and other parts of

India) by Muslim Turks whose court language was Persian, many Arabic and
Persian words were absorbed into the speech of the people of Bengal, and
Bengal as a region developed further in commercial importance.
The Middle Bengali period is dated between the fifteenth and the eighteenth
centuries. The earliest examples of Middle Bengali literature are Sri Krishna
Kirtan and Vaishnava religious love poems by Chandidas and Vidyapati.
During the later middle period Mangal Kabya and Persian-influenced
romances were written.
Until the eighteenth century, there was no attempt to document Bangla

grammar. The first Bangla dictionary Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e
Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was written in Portuguese by the mis-
sionary Manoel da Assumpcam between 1734 and 1742.
With the advent of the British and the start of British Rule in India after
the Battle of Plassey in 1757, a new era began which changed not only the poli-
tical and educational system but also brought about a significant growth
of literature in Bangla. The British established themselves first in Kolkata
and then expanded their sphere of influence and power throughout the
10 whole of the sub-continent during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
In 1778, a first grammar A Grammar of the Bengal Language was written History
by Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, a British philologist. The title of the book (language and
suggests that the name Bengali for the language was not yet entirely fixed. literature)
It was for the production of this book that the first printing press was
developed for writing Bangla. The New Bengali period starts around this
time.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a large portion of India’s
most celebrated works of poetry were created in Bangla during a literary
renaissance led by figures such as Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1834–73)
and Bankim Chandra Chatterji (1838–98), the founders of modern
Bangla literature. Madhusudan was a great admirer and diligent student
of European literature, from Dante, to Milton to Shakespeare and, in a
great leap of faith, set out to create comparably great literature in Bangla.
He was the first to write sonnets in Bangla and he also introduced blank
verse. An endeavour of this kind at that time required, above all, faith in
the potential of the Bangla language. Madhusudan’s masterpiece `mGnhq bQ
khbj (Meghnadbadh Kabya) is not only the greatest epic that has ever been
written in Bangla but is also world class literature.
As Europeans, we tend to underestimate the influence individual writers
and poets have on the development of a language. But there is no doubt
that for Bangla it was people like Bankim, Madhusudan and soon after
them Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) who not only gave the language
status and credibility through their literature but had a tremendous and
lasting effect on the language itself.
Tagore was a poet, novelist, short-story writer, dramatist, essayist and
educator as well as a musician and a painter. The sheer volume of his work
remains an unprecedented achievement, and he continues to occupy an
almost god-like status among Bengalis due to the profound understanding
of human nature displayed in all his writings. Poetry and song have always
played a central role in Bengali cultural life and Tagore provided the nation
with countless haunting and expressive songs that spoke, and still speak,
to people in a personal way. Tagore was the first non-European ever to
win the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was largely responsible for Bangla
literature gaining considerable international prestige and for Bangla
being accredited with a unique standing among the languages of India.
What is, among all these achievements, less well known about Tagore
is his deep interest in and engagement with his language. In his book
bhLlh BhXh pyrcw (1938) he combines systematic description with intuitive
observation in a way that is more congenial to the language than a purely
analytical approach. 11
1 Standard Colloquial Bengali (calit bhasha) took over from sadhu bhasha
Introduction (see pp. 15–18) as the main version of written as well as spoken Bangla
during Tagore’s lifetime in the early years of the twentieth century. This
move helped to standardise and unify the language.
Tagore was such a giant figure in literary terms that the writers and
poets who were his contemporaries or who came after him were inevit-
ably influenced, inspired or, in some cases, overwhelmed by him. Some
important writers and poets of the twentieth century are Jibanananda
Das (1899–1954), Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899–1976), the national poet of
Bangladesh, Buddhadeva Bose (1908–74), Syed Waliullah (1922–79),
Shamsur Rahman (1929–2006), Sunil Gangopadhyay (born 1934), Syed
Shamsul Haque (born 1935), Hasan Azizul Haq (born 1939) and
Akhtaruzzaman Ilias (1943–97).
The language of poetry has its own idiosyncrasies and is therefore often
less suitable for demonstrating language structures. Here is a very famous
poem by Jibanananda Das, written in 1934, which celebrates the beauty
of Bengal and contains a typical mixture of calit and sadhu bhasha. The
English translation is by Sukanta Chaudhuri:
Jibanananda Das, bhLlhr mvK

bhLlhr mvK ahym `qyKwhyC, uhi ahym péyUbYr r∑p
K£vyzfu xhi nh ahr : aíkhfr `zfg \fT dvmvfrr ghfC
`cfw `qyK Chuhr mun bfRh phuhytr ynfc b"fs ahfC
`Bhfrr `qhfwlphyK - chyryqfk `cfw `qyK p^fbr ÄVp
zhm - bt - k£hThflr - yMzflr - aSfUr k"fr ahfC cvp ;
PNYmnshr `Zhfp Sytbfn uhMhfqr Chwh pyRwhfC!
mQvkr ydWh Ùfk nh zhyn `s kfb c£hq côphr khfC
emni yMzl - bt - umhflr nYl Chwh bhLlhr apr∑p r∑p
`qfKyCl : `bMvlho ekyqn ghWvfRr zfl `Blh ynfw -
ké”h #hqSYr `zjhJsäh xKn myrwh `gfC nqYr cRhw -
`shnhyl Qhfnr phfS asLKj aSáU bt `qfKyCl, Mhw,
Sjhmhr nrm ghn SvfnyCl - ekyqn amrhw ygfw
yCê Kńhr mfuh xKn `s `nfcyCl if~qîr sBhw
bhLlhw nqY mhT B£htPvl GvWvfrr mfuh uhr `k£fqyCl phw/
12
I have seen the face of Bengal The Bangla
lexicon
I have seen the face of Bengal; so the beauty of the earth
I seek no more; waking in the dark, I see
Under the great umbrella-leaf of the fig tree
The daybreak’s magpie-robin: all round, silent massed leaves
Of jam and banyan, hijal, peepul and jackfruit:
Their shadows fall on the thorn-bush, the clump of arrowroot.
So Chand the Merchant long ago, from his honey-bee boat,
Sailing past Champa, saw the same blue shadows float
Of hijal, tamal, banyan – Bengal’s beauty beyond form.

So Behula saw from her raft on the Gangura, when the light
Of the moon’s twelfth dark phase died on the sandbank,
countless peepuls
And banyans, golden paddy; heard the shama’s soft song.
When she danced like reft wagtail in Indra’s heavenly halls,
Bengal’s fields, streams, flowers wept at her feet like ankle-bells.
Translation: Sukanta Chaudhuri
1.5 The Bangla lexicon
Bangla has a vast vocabulary. The great majority of lexical items are derived
more or less directly from Sanskrit. Linguists distinguish two different
kinds of derivations. Sanskrit words which are used in Bangla in their pure
form are called tatsama. About half of the Bangla lexicon consists of Sankrit
tatsama words. A further quarter are words which come from Sanskrit but
have undergone some changes or have been adapted to the phonological
patterns of Bangla. These words are called tadbhava. These facts establish
without doubt that the relationship between Bangla and Sanskrit is not
one of cross-linguistic borrowing but one of direct descent.
These figures do not, however, reflect actual language use. Many tatsama
words are archaic and so formal that they are not suitable for communica-
tion. It is estimated that in actual use today the percentages for tatsama and
tadbhava words are reversed. About 65 per cent of the active vocabulary
are tadbhava and only 25 per cent tatsama words.
The rest of the Bangla lexicon is made up of so-called deshi (indigenous)

and bideshi (foreign) words. Neighbouring languages like Hindi and
Assamese have contributed to the Bangla lexicon. Through centuries of 13
1 contact with and/or invasions by Turks, Arabs, Persians, Afghans and
Introduction Europeans Bangla has absorbed words from all of these languages and
made them an integral part of the language as it stands today. They are
no longer felt to be foreign in any way by the ordinary speaker.
The lists below give an impression of where some everyday Bangla words
come from:
deshi (indigenous)
alu potato khõj search thæng thigh
kala deaf cal/caul rice grain nhol dhol, drum
kuzi twenty cingri shrimp pet belly
khuki girl cula oven, stove boba mute
khoka boy jhinuk shell math field, open land
khõca stab jhol gravy muzi puffed rice
Hindi
accha OK kahini story caca father’s brother
cahida demand pfchondo like phaltu useless
Arabic
akkel wisdom khæyal consideration phokir poor person
alada separate gorib poor boi book
ashol real jfbab answer bfdol exchange
elaka area jfma collect baki remainder
ojon weight jinish thing mfshla spice
kfbor grave tarikh date shaheb sir
khfbor news dunia world hishab calculation
khali empty nfkol imitation
Persian
aoyaj sound gfrom hot pfrda curtain
andaj guess cfshma glasses bfd bad
ayna mirror cakri job bagan garden
aram comfort cador blanket bacca child
aste slowly jayga place mfja fun
kagoj paper dfm breath rasta road
kharap bad deri late roj everyday
khub very dokan store shfsta cheap
14
Turkish Sadhu bhasha
kãci scissors baburci cook, chef nani maternal

grandmother
korma korma baba father dada paternal
grandfather
cfkmfk sparkle begom lady
Portuguese
almari cupboard tamak tobacco balti bucket
istri iron toyale towel behala violin
kamij shirt perek nail botam button
cabi key phita ribbon shaban soap
janala window baranda verandah
English
tebil table bænk bank motor motor
ceyar chair apish office mastar master
isteshon station hotel hotel pænt trousers
iskul school kek cake shart shirt
rel rail injin engine kopi coffee
tren train biskut biscuit kap cup
bas bus teliphon telephone pulish police
gelash glass tibhi TV naktar doctor
Bangla has absorbed all these and many more foreign words easily into
its vocabulary and has made them part of the language. They use the same
classifiers and case endings as nouns derived from Sanskrit and ultimately
enrich the language rather than endangering it in any way. It is a charac-
teristic of living languages that they undergo changes and influence one
another. History, geography, politics, social issues, culture as well as sound
patterns and word types make a language. All these influences keep lan-
guages alive and give them their unique character.
1.6 Sadhu bhasha
Bangla counts as a diglossic language. This means that the language has a
high level used in formal writing and a low level in ordinary spoken language.
The gap between these two levels of Bangla was particularly visible and
actively promoted in the nineteenth century when the so-called sadhu bhasha
(shQv BhXh) = pure language came to be used for literary writing. 15
1 Soon after the publication of Nathaniel Brassey Halhed’s first Bangla grammar
Introduction (1778), this new style of literary writing emerged. Halhed had expressed
the view that the Arabic and Persian vocabulary used in Bangla was having
a detrimental effect on the language and that Bangla would be strengthened
by a closer association with Sanskrit. The new literary style was taken up
and developed by writers like Rammohun Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
and Bankim Chandra Chatterji, who felt that high literature needed a more
elevated style of writing. The characteristics of the sadhu bhasha were a
flowery style of writing, a highly Sanskritised vocabulary, fuller forms in
pronouns and verb conjugation (see below) and a number of archaic post-
positions. The style of writing was modelled on the Middle Bengali of the
sixteenth century.
At the beginning of the twentieth century the influence of sadhu bhasha

started to wane. Writers felt that the gulf between the language they used
in writing and their own spoken language was too big. They changed over
to a simpler style of writing, the cylu BhXh calit bhasha colloquial language.
The calit bhasha was first seriously taken up by Pramatha Chaudhuri at
the suggestion of Rabindranath Tagore in around 1914–15. Tagore himself
changed over to calit bhasha in the course of writing his short stories and
novels. While calit bhasha was at first also a particular style of writing, it
paved the way for a closer link between written and spoken language. The
so-called Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), based on the educated speech
of Kolkata, gradually emerged from it.
Sadhu basha is not dealt with in this book but the differences in pronouns
and in verb-formation are given below.
Sadhu bhasha pronouns
nominative singular plural
1st ps ahym, mvi I `mhrh we

2nd ps familiar uvym you ùhmrh you
2nd ps intimate uvi you ùhrh you
2nd ps polite ahpyn you ahpnhrh you
3rd ps inanimate near iMh this iMhrh they
3rd ps inanimate far \Mh that \Mhrh they
3rd ps inanimate neutral uhMh that `sgvlh they
3rd ps animate `s he, she uhMhrh they
16 3rd ps honorific yuyn he, she u£hMhrh they
genitive singular plural Sadhu bhasha
1st ps ahmhr my ahmhyqfgr our

2nd ps familiar ùhmhr your ùhmhyqfgr your
2nd ps intimate ùhr your ùhyqfgr your
2nd ps polite ahpnhr your ahpnhyqfgr your
3rd ps near iMhr his/her iMhyqfgr their
3rd ps far \Mhr his/her \Mhyqfgr their
3rd ps neutral uhMhr his/her uhMhyqfgr their
3rd ps honorific u£hMhr his/her u£hMhyqfgr their
objective singular plural
1st ps ahmhfk me ahmhyqgfk us
2nd ps familiar ùhmhfk you ùhmhyqgfk you
2nd ps intimate ùhfk you ùhyqgfk you
2nd ps polite ahpnhfk you ahpnhyqgfk you
3rd ps ord near iMhfk him/her iMhyqgfk them
3rd ps ord far \Mhfk him/her \Mhyqgfk them
3rd ps ord neutral uhMhfk him/her uhMhyqgfk them
3rd ps honorific u£hMhfk him/her u£hMhyqgfk them
locative singular
1st ps ahmhw, in me
ahmhfu
2nd ps familiar ùhmhw, in you
ùhmhfu
2nd ps intimate ùhfu in you
2nd ps polite ahpnhfu in you
3rd ps ord near iMhfu in it/him/her
3rd ps ord far \Mhfu in it/him/her
3rd ps ord neutral uhMhfu in it/him/her
3rd ps honorific u£hMhfu in him/her
Sadhu bhasha verb conjugation
Here is a sample verb chart for the verb `lKh write
tenses ahym uvym uvi `s ahpyn, yuyn

simple present ylyK ylfKh ylyKs ylfK ylfKn
present continuous ylyKfuyC ylyKfuC ylyKfuyCs ylyKfufC ylyKfufCn
present perfect ylyKwhyC ylyKwhC ylyKwhyCs ylyKwhfC ylyKwhfCn 17
1 future tense ylyKb ylyKfb ylyKyb ylyKfb ylyKfbn
Introduction simple past ylyKlhm ylyKfl ylyKyl ylyKl ylyKfln
past continuous ylyKfuyClhm ylyKfuyCfl ylyKfuyCyl ylyKfuyCl ylyKfuyCfln
past perfect ylyKwhyClhm ylyKwhyCfl ylyKwhyCyl ylyKwhyCl ylyKwhyCfln
past habitual ylyKuhm ylyKfu ylyKyus ylyKu ylyKfun
verbal noun ba verbal imperfective perfective conditional

(VN) noun participle (IP) participle (PP) participle (CP)
ylKh ylKbh ylyKfu ylyKwh ylyKfl
and here are some lexical comparisons:
sadhu calit sadhu calit
pv« `Cfl boy béÇ ghC tree

qhn krh `qowh give lowh `nowh take
uú grm hot qLSn khmR bite
cÇv `chK eye ahgmn ahsh arrival
c~qî c£hq moon MÄ Mhu hand
cœ chkh wheel —yu yqfk towards
MLs M£hs goose, swan bjyufrfk ChRh except, without
sadhu calit
ahmhyqgfk qhn kyrwhfCn ahmhfqr yqfwfCn he gave us
To show what sadhu bhasha looks like in texts, here is the well-known
first passage of St John’s Gospel:
ahyqfu bhkj yCfln, ebL bhkj ISáfrr khfC yCfln, ebL bhkj ISár yCfln/ yuyn ahyqfu
ISáfrr khfC yCfln/ skli u£hMhr #hrh MiwhyCl, xhMh MiwhyCl, uhMhr ykCvi u£hMh bjyufrfk
Mw nhi/ u£hMhr mfQj zYbn yCl, ebL `si zYbn mnvXjgfNr `zjhyu yCl/ ahr `si `zjhyu
aíkhfrr mfQj qYyú yqfufC, ahr aíkhr uhMh gîMN kyrl nh/
ek zn mnvXj \pyñu Mifln, yuyn ISár Mifu MiwhyCfln, u£hMhr nhm `xhMn/ yuyn shfÇjr
znj ahyswhyCfln, `xn `si `zjhyur ybXfw shÇj `qn, `xn skfl u£hMhr #hrh ybSáhs kfr/
yuyn `si `zjhyu yCfln nh, yk≤ ahysfln, `xn `si `zjhyur ybXfw shÇj `qn/ —kéyu `zjhyu
yCfln, yxyn skl mnvXjfk qYyú `qn, yuyn zgfu ahysfuyCfln/ yuyn zgfu yCfln, ebL
zgJ u£hMhfk ycynl nh/ yuyn ynz ayQkhfr ahysfln, ahr xhMhrh u£hMhr ynfzr, uhMhrh gîMN
kyrl nh/
18
Chapter 2
Script and sound
2.1 The Bangla Alphabet (bNòmhlh)
Bangla is written in the Eastern Nagari script which is related to but dis
tinct from the Devanagari script used for Hindi, Nepali, Sanskrit and other
Indian languages. It is written from left to right, does not distinguish lower
and upper case letters, and is characterised by a distinctive horizontal line
running along the tops of the letters to link them together.
The crucial difference between the Bangla script and the Roman system
of writing is the way the letters are arranged with one another. While in
languages like English we have consonants and vowels following one
another as individual letters, the Bangla script is syllabic. This means that
each consonant has a vowel attached to it and the two together form a
syllabic unit. This also explains why Bangla vowels have two symbols each,
a full vowel which forms its own syllable and a vowel sign which is attached
to consonants. When no vowel is attached to a consonant, the first vowel
of the alphabet, the inherent vowel, steps in.
The Bangla script has eleven vowels, 39 consonants and a great number
of conjunct letters.
No transliteration is given in this grammar, but the symbols used in the

chart which follows represent the traditional Sanskritic transliteration except
that the inherent vowel is given as f, rather than a. The purpose of a transli
teration is to represent the spellings of a language. In this and subsequent
sections a phonetic transcript is used to show the sounds of Bangla. In
order to make the difference between the two systems clear the chart below
is reproduced (see p. 22) with both the transliteration and the phonetic
transcript given.
19
2
Alphabetical order of letters
Script and
sound
The arrangement of letters in the Bangla alphabet is remarkably systematic.
The vowels come before the consonants. The consonants are arranged as
follows: (1) plosives (stops) in the order (i) unvoiced, unaspirated (ii) unvoiced,
aspirated (iii) voiced, unaspirated (iv) voiced, aspirated; (2) nasals are added
at the end of the row of the stops they go with; (3) semivowels, flaps,
laterals, sibilants and aspirate.
a f ah, h a i, y i I, Y c
\, v u |, V e å, é v
e, f e E, ∏ oi o f con h o O, f con H ou
L p A o £ ~
k k K kh g g G gh W u
c c C ch z j Z jh õ ñ
t t T th d, R n, r D, ƒ nh, rh N q
u, J t U th q d Q dh n n
p p P ph b b B bh m m
x y w y r r l l
S w X s s s M h
and here are the numbers in Bangla
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 0 0
The names of the letters and some additional symbols, useful for spelling
words.
vowels
a a f
ah ah a h ah-khr a-kar
i Mî… i hrfsho i y Mî… i-khr hrfsho i-kar
I qYGò I dirgho i Y qYGò I-khr dirgho i-kar
\ Mî… \ hrfsho u v Mî… \-khr hrfsho u-kar
| qYGò | dirgho u V qYGò |-khr dirgho u-kar
å å ri é å-khr ri-kar
e e e f e-khr e-kar
E E oi ∏ E-khr oi-kar
o o o `h o-khr o-kar
20 O O ou `H O-khr ou-kar
consonants Spellings and
sounds
Most consonants are called by their sound with the inherent vowel follow
ing (kf, khf, gf) but some have descriptive names to distinguish them from
one another:
k kf, K khf, g gf, G ghf

W \£fwh lwo
c chf, C chhf, z bgòYw z borgiyo jf, Z jhf
õ i£fwh jyo
t tf, T tf, d nf, R rf, D nhf, ƒ rhf
N mVQònj N murdhonno qf
u q™j u dfnto tf, J K’ J khoqno tf, U thf, q df, Q dhf
n q™j n dfnto nf
p pf, P phf, b bf, B bhf, m mf
x a™Añ x fntfshtho jf
w a™Añ w fntfshtho f
r rf, l lf
S uhlbj S talobbo shf, X mVQònj X murdhonno shf, s q™j s dfnto shf, M hf
other symbols
L anv…r onushor î r-Plh rfphfla

A ybsgò bishfrgo ò `rP reph
£ c~qî-yb~qv cfndrobindu j x-Plh jfphfla
æ Ms™ hfshfnto
2.2 Spellings and sounds
This chart gives both the standard transliteration (TL) and the sounds of
the Bangla letters. A colon : indicates a long or closed pronunciation of
vowels.
f (an open o sound as in English hot) is given as the transliteration for

the inherent vowel and is also one of the two sounds it produces.
All sounds will be described on pp. 24–31.
21
22
sound
Script and
2
vowels
TL sound TL sound TL sound TL sound
a f f, o ah, h a a, a: i,y i i, i: I, Y c i, i:
\, v u u, u: |, V e u, u: å, é v ri
e, f e e, æ E, ∏ oi oi o, f con h o o O, f con H ou ou
consonants
TL sound TL sound TL sound TL sound TL sound
k k k K kh kh g g g G gh gh W u ng
c c c=7 C ch ch = 7 + h z j j Z jh jh õ ñ ñ
t t t T th th d, R n, r n, r D, ƒ nh, rh nh, rh N q n
u, J t t U th th q d d Q dh dh n n n
p p p P ph ph, f b b b B bh bh m m m
x y j w y y r r r l l l
S w sh X s sh s s sh, s M h h
Phonemes
2.3 Phonemes
The sounds of a language are classified not so much by the way they are
pronounced by individual speakers but by their significance within the
sound system of the language. Significant sounds are called phonemes. A
phoneme is the smallest unit of sound which makes a difference in mean
ing. In English the two different pronunciations of voiced th 2 in that and
unvoiced th 8 in think are mere alternatives to one another and do not
contrast with one another. These variations in sounds are called allophones.
The same distinction of voiced and unvoiced, however, makes a big
difference, for instance with b and p (bit – pit), g and k (git – kit), d and
t (din – tin) and so on. In order to identify the phonemes of a language we
find pairs of words which are identical except for one sound to see whether
that one sound makes a difference to the meaning of the word. This is
called minimal pair analysis.
Before we go into the details of individual sounds, here is an overview of how
and where in the mouth the sounds of Bangla are produced. The positioning
of consonants in the mouth also gives us a way to classify these sounds.
Bangla phonemes
vowels
front mid back
high i i, I u \, |
high mid ee o a, o
low mid æ e, jh fa
low a ah
stops (plosives) only – this is an extract from the following chart, arranged
according to the Bangla alphabet
unvoiced voiced
unaspirated aspirated unaspirated aspirated
velar k k kh K g g gh G
palatal c c ch C j z jh Z
cerebral t t th T n d nh D
dental t u th U d q dh Q
labial p p ph P b b bh B
23
2 consonants
Script and
sound
front of the mouth _____________ back of the mouth
labial dental retroflex palatal velar post-velar

(cerebral)
plosives (stops)
voiceless
unaspirated pp t u, J tt cc kk
aspirated ph P th U th T ch C kh K
voiced
unaspirated bb dq nd j z, x gg
aspirated bh B dh Q nh D jh Z gh G
nasals mm nn nN ñõ ng L W
flaps rr rR
lateral ll
spirants sh s sh X sh S hM
2.4 Sounds and phonemes
This section is about the sounds and phonemes of Bangla in the following
order:
1 single vowels (listed by their position in the mouth)

2 diphthongs and glides
3 nasals
4 consonants (listed in the groups in which they appear in the alphabet)
For Bengali vowel sounds there is no onetoone relationship between the

sounds and the letters that produce them so we will leave that discussion
for later and concentrate on the sounds for now. In all other sections the
letters are given together with the sounds.
(1) single vowels
Note on pronunciation: Unlike English vowels, Bangla vowels are pure

single sounds which can be open (short) as in pat, pet, pit, pot, put or
closed (long). For the long, closed sounds it is more difficult to find English
equivalents as English sounds tend to shift from one vowel to the other.
For instance, the vowel sound in go shifts from e to o to u. Bangla sounds
stay in one place. Examples are given below.
24
The phonetic transcript in this section represents the sound quality of Bangla Sounds and
vowels as follows: phonemes
[i] i as in bin i: as in seen

[e] e as in French chez æ as in bat
[a] a as in samba a: as in French malade
[f] as in pot
[o] as in French mot
[u] u as in put u: as in rude
Phonetic symbols are given in square brackets.
Bangla has six single vowel phonemes:
[i] a high front vowel which can be either short as in bin yk≤ [kintu]
or long as in seen yqn [di:n]
[i] can form minimal pairs with [e] yk [ki:] – `k [ke] or [a] yqn [di:n]
– qhn [dan] but the distinction between [i] and [i:] is purely distribu
tional in that most occurrences are short but monosyllabic words
take the long [i:] sound. [i] can appear at the beginning, in the
middle or at the end of words:
initial medial final

iyu [iti] end ycyT [cithi] letter uvym [tumi] you
[e] a midhigh front vowel which can be closed as in French chez
`k [ke] or open as in bat ek [æk]
[e] can form minimal pairs with [a] `cfp [cepe] – chfp [cape] but the
distinction between [e] and [æ] is distributional. This will be dis
cussed later. [e] can appear in all positions.

[æ] ekth [ækta] `mlh [mæla] x
[e] ekyt [ekti] `cnh [cena] `mfZ [mejhe]
[a] a low mid vowel which can be long as in French malade ahm [a:m]
or short as in samba bhqhm [badam]
[a] can form minimal pairs with [f] khl [kal] – kl [kfl]. The differ
ence between long and short [a] is distributional. Monosyllabic
words take long [a:] mhl [ma:l], twosyllable words take the short
vowel mhlh [mala]. [a] can appear in all positions.
25
2 initial medial final
Script and ahmhr [amar] Bhl [bhalo] mzh [mfja]
sound
[f] a midlow midback open vowel as in pot. blh [bfla], mn [mfn],
tk [tfk], this sound is represented by the inherent vowel in Bangla.
It forms minimal pairs with [a] khl [kal] – kl [kfl] and with [o]
mzh [mfja] – `mhzh [moja] and can occur in initial and medial
position.

a¶p [flpo] g¶p [gflpo] x
[o] a midhigh, closed, midback vowel as in French mot. Cyb [chobi],

`mht [mot], mQv [modhu]. This sound can be produced by either
the inherent vowel or by o [o]. It can form minimal pairs with [f]
`bhn [bon] – bn [bfn] and [u] `ghR [gor] – gvR [gur]. Can occur in all
positions.

ayu [oti] kyb [kobi] gu [gfto]
ozn [ojon] `bhn [bon] ahflh [alo]
[u] a high back vowel which can be pronounced either open as in

put mvy∆ [mukti] or closed as in food mvK [mu:kh]. It can contrast
with [o] uvlh [tula] – ùhlh [tola] and can appear in all postions. The
distinction between open [u] and closed [u:] is not phonemic but
distributional. This vowel can occur in all positions.

\nvn [unun] kvkvr [kukur] grß [goru]
\ynS [unish] SVnj shunno x
(2) diphthongs and glides
Diphthongs are combinations which shift from one vowel sound to another.
The minimal pair test is no longer required here as the individual vowel
phonemes have already been established. The following diphthongs and
vowelglide combinations appear in Bangla. There are four distinct ways of
writing these vowel combinations:
1 some have their own symbol: E [oi], O [ou]

26 2 full vowels follow the inherent vowel: bi [boi], b\ [bou], Mowh [hfoya]
3 a full vowel follows another vowel directly: ei [ei], `k\ [keu], qho Sounds and
[dao] phonemes
4 the glide w y is used to link two vowels: (more on w in syllable structure,
p. 40)
We are disregarding here the fact that some of these combinations prod
uce one syllable, others produce two. Syllable structure is discussed on
p. 40.
diphthong script sound

i-i yqi dii give-1-PR-S
i-e ynfw niye take-PP
i-a yœwh kriya work
i-o y—w prio dear
i-u i\frhp iurop Europe
e-i ei, `ni ei, nei this, is absent
e-e `mfw meye girl
e-a `Kwhl kheyal care
e-o `qowh deoya give-VN
e-u `k\ keu someone
æ-y `nw ney take-3-PR-S
a-i xhi jai go-1-PR-S
a-o qho dao give-2F-PR-IMP
a-u kh\fk kauke someone-OBJ
a-y Khw khay eat-3-PR-S
f-y Mw hfy be-3-PR-S
f-o Mo hfo be-2F-PR-IMP
o-i bi, letter E boi book
o-o `Sho shoo lie down-2F-PR-IMP
o-u b\, letter O bou wife
o-y `Qhw dhoy wash-3-PR-S
u-i qvi dui two
u-e Qvfw dhuye wash-PP
u-a cvwhy^S cuwalllish forty-four
u-o Svfwhr shuwor pig
(3) nasals
Nasalisation is a significant feature in Bangla. Although it is impossible to

produce minimal pairs for each vowel separately, all vowels in Bangla can
be nasalised and there are plenty of minimal pairs to be found. Nasalisation
as a whole is therefore a phonemic factor. [a] is by far the most common
vowel in Bangla to be nasalised. 27
2 Here are some examples for minimal pairs:
Script and
sound b£yt [bõti] curved knife btY [boti] pill
gh£ [gã] village gh [ga] body
k£hth [kãta] thorn khth [kata] to cut
b£hQh [bãdha] bind bhQh [badha] obstruction
ah£th [ãta] fix, stitch ahth [ara] flour
K£hRh [khãra] sword KhRh [khara] erect
k£hqh [kãda] weep khqh [kada] clay
k£hch [kãca] unripe, green khch [kaca] wash
and here are some nasalisations with each vowel:
j i£qvr [jdur] rat, ys£yR [shjri] stairs, yp£pRh [pjpra] ant, yM£cRhfnh [hjcrano]
drag
i `p£ch [pxca] twist, `p£whz [piyaj], ù£uvl [titul] tamarind,
`s£ufs£u [shxtshxt] damp
ã P£hyk [phãki] deception, M£hth [hãta] walk, s£huhr [shãtar] swimming,
q£hRhfnh [dãrano] stand
m p£chyS [pmcashi] eighty-five, g£q [gmd] gum, s£ph [shmpa] dedication
õ `C£hwh [chõya] touch, `K£hz [khõj] search, `Z£hk [jhõk] tendency,
`Q£hwh [dhõya] smoke
l Z£vyk [jhlki] risk, k£vkRh [klkra] curly, g£vRh [glra] powder
(4) consonants
Voice and aspiration are two distinctive features in Bangla consonants. In

English the two go together, which means that unvoiced consonants like
p, k, t are usually accompanied by aspiration, whereas voiced consonants
like b, g, d are not. In Bangla we distinguish:
1 unvoiced, unaspirated
2 unvoiced, aspirated
3 voiced, unaspirated
4 voiced, aspirated
The systematic layout of the alphabet reminds us of these distinctions.

What follows are the consonants with their phonemic features. For each
consonant the transliteration as well as the pronunciation is given.
The sounds are listed, with one or two exceptions, in the groups they form
in the alphabet. The columns give (1) the phoneme, (2) a description of
the sound, (3) the Bangla letter and (4) the transliteration. Occurrences of
28 these sounds are given from p. 36 onwards.
velar plosives Sounds and
phonemes
These sounds are similar to English.
1 2 3 4
k unvoiced, unaspirated velar, k as in meek, no k k
aspiration
kh unvoiced, aspirated velar, aspirated k as in king K kh
g voiced, unaspirated velar, g as in good, no g g
aspiration
gh voiced, aspirated velar, aspirated g: try: gfho G gh
ng velar nasals, ng as in singer or ngg as in finger W, L u
minimal pairs: k - K : khyl kali ink – Khyl khali empty, kbr kfbor grave –
Kbr khfbor news
g - G : gh ga body – Gh gha wound, `ghRh gora root, base –
`GhRh ghora horse
palatal plosives
These sounds are further forward in the mouth than ch and j in English.
1 2 3 4
c unvoiced, unaspirated, as in chap with little c c
aspiration
ch unvoiced, aspirated, as in chap with more C ch
aspiration
j voiced, unaspirated, as in jam z, x j
jh voiced, aspirated, aspirated j: try johol Z jh
ñ palatal nasal, nasal n õ ñ
minimal pairs: c - C : chph capa press – Chph chapa print, cvyr curi stealing –
Cvyr churi knife
z - Z : zhl jal net – Zhl jhal spicy, zrh jfra pickle – Zrh jhfra
shed
retroflex plosives
These sounds are not very different from English t and d but are produced
further back in the mouth.
The tongue is curled back and the underside of the tongue touches the
hard palate. This should produce a slightly hollow or echoey sound. 29
2 1 2 3 4
Script and t unvoiced, unaspirated retroflex t t
sound th unvoiced, aspirated retroflex T th
n voiced, unaspirated retroflex d n
r retroflex flap R r
nh voiced, aspirated retroflex, try: dohol D nh
rh aspirated, retroflex trilled flap ƒ rh
minimal pairs: t and T: ytk tik tick – yTk thik right, correct, pht pat jute –
phT path lesson
d and D : dhkh naka call – Dhkh nhaka cover, dhlh nala wicker-
tray – Dhlh nhala pour
R and r : pRh pfra fall – prh pfra wear, kRh kfra harsh –
krh kfra do
dental plosives
These are soft sounds, produced with the tongue at the back of the teeth,
much like Italian dental sounds.
1 2 3 4
t unvoiced, unaspirated dental u, J t
th unvoiced, aspirated dental U th
d voiced, unaspirated dental q d
dh voiced, aspirated dental Q dh
n dental nasal n n, N n
minimal pairs: u - U : uhmh tama copper – Uhmh thama stop, uhlh tala lock –
Uhlh thala plate
q - Q : qhn dan gift – Qhn dhan paddy, qSòn dfrshon seeing –
QXòN dhfrshon rape
bilabial plosives
These are similar to English sounds.

1 2 3 4
p unvoiced, unaspirated bilabial p p
ph unvoiced, aspirated bilabial, as in fun or German P ph
pfiff
b voiced, unaspirated bilabial b b
bh voiced, aspirated bilabial B bh
30 m bilabial nasal m m
minimal pairs: p - P : phth plank – Phth burst, `prhfnh cross – `Prhfnh cause to Vowels
return
b - B : bhr bar time – Bhr bhar weight, bhu bat rheumatism
– Bhu bhat rice
semivowel, flap, lateral, sibilants, aspirate
1 2 3 4
y semivowel y or w as in lawyer or lower w y
r dental flap r r r
l dental lateral l, as in luck, at the front of the mouth l l
sh sibilant sh, as in shine S, X, x w, s, s
h aspirate, h as in hot M h
minimal pairs: r and l : khr whose – khl time, rhgh get angry – lhgh
attach
2.5 Vowels
Each vowel in Bangla, except for the inherent vowel a f (see p. 36) has two
symbols, a full vowel which stands on its own at the beginning of words
and syllables, e.g. ahm am mango, Igl igol eagle, \kvn ukun louse, eth eta
this and a vowel sign which is attached to consonants within a syllable:
km kfm, mh ma mother, yk ki what, nYl ni:l blue, mvK mu:kh face, mVl mu:l root,
`mG megh cloud.
Vowel signs are attached to consonants in varying positions: after, before,
underneath or around the consonants. The resulting consonant–vowel
combination forms a syllabic unit. This means that even though the combina
tion within a syllable can be vowel sign plus consonant, e.g. y i + m m = ym,
the consonant is always pronounced first: mi.
Here is an overview, this time in the order of the alphabet. k (k) is the
consonant given in the demonstration. The last column gives the trans
literation of the vowels, not the pronunciation. The differences between
spelling and pronunciation are our topic here. The transliteration is given
in the chart only. The phonetic transcript is given throughout.
31
2
1 Vowel positions
Script and
sound full vowel pronounced position demo translit
vowel sign
a – f, o no vowel sign is k- k
(inherent) written
ah h a after the consonant kh ka
i y i, i: before the consonant yk ki
I Y i, i: after the consonant kY kc
\ v u, u: underneath the kv ku
consonant
| V u, u: underneath the kV ke
consonant
å é ri underneath the ké kv
consonant
e ` e, æ before the consonant `k ke
E ∏ oi before the consonant ∏k koi
o ` conh o around the consonant `kh ko
O ` con H ou around the consonant `kH kou
There are some mismatches between the written symbols and the sounds
of vowels.
Both ah a and o o have a onetoone relationship between sound and letter and
need no further comment here. The inherent vowel is discussed on p. 36ff.
2 E and O
Two of the symbols E and O actually represent diphthongs, not single vowels.
Both of these are historically derived from single vowels: E from i (yqn di:n
day – ∏qynk doinik daily, iyuMhs itihash history – EyuMhysk oitihashik historical)
and O from \ (sv~qr shundor beautiful – `sH~qxò soundorjo beauty, BVfghl bhugol
geography – `BHfghylk bhougolik geographical) but have taken on an exis
tence of their own.
E is pronounced oi and appears in words like ∏uyr toiri ready,
∏qynk doinik daily, ∏kyPwu koiphiyot explanation, ∏synk shoinik soldier,
Ekj oikko concord, EyuMhysk oitihashik historical, ∏Qxò dhoirjo patience.
O is pronounced ou and appears in `p£HCh põucha arrive, `qHR dour run,
`nHkh nouka boat, `mHmhyC moumachi bee, `sH~qxò soundorjo beauty, `rHqî roudro
32 sunshine, `BHfghylk bhougolik geographical, `pHfn poune three quarters.
Vowels
3å
The symbol å is pronounced as a consonant–vowel combination ri, not as

a single vowel. This letter belongs to the Sanskrit inventory of the Bangla
alphabet. It is listed with the vowels because it has two symbols like
the other vowels but its pronunciation is always ri. This means that its
pronunciation is the same as that of yr and rY. It is useful to know that
spellings with å are fixed. Foreign words such as yœfkt kriket cricket,
yKîãthn khrishtan Christian, ifly⁄tîk ilektrik electric are never spelt with å.
There are only three common words with å as their first letter: åuv ritu
season, åN rin debt and åyX rishi saint, but of course there are plenty of
occurrences midword where é is attached to consonants. Here are some
of the more common words with å in them. The transcript of å is given
as ri in this list only for ease of pronunciation.
képh kripa mercy, kéyX krishi agriculture, kéXk krishok farmer, —kéyu prokriti
nature, sLãkéu shongskrit Sanskrit, képN kripon miserly, kéu“ kritoggo gratitude,
kéy«m kritrim artificial, ké” krishno Krishna, géM griho house, home, géyMnY grihini
housewife, uéú tripto satisfied, uéuYw tritiyo third, qéSj drissho sight, qéy§ drishti
view, qé§h™ drishtanto example, aqéSj fdrissho invisible, qéƒ drirho durable,
qéú dripto proud, vain, péUk prithok separate, péyUbY prithibi world, pé©Th prishta
page, béÇ brikkho tree, béº briddho old, bé≠ britto circle, ahbéy≠ abritti recital,
béy§ brishti rain, béMãpyubhr brihoshpotibar Thursday, béMJ brihot big, méu mrito
dead, méuvj mrittu death, méqv mridu soft, SéóKl sringkhol chain, fetters, SéóKlh
sringkhola discipline, SéÃhr sringgar eroticism, ãméyu sriti memory.
Neither å nor E or O is ever nasalised.
4 i, I, \, |
Short i i (Mî… i) and long i I (qYGò I), short u \ (Mî… \) and long u | (qYGò |)
are the traditional names for these vowels and the transliteration symbols
are i = i, I = c, \ = u, | = e. These distinctions have not survived in the
pronunciation of these letters.
i can be pronounced long yqn di:n or short ykCv kichu

I can be pronounced long nYl ni:l or short qYGò dirgho
\ can be pronounced long mvK mu:kh or short mvy∆ mukti
| can be pronounced long qVr du:r or short mVlj mullo
33
2 i and \ are much more frequent than their ‘long’ counterparts in writing
Script and but the differences in spelling remain and determine the meanings of words.
sound Here are some minimal pairs:
i and I : ybnh bina without – bYNh bina musical instrument, vina

bhys bashi left-over – bhsY bashi inhabitant
yqn di:n day – qYn di:n poor
ynyu niti always – nYyu niti rule, principle
\ and | : qvr du:r bad – qVr du:r distance
kvl ku:l family – kVl ku:l riverbank
svu shu:t son – sVu shu:t carpenter
pvu pu:t son – pVu pu:t holy
5e
We have the opposite situation with e – one symbol for two sounds: e
and æ. As we have seen in the phoneme section, these two sounds do not
stand in phonemic contrast to one another but are determined by their
environment, so having one letter for both of them should not cause any
problems.
Predicting the pronunciation is a little trickier. Here is what we can say

with certainty:
(i) In verbs with e in which vowel mutation does not result in a differ
ence in spelling:
`qKh - `qyK, `Plh - `Pyl, `Klh - `Kyl, `Tkh - `Tyk the low stem forms
are pronounced æ:
`qKh dækha see, ahym `qyK dekhi, uvym `qK dækho, `s `qfK dækhe
`Plh phæla throw, ahym `Pyl pheli, uvym `Pl phælo, `s `Pfl phæle
`Klh khæla play, ahym `Kyl kheli, uvym `Kl khælo, `s `Kfl khæle
`Tkh thæka touch, ahym `Tyk theki, uvym `Tk thæko, `s `Tfk thæke
`Tlh thæla pull, ahym `Tyl theli, uvym `Tl thælo, `s `Tfl thæke
Other verbs whose verbal nouns look identical in writing, such as

`lKh , `SKh , `knh , `cnh have their vowel mutation between e and i , so the
verbal nouns and other low stem forms are pronounced `lKh lekha
read, `SKh shekha learn, `knh kena buy, `cnh cena know.
(ii) Only e appears in unstressed syllables or at the end of words with

34 more than one syllable:
`Cfl chele boy, `mfZ mejhe floor, yzfr jire cummin, yMfsb hisheb Vowels
account, ufb tfbe but
(iii) Any i i or \ u either in the syllable before or after e results in an e pro
nunciation. This has to do with vowel harmony and will be discussed
in more detail on p. 54ff.
Thus we have `qyr deri late, ù£uvl titul tamarind,

ek æk one and ekth ækta one but ekyt ekti one
and ektv ektu a little
emn æmon such but emyn emni just like that
ùmn tæmon such but ùmyn temoni just like that
eKn ækhon now but eKyn ekhoni right now
ekcy^S ækcollish forty-one, ekhê ækanno, fifty-one
ekXyÑ ækshotti sixty-one, ekh≠r ækattor seventy-one
ekhyS ækashi eighty-one, ekhnûbi ækanobboi
ninety-one
but ekvS ekush twenty-one and eky«S ektrish
thirty-one
Another complication exists in the fact that the sound æ can also be pro
duced in three other ways: by a jophola on its own: bjÄ bæsto, by a jophola
with following a-kar: bjhphr bæpar and, after “ by a-kar on its own: “hn gæn.
The jophola will be dealt with on p. 52, but here, in addition to the ones
mentioned above, are some common words with e and their respective
pronunciations:
pronounced æ:
ekh æka alone, ekqm ækdom totally, efkbhfr ækebare totally, eklh ækla alone,
`xmn jæmon how, `kmn kæmon how, `kn kæno why, `knnh kænona because,
eu æto so much, `xn jæno so that, `blh bæla hour, `mlh mæla plenty, `zTh
jætha uncle, eghr ægaro eleven, `bRh bæra fence, eRhfnh ærano avoid, `bRhfnh
bærano go out, `gl gælo past, `nLth nængta naked
pronounced e:
`k ke who, `s she he, she, it `kbl kebol only, ekhyQk ekadhik a few, eth eta
this, ebL ebfng and, eKhfn ekhane here, `Cfl chele boy, `bkhr bekar un-
employed, `qR der one and a half, `nuh neta leader, ekuh ekota unity, elhkh
elaka area, `Ç«, `Ku khetro, khet field, `zlh jela district, `tr ter feeling, `Prh
phera return, ùz tej glow, ùl tel oil, `qS desh country, `pt pet stomach,
`pfrk perek nail, `cMhrh cehara face, `pSh pesha profession, `rSm reshom silk,
`lp lep quilt, `srh shera best, `sbh sheba care, `SX shesh end, `cfw ceye than. 35
2
6 Occurrence of vowels
Script and
sound initial medial final
a a™r fntor inside acl fcfl unmoving ku kfto how much
ah ahm am mango bhqhm badam nut mhlh mala necklace
i iyÃu inggit sign ydm ni:m egg chyb cabi key
I ISár isshor god nYl ni:l blue nqY nodi river
\ \nvn unun oven cvlh cula oven bhlv balu sand
| |rß uru thigh mVlj mullo value —sV prosu producing
å åuv ritu season béy§ brishti rain Qhué dhatri given
e emn æmon such `slhi shelai sewing `mfZ mejhe floor
E EyMk oihik worldly ∏uyr toiri ready —
o ozn ojon weight `Cht choto small `nHfkh nouko boat
O Oycuj oucitto decorum `pHfn poune three quarters —
2.6 The inherent vowel
The inherent vowel poses two separate puzzles to the foreign learner: first,
that of its presence or absence, and second, its pronunciation. There are
few hardandfast rules for either but there are some patterns which can
help us to develop some intuition. The transcription given in this section
is phonetic, which means it gives the pronunciation, not the spelling of the
Bangla words. Translations are not given.
(1) Presence or absence of the inherent vowel
(a) We can generally assume that the inherent vowel is pronounced between
consonants that have no other vowel attached to them: grm = g+r+m
= gfrom, `kbl = k+e+b+l = kebol, blh = b+l+ah = bola, etc.
There are, however, some words where two consonants stand next to one
another without forming a conjunct and without the inherent vowel between
them, e.g. chkyr cakri, ahzfk ajke, shmfn shamne, chpkhn capkan, ahtkhfnh atkano,
lhgsi lagsoi, and in conjugated verb forms krb korbo, bsfln boshlen, etc.
These words contain distinct and separate morphological units which resist
the forming of conjuncts.
(b) We have three sure indicators that the inherent vowel is not
36 pronounced:
1 L anv…r onushor never has a vowel after it: brL bfrong, svurhL shutorang, The inherent
ykLbh kingba, mYmhLsh mimangsha, sLbhq shfngbad vowel
2 J : K’ u khfqno tf which appears at the end of words and syllables
and stops the inherent vowel from being pronounced: pŸchJ pfshcat,
aUòhJ frthat, MThJ hfthat, \Jsb utshob
3 æ Ms™ hasanta. This symbol is optionally attached underneath con
sonants where the inherent vowel might otherwise be pronounced.
It is not frequently used: Msæyc– hoshcinho, \qæBîh™ udbhranto, `Skæsæypwhr
shekspiyar = Shakespeare
(c) The inherent vowel is normally not pronounced at the end of words
after single consonants. Here are some examples of one, two and
threesyllable words:
dhk nak, nK nfkh, xvg jug, `mG megh, rL rfng, khc kac, mhC mach,
khz kaj, mhZ majh, `mht mot, mhT math, `qR der, Bhu bhat, pU pfth,
Chq chad, qvQ dudh, yqn din, `Zhp jhop, lhP laph, Kvb khub, lhB labh,
`—m prem, Gr ghfr, lhl lal, qS dfsh, `SX shesh, mhs mash, `ghlhp
golap, ybRhl biral, `p£whz peyaj, a™r fntor, kvRhl kural, ybSîhm bisram,
kvkvr kukur, Chgl chagol, anvBb onubhfb, —yufrhQ protirodh,
Qnjbhq dhfnnobad, mÃlbhr mfnggolbar, etc.
The inherent vowel is pronounced:
(d) when a word ends in a conjunct: pxò™ porjonto, kmò kfrmo, …pä shfpno,
Sh™ shanto, r∆ rfkto, g¶p gflpo, ph« patro, kôp kfmpo, yr∆ rikto
The only regular exceptions to this are foreign words like ewhrfphtò
eyarport, phkò park, kjhf~thnæfm~t kantonment, yrfphtò riport, pjh~t pænt lhnæc lanch.
(e) after a final M :
`qM deho, `säM , sneho, ysLM shingho, sf~qM shfndeho, —qhM prodaho,
sM shfho, qM dfho
(f) after ƒ (rh):
ghƒ garho qéƒ drirho mVƒ murho `—Hƒ prourho but ahXhƒ asharh
(g) after w preceded by i, u or e:
y—w priyo, zhuYw jatiyo, —fwhznYw proyojoniyo, ybfQw bidheyo,

ahfgäw agneyo
(h) when the final consonant is preceded by a combination with å v (ri)
béX bvisho, még mvigo Géu ghvito, méu mvito 37

2 (i) when the final consonant is preceded by L or A
Script and
qvAK dukho, ysLM shingho, mhLs mangsho
sound
(j) in noun or verbderived adjectives or adverbs ending in u
ylyKu likhito, ahMu ahfto, ybbhyMu bibahito, ynyŸcu niscito, pyuu pftito,
zYybu jibito, ycy™u cintito, ahqéu adrito, s®bu sfmbhfbfto, nu nfto,
ybfSXu bisheshfto, yñu sthito
(k) in the following very common adjectives, quantifiers, conjunctions and
question words (this list is not exhaustive):
`Cht choto, bR bfro, Bhl bhalo, gu gfto, ku kfto, eu æto, uu tfto,

`xn jæno, aUc fthoco, `kn kæno
both mu and khl have double interpretations:
mu mfto is a postposition meaning like

mu mft is a noun meaning opinion
khl kalo is an adjective meaning black
khl kal is a noun meaning time, season
(l) in comparative and superlative adjective forms
y—wum priyotfmo, qîßuur drutotfro, sMzur shfhojjotfro,

gvrßur gurutfro
(m) in the following verb forms (this applies to all verbs)
1st person future tense:
e.g. xhb jabo, `qb debo, krb korbo, ylKb likhbo,

Uhkb thakbo, etc.
2nd person (fam) simple present, present continuous, present
perfect:
e.g. kr kfro, `lK lekho, `Pl phælo, Uhk thako, krC korcho, kfrC
korecho, `KlC khelcho, `KflC khelecho, xhÉC jaccho, yg`wC giyecho,
`gC gecho, etc.
3rd person (ord) simple past, past continuous, past perfect, past
habitual:
e.g. yCl chilo, `gl gælo, yql dilo, KhyÉCl khacchilo, nhmyCl namchilo,
kfryCl korechilo, BhlfbfsyCl bhalobeshechilo, blu bolto,
38 Bhbu bhabto
The inherent
(2) Pronunciation
vowel
The pronunciation of the inherent vowel fluctuates between open f and
closed o.1
Here are some of the regular patterns:
(a) In words of two syllables with two inherent vowels the first inherent
vowel is pronounced f, the second o.
Kbr khfbor news SMr shfhor town

grm gfrom hot skl shfkol all
a™r fntor inside klm kflom pen
Bbn bhfbon residence mu mfto like
gu gfto last nrk nfrok hell
…gò shfrgo heaven nrm nfrom soft
uKn tfkhon then zÃl jfnggol jungle
Qmk dhfmok rebuff qKl dfkhol skill, knowledge
srl shfrol honest q’ dfqno rod, pole
The inherent vowel is pronounced as closed o:
(b) in all the above instances (d to m) when the inherent vowel is the final
sound in a word.
(c) when the following syllable contains an i or a u:
kyb kobi, Cyb chobi, —Bv probhu, By∆ bhokti, gyl goli, QnY dhoni,
srß shoru, mQv modhu, bív bondhu, kyTn kothin, Synbhr shonibar,
rybbhr robibar
This also affects the following prefixes:
—yu- proti-, ayu- oti-, anv - onu-, ayB- obhi-, pyr- pori-
Note however that the negative prefixes a- and an- are pronounced
f, irrespective of what follows them: aynwm f-niyom, aynyŸcu f-niscito,
aynÉCh fn-iccha, anvpxv∆ fn-upojukto, anvpyñu fn-uposthit
(d) when preceded by a conjunct with r r
—- pro, pyrSî∞m porisrom, Mî∞… hrossho, ahgî∞M agroho, agîgyu fgrogoti,

mìNh mfntrona
1 Bengali scholars are still debating whether the closed pronunciation of the inherent
vowel is in fact identical to that of o o or whether the sound falls somewhere between
f and o. If it turns out that there are three distinct sounds we will need another symbol
ô for the closed pronunciation of the inherent vowel. 39
2 (e) when followed by Ç
Script and
lÇ lokkho, lÇj lokkho, myÇkh mokkhika, bÇ bokkho, qÇ dokkho,
sound
pfÇ pokkhe
(f) when followed by a conjunct with j jophola
bnjh bonna, suj shotto, abSj fbossho, rMsj rfhossho, Ssj shossho,
rmj rommo
We see from these examples that the pronunciation of the inherent vowel
depends on the environment it occurs in. The distinction between f and o
(as in o and o-kar), however, is phonemic:
mzh fun `mhzh sock

nlh tubular bone `nhlh tongue
zár fever `zhr strength, power
ql group `qhl swing
qS ten `qhX fault
ct quickness `cht stroke, blow
2.7 Syllable structure
Note that the word aÇr is and should be used to denote syllable rather
than letter. Since Bangla is a syllabic language, the syllable should be seen
as the base unit in words.
A vowel can form a syllable on its own but every consonant has to be
accompanied by a vowel except at the end of words where the inherent
vowel is usually not pronounced.
Single syllables can have the following structures:
v = vowel, c = consonant, y = w (semivowel, glide)
v ii
vc oT oth
vy ahw ay
cv bh ba
cvc khn kan
cvy chw cay
ccv Bîß bhru
cccv ã«Y stri
40 ccvc —hN praq
For foreign words cvcc is also possible as in ewhr`phtò with no following Syllable
inherent vowel. structure
In words which end in a conjunct the inherent vowel is pronounced at

the end:
k§, —h™, a™, —hú, aLS, \Js, anj, \Jpê, S∆, bí, q’, k÷
Linking syllables:
Conjuncts in the middle of words are a convenient way of linking one

syllable to the next.
r∆ rfk-to, Sh™ shan-to, ymy§ mish-ti, zÃl jfn-gol, Th’h thaq-na

A single consonant in the middle of a word counts as the start of a new
syllable, e.g.
g-rm gf-rom, Uhmh tha-ma, `b-yS be-shi, ah-gvn a-gun, mhUh ma-tha
When two vowels follow one another directly there are two options.
1 The second vowel will constitute a new syllable and be written as a full
vowel, e.g. qh-o da-o, `k-\ ke-u, qv-i du-i, yn-\ ni-u
What about words like Mo or bi? They remind us that a consonant with
no visible vowel sign attached to it automatically takes the inherent
vowel. These words therefore have two syllables and are pronounced
Mo hf-o and bi bo-i.
2 The symbol w y which is derived from x and called a™Añ w ontostho f
is used between vowels as a glide or semivowel. Sound combinations
with this symbol were included in the diphthong section earlier, as there
is no difference in pronunciation between, for instance, yqo di-o and yqfwh
di-yo, the future imperative form of `qowh give, which can be written
either way.
The vowel following the glide is always a vowel sign. We can have either:
(a) vowel sign, glide, vowel sign: yqfw di-ye, Mfw ho-ye, Svfw shu-ye,
`Kfw khe-ye
or (b) full vowel, glide, vowel sign: ahfwh a-yo, efwh e-yo, `qowh de-o-ya,
Khifw kha-i-ye
The last two are threesyllable words.
41
2 w has two different pronunciations, based on ease of pronunciation. In all
Script and the following examples it is pronounced like the English y in layer:
sound
yqfw di-ye, ySwhl shi-yal, yqfwh di-yo, `mfw me-ye, `Kwhl khe-yal, `xfwh je-yo,
bjhwhm bæ-yam, ñhwY stha-yi, ghfw ga-ye, mhwh ma-ya, ahwu a-yf-to, ahwv a-yu,
ahfwhzn a-yo-jon Mfw ho-ye, Qvfw dhu-ye
Between o and a, u and a, u and o it is pronounced like the English w in
lower:
Khowh kha-o-ya (khaowa), `qowh de-o-ya (deowa), zvwh ju-ya (juwa),

In a word like Svfwhr the pronunciation of w is practically nonexistent:
shu-yor (shuor)
w also occurs at the end of words following a vowel but without another
vowel following. In these cases it forms a diphthong with the previous
vowel and is pronounced more like e:
\phw upay = upae, `nw næy = næe, Mw hfy = hoe, `Shw shoy = shoe
w never appears at the beginning of a word.
Bangla words of more than four or five syllables are likely to be com
pounded of smaller units and contain pre or suffixes or reduplications.
Here are some examples of longer words:
pvóKhnvpvóK pung-kha-nu-pung-kho minutely

pvnrß°Yybu pu-no-ruj-ji-bi-to revived
yñyuñhpkuh sthi-ti-stha-pf-ko-ta elasticity
apyrbuònYwuh f-po-ri-bor-to-ni-yo-ta constancy
anyQkhrccòh fn-o-dhi-kar-cfr-ca unlawful interference
\≠r-Opyn`bSbhq ut-tor-ou-po-ni-be-sho-bad post-colonialism
2.8 Consonants – use and occurrence
Many Bangla consonants can occur at the beginning, in the middle and at
the end of words, but some are restricted in their use. A consonant in ‘final’
position means that it has no inherent vowel pronounced after it. The use
of most consonants is straightforward and each letter has one sound. The
exceptions to this are explained in the notes below. The consonants are
given in alphabetical order.
42
initial medial final Consonants
– use and
k khz, klh, ykCv ahkhS, phkh, \ykl dhk, \Jsvk, ycbvk
occurrence
K yKl, Kbr, Khbhr eKn, `lKh, ShKh asvK, nK, `chK
g ghC, glh, gvrß ngr, ahgvn, bhghn qhg, Bhg, `bg, xvg
G Gr, Gvm, GvyR, `GhRh ahGhu, qYGò, bjhGhu `mG, bhG, afmhG
W, L (1) — ahWvr, `BfW, ryWn rL, bjhL
c chl, `chK, ycyT ahchr, ybchr, pyrcw k£hc, nhc, chmc
C Cyb, ChRh, `Cfl pC~q, ypCfn, bCr mhC, ghC, khC
z zl, zhMhz, zym mzvr, ozn, Mhzhr khz, `mzhz, `rhz
Z `Zhp, Z£vyk, ZR `bhZh, mhyZ, afZhr mhZ, abvZ
õ (2) occurs only in conjuncts
t tvl, thn, ytwh ahth, kwth, `Cht Ght, it, cht
T Tkh, yTkhnh, `T£ht ahTh, kyTn, \Thn khT, mhT, phT
d dhl, dhk, ydm Bh’hr, K’, khdò
R — ahRhi, nhyR, gRh ZR, `qR, KR
D Dhkh, Dhlh, yDl afDl —
ƒ (3) — ghƒ, mVƒ ahXhƒ
N (4) — QhrNh, arNj, `—rNh khrN, —hN, qhrßN
u yun, uvym, uKn Khuh, mu, auvl Bhu, rhu, uPhu
J (5) — \Jsb, \Jpy≠ MThJ, BybXjJ, aUòhJ
U Uyl, Uhmh, Uvuyn kUh, pyUk, —Um pU, rU,
q qi, qhm, yqn ahqh, nqY, chqr Chq, ahfmhq, yzq
Q QnY, Qhn, Qvyl y#Qh, —Qhn, ghQh khQ, ynfXQ, qvQ
n nhm, nVpvr ahnh, khnh, \nvn ghn, yqn, mn
p ypT, phrh, pvuvl ahph, nvpvr, kphl yCp, `Zhp, kvp
P Pl, `Pr, `Plh uPhJ, sPl brP, lhP
b bhu, bCr, ybz ahbhr, ybfbk, zbhb dhb, Kvb, aBhb
B Bhg, BVu, Bvl, yBy≠ gBYr, ayBmhn, asBj `lhB, lhB, `sHrB
m mhl, `mG, mvK ahfmhq, ynfmX, ahmhr qhm, grm, `—m
x (6) `x, `xhg, xmk axUh, shMxj, anvxhwY
w (7) — `cfw, ytwh, `qowh \phw, `nw, Khw
r rßyc, rs, rYyu, `rhg crm, pvrßX, qhrßN amr, khr, SMr, Gr
l lhgh, `lKh, ylyp mhlh, `gfl, zvlvm kl, qlYl, lhl
S (8) Skvn, Syn, Sûq, SYu ahSh, `phShk, `mSh ahkhS, ybS, MuhS
X (9) Xht, `Xhl, X£hR `phXh, ynfXQ mhnvX, pvrvX, ybX
s (10) sYmh, shqh, `shnh asvK, mhsY, ahsh bws, shMs, bhuhs
M MThJ, Mzm, Mhu `cMhrh, `qM, \pMhr —
1 W: This letter is called \£fwh lwo and is pronounced ng as in singer when

it is followed by a consonant. Between vowels its pronunciation can be
ng or ngg as in finger. Pronunciation varies from area to area. It has an
allophone L anv…r onushor which is used at the end of syllables only. 43
2 L cannot precede a vowel. Neither of the two letters ever occurs at the
Script and beginning of a word. Common words with W and L are:
sound
W: bhWhyl bangali Bengali, ahWvl angul finger, ahWvr angur grape,
ySWhRh shingara pasty, ydyW ningi boat, BhWh bhanga broken, ryWn rongin
coloured, `GWhyn ghengani whimper
or bhWhyl banggali Bengali, ahWvl anggul finger, ahWvr anggur grape,
ySWhRh shinggara pasty, ydyW ninggi boat, BhWh bhangga broken,
ryWn ronggin coloured, `GWhyn ghenggani whimper
L : bhLlh bangla Bangla, sLshr shfngshar world, ebL ebfng and,
brL bfrong rather, svurhL shutorang therefore, aLS fngsho part,
mhLs mangsho meat, ysLM shingho lion, ahLyt angti ring, ycLyR cingri
prawn
2 õ: This letter is called i£fwh jyo and occurs only in conjuncts. Its descrip
tion is given as a nasalised nasal and in some ways in can be considered
as an allophone of the chondrobindu £. We see this in Bangla numbers.
All the numbers five have a chondrobindu except the ones which have
n (pfnr) or a conjunct with õ (pÅhS). Conjuncts with õ are given on
p. 48.
3 ƒ rh: this letter is extremely rare. Worth remembering are —ghƒ profound,
ghƒ deep-coloured, qéƒ firm, mvƒ foolish, `—Hƒ middle-aged. All of these have
the inherent vowel pronounced at the end. The only exception to this
is ahXhƒ asharh third Bengali month.
4 N murdhonno n (mVQònj n): the pronunciation of this letter is the same as
that of n n. N is used in Sanskrit words only.
N is used directly after r, Ç or X, but any intervening letters

turn N into n. This explains N in QhrNh idea and `—rNh inspiration
but rcnh composition and —hUònh prayer.
N comes after ò reph in Sanskrit words: kNò ear, bNò letter, cVNò powder,
pVyNòmh full moon, kYNò scattered, …Nò gold.
N forms conjuncts with t, T, d: G∂th hour, Th’h cold, —kh’ huge,
k∂tk thorn, k÷h throat, q’ staff, g’ cheek, g’k rhinoceros,
b∂tn distribution.
In foreign words n rather than N is used with t and d: pjh~t trousers, `Pî~d
friend, efz~t agent.
N comes after the prefixes pyr-, — and ynr-: pyrNw marriage,

pyrNu ripe, pyrbMN transport, —Nhm deference, —mhN proof, —Nw love,
—NwN arrangement, —yNwm regulation, ynNòw discernment.
44 N never appears as the first letter of a word.
after r: \qhMrN example, SîbN hearing, gîMN acceptance, Consonants
bhrN resistance, qhrßN very, arNj wood, forest, – use and
urßN, young, fresh, mrN death, ãmrN memory, zhgrN occurrence
wakefulness, géyMNY housewife, MyrN deer, —hN life,
«hN rescue, ynmìN invitation, xìNh torture, ybbrN description,
bjhkrN grammar, \ÉchrN pronunciation, khrN reason
after X: qVXN pollution, BhXN speech, BYXN extremely,
`phXN upbringing, cVXN sucking, ybfSXN adjective,
BVXN ornament, ybfS†XN analysis
after Ç: ÇN moment, lÇN sign, mark, lÇNYw noticeable,
rÇN protection, ÇYN thin
5 J khfqno t (K’ u): is pronounced the same as u and is a variation of u.
J is only used at the end of words or syllables when no inherent vowel
is pronounced. As soon as a word ending in J takes on a case ending,
J reverts to u. For example:
BybXjJ future – ByXjfur ybqvjJ electricity – ybqvjfur
pŸchJ west – pŸchfu shÇhJ interview – shÇhfu
Some more common words with J:
aUòhJ namely, zgJ world, ycJkhr shouting, xhbJ until, mJsj fish,
SrJ early autumn
with \J : \Jsb ceremony, \Jsgò dedication, \Jpy≠ origin, \Jpê
produced, \Jphqn creation, \JshM enthusiasm, \Jsvk eager
with uJ : uJÇNhJ at once, uJpr afterwards, uJsfµo in spite of that,
uhJpxò significance
There are, however, quite a few words, notably \ycu ought and uPhu
difference, which do not take J in final position.
6 x a™Añ x fntfshtho jf: This letter sounds exactly like z j but its use is
quite different. It occurs in final position only in conjuncts (shMhxj help,
∏Qxò patience). Both the following letter w and the jophola j are derived
from this letter but for learners it is easier to treat these three separately.
In all relative pronouns and conjunctions x is the first letter:
`x what, xh what, xhr whose, xKn when, `xmn as, xyq if, xu how much
Other common words are: xÕ care, xì instrument, tool xhowh go,
xvy∆ reason, xvg era, age, xvº war, `xhg link, union, `xhgj fit, suitable
7 w a™Añ w fntfshtho f: This is a glide or semivowel and is used to link
vowels. Its use is given on p. 41 under syllable structure. 45
2 8–10 S uhlbj S talobbo shf, x mVQònj X murdhonno shf, s q™j s dfnto shf:
Script and
All these three sibilants are pronounced sh as in shine when they occur
sound
alone, and spellings need to be learnt. The pronunciation of s changes
to s as in sun in conjuncts (see p. 50). s is the most common of the three
and X is rare at the beginning of words. Here are some common words.
S: `qS country, KvyS happy, Shy™ peace, SrYr body, Sûq word,
ahSh hope, `byS much, pSv animal, qS ten
X: pvrßX man, mhnvX person ybX poison, ybfSX special, BhXh language,
`SX end, `qhX fault, ynfXQ forbidden
s: sb everything, mhs month, súhM week, ahsh come, shrh all,
ahsl real, sv~qr beautiful, skhl morning
Despite the identical pronunciation of these letters, they constitute distinct
features of the language. Here are some minimal pairs:
s - S: sb everything – Sb dead body, ahsh come – ahSh hope,

shp snake – Shp curse
S - X: ybS twenty – ybX poison, kSh whip, lash – kXh tight
s - X: Bhsh float – BhXh language, `ms canteen – `mX sheep,
mhs month – mhX kind of lentil, chs you want –
chX cultivation
2.9 Conjuncts
When two or more consonants combine without a vowel between them

they form a consonant cluster which in writing is represented by a conjunct
letter xv∆hÇr. Altogether there are about two hundred and fifty of these.
Some of them are immediately recognisable. For instance:
Œ = k + k, ê = n + n, ^ = l + l, ú = p + u;
but there are quite a few conjuncts which look considerably different from
their individual components.
The use of these conjuncts is currently under debate and some writers and
publishers (including the 2003 edition of the Samsad Dictionary) have
changed to more recognisable representations of consonant clusters; for
instance the combination for k + u (∆) is now given as ⁄u, the combina
tion for W + g (Ã) as óg. These combinations may soon become the norm
but for learners of Bangla it remains important to recognise the traditional
46 (and more elegant) conjuncts.
There are some consistent patterns: Conjuncts
When r r occurs as the first letter of a consonant cluster, it is written

as ò (reph) above the letter it precedes:
kò = r + k, Kò = r + K, gò = r + g and so on
When r occurs as the second letter of a consonant cluster, it is written as
î (rophola) underneath the letter it follows, but there are some special
symbols:
qî = q + r, gî = g + r, — = p + r, bî = b + r but œ = k + r, « = u + r
When x follows another consonant it is written as j (jophola) after that
consonant:
kj = k + x, Kj = K + x, gj = g + x and so on. A separate section on

the jophola is given on p. 52.
Conjuncting does not occur automatically. When dealing with morpho
logically distinct units such as prefixes or verb endings, the consonants
remain separate, e.g. qr-khr, qr-KhÄ, tvk-frh, Mhs-fu, bl-lhm should not be
written as *qkòhr, etc.
A comprehensive list of Bangla conjuncts is given in bhLlh bhnhfnr ynwm by

Mahabubul Haq and in William Radice’s Teach Yourself Bengali (p. 282ff),
so there is no need to replicate it here.
Apart from consonant clusters there are also some separate symbols for
consonant + u combinations. These and a considered selection of conjuncts
are listed below, with examples. I have also included three letter conjuncts
in this list. Only a limited number of conjuncts occur at the beginning of
words.
conjunct components pronunciation initial medial or final
with k
∆ k +u kt — xv∆hÇr, r∆, Snh∆,
uj∆
œ k+r kr œm, œhy™, yœwh, Svœbhr, ahœmN,
`œhQ cœ, uœ
k† k+l kl k†h™, yk†§, k†Yb, `k†S Svk†h, ayk†§
Ç k+X initial kh ÇN, Çyu, Çmh, Çvqî, lÇ, aÇr, afpÇh,
medial kkh `Ç« prYÇh
ÇÖ k+X+m kkh — lÇÖY, pÇÖ
⁄ü k+s ksh — bh⁄ü, m⁄ü
47
2
Script and
sound
with g
gÜ g+Q gdh — mvgÜ, ysägÜ, qgÜ
gî g+r gr gîhm, gîhs, gîY©m ahgîM, \gî
with W ng
¬ W+k nk — a¬, l¬h, S¬r, Mv¬hr
Ã W+g ngg — sfÃ, \lÃ, ryÃn
with c
Éc c+c tsh — bhÉch, \ÉchrN,
ÉC c+C tssh — iÉCh, kÉCp, ybyÉCê
all present and past continuous verb forms of verbs whose stems end in a vowel
yqyÉC, xhyÉClhm, KhÉC, phyÉCfl, MfÉC, QvyÉCl, `bhZhfÉCn, GvmhyÉCfln etc.
with z
° z+z jj — l°h, \°Yybu,
u°hu
°á z+z+b jj — \°ál, smv°ál
zá z + b bophola záhlhfnh, zár, zálzál —záln, zhzáljmhn
“ z+õ initial g “hn, “hpk yb“hn, kéu“, x“
medial gg
with õ
Å õ+c nc — aÅl, bÅnh
´ õ+z nj — bjń, `gy´, s´w
with t
Ñ t+t tt — ThÑh, CÑgîhm
ö d+d nn — ahöh, bö, \öwn
with N
∂t N+t qt — G∂th, k∂tk
÷ N+T qth — k÷, lv÷n
’ N+D qn — py’u, Th’h, q’
with u
≠ u+u tt — \≠r, yBy≠, s≠r
µ u+u+b tt — sfµo, uµ, uhyµk
¥ u + b bophola tt — c¥r, qVr¥, qhyw¥,
…¥
uÖ u + m mophola tt — ahuÖh, ahuÖYw
« u+r tr «ßyu, «hs, y«S, y«Bvz mh«, pv«, Ch«
with q
Ø q+q dd — \Øhm, \yØpnh
º q+Q ddh — ybrßfº, bvyº,
Svº, xvº
# (1) q + b bophola initial d y#uYw, #~#, #hrh, #Yp yby#§, a#w, \#hwY
48
medial dd
Conjuncts
in compound words where q and b are next to one another the pronunciation of
b is preserved (2)
# (2) q+b db — \y#gä, \#uòn
À q+B dbh — aÀvu, sÀhb, u®b
with n
™ n+u — a™r, auj™, an™,
pxò™
ì n+u+r — mìY, ynmìN, uì, xì
√ n+U — p√h, ph√, gî√
~q n+q nd — ah~qhz, ahn~q, m~q
~qî n+q+r ndr — i~qîh, rbY~qînhU
í n+Q — aí, bív, bí
ê n+n nn — rhêh, syêQhn, yCê,
yBê
with p
ú p+u pt — —hú, lvú, súhM,
uéyú
ù p+p pp — Khùh, gù
— p+r pr —Bv, —Um, y—w a—≥u, a—fwhzn,
qY—
p† p+l pl p†hbn ybp†b, ahèlvu
with b
ûq b+q bd — Sûq, aûq
bÜ b+Q bdh — lvbÜ, ÇvbÜ
ûb b+b bb — ahûbh, cyûbS
with m
ôp m +p mp — kôp, qôpyu
ôb (1) m + b bophola mm — smáfí, sfmáhQn
ôb (2) m+b mb — aôbr, kôbl, cvôbn
® m+B mbh — s®b, ahr®, g®Yr
ôm m+m mm — sômhn, ahômh
with r
kò, Kò etc r + any other consonant — azòn, Qmò, pxò™, gbò
with l
¶p l+p lp — g¶p, yS¶pY, k¶pnh
^ l+l ll — p^Ygîhm, \f^K,
\^hs
with S
Ÿc S+c shc — ahŸcxò, ynŸcw, pyŸcm
Sá S + b bophola initial sh SáSvr, Sáhs, `Sáu ybSá, ISár, ahSáÄ
medial ssh
49
Sî S+r sr `Sî©T, Sîhº, SîhbN, Sîvyu ybSîY, ahSîw, aSîv
2
Script and
sound
with X
©k X+k shk — ahyb©khr, pyr©khr,
Sv©k
§ X +t sht — ymy§, `c§h, béy§
©T X+T shth — `Sî©T, anv©Thn, Gyn©T
” X+N shn — \”, ké”, syM”v
with s
ãk s+k sk ãkvl, ãkí Bhãkr, nmãkhr,
pvrãkhr
ãt This combination is used for foreign words only.
s+t st `ãtSn, ãtvydfwh mhãthr, `Mhfãtl,
`rãtvfr~t
Ä s+u st Än, ÄbÜ, Äy®u, Är nhÄh, rhÄh, MÄ
ñ s+U sth ñvl, ñhn, yñu bjbñh, abñh, ahñh,
mvKñ
sä s+n sn sähn, `säM `zjhJsäh
ã« s+u+r str ã«Y ymyã«, Shã«
ãp s+p sp ãp§, ãp~qn ynãp~q, béMãpyu
ãP s+P sph ãPhrN, ãPYu yb`ãPhrN
… s+b initial sh …hmY, …Ykhr, …hBhybk up…Y
medial ssh
sî s+r sr `sîhu, sîbN yMLsî, sLsîb
with M
– M+n nh — yc–, a–, mQjh–
Æ M+m mm — bîÆ, bîÆN
Mj M+x jj — sMj
consonant plus u combinations
(note that in this book the special symbols for gu ç, shu ¿ and hu ÿ are
not used)
ç or gv g+\ gu çrß¥, çrß, çN ahçn

«ß u+r+\ tru «ßyt S«ß
qîß q+r+\ dru qîßu ybqîvp
≤ n+u+\ ntu — yk≤
rß r+\ ru rßyt, rßmhl `mrßq’
r∑ r+| ru r∑p, r∑ph ar∑p
¿ or Sv S+\ shu ¿œbhr p¿, p¿òkh, mh¿l
≥ s+u+\ stu ≥vp —≥u
ÿ or Mv M+\ hu ÿkvm, ÿzvg, ÿbÿ bÿ
and here is a combination with å:
M∑ M+å ri or hri M∑qw pron ridoy or hridoy
50
Here are two groups of letters which go together: Conjuncts
X mVQònj X is traditionally a retroflex letter and combines with retroflex

plosives t, T and d. N also belongs to the retroflex group. These letters have
a natural affinity with one another and appear together. Conjuncts of this
group: ¶t qt, ÷ qt, ’ qn, § st, ©T st, ” sq
s (q™j s) is traditionally a dental sound and combines with dental plosives

u and U. Its pronunciation changes from sh to s in these combinations. n
(q™j n) also belongs to this group and combines with u, U, q, Q.
Conjuncts of this group: ™ nt, √ nth, ~q nd, í ndh, Ä st, ñ sth, ã« str, sä sn,
sî sr
For learners of Bangla it is useful to learn the conjuncts in context. Here

is a list of some common words. Some more examples for jophola, bophola
and mophola are given on pp. 52 and 56.
rophola î —hN life, gîhm village, —hUònh prayer, —yu each, —fujk each,
pyb« sacred, ybSî∞hm rest, Bqî gentle, `sî∞hu current, ahgî∞M
interest, —Um first, `tî∞n train, œm sequence, order, yœwh work,
`—m love, SîhbN Bengali month, ph« vessel, Ch« student,
cyr« character, —mhN proof, pyrSî∞m hard work, nmî∞ soft,
Mî∞… short
reph ò Qmò religion, bNò letter, sVxò sun, qYGò long, pVNò full,
pqòh curtain, kmò work, pVbò east, qvbòl weak, bXòh rain,
ahŸcxò amazing, pxò™ until, pyrbuòn change, mmò heart,
ynBòr dependence, ukò argument, ccòh practise, …gò heaven,
aUòhJ namely
jophola j znj for, shMhxj help, síjh evening, bjbMhr behaviour,

bjhphr matter, M£jh yes, ybqjh learning, rMsj mystery,
iujhyq etcetera, mVlj value, SVnj zero, bnjh flood
bophola á Qáyn sound, #~# dispute, #jUò ambiguity, y#uYw second,

ybSáhs belief, záhlh ignite, gvrß¥ importance, …hmY husband,
zár fever, #hrh through, #Yp island, …pä dream, …r voice,
…gò heaven, …Bhb character, …hBhybk natural, sh™ánh comfort,
…Ykhr admission, …hq taste, …hQYn independent, …wL self,
…hUòpr selfish
mophola Ö ahuÖh soul, ahuÖYw relative, ãméyu memory, SÖShn crematorium 51

2 k + u = ∆ kt r∆ blood, mvy∆ freedom, bjy∆ person, xvy∆ logic
Script and k + r = œ kr Svœbhr Friday, ahœmN attack, ybyœ sale
sound k + X = Ç kkh Çyu harm, Çmuh power, Çmh forgiveness, aÇr letter,
ÇN moment, rÇh protection, prYÇh exam, afpÇh wait,
lÇ aim, ySÇh learning
g + W = Ã ngg sfÃ with aÃ limb mÃl good
c + C = ÉC cch iÉCh wish uvÉC small ahÉCh OK
u + r = « tr mh« only ph« vessel Ch« student
u + u = ≠ tt \≠r north s≠r seventy ahpy≠ objection
n + u = ™ nt a™r heart pxò™ until yc™h thought
n + u + \ = ≤ ntu yk≤ but z≤ animal s≤§ satisfied
m + B = ® mbh ahr® start s®b possible g®Yr deep
X + t = § sht `c§h attempt k§ effort n§ spoilt
s + u = Ä st rhÄh road bjÄ busy ahfÄ slowly
s + U = ñ sth ahñh trust ñhn place bjbñh arrangement
2.10 Jophola
The phonetic transcript used in this section shows the pronunciation.
The role of the jophola falls somewhere in between the second component
of a conjunct and a vowel sign. It has three main uses:
1 in the middle or at the end of words it doubles a consonant:
znj jfnno for ybqjh bidda science

rMsj rfhossho mystery khbj kabbo poetry
iujhyq ittadi etcetera mVlj mullo value
shMhxj shahajjo help suj shftto true
abSj fbfssho of course ySXj shissho disciple
rhzj rajjo kingdom bnjh bonna flood
bhkj bakko sentence Bhgj bhaggo fate
Mujh hotta killing —fujk prottek each
2 In the first syllable of words it can stand on its own as a vowel and is
pronounced æ except when the following syllable has an i or u in it
which changes the æ to e:
bjbñh bæbostha arrangement bjUh bætha pain

bjbsh bæbsha business bjuYu betito excluding
bjbMhr bæbohar behaviour bjUò bærtho futile
bjÄ bæsto busy uj∆ tækto abandoned
52 bjy∆ bekti person bjń bænjon consonant
3 It precedes akar h in the first syllable of words to produce an æ Other symbols
sound:
bjhphr bæpar matter M£jh hãe yes

ujhg tæg sacrifice bjhkrN bækoron grammar
p£jhc pãec twist bjhkvl bækul worried
Qjhn dhæn meditation Kjhyu khæti fame
Cjhblh chæbla frivolous Sjhm shæm dark-green
The pronunciation of (2) and (3) are the same – the spellings need to be
learnt.
Many English words with a short a in them are written in Bangla

with jh:
bjhLk bank, P†jht flat, Mjh~d-bl handball, cjhyôpwhn champion,

mjhghyzn magazine, gîjh~d-`Mhftl grand hotel
Apart from these, the jophola is used alternatively with its source x in the
formation of abstract nouns without any impact on the pronunciation:
…hñj shastho health ∏m«j moitro friendship

qhyrqîj daridro poverty ∏byS§j boishishto characteristic
and in síjh shondha evening
Very occasionally the jophola occurs with other vowels with no effect on
the pronunciation of the words:
svju shuto sewn, woven cvjyu cuti detachment, dislocation

`zjhJsäh jotsna moonlight ybcvjyu bicuti deviation, estrangement
qvjyu duti radiation, glow `qjhunh dotona implication, significance
2.11 Other symbols
This section brings together the remaining symbols, which have not yet been
explained. They are given in alphabetical order. The first three symbols (1)
to (3) do not count as separate letters in the alphabet, but in dictionary
entries they occur, in this order, between the vowels and the consonants
(see also pp. 60–61).
1 L anv…r onushor
The sound and occurrence of L is given on p. 44. It comes in the alpha

bet straight after the vowels, before nasalised items and before k k. L is 53
2 also coveniently used for ng and nk sounds in English words when they
Script and are written in Bangla:
sound
nhysòL narsing nursing, `tîynL trening training, dîiL nrfing drawing,
PhLSn phangshfn function and so on.
2 A ybsgò bishfrgo
This occurs in Sanskrit words, usually in the middle after prefixes such
as ynA without, a™A within, qvA bad, pvnA again, mnA mind or at the end
after uA to. In recent spelling reforms the use of the bishorgo has been
drastically reduced. We now find a™u fntoto at least, —Qhnu prodhanoto
mainly, ybfSXu bisheshoto especially, shQhrNu shadharonoto usually, mnÄµ
monostftto psychology without the bishorgo. A bishorgo after a con
sonant has no effect on the pronunciation. After a vowel the bishorgo
produces a slight hesitation before or emphasis on the following con
sonant. The only occurrence in nonSanskritic words is in exclamations
such as bhA bah wow, yCA chih ugh, oA oh oh, ahA ah ah where the bishorgo
produces an h sound.
Common words with A:
auApr ftopor henceforth, a™Apvr fntopur zenana, a™Añ fntostho

within, qvAK dukho sadness, qvASYl dushil wicked, qvAñ dustho needy,
ynASáhs nisshash breath, ynAfSX nishesh leaving no remainder, ynASûq
nishfbdo silent, mnAk§ monokfsto mortification, mnAñ monostho
resolved, intended
3 £ c~qî-yb~qv cfndrobindu
This is the sign for the nasal which is placed on the consonant preced
ing the nasalised vowel. Nasalisation is explained on p. 27 but here
are a few more comments. Nasalisation is less prominent in Bangladesh
and some areas of West Bengal than it is in Kolkata. This explains
relatively new word creations like enhr enar for e£r ir and \nhr unar for
o£r õr.
Here are some of the most common nasalised words in Bangla. Pro
nunciations are not given.
• M£jh hx yes
• p£hc pãc five and all the numbers with five except those with n or
Å in them.
• all honorific pronouns except the nominative singular forms yuyn,
54 iyn and \yn he, she
• common verbs: a£hkh draw, k£hqh weep, k£hph shiver, `K£hzh search, `c£chfnh Other symbols
shout, `C£Rh tear, `C£hwh touch, Z£hkh shake, q£hRhfnh stand, `p£chfnh twist, `p£HCh
arrive, b£hch survive, b£hchfnh save, b£hQh bind, s£huhr khth swim, M£hth walk,
M£hphfnh gasp
• common adjectives: k£hch raw, K£hyt pure, `K£hRh lame, crippled, ynK£vu
perfect, P£hkh empty, s£jhu`s£fu wet
• common nouns: a£hK sugarcane, ah£c surmise, guess, i£qrv rat, k£hth thorn,
k£hyc scissors, k£hThl jackfruit, c£hq moon, Z£vyk risk, ù£uvl tamarind, q£hu
tooth, Q£hQh riddle, p£hzr rib, yp£pRh ant, `p£fp papaya, P£hk gap, P£hq trap,
b£hyS flute, ys£yR stairs, M£hs duck
4 æ Ms™ hfshfnto
This symbol, hasanta in Sanskrit, hoshonto or Msæ-yc– hfsh-cinho in Bangla,

has no place in the alphabet but it is not exactly a punctuation mark
either. It serves to block the pronunciation of the inherent vowel where
it might otherwise have been pronounced. It is placed underneath the
consonant. It is not very frequently used for Bangla words as people
are expected to know where the inherent vowel is dropped, but it is
often useful for foreign words such as nnæãtp non stop, abæfsSn obsession,
or for consonant clusters which do not occur in Bangla: ydsætîjhkæSn
distraction.
5 á bophola and Ö mophola

We have seen the uses of î rophola and j jophola. There are two other
ophola attachments, bophola á which comes from b and mophola Ö
which derives from m . Both these symbols need extra caution as they
are often silent. Some examples are given in the conjunct chart on p. 48.
The spellings of words with bophola or mophola in them represent the
Sanskrit and, to a large extent, the Hindi pronunciations while the
sounds of Bangla have moved on. Here are two examples:
The word mahatma means big soul which in Bangla pronunciation is

mfha big atta soul.
The word welcome in Hindi is swagat, the Bangla word is shagotom.
Both the m from atta and the w/b from sagat have been dropped in the
pronunciation but they are still there in the spelling of the words.
The use of the mophola is not very extensive in common Bangla words.
The bophola is more common and often appears at the beginning of words.
This means that an awareness of its presence is essential when using a
dictionary. Both the bophola and the mophola have the effect of doubling 55
2 a consonant in the middle of words, though not at the beginning. Historically
Script and the bophola is derived from two distinct Sanskrit letters, b and v. That
sound explains why in some cases the bophola is pronounced as b b. There are
also some words where m appears as the second element in a conjunct and
is pronounced as m. Examples with phonetic transcript are given below.
(a) common words with silent bophola
zálh jola burn, záhlh jala light, \°ál ujjol bright, #~# dfndo conflict,
#hrh dara through, #Yp di:p island, y#uYw dityio second, QáLs dhfngsho
destruction, Qáyn dhoni sound, sh™ánh shantona comfort, ybSáhs bisshash
belief, ynASáhS nisshash breath, ISár isshor God, ybSá bissho world (here
is the doubling effect!), SáSvr shoshur father-in-law, …ÉC shfccho clear,
…pä shfpno dream, …Bhb shfbhab characteristic, …hBhybk shabhabik
natural, smáfí sfmmondhe about, …wL shfyong self, …r shfr voice,
…gò shfrgo heaven, …yÄ shosti comfort, …hgum shagftom welcome,
…hq shad taste, …hQYn shadhin independent, …hmY shami husband,
…hñj shastho health, …hUò shartho selfishness, …Ykhr shikar
acknowledgement, `…ÉCh sheccha own wish
with u t and ≠ tt (these are usually abstract nouns – there are many
more like this)
ayÄ¥ fstitto existence, gvrß¥ gurutto importance, uµ tftto theory,

qVr¥ durotto distance, qhyw¥ dayitto responsibility, bív¥ bondhutto
friendship, ybfSX¥ bisheshotto characteristic, sfµo shftteo in spite of,
ñhyw¥ sthayitto permanence
(b) bophola pronounced as b (where the keyboard permits, these can be
written with b as the full letter)
aôbr ombor sky, aôbl fmbol acid, \y#gä udbigno anxious,

kôbl kfmbol blanket, cvôbk cumbok magnet, nôbr nfmbor number,
lôbh lfmba long
(c) common words with silent mophola
ahuÖh atta soul, ahuÖYw attiyo relative, gîY©m grissho summer,

CqÖfbS choddobesh disguise, pqÖ pfddo lotus, ybãmw bisshfy
amazement, sÖrN shfron memory, ãméyu sriti memory, SÖhSn shashon
crematorium
(d) common words with mophola pronounced as m
\nÖ≠ unmftto crazy, znÖ jfnmo birth, sômhn sfmman respect,

56 sfômln sfmmelon gathering
Punctuation
2.12 Punctuation
Punctuation marks in Bangla are called xyu-yc– or ybrhm-yc–. The following

punctuation marks occur in Bangla:
Bangla sentences end with a q£hyR (/) dãri rather than a full stop. In poetry we
often also find a double q£hyR (qv-q£hyR //) for a more significant end point.
Question marks and exclamation marks are used as in English.
Quotation marks can be left out and direct speech is often incorporated
in narrative text without any punctuation at all or only separated with
a comma:
Mwfuh `kmn ahC —Sä krfb perhaps she will ask how are you
Bhl ahyC bfl ahr kUh Mwyn/ After saying I am well, nothing more was said.
phfSr ghCthr yqfk uhykfw khqôbrY blfln, e ghCth efkbhfr Pvfl Bfr ahfC/
Kadambari looked at the nearby tree and said, this tree is in full flower.
The use of commas and semicolons in Bangla, as in English, has become
a matter of individual judgement and the desire for clarity rather than of
fixed rules.
Commas are commonly used
(a) as breathing spaces in long sentences
`si `x ekth ycyT yqfwyCfln ahmhfk, mmuhfzr Mhu yqfw lvykfw phyTfwyCfln,
mfn ahfC?
Do you remember that he wrote me a letter and sent it secretly with
Momtaz?
(b) to separate parallel structures
Gr mvfC pyr©khr kfryC, khpR QvfwyC, bhzhr kfr rhêh kfryC, sb ∏uyr kfryC/
I cleaned the house, washed the clothes, did the shopping and the
cooking and got everything ready.
(c) to separate lists
ku azsî —hN, ku phyK, —zhpyu, `phkh, pSv, srYsép/
So much abundant life, so many birds, butterflies, insects, animals,
reptiles.
(d) to separate repetitions
ahym yk≤ xhb nh, xhb nh, xhb nh/
But I will not, not, not go. 57
2 (e) to separate syntactically independent elements at the beginning of
Script and sentences
sound
(i) names: aynuh, uvym ektv ch `qfb?
Onita, will you give (me) some tea?
(ii) yes or no: M£jh, ahym zhyn/
Yes, I know.
nh, uh kKno Mfb nh/
No, that will never happen.
(iii) sentence adverbs: —Umu, uvym ei khzth krfb/
First, you will do this work.
`xmn, uhr SrYr Khrhp Mfu phfr/
For instance, he may be ill.
(iv) imperatives: Uhm, zhl ahr thfnh nh/
Stop, don’t pull the net any more.
(f) to separate clauses
ek iLfrz xyq phw yunS thkh, zgqYS phfb qvS/

If an Englishman gets 300 Taka then Jagadish will get 200.
`s chkyr krfC bft, yk≤ mhifn phw nh/
He is doing the job, but he is not getting paid.
ekzfnr ghfw khflh `kht, ufb ynfc Qvyu/
One man was wearing a black coat, but a loincloth underneath.
Semicolons are used between independent sentences which are, however,
so closely related to one another that a dãri would be inappropriate.
yk≤ `s-ycyT ahmhr `lKh Mwyn; smw Mfw ofTyn `SX pxò™/
But I didn’t manage to write that letter; in the end I just didn’t have time.
Hyphens tend to be used rather idiosyncratically. They can help to make
the sentence structure clear, for instance with verbal adjectives preceding
a noun:
kphfl lhl-ytp-prh `mfwyt

lit: on the forehead red-dot-wearing girl
the girl who was wearing a red dot on her forehead
MThJ-BhRh-krh ei bhyRyt
lit: suddenly-rent-do this house
58 this house, that has been rented on the spur of the moment
Occasionally we find combinations like: Punctuation
`x-`k\ anyone, ahr-`k\ someone else, `x-sb all that, nh-Mfl if not,
`khUho-nh-`khUho somewhere or other
Hyphens can connect reduplicated items:
M£htfu-M£htfu phfw bjUh Qfr `gl/ The feet were sore from walking.
ahfÄ-ahfÄ kUh bflh/ Speak slowly!
khpR-`chpR gvyCfw nho/ Tidy up the clothes!
Hyphens can link similar items in lists. Here is a sentence which reads
like a shoppinglist:2
esb `qhkhfn Kbfrr khgz, khgz-klm, rßyt-qvQ-ydm, ybãykt-ckflt, qv-ek

rkfmr sbyz, tvUbîhS-tvUfpãt, lhit-bh¶b; Th’h pnYw, phn-ysghfrt, `Phn khdò
iujhyq —yuyqfnr —fwhznYw ybyc« yzynsp« Uhfk/
All these shops sell newspapers, paper and pens, bread, milk, eggs,
biscuits and chocolate, a few kinds of vegetables, toothbrushes and
toothpaste, light-bulbs; they have cold drinks, pan3 and cigarettes,
phone cards and a variety of other everyday necessities.
Apostrophes (|Qáòkmh)
Apostrophes usually indicate that something has been left out. Common
examples for this are mh"r for mhfwr (genitive of mh mother), "pr for \pr
above, C"th for Cwth six, k"th for kwth how many, qv" for qvi two, ek S" for
ek Su one hundred, "75 for 1975 1975 and so on.
We also find some authors indicating what they consider omissions in
verb forms, particularly in the perfective participle:
ahmrh khzth `SX k"fr efsyC/

lit: we, having done the work, have come
We have finished the work.
`s ei kUh b"fl ygfwfC/
lit: he, having said this, left
He said this and left.
The purpose of this is to show that the old forms of these participles
used to be kyrwh and bylwh, respectively, and to ensure the highvowel
2 Ghulam Murshid, khlhphynr MhuChyn, ybflfu bhWhylr iyuMhs, p. 240

3 Betel leaves 59
2 pronunciation of these forms as their spellings are identical to the
Script and simple present verb forms:
sound
kfr kfre 3rd person simple present he/she does versus kfr kore
perfective participle having done
From a syntactic point of view there is rarely any danger of confusion
between these forms, and the use of the apostrophe for the perfective
participles is gradually declining.
Full stop (ekyb~qv )
The full stop is essentially a foreign element in Bangla and is used for
abbreviations only. In older books the use of A (bishorgo) can be found
instead. Some abbreviations are done with L (onushvor).
ym. = Mister, yl. = Limited, yp. em. = postmaster, nL = number,

uhL = uhyrK date, yz. ys. es. i. = GSCE, em. e. = MA, es. yb. rMmhn
S. B. Rahman, d. svkvmhr `sn = Dr Sukumar Sen
2.13 Sounds and spellings
Bangla pronunciation is predictable from spelling to a much greater extent

than in many other languages. Each consonant has its designed pronun
ciation which never varies. Going from sound to spelling is a little trickier,
so here are a few things to keep in mind when using a dictionary.
There are certain areas of uncertainty and of discrepancy between sound

and spelling and it is good to be aware of them.
1 some are related to inaccurate hearing:
hearing the difference between aspirated and nonaspirated sounds

hearing the difference between dental and palatal sounds
hearing the difference between r and R
hearing the difference between closed o and open f
2 some are related to the order of letters in the dictionary
(a) words starting with nasalised (chondrobindu) sounds come before

unnasalised words, e.g.
Ksh . . . Khi . . . K£hch . . . K£hyt . . . K£hyR . . . Khk

(b) conjunct letters come after consonantvowel combinations, e.g.
60 bsu . . . bs™ . . . bsh . . . bsv . . . byÄ

but watch out for alternative spellings: Sounds and
spellings
qrKhÄ . . . qrzh . . . qryz . . . qyrqî . . . qyzò . . . qSòn
(c) Ç consists of k + X and comes in the dictionary between k and K .
“ consists of z + õ and comes after the z + vowel combinations
and before zá
(d) N comes after the palatal plosives (t, T, d, D), n after the dental
plosives (u, U, q, Q)
(e) L comes straight after the full vowels (sowhl, sLkt), W, ¬ and Ã come
(in this order) between G and c
3 most are related to unpredictable spellings:
(a) i and I can be pronounced either short or long. \ and | can be
pronounced short or long. Spellings have to be learnt. i is much
more common than I, \ much more common than |.
(b) s, S and X sound the same. This is a matter of memorising (or hav
ing a knowledge of Sanskrit). X is rare at the beginning of words,
except for numbers relating to six (`Xhflh, Xht)
(c) an æ sound can be written in four ways: e (`qK), j (bjÄ), jh (bjhphr)
or, rarely, h (“hn)
(d) a ri sound can be written in three ways: å (béy§), yr (y«S) or
rY (ã«Y)
(e) z and x sound the same. All grammatical words (relative pronouns,
conjunctions, adverbs) are spelt with x: xh, `x, xKn, `xmn, xyq, also
xvy∆
(f) a jj sound can be spelt ° (l°h) or xj (shMhxj) or Mj (sMj)
(g) n and N sound the same. Some guidelines for the use of N are given
in Ch. 2.8.4, p. 40.
(h) W, L and Ã can sound the same. Spellings need to be learnt. L is never
used when a vowel follows.
(i) Silent or doubling letters like bophola, mophola, jophola and
bishorgo, particularly with the first letter of a word, can cause great
problems if they slip your mind. Spellings need to be memorised.
bophola: …pä, …gò, …hmY, …hq, …hQYn, …hBhybk, …Ykhr, sh™ánh, záhlh
mophola: ãmrN, ãméyu, ahuÖh, pqÖ
jophola: bjUh, bjhphr, bjy∆, anj, bnjh
bishorgo: qvAK, ynASáhs
61
Chapter 3
Morphological features
3.1 Duplication
Bangla has a preference for pairings and doublings. We find this in compound
verbs Bvfl xhowh forget, in adverbs ahfÄ ahfÄ slowly, uhRhuhyR quickly, in onomato-
poeia yKlyKl giggling, K£h K£h desolate and in the reduplication of verb forms
Mhsfu Mhsfu laughing, `p£HfC `p£HfC arriving. And we find it in a great number of
noun-pairs. The following is an extract from a more comprehensive collection
given in Ch. 35. Onomatopoeia are dealt with separately in Ch. 36.
1 . . . etcetera
The first word, either a noun or an adjective, is echoed by a meaningless

rhyming word with a different initial consonant.
a¬-t¬ maths, etc. béy§-yty§ rain and suchlike

ahuÖYw-thuÖYw relatives ahrhm-thrhm creature comforts
ahlhp-shlhp familiarity \Jsb-tvJsb event
2 synonyms and near-synonyms
Two nouns, verbs or adjectives with the same or similar meanings are
paired up with an accumulative effect:
Chip£hS stuff and nonsense, `ChtKhfth insignificant, zYbz≤ animals,

thkh-pwsh money, ThÑh-uhmhSh mockery
3 accumulative
Two meaningful lexical items are combined to create an accumulative

meaning.
ahlhp-pyrcw familiarity, Khowh-qhowh meal, `Cflfmfw children, “hnyb“hn

62 arts and science, `Klh-Qvlh sports
4 echo words a-i pattern Duplication
The first component has a distinct meaning and is followed by an echo

word in i
ukòhuykò debate > ukò argument

uhRhuhyR hurry > uhRh rush
uhlhuhyl clapping > uhl musical beat
qRhqyR ropes > qyR rope
qlhqyl partisanship > ql group
qhphqhyp bragging > qhp pride, vanity
5 opposite meanings
opposite terms combine to give a comprehensive meaning
ahflh-ah£Qhr light and darkness, ahflh-Chwh light and shadow, ahSh-ynrhSh

hope and despair, ahsl-nkl true and false, ahsh xhowh, xhowh-ahsh
coming and going, iur-Bqî high and low
6 reduplication: doubled adjectives, nominative and locative nouns with

a variety of effects such as approximation almost (zár zár feverish),
intensity very (khfC khfC very close), gradual build-up (yufl yufl bit by bit),
multiplicity (shyr shyr in rows), pervasiveness (xvfg xvfg through the ages)
a¶p a¶p a small amount, ahfÄ ahfÄ slowly, ekh ekh lonely, ektv ektv
a little bit, kUhw kUhw by the way, k£hthw k£hthw on the dot, punctually
7 doubling of indefinite pronouns and adverbs
These will be discussed in Ch. 14.2.6.
`k `k who (plural), yk yk what (plural), kKno kKno from time to time,

`k\ `k\ somebody or other, ykCv ykCv a little bit, `khno `khno any, some
or other
8 doubling of finite and non-finite verb forms
These will be discussed in Ch. 21 and 23.
mrfu mrfu b£hch lit: survive on the point of dying

have a lucky escape
yPfr yPfri \yn bfln he is saying again and again
`qKfu `qKfu lit: seeing seeing
immediately
Mfu Mfu Ml nh/ lit: becoming becoming did not happen
a near miss 63
3 xhw xhw abñh lit: go go state
Morphological on its last leg
features uKn síjh Mb Mb lit: then evening I will go I will go
then it was almost evening
3.2 Vowel harmony and vowel mutation
Vowel harmony is the principle of inertia applied to language in general

and to the pronunciation of sounds in particular. It means that vowels in
adjacent syllables have a tendency to move closer together so that less
effort is needed to produce the sounds. A phonetic transcript is used in this
section.
The process of vowel sounds moving closer together takes place slowly
and is not entirely predictable, but we can see its effect in word pairs where
the following shifts take or have taken place:
1 a preceding i pulls up a following a to e:
ymUjh mittha → ymfUj mitthe, iÉCh iccha → ifÉC icche, yMshb hishab →
yMfsb hisheb, yblhu bilat → ybflu bilet, ybqhw bidae → ybfqw bidey,
yz“hs jiggash → yzf“s jiggesh
2 a preceding high vowel pulls a up to o:
Gvmhfnh ghumano → Gvmfnh ghumono

yzrhfnh jirano → yzrfnh jirono
zvuh juta → zvfuh juto, bvRh bura → bvfRh buro, r∑ph rupa → r∑fph rupo
3 a following high vowel pulls æ up to e:
ek æk but ekyt ekti and ektv ektu

`KlhfKyl khælakheli, `G£XhfG£yX ghxshaghishi
4 a following i pulls e up to i:
`lKh lekha but ylyK likhi, `cnh cena but ycyn cini, `mShymyS meshamishi
5 a following high vowel shifts the pronunciation of the inherent vowel
up from f to o:
Qrh dhfra but Qyr dhori, mrh mfra but mrß moru
kfb kfbe but kyb kobi and kbvur kobutor
ufb tfbe but ubv tobu
p£wuhy^S pmytallish but pw£y«S põytrish
64 blhbyl bflaboli
6 a following i pulls o up to u: Vowel
harmony
`bhZh bojha but bvyZ bujhi, `KhlhKvyl kholakhuli
and vowel
On the basis of these forms it is not surprising that sadhu bhasha verb mutation
forms like ygwhyC giyachi with their jumps from high to low vowels have
settled into a medial form ygfwyC giyechi or `gyC gechi.
7 a following a pulls a high vowel down. The first form of each pair is
an older version.
ySKh shikha → `SKh shekha learn, Kvqh khuda → `Khqh khoda God,
Bvlh bhula → `Bhlh bhola forget, Svnh shuna → `Shnh shona hear,
`Klh khela → `Klh khæla play, `qKh dekha → `qKh dækha see,
ypwhz piyaj → `pwhz peyaj onion, ybRhl biral → `bRhl beral cat,
ySwhl shiyal → `Swhl sheyal fox
Vowel mutation runs like a thread through much of the Bangla lexicon. It
means that morphologically related words show a systematic change between
adjacent vowels or vowels and diphthongs, as follows. This applies to the entire
verbal system but also to a considerable number of nouns and adjectives.
u – ou mvK mu:kh mouth – `mHyKk moukhik verbal, oral
mVl mu:l root – `mHylk moulik fundamental, basic
sv~qr sundor beautiful – `sH~qxò soundorsho beauty
BVu bhu:t ghost – `BHyuk bhoutik ghostly
BVym bhumi land – `BHymk bhoumik landlord
uvl tu:l balance – ùHl toul weight
gvrß guru master – `gHrb gourob glory, dignity
o–u `xhg jog link – xv∆ jukto linked
`ShX shosh dryness – Sv©k shushko dry
`qhX dosh fault – qvXh dusha accuse
`qhl dol swing – qvlvyn duluni rocking
`KhS khosh delightful – KvyS khushi happy
`rhQ rodh obstruction – rßº ruddho shut, closed
f–a sMhw shfhae helper – shMhxj shahajjo help
…Bhb shfbhab nature – …hBhybk shabhabik natural
—Um prfthom first – —hUymk prathomik primary
rL rfng colour – rhWhfnh rangano dye, colour
uhp [tap] heat – uú [tfpto] hot
a–e ahfs ashe he comes – efs eshe having come
mhZ majh middle – `mfZh mehjo second-born
thk tak baldness – `tfkh teko bald 65
3 i–e yqyS dishi – `qyS deshi local, yglh gila – `glh gela swallow
Morphological ynyXº nishiddho – ynfXQ nishedh – forbidden
features
i – oi yqn di:n day – ∏qynk doinik daily,
yskuh shikota sand, gravel – ∏sku soikot sandy beach, gulf
ygyr [giri] mountain – ∏gyrk goirik dyed with red ochre from
the mountain
e/æ – oi `snh sena soldier – ∏synk soinik soldier
`cunh cetona consciousness – ∏cunj coitonno consciousness
bjhkrN bækoron grammar – ∏bwhkrN boiyakoron grammatical
Some more examples like this can be found in the sections on verbal patterns
(p. 73) and adjective derivation (p. 77).
Consonant assimilation
In the area of sound assimilation we can also find consonants merging,

moving closer together or doubling, particulary in spoken language. Some
of these are well-established, others undoubtedly border on slang:
ybpq bipod danger + znk jfnok adj ending → ybp°nk bipfjjfnok
dangerous
kvJ kut bad + ysu sit white → kvyÉCu kucchit ugly
Qmò dhormo < Qôm dhfmmo religion
bR bfro < bö bfnno big
ykCv kichu < ykÉCv kicchu something
sbhi shfbai < sûbhi shfbbai everybody
sbòfnfS shfrboneshe < sûbfnfS shfbboneshe
k£hqnh kãdna < khêh kanna weeping
xuyqn jftodi:n < xyØn jfddi:n how long, also xuqVr jftodur < xØVr jfddur
how far
khgzp« kagojpftro < khgzp≠r kagojpfttor papers
g¶p gflpo < gèp gfppo story
…gò shfrgo < sfggh shfggo heaven
krC korcho < kÉc kfcco do-2-PR-C
3.3 Prefixes and suffixes
Prefixes are regularly occurring attachments (bound morphemes) at the

start of words which have a semantic impact on the words they precede.
66 They can change the meaning of a word altogether (typical – a-typical,
changed – unchanged, advantage – disadvantage), they can intensify the Prefixes and
meaning (confident – overconfident, tend – attend) or they can change the suffixes
word class (tangle – entangle, bitter – embitter, rail – derail) and so on.
Suffixes do the same at the end of words but they are more systematically
employed to change word classes: help – helpful, comfort – comfortable,
talk – talkative, educate – education, commit – commitment. More on
suffixes can be found in the following two sections.
Prefixes
Bangla has a great number of prefixes. With many of them their semantic
impact is quite varied, but an awareness of them can be of considerable
help in trying to work out the meaning of new words.
Here is a list from Tagore which shows the variability of Bangla prefixes.
He accompanied this list with the statement: ‘There is a race between a
rule and its exceptions.’1
with the adjective gu gone
prefix ayQ ayQgu mastered, acquired

prefix anv- anvgu obedient
prefix ap- apgu withdrawn
prefix ab- abgu informed, aware
prefix ah- ahgu just arrived
prefix qvr- qvgòu miserable
prefix ynr- yngòu ejected
prefix yb- ybgu past, dead
prefix sL- sLgu proper, just
and another example from the Sanskrit stem M∑ = MrN krh take away
prefix an- + ah- anhMhr starvation

prefix ap- apMhr theft
prefix ah- ahMhr food, meal
prefix sm- sLMhr killing, slaughter
prefix yb- ybMhr dalliance
prefix pyr- pyrMhr abandonment
prefix \p- \pMhr present
prefix \J- \ºhr rescue, deliverance
1 Rabindranath Tagore, bhLlhBhXh pyrcw (p. 66) 67

3 Prefixes are traditionally separated into three groups: Sanskrit prefixes,
Morphological Bangla prefixes and foreign prefixes. This is not immediately helpful to the
features foreign learner but there is a marked difference in their use. Sanskrit prefixes
can occur in clusters whereas Bangla and foreign prefixes occur one at a time.
for instance: an-\p-xv∆ unsuitable, an-ayQ-khr unauthorised,
an-ab-khS lack of leisure, an-ayB-“uh inexperience
Before we move to the complexities of Sanskrit word-formation, here are
some Farsi and Arabic prefixes:
Farsi `b negating un-
`bahin unlawful
`bahqb unmannerly, impudent
`bimhn perfidious, unfaithful
`bozr admitting no excuse
`bksvr free from guilt
`bkhwqh awkward
`bkhr out of work
`bKhp unfitting, inappropriate
`bfKwhl inattentive
`bfghC untidy, disorderly
`bchrh helpless, wretched
`bchl misbehaving, dissolute
`bzhu degenerated caste
`bfzhR uneven (numbers)
`byTk erroneous, incorrect
`buymz uncivil, arrogant
`bur indisposed
`buhr radio (wireless!)
`bqm breathless
`bqrkhr unnecessary
`bnhym anonymous
`bsvr guiltless, innocent
qr indicating sub-. This semantic feature is not very visible in the examples.
qrKhÄ application qrkhr need, qrp≠n sublease, qrbhr court
nh negating
nhchr helpless, nhrhz unwilling, nhbhlk under-age, nhfKhS displeased,
68 nhlhfwk unfit
bq meaning bad Prefixes and
suffixes
bqfmzhz bad temper, bqfKwhl evil intentions, bqnhm bad reputation,
bqmhS wicked, evil
Arabic gr negating un-
gryTkhnh wrong address

grrhyz unwilling, reluctant
gryml disagreement, disharmony
grMhyzr absent
gyMòu condemned, detestable
ahm meaning common
ahmqrbhr place for public audience, ahmfmh∆hr attorney, ahmqhyn import
Sanskrit and Bangla prefixes
Traditionally, Sanskrit prefixes are permissable only on pure Sanskrit roots.

As the living language develops and changes, however, purity is not its main
concern and Sanskrit prefixes are, in fact, attached to non-roots as well
as to Bangla words. I have therefore, in the list below, given examples of
reasonably common words with both Sanskrit and Bangla prefixes together.
There is a fair bit of overlap between the two. The indications of semantic
impact in this section are taken mainly from the Samsad dictionary and are
often inadequate.
a, an, anh (Bangla) negating (there are a great number of these)
akUj unspeakable, akhrN unnecessary, akhl inauspicious time, agnj
countless, acl stationary, afcun unconscious, afcnh unknown, azhnh
unknown, aqVr not far, anÇr illiterate, anyQkhr absence of claim, an™
endless, anhqr neglect, slight, anhbéy§ drought, anhwhs easiness, aynbhxò
inevitable, aynwm disorder, aynyŸcu uncertain, anvpyñu absent, anjhw wrong-
doing, apyrycu unfamiliar, apyrNu immature, apyrbyuòu unchanged, a—fwhzn
unnecessary, a—≥u unprepared, aBhb lack, amr immortal, asJ dishonest,
as®b impossible, ashmj inequality, asvybQh disadvantage, ayñr restless
ayu (Sanskrit) meaning: too
ayuœm transgression, ayuchlhk extra clever, ayubhR overgrowth,
ayubéy§ excessive rain, ayumhn vanity, ayuyr∆ excessive, ayuSw excessive,
aujhchr oppression, aujhQvynk up-to-date 69
3 ayQ (Sanskrit) meaning: over
Morphological
features
ayQkhLS most, ayQkhr right, claim, ayQfÇp rebuke, ayQnhwk chief, leader,
ayQbXò leap-year, ayQbhsY native, ayQfbSn meeting, ayQ©Thn living, dwelling,
existence, aQjhpk professor
anv (Sanskrit) semantic impact: after, expansion

anvkrN imitation, anvœm sequence, anvgîM preference, partiality, anv“h order,
command, anvuhp repentance, anvqhr narrow-minded, anvpyñu absent, anvbhq
translation, anvBb perception, feeling, anvmyu permission, anvfmhqn consent,
anvfxhg censure, reproof, anvrhg devotion, love, anvfrhQ request, anvylyp copy,
anvsíhn research, anvsrN pursuit, imitation
ap (Sanskrit) meaning mis-, off, away
apkmò misdeed, apkhr harm, injury, apcw waste, loss, apchr corruption,
ap—fwhg misappropriation, apbjw misuse, wastage, apBîLS corrupt
language, apmhn insult, apxS ill repute, apMrN theft, misappropriation but
apr∑p incomparably beautiful
ab (Sanskrit) implies down, inferior
abkhS leisure, abÇw decadence, ruin, abgvN absence of virtue, abGhu fatal
blow, abfÉCq separation, detachment, abuhr incarnation, avatar, abqhn
achievement, abnu downfallen, depressed, abfbhQ special knowledge,
abfrhQ obstruction, hindrance, ablôb support, prop, absr leisure, respite,
abshn termination, abñh situation, abfMlh neglect
ayB (Sanskrit) implies excess
ayB“uh experience, ayBQhn dictionary, ayB—hw desire, intention, ayBBb
disgrace, ayBmhn hurt pride, vanity, ayBmvK approach, direction, ayBfxhg
complaint, ayBShp curse, ayBshr secret tryst
ah can be a Sanskrit or a Bangla prefix which implies: non-, starting

from
ahlhp introduction, ahMhr food, ahbhr again, ahchr pickle, ahcrN behaviour,
ahgmn arrival, ahghmY next, ahœmN attack, ahgî∞M interest, ahGht blow, shock,
ahkhS sky, ahylÃn embrace, ahfmhq amusement, ahs∆ attracted, ahpy≠
objection, ahfbqn prayer, ahBhX preface, ahbéy≠ recital
ahn (Bangla) negating

ahnmfn absentminded, ahnhyR inexpert, ahnchn anxious, restless,
70 ahnkh unfamiliar
\J, \q (Sanskrit) implies: above, excessive, beyond, contrary Prefixes and
suffixes
\JshM encouragement, \f≠znh excitement, \Jpê grown, produced, \Jpy≠
origin, \qhMrN example, \Øhm incontrollable, \Àb origin, \fØSj purpose,
\Àhbk inventor, \f#g worry, concern, \fqjhg effort, \Échrn pronunciation
\p (Sanskrit) implies: over, under, sub-
\pnhm nickname, \pgî∞M satellite, \pBhXh dialect, \pyñu in place, present,
\pfzlh district, \psgò symptom, prefix, \pShKh sub-branch, \pshgr bay,
gulf, \pchxò vice-chancellor
or good
\pfqS advice, \pkhr favour, \pxv∆ suitable, \pSm relief, \pmh likeness, similarity
q, qvr (Sanskrit) meaning bad
Note that this prefix is quite distinct from the noun qVr distance (with a qYGò |).
qvyŸc™h worry, qvqòSh adversity, misery, qvBòhgj bad luck, qvfxòhg hard times, qvnòhm
bad reputation, qvGòtnh accident, qvnòYyu corruption
yn, ynr yn can be either a Sanskrit or a Bangla prefix, usually with a negat-
ing effect
ynyŸcu certain, ynrÇr illiterate, ynK£u

v perfect, ynrUò nonsense, ynrhSî∞w homeless,
ynylòú aloof, ynrhSh despondency, ynfqòhX innocent, ynQòhrN decision, ynrhpq
safety, ynBòw fearless, ynAsLSw sure, ynqSòn example, ynSuò unconditional, ynBòr
dependence, ynmòm hardhearted, cruel, ynfXQ forbidden, ynrhymX vegetarian,
ynrßphw destitute, helpless, ynzòn lonely, solitary, ynNòw discernment
Both these prefixes qv and yn are also found with A (bishorgo) qvA and ynA.
The bishorgo is still in place in words like qvAK regret and ynASáhs breath.
prh (Sanskrit) meaning other

prhzw defeat, prhMu defeated, prhQYn subject, dependent, prhmSò advice,
counsel, prhœm strength, power, prhbuò exchange, return
pyr (Sanskrit) implies: thoroughness, excessiveness, opposition
pyrmhp measurement, pyrmhN amount, pyrfbS environment, pyrMhs joke,
ridicule, pyrSî∞m hard work, pyrfShQ revenge, pyrphln administration, pyrbMN
transport, pyr©khr clean, pyrbuòn change
— (Sanskrit) meaning: abundance, excess, intensity, inception
—Bhb influence, —khS revelation, —SLsh praise, —fbhQ consolation, —yœwh
procedure, —kéyu nature, —cl current, —gyu progress, —k¶p hypothesis,
—khr kind, sort, —Nw love, —uhrNh fraud, deception 71
3 —yu (Sanskrit) meaning: against, every, substituting
Morphological
—yurÇh defence, —yufrhQ prevention, —yufbyS neighbour, —yuyœwh reaction,
features
—yuyqn daily, —yufShQ retaliation, —yubhq protest, —yumh icon, image, —yu©Th
foundation, establishment, —yuynyQ deputy, —yu#~# rivalry, —yufxhyguh
competition
yb can be either a Sanskrit or a Bangla prefix with the effect of: anti,
opposite, mis- or intensifier
ybnhS destruction, ybk¶p alternative, ybyœwh chemical reaction, ybyÇú

scattered, ybchr judgement, ybukò debate, ybpÇ opponent, ybprYu opposite,
ybpq danger, ybyBê various, ybKjhu famous, ybBîh™ confused, ybzw victory,
ybPl fruitless, ybkéu perverted, corrupted, ybkhS display, ybcylu agitated,
ybyc« various
s, sL, sm can be either a Sanskrit or a Bangla prefix meaning together, with
sLfÇp abbreviation, sLKjh number, sÃYu music, sLgîhm struggle, sL“h
consciousness, sLbhq news, sLxm temperance, sLfxhg junction, sLlhp
dialogue, sLSw doubt, suspicion, sLfShQn correction, sLsq parliament, sLshr
world, sLãkhr purification, sLãkéu Sanskrit, sLñh organisation, smul plain,
level, sômhn respect, smUòn support, smhflhcnh review, sôpy≠ property, sôpVNò
complete, s®b possible, sômhn respect, syTk exact, sfcun sentient
sv meaning good, can be either a Sanskrit or a Bangla prefix
svfxhg opportunity, svybQh advantage, svbvyº good sense, svlB cheap, svybchr
good judgement, svgí aroma, svSYl well-behaved, svãp§ explicit, svñ well,
healthy, svPl good result, svynwm good management, svsmw favourable time
Suffixes
It is not easy to separate suffixes from postpositions, adjectival attachments

or from independent nouns. Suffixes which change nouns into adjectives or
adjectives into nouns are given in the following two sections. Here, then,
are just a few suffixes which have not been listed elsewhere in the book.
noun suffixes
owhlh is a noun ending indicating a particular job, task or designation:

bhyRowhlh landlord, yrkShowhlh rickshaw driver, `bybowhlh babytaxi-driver,
`Pyrowhlh ferry-owner, Pvlowhlh flower-seller, mslhowhlh seller of spices,
72 thkhowhlh jokingly: rich man
This suffix is very productive and can be added to just about anything in Verbal patterns
order to characterise particular people.
k ok or ik for people:
chlk driver, `sbk carer, `lKk writer, ySÇk teacher, aQjhpk professor,
ybchrk judge, nhwk actor, kéXk farmer, xhzk priest, sôphqk editor, —chrk
preacher, mhylk owner, shLbhyqk journalist, ahyQkhyrk officer, sMhwk
assistant, rÇk protector, \Jphqk creator
i or I people and professions. The spelling of these words fluctuates between
i and I.
yS¶pY artist, ymyã« carpenter, bhbvycò cook, qyzò tailor, mhyl gardener, mhyZ boatman
nouns and adjectives:
khr abstract nouns and adjectives:
ayQkhr right, claim, qrkhr need, pvrãkhr prize, ahyb©khr invention, alLkhr
ornament, \pkhr favour, —khr type, kind, aMLkhr pride, aíkhr darkness,
cmJkhr excellent, pyr©khr clean, ycJkhr shout, nmãkhr greeting, ynybòkhr
unperturbed
adjectives:
znk generating:
ybp°nk dangerous, Çwznk erosive, ahfmhqznk delightful, ahn~qznk
delightful, qvAKznk distressing, `bqnhznk painful
kr assigning a quality:
…hñjkr healthy, Çyukr harmful, Çmhpr forgiving, k§kr troublesome
MYn meaning without:
mhwhMYn devoid of compassion, ahShMYn without hope, ÇmhMYn unforgiving,
kmòMYn without work, unemployed, uvlnhMYn incomparable, —hNMYn lifeless
3.4 Verbal patterns
Bangla has the following types of verbs:
(1) Simple verbs
All verbs with a monosyllabic stem and a verbal noun ending in a are
counted as simple verbs.
krh do, Mowh be, Uhkh stay, `qowh give, xhowh go, ahsh come, `Shnh hear,
clh move, `lKh write, blh speak are examples of simple verbs. 73
3
(2) Extended verbs
Morphological
features
Extended verbs have a two-syllable stem ending in a and a verbal noun
ending in `nh no. Many extended verbs are derived from nouns or adjectives.
Here are just a few. Extended verbs are discussed in Ch. 16.
Gvmhfnh sleep > Gvm sleep

khmRhfnh bite > khmR bite
CRhfnh scatter, sprinkle > CR bunch, cluster
uhkhfnh look at, gaze > uhk target, aim
q£hRhfnh stand > q£hR standing
`qHRhfnh run > `qHR run, spurt
shmlhfnh manage > shmhl act of restraining
uhRhfnh chase away > uhRh hurry
(3) Causative verbs
Causative verbs are derived from simple verbs. They follow the same pattern
as extended verbs, i.e. they have an additional syllable and the verbal noun
ends in `nh no. They change the meaning of the simple verb from do to
cause to do, as in
`SKh learn – `SKhfnh cause to learn = teach

`bhZh understand – `bhZhfnh cause to understand = explain
zhnh know – zhnhfnh cause to know = inform
Morphologically, causative verbs are a subgroup of extended verbs.
Causative verbs are dealt with in Ch. 17.
(4) Conjunct verbs
Common simple verbs like krh do, khth cut, mhrh hit, Khowh consume, `qowh
give, `nowh take, combine with nouns and adjectives to form new meanings.
These verbs are called conjunct verbs. Conjunct verbs expand the range
of verbal expression in Bangla considerably and are useful for new word
creations, particularly with foreign words:
i-`ml krh to e-mail

yrfkhdò krh to record
enzw krh to enjoy
74 Conjunct verbs are discussed in Ch. 18.
(5) Verb sets Verbal patterns
Apart from the systematic extension from simple to causative verbs, we

find groups of verbs which are morphologically linked.
gRh build ghRh gRhfnh —

glh melt ghlh glhfnh ghlhfnh
zálh burn záhlh zálhfnh záhlhfnh
nRh move nhRh nRhfnh nhRhfnh
pRh fall phRh pRhfnh phRhfnh
mrh die mhrh — mhrhfnh
srh move shrh srhfnh shrhfnh
The actual uses of some of these verbs are very specific.
gRh - ghRh - gRhfnh

gRh transitive verb: build, establish
ynfzr Mhfu gRh sLshr the family that I have built up myself
ghRh transitive verb, only special uses:
K£vyt ghRh drive a pole into the ground and M£htv ghRh kneel down
uvym M£htv `gfR bs/ Kneel down.
gRhfnh roll, pour
ektv zl gyRfw qho/ Pour some water.
o phynfu gyRfw s£huhr khtl/ He was rolling about in the water.
glh - ghlh - glhfnh - ghlhfnh
glh intransitive verb melt:
ybnfw gfl xhowh glhw in a voice melted in deference
ghlh transitive verb, only specific uses:
`PhRh ghlh squeeze a pimple
Bhfur `Pn ghlh take the scum off the rice
glhfnh causative of glh:
ahym `mhm gylfw yqyÉC/ I am melting the wax.
ghlhfnh is used only in the sense of ghlhghyl abuse
zálh - záhlh - zálhfnh - záhlhfnh
zálh intransitive verb be kindled:
\nvfn ahgvn zálfC/ The fire is burning in the oven.
záhlh and záhlhfnh are used alternatively to one another:
ahym bhyu záhyl and ahym bhyu záhlhi/ I light the lamp.
zálhfnh is not in common use. 75
3 nRh - nhRh - nRhfnh - nhRhfnh
Morphological
features nRh intransitive verb stir, move:
`Cflyt nRfC nh `kn? Why is the boy not moving?
nhRh is an active verb move, shift, influence
ektv eyqk-oyqk Mfl klkhyTyt nhRfu phrfb/
With some manoeuvering she might be able to pull some strings.
uhi ei bjhphrth ahr nhRhchRh nh krhi Bhl/
So it is better not to stir this matter any further.
ybXwyt ahmhfqr Kvb nhRh yqfÉC/
The subject concerns us deeply.
nRhfnh is not in common use.
nhRhfnh is the causative of nhRh
urkhyrth nhRhfu Mfb/ The curry needs to be stirred.
`lhkyt ahflhcnhth nhRhfÉC bft.
The man is certainly stirring up the discussion.
pRh - phRh - pRhfnh - phRhfnh
pRh intransitive verb fall:

uvym pRfb nh ùh? You won’t fall, will you?
phRh is commonly used with ydm phRh lay an egg and ghl phRh shout
abuse, M£hk phRh shout at
uhfqr bív M£hk `pfR bfl \Tl Their friend suddenly shouted . . .
mvrygth kwth ydm `pfRfC? How many eggs has the chicken laid?
pRhfnh causative of pRh cause to fall:
`s ahmhfk pyRfwfC/ He made me fall.
phRhfnh is commonly used with Gvm sleep:
`s bhÉchfk Gvm phRhfÉC/ She is making the baby go to sleep.
mrh - mhrh - mhrhfnh
mrh intransitive verb die:

ahmrh sbhi mrb/ We will all die.
mhrh transitive verb hit:
ahym uhfk mhyryn/ I didn’t hit him.
with `Plh kill uhfk `mfr `Plfb nh/ Don’t kill him!
verbal adjective compound: mhrh xhowh and mhrh pRh die
qvzfn mhrh `gfC/ Both of them have died.
conjunct verbs such as Cvt mhrh run off, dvb mhrh dive, Bhu mhrh gobble,
chl mhrh show off
76 mhrhfnh is only used in swear words.
srh - shrh - srhfnh - shrhfnh Adjective
derivations
srh intransitive verb move over, move out of the way:
uvym ektv srfu phr? Can you move over a bit?
srhfnh causative of srh:
`cwhrgvflh syrfw `qb/ I will move the chairs.
shrh transitive verb finish, hide
uhRhuhyR Khowh `sfr ynl/ He finished his meal quickly.
shrhfnh causative of shrh: cure, repair
uhr bhbh ytyB shrhw/ His father repairs televisions.
yk≤ SrYrth ùh shrhfnh qrkhr/ But the body needs to be healed.
(5) Verbs derived from onomatopoeia
In many cases only the perfective participle of these verbs is in regular use.
Here are just a few:
tltlhfnh stagger, waver, ZkZkhfnh sparkle, glisten, Ztpthfnh flap, Zlmlhfnh

sparkle, glitter, uRbRhfnh hurry excessively, ynSypShfnh itching to do something,
yptypthfnh twitch, flicker yPsyPshfnh whisper, Mkckhfnh be nonplussed,
be taken aback, MnMnhfnh walk fast
3.5 Adjective derivations
When adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs they usually have distinc-
tive endings. Here are some English examples:
-y: cloud – cloudy, thirst – thirsty, taste – tasty, itch – itchy

-ive: expense – expensive, manipulate – manipulative,
attract – attractive
-ing: charm – charming, spark – sparkling, excite – exciting
A list of derived adjectives is given on pp. 78–81 to show the patterns in

Bangla.
Here is an example of how many ways an adjective can be formed from

the same noun:
Sîºh respect: SîºhSYl, Sîºhlv, Sîºhyôbu, Sîºhbhn all: faithful, respectful,

Sîfºw reverend, venerable 77
3 ik adjectives derived from nouns, often with vowel change: i < E, \ < O,
Morphological a < ah
features
∏qynk daily from yqn day
mhysk monthly from mhs month
ah™yrk heart-felt, cordial from a™r heart, inside
mhnysk mental from mn mind
Opnjhysk noun novelist from \pnjhs novel
EyuMhysk historical, historian from iyuMhs history
ahÅylk regional from aÅl area
ShrYyrk physical from SrYr body
…hBhybk ordinary, natural from …Bhb characteristic
shúhyMk weekly from súhM week
—hkéyuk natural from —kéyu nature
`lHykk human, earthly from `lhk person
si, mw adjectives attribute a particular characteristic
zlmw waterlogged qwhmw kind, compassionate
zvusi advantageous iyÃumw full of hints
`tksi durable ãméyumw full of memories
lhgsi fitting, appropriate kmòmw work-related
rMsjmw humorous mhwhmw sympathetic
`säMmw loving, tender iyÃumw suggestive
Chwhmw shady pbòumw hilly
from a ah noun to e e adjective: they look like perfective participles from
nouns
ekfGfw boring from ek Gh one beat (on a drum)
`kfl blackish from khl black
`sfkfl old-fashioned from `s khl that time
phRhfg£fw rural from phRhg£h countryside
bhrfmfs perpetual from bhrmhs twelve months
`rhzfgfr earning from `rhzghr income
sbòfnfS ruinous from sbònhS ruin
nhtvfk theatrical from nhtk drama
o adjectives with vowel change a – e, o – u. Tagore notes that some of
these adjectives have a pejorative flavour.
`mfZh middle from mhZ middle
`kfzh active, efficient from khz work
afkfzh disabled, unservicable from khz work
78
`Bfuh rice-eating from Bhu rice Adjective
`kfTh wooden from khT wood derivations
`g£fwh rural, uneducated from g£h village
`C£fqh (kUh) meaningless (talk) from C£hq shape, form
`q£fuh (Mhys) toothy (smile) from q£hu tooth
`Gfmh (SrYr) sweaty (body) from Ghm sweat
i adjectives
Bhyr heavy from Bhr weight

mhnY respected from mhn honour
qhym expensive from qhm price
\pkhrY helpful from \pkhr favour
qrkhrY necessary from qrkhr need
anvbuòY obedient from anvbuòn pursuit
anvxhwY following from anvxhu (adj) subsidiary, subordinate
aprhQY guilty from aprhQ crime, offence
ito, to (and variations) adjectives – some of these are old passive participle
forms
ahny~qu delighted from ahn~q joy

zYybu alive from zYbn life
ynwymu regular from ynwm rule
ySyÇu educated from ySÇh education
ycy™u worried from yc™h thought, worry
ynyqò§ fixed from ynfqòS indication, appointment
\pxv∆ suitable from `xhg connection
pyrycu familiar from pyrcw acquaintance
ybbhyMu married from ybbhM marriage
cylu current, colloquial from cln motion fashion, style
\∆ uttered from \y∆ utterance
`qhyXu defective, faulty from `qhX defect, fault
-nto from nouns and verbs – some of these are adverbs
aPvr™ unending, endless from Pvrhfnh finish, run out

\T™ rising, growing from oTh rise, get up
\R™ flying, fluttering from \Rh fly
k†h™ tired from k†m weariness, fatigue
Çh™ desisted, stopped from ÇN moment
cl™ moving, going from clh move, go
79
3 Yw iyo, eyo, NYw niyo These forms suggest a potential. Compare aprhyzu
Morphological undefeated, aprhfzw unconquerable
features
ajkXòNYw attractive from ahkxòN attraction
zlYw waterlogged from zl water
mhnnYw respected from mhn honour, respect
\ÉchrNYw utterable from \ÉchrN pronunciation
sLsqYw parliamentary from sLsq parliament
zhuYw national from zhyu race, nation
ahqrnYw worthy of affection from ahqr caress, cordiality
ahSîwnYw worthy of being adopted from ahSîw shelter
—fwhznYw necessary from —fwhzn need
aBhbnYw unthinkable from Bhb thought
SYl adds a quality
ÇmhSYl forgiving from Çmh forgiveness
Sî∞mSYl painstaking from Sîm labour
sMnSYl tolerant from sMn patience, endurance
`säMSYl affectionate from `säM love, affection
SîºhSYl respectful from Sîºh respect
bhn, mhn, mhN
M∑qwbhn magnanimous from M∑qw heart
Sîºhbhn respectful from Sîºh respect
mVljbhn precious from mVlj value
qéSjmhn visible from qéSj sight, spectacle
bvyºmhn wise, intelligent from bvyº wisdom
kôpmhn shaky from kôp tremor
œmmhN leisurely from œm order, series
ÇYwmhN decaying, waning from Çw waste, loss
Gtmhn progressive, continuous from Gth vb happen, occur
ujzjmhn abandoned from ujhg desertion, abandoning
u \, lu lv, lo `lh adjectives
yz“hsv questioning from yz“hsh question
qwhlv kind, charitable from qwh mercy
Sîºhlv respectful from Sîºh respect
u~qîhlv drowsy from u~qîh drowsiness
ypphsv thirsty from ypphsh thirst
…hqv tasty, delicious from …hq taste
`zhrhflh forceful from `zhr strength, force
80 z£hkhflh pompous, showy from z£hk pomp, éclat
uk \k adjectives Adjective
derivations
lhzvk shy from l°h embarrassment
iÉCvk desiring, willing from iÉCh wish, will
`ptvk greedy from `pt stomach
\Jsvk eager, enthusiastic from \JshM enthusiasm
kr, pr
kljhNkr good, beneficial from kljhN benefit, welfare
a…yÄkr uncomfortable from a…yñ discomfort
k§kr difficult, hard from k§ trouble, difficulty
yMukr good, beneficial from yMu benefit, well-being
…hñjkr beneficial to health from …hñj health
…hUòpr selfish from …hUò self-interest
gu obtained, held
ayQgu attained, obtained abgu informed, aware
anvgu obedient mVlgu basic, fundamental
zYbngu related to life bjbMhrgu customary, practical
bjhkrNgu grammatical BhXhgu related to language
u≠águ well-grounded, sound bvjJpy≠gu etymological, derivative
a™gòu enclosed in m°hgu inherent, inveterate
yUoyrgu theoretical this suggests that gu is productive
MYn is a suffix meaning without, devoid of and can be added to a great

many abstract nouns. Here are just a few.
ahShMYn hopeless
ÇmuhMYn powerless
ÇmhMYn unforgiving
“hnMYn clueless
QnMYn poor
QmòMYn blasphemous
nYyuMYn unscrupulous
BybXJMYn without prospects
And here is a sentence from Praphullo Ray to show their use:
`nh mjhns ljh~d yTkhnhMYn mhnvfXr yTkhnh, `xKhfn Qmò, bNò plkMYn SvQv plkMYn
uhykfw yCl/
no man’s land address-MYn person-GEN address where-REL religion
race unblinking only unblinking look-PP [was]-H
No man’s land is the address of people without an address, where religion
and race are just looking on indifferently. 81
3
3.6 Noun derivations
Morphological
features
Just as adjectives can be derived from nouns, so nouns can be derived from
adjectives. Sometimes we find three-step derivations from concrete noun
to adjective to abstract noun: zt knot, zytl complex, zytluh complexity.
The following is an impression of noun derivations in Bangla.2
ta nouns from adjectives
aS†Yl obscene < aS†Yluh obscenity

\Éc high < \Écuh height
ek one < ekuh unity
kyTn difficult < kyTnuh difficulty
`khml soft < `khmluh softness
Çm able < Çmuh power
gBYr deep < gBYruh depths
cÅl moving < cÅluh mobility
zytl complex < zytluh complexity
url liquid < urluh fluidity
qÇ expert < qÇuh skilfulness
ynrhpq safe < ynrhp≠h safety
bhÄb real < bhÄbuh reality
bjÄ busy < bjÄuh rush, hurry
ySyUl loose < ySyUluh slackness
`Sî©T best < `Sî©Tuh excellence
sJ honest < suuh honesty
srl honest < srluh honesty
shQv pious < shQvuh piety
svñ healthy < svñuh health
…hQYn independent < …hQYnuh independence
na nouns (many of these are derived from other nouns)
aQjhpnh teaching phonh debt

ahflhcnh discussion —uhrNh deception
\f≠znh excitement —hUònh prayer
krßNh mercy `—rNh inspiration
k¶pnh imagination bÅnh fraud, deception
2 Sanskrit scholars may find much to criticise here. I do believe, however, that, within
the framework of synchronic linguistic analysis, the time has come to look at the reality
82 of the Bangla language as a whole even at the expense of derivational purity.
khmnh desire ybfbcnh consideration Noun
Gtnh event, occurrence `bqnh pain derivations
`GhXNh announcement Bhbnh thought
`cunh consciousness xìNh torture
uvlnh comparison rcnh composition
QhrNh idea s®hbnh possibility
nmvnh sample sh™ánh consolation
abstract jophola and bophola nouns (often with vowel change in stem)
als lazy < ahlsj laziness
ISár god < ESáxò supremacy, divinity
\ycu proper < Oycuj propriety
ek one < Ekj union, unity
ek one < ek¥ sameness, identity
g®Yr serious < gh®Yxò gravity, solemnity
cÅl mobile, moving < chÅlj restlessness, agitation
cuvr intelligent, clever < chuvxò intelligence, dexterity
cpl restless, fickle < chplj restlessness
qhwY responsible < qhwY¥ responsibility
QYr slow < ∏Qxò patience
—cvr plenty < —hcvxò abundance
bMv plenty < bhMvlj abundance
ybfSX special < ybfSxj noun
ybfSX special < ybfSX¥, ∏byS§j characteristic
mQv (noun) honey < mhQvxò sweetness
ym« (noun) friend < ∏m«j friendship
sKh (noun) friend < sKj friendship
svzn (noun) good person < `sHznj civility
sv~qr beautiful < `sH~qxò beauty
yñr still < ∏ñxò firmness, steadiness
i nouns from o adjectives
agî top gone, departed < agîgyu progress

plus gu
ahs∆ attached < ahsy∆ attachment
\#j∆ emphatic < \#jy∆ emphasis
\êu developed < \êyu development
k†h™ tired < k†hy™ tiredness
gu gone, departed < gyu passage, movement
chlhk clever < chlhyk cleverness
uv§ satisfied < uvy§ satisfaction
uéú satisfied < uéyú satisfaction 83
3 qîßu quick, swift < qîßyu speed
Morphological —gu departed < —gyu progress
features —zhu produced, grown < —zhyu species
—Nu bent, inclined < —Nyu bowing down,
obeisance
ybnu humble < ybnyu modesty
ybr∆ annoyed < ybry∆ annoyance
ybru ceased < ybryu cessation
B∆ devoted < By∆ devotion
xv∆ joined, united < xvy∆ union, reason,
argument
S∆ hard, strong < Sy∆ strength
Sh™ peaceful < Shy™ peace
suj true < syuj truth
ãméu recollected < ãméyu memory,
remembrance
sßîu exuded, flowed < sîßyu outflow, distillation
out
ami, aki nouns (these tend to imply a deliberate, artificial attitude)
iur base, vile < iurhym joke, taunt

njhkh noun pretender < njhkhym pretense of honesty
chlhk clever < chlhyk trick, cleverness
qv§v naughty < qv§hym naughtiness
B’ deceitful < B’hym hypocrisy
phgl crazy < phglhym madness
phkh ripe < phkhym precociousness
mhuhl drunk < mhulhym drunkenness
people in i
aujhchrY tyrant, ayQbhsY resident, chXY farmer, qryz tailor, bhbvryc cook, yb“hnY
scientist, bjy∆ person, mìY minister, mhyZ fisherman, mhyl gardener, ymyã«
carpenter, xh«Y traveller, r£hQnY cook, sìhsY terrorist, …hmY husband
people in dar
aLSYqhr shareholder, zymqhr landowner, `qhkhnqhr shopkeeper

people in -ik
ahyQkhyrk officer `—ymk lover

mhylk owner rhznYyuk politician
84 shLbhyqk journalist ∏synk soldier
people in -ok Word classes
overview
aQjhpk professor anvbhqk translator kéXk farmer
gfbXk researcher ghwk singer Gtk matchmaker
chlk driver zYbk physician nhwk actor
pyrchlk leader phTk reader phlk guardian
—chrk preacher —uhrk swindler ybchrk judge
xhzk clergyman `lKk writer Shsk ruler
ySÇk teacher shbhlk adult sôphqk editor
3.7 Word classes overview
Bangla distinguishes between inflected and non-inflected word classes.

Inflected word classes are nouns, pronouns and verbs. Non-inflected word
classes are adjectives, quantifiers, adverbs, postpositions, conjunctions,
emphasisers, particles and interjections.
Nouns
Bangla nouns have the following categories:
number (singular – plural)

animacy (animate – inanimate)
definiteness (definite – indefinite)
formality (honorific – non-honorific)
count – non-count
case (nominative, genitive, object, locative)
In order to distinguish these categories, nouns take classifiers (th, gvflh),

modifiers and case endings. There are no articles in Bangla. Genitive
nouns can operate as attributive adjectives to modify other nouns (lhl Pvl,
`shnhr ahLyt).
Locative nouns assist in forming adverbs and postpositions. Genitive nouns
can form sentence subjects in impersonal structures.
Pronouns
Bangla has the following types of pronouns:
personal, inanimate, relative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and

deictic (demonstrative). 85
3 Personal pronouns distinguish person, formality (ordinary – honorific) and
Morphological number, but not gender. Deictic pronouns can be used attributively to
features modify nouns (ei `Cfl). Relative pronouns overlap with adverbs and
conjunctions to assist in the formation of correlative structures (xh - uh,
`xmn - ùmn, xKn - uKn). Interrogative pronouns overlap with adjectives
and adverbs in the formation of questions (yk, `khn, kKn).
Verbs
Verb conjugation distinguishes person, formality and tense but not number
or gender. Verbs have eight tenses:
simple present, present continuous, present perfect, future tense,

simple past, past continuous, past perfect and past habitual.
Bangla verbs have 2nd and 3rd person imperatives. Each verb has four
non-finite verb forms: verbal noun xhowh, imperfective participle `xfu, perfective
participle ygfw and conditional participle `gfl. Non-finite verb forms provide
the aspectual features of Bangla and also play a crucial role in the formation
of sentences. Verbal nouns can be the subjects of sentences and they can also
be used attributively before nouns as verbal adjectives.
Bangla has causative verbs. The relatively small inventory of Bangla simple
verbs is augmented by noun–verb or adjective–verb combinations (conjunct
verbs) with the capacity to bring new verbs into the language.
A small number of high-frequency verbs provide the basis for the different
types of sentences in Bangla.
Negation occurs on the sentence level and follows the verb at the end of
the sentence. Negation can be restricted by placing the universal negator
nh before certain verb forms. Bangla has two incomplete negative verbs. The
invariable `ni which negates the existential verb ahC-, and n-, the negator
in equational structures.
Adjectives, quantifiers, adverbs
Bangla adjectives are indeclinable. They occur attributively before nouns

and predicatively in equational sentences. Many adjectives can be used
nominally by taking a classifier (bRth, `Chtgvflh) and many adjectives can
also be used adverbially. A special sub-group of adjectives are quantifiers,
86 which behave differently from other adjectives within noun phrases. Adverbs
are treated separately from adjectives in this book. This enables us to classify Word classes
them according to their functions in sentences. overview
Postpositions
Postpositions are mainly derived from nouns and verbs but have moved
away from their nominal and verbal origins to form a word class by
themselves. There are also some underived postpositions. Many postpositions
can also be used adverbially.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions divide into coordinating, subordinating and correlative con-

junctions. Much of the work done by English subordinating conjunctions
such as although, because or after is done in Bangla by non-finite verb forms.
Two-part correlatives are the real basis for subordination, embedding and
complex sentence formation.
Interrogatives
Interrogatives are a mixture of pronouns, adjectives and adverbs. They

cannot properly be considered a word class but are treated separately in
this book purely for practical reasons.
Emphasisers, particles and interjections
These word classes provide commentary or attitude in sentences. Some of

their uses are syntactically determined, others are more flexible. It is largely
due to these word classes, as well as to features like reduplication and
onomatopoeia, that language can move from being an abstract system to
living communication.
Word order
Basic word order is SOV: Subject – Object – Verb. For sentence forma-
tion this means that the subject at the beginning and the verb at the end 87
3 provide a kind of frame and all other sentence parts, except negation, come
Morphological between subject and verb. The position directly before the verb is taken
features up by objects which are governed by the verb. Any other items like adverbs
or postpositional phrases come directly after the subject. Due to the
inflected character of the language, word order is relatively flexible. Attri-
butive adjectives precede nouns. Case endings are suffixed and there are
postpositions.
Sentence types
On the basis of predicates we distinguish the following types of sentences:
1 Active sentences have nominative subjects with noun–verb–agreement.

2 Equational sentences have a subject and a complement with a zero
copula in the simple present.
3 Existential sentences are formed with the verb ahC- be, exist. They can
have nominative subjects or genitive experiencers.
4 Impersonal sentences are formed with a small number of high-frequency
verbs. They have 3rd person verb forms and no nominative subjects.
A sub-group of this type of sentence is impersonal passives with Mowh be
and xhowh go.
Modality
Bangla has no subjunctive verb forms but manages modality in three

separate ways:
1 use of verb tenses

2 a small number of subjunctive-triggering conjunctions
3 some fixed combinations of non-finite verb forms with high-frequency
verbs to express obligation, permission, possibility, need or prohibition.
Reduplication and onomatopoeia
Reduplication is an important device in Bangla which pervades not only

the lexicon but is also an integral part of sentence formation. Duplicated
adjectives and nouns can convey plural meanings. Doubled verb forms
provide aspective features. Bangla has a great number of onomatopoeia
88 which add flavour and colour to the language.
Part 2
Word classes
Chapter 4
Nouns
Nouns give us the focus or topic of sentences. Nouns name people, things,
events and ideas. They function as subjects and objects but also give us
place bhghfn in the garden, time skhfl in the morning and circumstances
aynÉChw against one’s will of actions or events.
4.1 Types of nouns
Bangla nouns can be divided into the following semantic subgroups:
type of noun examples
(a) proper names sL“hbhck ybfSXj nzrßl Nazrul, gÃh Ganges, Bhru
India, uhz mMl Taj Mahal
(b) common nouns shQhrN ybfSXj nlkVp tubewell, ghyR car, kvkvr dog,
chmc spoon
(c) generic nouns zhyubhck ybfSXj mhnvX person, phyK bird, Pl fruit,
ghC tree
(d) collective nouns smy§bhck ybfSXj ql group, phl flock, ghqh heap,
`SîNY class
(e) materials pqhUòbhck ybfSXj zl water, `lhMh iron, khT wood,
`rSm silk
(f ) singular nouns ekk ybfSXj sVxò sun, c£hq moon, ah^hM Allah,
ISár God
(g) abstract nouns gvNbhck ybfSXj svK happiness, smw time, k¶pnh
imagination, BhXh language
(h) verbal nouns yœwhbhck ybfSXj gNn counting, ySÇh learning,
qSòn view, ChRh releasing
91
4 These divisions are quite flexible and individual words can switch from
Nouns one group to another. Just as kvkvr dog can be used as a generic noun, so
phyK bird can be a common noun. The distinctions will prove useful when
we come to distinctions of count – non-count and singular – plural issues
below.
4.2 Formation of nouns
Nouns in Bangla have no uniform shape but there are many nouns
which are derived from adjectives or verbs and have distinctive endings:
s®b possible – s®hbnh possibility, srl honest – srluh honesty, sv~qr beautiful
– `sH~qxò beauty, etc. A list of these is given on pp. 88ff (noun derivations).
Bangla nouns can have the following grammatical distinctions:
singular – plural
definite – indefinite
animate – inanimate
ordinary – honorific
count – non-count
case (nominative, genitive, objective, locative)
Bangla has no fixed articles but operates with a small number of classifiers
which are added to nouns to make them definite or indefinite, singular or
plural. The use of these classifiers differs according to whether a noun is
animate or inanimate, count or non-count, ordinary or honorific. Classifiers
work together with numbers, quantifiers and, of course, case endings to
make noun phrases. Not only is this system of marking nouns quite
different from what we know in English, it is also rather fluid in itself in
that the same classifiers are used for different purposes. This makes the
classification of nouns one of the more complex chapters of Bangla
grammar.
A section on gender is added to show that what has often been considered
to be a grammatical feature of Bangla nouns is, in fact, nothing more than
a lexical distinction between male and female humans.
4.3 Gender
In linguistics we distinguish between grammatical and natural gender. In

92 languages with grammatical gender (e.g. Hindi, French, German) each
noun, regardless of its meaning, conjugates according to its gender. In many Gender
languages adjectives have gender-specific forms, for instance a beautiful
house in French is feminine: une belle maison; a beautiful village masculine:
un beau village; an old town is feminine: une vieille ville; an old castle mascu-
line: un vieux château.
There is no grammatical gender in Bangla.
Natural gender refers to the distinction between male and female living
beings. Bengali pronouns distinguish person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) but not gender.
The 3rd person pronoun `s can refer to men, women and inanimates equ-
ally. Predicative adjectives do not make a gender distinction, i.e. `mfwyt asvñ
the girl is ill and `Cflyt asvñ the boy is ill, `mfwyt sv~qr the girl is beautiful
and gîhmth sv~qr the village is beautiful.
There are some remnants of natural gender distinction in a handful of

nouns and attributive adjectives which are directly derived from Sanskrit
but these distinctions have become lexicalised.
adjectives and nouns with feminine forms endings in a
male female male female
az azh goat kyn©T kyn©Th youngest

kvytl kvytlh bent képN képNh miserly
`khykl `khyklh cuckoo ctvl ctvlh swift, restless
cuvr cuvrh skilful cpl cplh lively
zytl zytlh complex uéuYw uéuYwh third
y#uYw y#uYwh second nbYn nbYnh new
pYyru pYyruh lover —Um —Umh first
y—w y—wh dear ybbhyMu ybbhyMuh married
béº béºh old person béM≠m béMumh huge
BYu BYuh frightened myln mylnh dark, dull
mMhSw mMhSwh high-minded mhnnYw mhnnYwh respected
méu méuh dead lylu lyluh pleasant
ySXj ySXjh disciple `Sî∞©T `Sî©Th best
srl srlh straight svSYl svSYlh gentle
feminine forms ending in i
ykfShr ykfShrY adolescent kvmhr kvmhrY boy/girl

Ch« Ch«Y pupil urßN urßNY young person
qhuh qh«Y donor qvlhl qvlhlY darling 93
4 `qb `qbY deity nq nqY river
Nouns nr nhrY man/woman `nuh `n«Y leader
bvRh bvRY old person mhnb mnbY man/woman
még mégY deer rhÇs rhÇsY rakhsa
sv~qr sv~qrY beautiful MyrN MyrnY deer
person
In addition to these there are a great number of kinship terms with a

systematic a – i distinction, such as ypsh father’s sister’s husband, ypys father’s
sister, chch father’s younger brother, chyc father’s younger brother’s wife,
mhmh mother’s brother, mhym mother’s brother’s wife.
feminine forms ending in ni nY, ani ahnY, ini inY
male female
gvNY gvyNnY worthy person

chkr chkrhnY servant
`zfl `zflnY fisherman/woman
`Qhph `QhphnY laundry-man/woman
nhuY nhunY grandson/daughter
phglh phgylnY madman/woman
bhG bhyGnY tiger
yBKhrY yBKhyrnY beggar
mhlY mhylnY gardener
feminine forms ending in ikh
ySÇk ySyÇkh teacher ghwk ghywkh singer

sôphqk sôphyqkh editor bhlk bhylkh boy/girl
`—ymk `—ymkh lover aQjhpk aQjhypkh professor
`sbk `sybkh nurse `lKk `lyKkh writer
phTk phyTkh reader anvbhqk anvbhyqkh translator
nhwk nhywkh actor phck phyckh cook
adjectives with male forms in bhn -ban or mhn -man, female forms in buY -boti
or moti
aLSvmhn aLSvmuY luminous aUòbhn aUòbuY rich,

wealthy
Çmuhbhn ÇmuhbuY powerful Çmhbhn ÇmhbuY tolerant
qwhbhn qwhbuY merciful bvyºmhn bvyºmuY wise
94 Bgbhn BgbuY god
other, irregular forms Bare nouns
bív friend (male) bhíyb friend (female)

Bhgfn nephew BhygnY niece
`mhrg cock mvryg hen
SáSvr father-in-law ShSvyR mother-in-law
4.4 Bare nouns
In order to understand the way Bangla noun phrases are formed we

consider the bare noun as the basis of our analysis. A bare noun is a noun
on its own, without any classifiers or other modifiers such as possessives,
deictics, quantifiers or qualifiers.
Bangla operates on a need-to-know basis. This means that a distinction

between singular and plural or between definite and indefinite is only made
when it is necessary. Where the context makes the reference clear, classifiers
can be dropped. Because the examples below had to be taken out of context,
they will sometimes allow alternative interpretations, for instance ybChnh `k
phfu? can mean either Who makes the beds? or Who makes the bed?
The following types of nouns regularly occur without any classifiers or
modifiers:
(1) names and titles: `rhfkwh Rokeya, aymu Amit, nzrßl Nazrul, bhbh father,
sjhr Sir, `mmshfMb madam, ISár God . . .
(2) natural phenomena: sVxò sun, c£hq moon, pVyNòmh full moon, ahkhS sky, béy§
rain, ZR storm, shgr, smvqî the sea, nqY river
(3) generic nouns: mhnvX human being, pSv animal, phyK bird, ghC tree, Qhn
paddy, ahm mango
(4) abstract nouns: iyuMhs history, péyUbY earth, smhz society, Bhflhbhsh love,
rhznYyu politics, …pä dream, …gò heaven
(5) non-count nouns and materials: zl /phyn water, mwqh flour, phT jute,
khc glass, mq alcohol, `lhMh iron, phUr stone
(6) verbal nouns: krh do, xhowh go, `qKh see, `qowh give, Gvmhfnh sleep
Taking these and all other types of nouns into account, a bare noun
can be:
(a) definite singular
mh `Cflfk dhkfC/ The mother is calling the boy.
ahkhS pyr©khr Uhfk/ The sky is clear.
sVxò ahz `qKh `qwyn/ The sun didn’t appear today. 95
4 (b) definite plural
Nouns
ybChnh `k phfu? Who makes the beds?
uhrh ahzfk `qKh xhw nh/ The stars are not visible today.
(c) indefinite plural (count nouns)
bhghfn ghC ahfC/ There are trees in the garden.

\pnjhs uhr sbfcfw Bhl lhfg/ He likes novels best.
bhÉch Uhkfl zYbn ektv anjrkm Life changes a bit when there are
Mfw xhw/ children.
(d) definite non-count:
zl `bfR `gfC/ The water has risen.

sbònhS Mfw `gl bjbshw/ The business has gone bankrupt.
(e) indefinite non-count:
it, svryk o ysfm~t ynfw klkhuh SMfr `ChthCvyt krfC qS bCr Qfr/
For the last ten years he has been running around in Kolkata with
bricks, brick-dust and cement.
ei `qfS Qhn pht Mw/ Rice and jute grow here.
(f) Bare nouns are used generically, i.e. in simple present tense statements
which are often called universal truths.
phyK ahkhfS ofR, mhnvX M£hft, mhC zfl Uhfk/

Birds fly in the sky, human beings walk, fish live in the sea.
mhfwr Bhifk mhmh bfl, bhbhr Bhifk khkh bfl/
A mother’s brother is called mama, a father’s brother kaka.
sVxò pvbyqfk ofT, pyŸcm yqfk aÄ xhw/
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
yqy^ xhowhr `tîn MhoRh `ãtSn Ùfk ChfR/
The train to Delhi leaves from Howrah Station.
(g) A bare noun cannot be singular indefinite. However, the very clear
dividing line between a definite the song and an indefinite a song that
exists in English is often less important in Bangla. Here are some
examples which in English translate with an indefinite article.
ahym ahm KhyÉC/ I am eating a mango.

ahym bi pRyC/ I am reading a book.
ahym shÇhJkhr `qb/ I will give an interview.
96 ahmrh ghyR yknb/ We will buy a car.
The classifiers
4.5 The classifiers – overview
– overview
Classifiers are attachments. They never occur alone but can be attached
to nouns, pronouns, quantifiers or adjectives with varying modifying
effect. When a classifier is used it is positioned between the noun and
its case ending. This means that case endings are always the final noun
attachment.
`Cfl-th-r of the boy, `mfw-yt-`k to the girl, ghC-gvflh-ù in the trees

The classifiers used to modify Bangla nouns divide, first of all, into singular
and plural as follows:
(a) singular: th, yt, zn, Khnh, Khyn (b) plural: gvflh, gvyl
Added to these is the bit of classifier tvkv which is used with non-count
items.
All of these, when suffixed to a bare noun, will make this noun definite. Not
all classifiers can be used with all nouns. The exact use of each classifier
is given in 4.7.
singular definite:
klmth the pen, Sûqyt the word, `lhkzn the person, biKhnh the book,
MhuKhyn the hand, mvKtvkv the (small) face
plural definite:
`Cflgvflh the boys, `mfwgvyl the girls, klhgvflh the bananas,

smsjhgvyl the problems
Singular classifiers, added to the numeral ek one before the bare noun,
make the noun indefinite, e.g.:
singular indefinite:
ekth klm a pen, ekyt Sûq a word, ekzn `lhk a person, ekKhnh bi a book,
ekKhyn Mhu a hand, ektvkv mvK a (small) face
Plural indefinites are often without any classifier.
For animate nouns we have the plural marker rh with its variants -erh and
-`wrh. This can create definite or indefinite noun phrases, depending on the
context. 97
4 rh -ra follows vowels:
Nouns
from `mfw girl `mfwrh girls or the girls
from myMlh woman myMlhrh women or the women
from bhbv gentleman bhbvrh the gentlemen or gentlemen
erh -era follows consonants:
from `lhk person `lhfkrh the people or people
from `bhn sister `bhfnrh the sisters or sisters
from br bridegroom bfrrh the bridegrooms or bridegrooms
`wrh -yera follows monosyllabic nouns ending in a vowel or diphthong
from mh mother mhfwrh the mothers or mothers
from Bhi brother Bhifwrh the brothers or brothers
from Qhi midwife Qhifwrh the midwives or midwives
rh is not counted as a classifier because it does not display the flexibility
classifiers have. rh cannot be followed by a case marker and, in many ways,
it can be considered a nominative plural case marker for animate nouns.
4.6 Noun paradigms
Before we go into the details of individual structures, classifiers and case,

the following charts give an overview of basic noun structure in Bangla.
Honorific human nouns
number nominative genitive objective
Indefinite sg ekzn ekzn kyb ekzn kybr ekzn kybfk

a poet of a poet to a poet
pl -rh kybrh kybfqr kybfqr(`k)
poets of poets to poets
numbered yunzn kyb yunzn kybr yunzn kybfk
three poets of three poets to three poets
Definite sg — kyb kybr kybfk
the poet the poet’s to the poet
pl -rh same as indefinite plural
kybrh kybfqr kybfqr(`k)
the poets of the poets to the poets
numbered kyb yunzn kyb yunzfnr kyb yunznfk
the three poets of the three poets to the three poets
98
Noun
Non-honorific human nouns
paradigms
number nominative genitive objective
Indefinite sg ekzn ekzn `lhk ekzn `lhfkr ekzn `lhkfk

a person of a person to a person
sg ekyt ekyt `mfw ekyt `mfwr ekyt `mfwfk
a girl of a girl to a girl
sg ekth ekth `Cfl ekth `Cflr ekth `Cflfk
a boy of a boy to a boy
pl — or rh `mfw, `mfwrh `mfwfqr `mfwfqr(`k)
girls of girls to girls
numbered zn yunzn `lhk yunzn `lhfkr yunzn `lhkfk
three people of three people to three people
numbered yt qvyt `mfw qvyt `mfwr qvyt `mfwfk
two girls of two girls to two girls
numbered th chrth `Cfl chrth `Cflr chrth `Cflfk
four boys of four boys to four boys
Definite sg yt `mfwyt `mfwytr `mfwytfk
the girl of the girl to the girl
sg th `Cflth `Cflthr `Cflthfk
the boy of the boy to the boy
pl gvyl `Cflgvyl `Cflgvylr `Cflgvylfk
the boys of the boys to the boys
pl gvflh `mfwgvflh `mfwgvflhr `mfwgvflhfk
the girls of the girls to the girls
numbered zn `lhk yunzn `lhk yunzfnr `lhk yunznfk
the three people of the three to the three
people people
numbered yt `mfw qvyt `mfw qvytr `mfw qvytfk
the two girls of the two girls to the two girls
numbered th `Cfl chrth `Cfl chrthr `Cfl chrthfk
the four boys of the four boys to the four boys
99
4
Inanimates
Nouns
number nominative/ genitive locative

objective
Indefinite sg ekth ekth ghC ekth ghfCr ekth ghfC

a tree of a tree in a tree
sg ekyt ekyt yqn ekyt yqfnr ekyt yqfn
a day of a day on a day
sg ekKhnh ekKhnh bi ekKhnh bifwr ekKhnh bifu
a book of a book in a book
pl — ghC ghfCr ghfC
trees of trees in trees
numbered th yunth ghC yunth ghfCr yunth ghfC
three trees of three trees in three trees
numbered yt chryt yqn chryt yqfnr chryt yqfn
four days of four days on four days
numbered Khnh qvKhnh bi qvKhnh bifwr qvKhnh bifu
two books of two books in two books
Definite sg th ghCth ghCthr ghCthw
the tree of the tree on the tree
sg yt yqnyt yqnytr yqnytfu
the day of the day on the day
sg Khnh biKhnh biKhnhr biKhnhw
the book of the book in the book
pl gvflh ghCgvflh ghCgvflhr ghCgvflhfu
the trees of the trees in the trees
pl gvyl yqngvyl yqngvylr yqngvylfu
the days of the days in the days
numbered th ghC yunth ghC yunthr ghC yunthw
the three trees of the three trees in the three trees
numbered yt yqn chryt yqn chrytr yqn chrytfu
the four days of the four days on the four days
numbered Khnh bi qvKhnh bi qvKhnhr bi qvKhnhw
the two books of the two books in the two books
100
The classifiers
4.7 The classifiers – one-by-one
– one-by-one
1 th
th can be considered the default classifier in Bangla. Its uses go far

beyond that of an article and also affects word classes other than nouns.
Although th is by itself a singular classifier, it also combines with numbers
and quantifiers (see below).
The most graphic and concise explanation of the relationship between

th and zn on the one hand and th and Khnh on the other comes from
Probal Dasgupta1 who says:
p£hczn `Cflfk p£hcth `Cfl blfl uhfqr mnvXjuh ektv km bfl Qrh xhw/ uhfu
`Cflrh ùmn ahpy≠ krfb nh/ `nuhrh yk≤ krfb/
Calling five-rh boys five-th boys reduces their human status a little bit.
Boys-rh won’t mind that so much but leaders-rh will mind. and
thfwr mhUhr yqfk —yufbSY `xmn zn, phfwr yqfk ùmn Khnh/
As zn is the neighbour of th at the top, so Khnh is its neighbour at the
bottom end.
(a) th is added to a noun to make it definite:
GyRth the clock, kvkvrth the dog, `Cflth the boy

It is predominantly used with inanimate nouns but can, somewhat
less respectfully, follow non-honorific human nouns. It cannot be
added to nouns that take a honorific verb ending.
(b) th is added to ek one, preceding the noun, to mark a count noun

as indefinite:
ekth ghC a tree, ekth `lhk a person, ekth ayB“uh an experience

(c) th is added to numbers with count nouns:
chrth ShyR four sarees, Mhzhrth —Sä a thousand questions,

p£ycSth nhyrfklghC twenty-five coconut trees
th has two allomorphs `th to and `t te which are used, mainly in
West Bengal, for vowel harmony.
qvfth two, yunft three, chrft four chybft the key, eft this
1 Probal Dasgupta, kUhr yœwhkmò, p. 5f

(a) definite nouns (b) indefinite nouns (c) numbered indefinite (d) quantified (e) numbered
definite (f) with deictics 101
4 (d) th can be added to quantifiers with count nouns, non-count nouns
Nouns and adjectives:
kfwkth smsjh a few problems shrhth yqn the whole day long
euth ∏MFc so much fuss afnkth smw much time
ykCvth Bhl moderately good uuth grm so hot
(e) With low numbers only and with some quantifiers, the order of
noun and number/quantifier plus th is reversed to produce a definite
noun phrase:
`Cfl qvfth the two boys klm yunft the three pens
phyK chrth the four birds smsjh kfwkth the few problems
(f) th is optionally added to deictic noun phrases with no obvious
function:
ei `qhkhnth this shop o kUhth that statement

(g) th is added to numbers for time references:
yunth bhfz three o’clock shfR chrth half past four

(h) th can be added to most parts of speech to make them into nouns:
deictic pronouns: eth this (thing), oth that (thing), `sth that (thing)
adjectives: lhlth the red one, bRth the big one, asBjth the impolite
one, anjth the other one
possessive pronouns: ahmhrth my one, ynfzrth one’s own
adverbs, quantifiers, postpositions, conjunctions: eirkmth this
kind of thing, ykCvth some, ahfgrth the previous one, b£h yqfkrth the
one on the left side, \pfrrth the one on top, bhifrrth the one
outside, yk≤th the ‘but’
Once these derived nouns are formed they can take case endings
like other nouns, e.g.:
b£h yqfkrthfk syrfw qho/ Move the one on the left.

ahmhrthfu ycyn `qowh MfwfC/ Mine has got sugar in it.
ahfgrthr rL `kmn yCl mfn pRfC nh/ I can’t remember the colour of
the previous one.
102 definite (f) with deictics
(i) th can be added to verbal nouns to make them definite, sometimes The classifiers
in conjunction with deictics: – one-by-one
asvñ Mowhth ei smfw Kvb asvybfQr/ It is very inconvenient to fall ill

at this time.
ùhmhr ei —yubhq krhth a—fwhzn/ This protest of yours is
unnecessary.
2 yt
yt is more limited in its use than th but it has one feature that th does
not have: it can be used with honorific verb endings. We can say mhnvXyt
efsfCn/ The man has come, but not * mhnvXth efsfCn/ yt shares with th all
the uses from (a) to (f). Traditionally, yt is said to have a less neutral,
more sympathetic or affectionate overtone than th. This is generally true
in the context of human beings: we are more likely to have `lhkth the
man and `mfwyt the girl than the other way round. However, there are
many factual contexts where th and yt are used equally without any
emotional content. Authors switch from one to the other freely; and
nouns can be assigned first one then the other classifier even in the same
sentence. Here is a typical example from a scientific article:
`shnh ahr ekyt yny©œw pqhUò - uhi `sth `khno ykCvr sfÃ ybyœwh kfr nh/
Gold is another inactive material – that is why it does not react with
anything else.
Tagore says that th looks at the whole of one concept whereas yt em-
phasises the limited specifics. This is worth keeping in mind as we look
at the examples.
examples with yt
(a) yqnyt the day, mvfKr Mhysyt the smile on her face, \pnjhsyt the novel,
bjhphryt the matter
(b) ekyt ghn a song, ekyt myMlh a woman, ekyt ybfSX mhnvX a special person
(c) yunyt bi three books, p£hcyt chmc five spoons, qvyt nqY two rivers
(d) kfwkyt —Sä a few questions, ahfrkyt ahŸcxò Gtnh another amazing event,
—yuyt bhÉch every child
(e) phyK qvyt the two birds, `mfw chryt the four girls, ghyR yunyt the three cars
(f) `s khyMnYyt that story, ei Cybyt this picture, e qéy§yt this view
4 3 zn
Nouns
zn can only be used with human beings and rarely follows a noun. It
does not have the definite singular properties of th or yt. Adding zn to
nouns such as `lhk person or mhnvX human being results in definite or
indefinite plural noun phrases:
o `lhkznfk bR sMfz ybSáhs kru/

He believed people very easily.
e£fqr ku bR bR bhyR, ku mhnvXzn/
They have so many big houses, so many people.
smUòno `pfwyCfln afnk ybqgÜzfnr khC Ùfk/
He also had the support of many learned people.
zn comes into its own with numbers and quantifiers preceding nouns
ekzn kyb a poet, yunzn ghwk three singers, qSzn Ch«Y ten students, and
also in being able to make numerals and quantifiers into animate nouns
bMvzn many (people), qvzfn the two of them, ahmrh yunzn the three of us, etc.
zn is the only possible classifier with indefinite honorific nouns ekzn
rhzh a king, ekzn dh∆hr a doctor, qvzn mìY two ministers. Of the common
quantifiers afnk much, many is the only one that does not combine with zn.
This is most likely due to the fact that there is another form afnfk meaning
many people. The -e ending to make a plural, also used in qvzfn the two
of them, both of them is given on p. 110. Singular–plural issues.
yunzn `mfw qrKhÄ kfrfCn/ Three girls applied.

bMvzn `s yqfn yCfln/ Many people were here that day.
kwzn ahsfbn? How many people will come?
4 Khnh, Khyn
Khnh and Khyn are traditionally said to be restricted to inanimate, square,

thin, flat objects, which is to a foreigner at first rather baffling. The
following two statements give us a more specific understanding:
ekKhnh mhC means fish on the plate, ekth mhC can also refer to live fish.2
When we say nqYKhnh we think of the river as something seen in a picture.3
2 Probal Dasgupta, kUhr yœwhkmò, p. 5

3 Rabindranath Tagore, bhLlh BhXh pyrcw, p. 61
Khnh shares with th and yt the uses (a) to (f) and is not, as the examples The classifiers
show, entirely restricted to inanimate flat objects. Khyn can also be used – one-by-one
with non-count nouns and adjectives to imply not individually counted
pieces but amounts – these examples are given under (d).
examples with Khnh, Khyn
(a) bjhphrKhnh the matter, ahowhzKhnh the sound, BhbKhnh the attitude, `cMhrhKhnh
the appearance
(b) ekKhnh zym a piece of land, ekKhnh ycyT a letter, ekKhyn khpR a piece of
cloth, ekKhnh bhyR a house
(c) ahQKhnh ahfpl half an apple, uhr qvKhyn Mhu both her hands, p£hcKhnh \pMhr
five presents, ahQKhnh mh« ã«Yflhk a slip of a woman, yunKhyn ShyR three
sarees, qvfwkKhyn ghn one or two songs
(d) amounts: afnkKhyn Shy™ much peace, afnkKhyn ãp§ much clearer, quite
clear, a¶pKhyn a…yÄ some discomfort
(e) chqr qvKhnh the two sheets, mhlh yunKhyn the three garlands, Khuh chrKhnh
the four notebooks
(f) `s srß ghKhyn that slim body, ei mvKKhnh this face, e MhysKhnh this smile,
emn ekKhnh ahflh-Zrhfnh `mfw ‘a girl who sheds light around her’
5 gvflh, gvyl (occasionally gvlh)
These are plural classifiers. They are used mainly with inanimate
nouns but can also be used non-honorifically with humans. They can
add definiteness as well as plurality. They are added to nouns, possessive
and deictic pronouns, quantifiers and other adjectives, but never to
numbers. gvyl, similarly to yt, can indicate sympathy or smallness.
(a) definite phrases with nouns, adjectives and possessive pronouns:
ayBfnuhgvyl the actors, M£hyRgvyl the pots, `Cflgvflh the boys,

phyKgvyl the birds, smsjhgvflh the problems, pyrbuòngvflh the changes,
bhykgvflh the remaining ones, lhlgvflh the red ones, bRgvyl the big
ones, ahmhrgvflh my ones
(b, c, d) quantifiers followed by gvflh, gvyl can make indefinite or definite
noun phrases afnkgvyl `mfw many girls, kugvflh zhwgh so many places,
eugvflh thkh so much money but sbgvyl `lhk all the people
(e) gvflh, gvyl are never added to numbers
(f ) `s —Sägfv lh those questions, ei Cybgvyl these pictures, o chkhgvflh those tyres
4 (g, h) gvflh /gvyl, like th can nominalise adjectives and take case endings
Nouns accordingly.
bRgvyl the big ones, nuvngvyl the new ones, lhlgvflh the red ones
bRgvylfu ahsbhb `byS/ There is too much furniture in the
big ones.
nuvngvylr Grgvflh ahro sv~qr/ The rooms in the new ones are more
beautiful.
lhlgvflhr …hq ymy§/ The red ones are sweet.
6 tvkv
tvkv (with its variants tv and tvk) gives us a small part of or a little bit of
something. It is separated from the other singular classifiers because it
is predominantly used with non-count nouns and specifies amount rather
than number. tvk, tvkv could also be considered a quantifier, but like the
other classifiers it is a noun suffix and does not stand alone. tvkv can
occasionally combine with distinct singular units `s bhrh~qhtvkv that smallish
verandah, but its main application is with non-count nouns.
(a) definite phrases:
shbhntvkv the bit of soap, xÕtvkv the little bit of care, Mhystvkv the trace
of a smile, qvQtvkv the bit of milk
`sKhfn mvKtvkv Qvfw ykCv `Klhm/
There I washed my face and had something to eat.
Srbutvkv Khifw QYfr QYfr phKhr bhuhs krfu lhgl …hmYr mhUhw/
Having fed him the sherbet she slowly starting fanning her husband’s
head.
(b) indefinite phrases are formed with ektv :
ektv ùl a bit of oil , ektv Shy™ a bit of peace, ektv khyl a bit of
ink , ektv ch a little bit of tea
(c) and (e) tvkv is never added to numbers.
(d) indefinite with quantifiers:
eutvkv `mfwfk ybfw yqfw yqs ùhrh/
You arrange the weddings of so many little girls.
shmhnj ayBfxhgtvkvo phowh `gl nh/
Not even any minor complaints were received.
(f) tvkv differs from all the other classifiers in its combinations with Plural
deictics. All other classifiers can only appear after the noun in deictic formation
phrases: e Cybth, `s ghCgvflh, not following the deictic directly, not
*eth Cyb. With tvkv we find both [deictic + noun + tvkv ] and [deictic +
tvkv + noun] with no difference in meaning:
`s zhwghtvkv or `stvkv zhwgh that bit of space
ei smsjhtvkv or eitvkv smsjh this little problem
`si ∏Qxòtvkv or `sitvkv ∏Qxò that bit of patience
etvkv bvyº ùhmhr Ml nh? You didn’t even have that little
bit of sense?
`sitvkv Shy™fu uhfk Uhkfu qho/ Allow him a bit of peace.
(g) tvkv can turn deictic and relative pronouns into nouns:
etvkv bvZfu phyr `x uhr ekth pyr©khr phrhdhim-`cunh yCl/
I have understood this little bit, that he had a clear awareness of
paradigms.
xutvkv chn `Phfnr Krc yTk uutvkv/
Your phone expenses will be just as little as you want them to be.
4.8 Plural formation
Bangla nouns can distinguish between a single unit/entity (singular) and

multiple units/entities (plural) in the following ways. Plurals are formed by:
4.8.1 Dropping the indefinite singular classifier:
singular plural
ekth `mfw `mfw girls
ekyt —Sä —Sä questions
ekKhnh bi bi books
ekth kvkvr kvkvr dogs
mhnvXzn `qKfl kvymr phlhw/
When crocodiles see people they run away.
4
4.8.2 Adding a plural ending or a plural classifier:
Nouns
bare noun plural
`mfw `mfwgvyl the girls
—Sä —Sägvflh the questions
kvkvr kvkvrgvflh the dogs
mhnvX mhnvXrh or mhnvfXrh people or the people
`Cfl `Cflrh boys or the boys
ysºh™ ysºh™gvyl the decisions
`cwhr `cwhrgvflh the chairs
4.8.3 Adding a plural quantifier or number, either before

or after the noun:
afnk pvkvr many lakes

bMv `lhk plenty of people
kfwkyt `mfw a few girls
ku …pä so many dreams
nhnh smsjh various problems
yunth ghC three trees
sb Uhlh all the plates
`mfw sbhi all the girls
Ch«Y yunyt the three students
nhnh zhwghw in various places
4.8.4 Adding a plural possessive noun or pronoun:
ahmhfqr zYbn our lives

uhfqr yzyns their things
ùhmhfqr …pä your dreams
uhfqr yc™h their worries
myMlhfqr ayQkhr women’s rights
4.8.5 Adding a collective noun either before or after the noun:
phyK sb all the birds

sb Uhlh all the plates
108 `mfw skl all the girls
ahmrh sbhi all of us Plural
ekphl kvkvrChnh a litter of puppies formation
g¶pgvÉC a bundle of stories
ek ql Ch« a group of students
ek ùhRh Pvl a bunch of flowers
ek `SîNY Sûq a class of words
ghqh ghqh KR haystacks
ekghqh záhlh `mhmbhyu a number of lit candles
bhlkgN boys
rhyS rhyS Bhu heaps of rice
rcnhblY collected writings
4.8.6 Doubling words:
This can be the same word repeated, a rhyming word added or an accu-
mulative noun-pair.
pvrh ahkhfS uhrh uhrh stars all over the sky
Kv£ytnhyt niceties, details
shyr shyr ghC rows of trees
qfl qfl xhuhwhu krh travel in groups
khpR-`chpR clothes
ghCphlh trees and plants
bip« books
`Cflpvfl children
bívbhíb friends
4.8.7 Doubling preceding adjectives:
phkh phkh ahm ripe mangoes

\£cv \£cv bhyR high houses
`mhth `mhth bi thick books
bR bR mhC big fish
`khno `khno `lhk some people
bhfz bhfz kUh silly talk
(kUh word is a count noun in Bangla, talk is a non-count noun in
English)
Here is a nice sentence containing (2), (6) and (7):
`Cht `Cht `Cflfmfwgvflh uKn `Cht `khwhtòhfrr `Bufr `qHRhfqHyR Svrß kfr yqfwfC/
The young children were then starting to run around in the small quarters. 109
4
4.8.8 E-plurals
Nouns
An -e ending on the human classsifier zn turns numbers into people.
qvzfn, yunzfn two, three people
Some quantifiers can form animate plurals by adding an -e ending.
afnfk many people

skfl everyone
—fujfk each person
Animate nouns can form an indefinite collective plural by adding an -e

ending.
`lhfk people
mhnvfX people
bhfG tigers
grßfu cows
Chgfl goats
phyKfu birds
4.8.9 Adding -rh and -`qr
-rh is added to animate nouns as a nominative plural ending. It can also

be added to the deictics e this and o that to form animate plurals: erh these
people, orh those people. Instead of *`s-rh we have uhrh. rh is never added
to quantifiers or possessive pronouns but it can turn adjectives into people
bRrh adults, `Chtrh children, gyrbrh the poor, QnYrh the rich, eklhrh the lonely
ones. -rh is a plural ending which can, but does not necessarily, imply
definiteness. In many cases, Bangla simply does not make the distinction
and relies on the context to clarify the situation. In the genitive and object
case -rh changes to -`qr. There is no locative case.
`s `Chtfqr phfkò ynfw `gfC/ She has taken the little ones to the park.
urßNrh ahpnhr mvK Ùfk Svnvk/ Let the young people hear it from your
mouth.
ahzfkr `Cflrh boys of today
`cnhzhnhrh ahsvk, `qKvk! Let the acquaintances come and see!
ahuÖYw …zfnrh ynfw ahsfu phfrn/ You can bring (any) relatives.
ãklhrrh, ayBQhnkhrrh scholars, lexicographers
110 ySyÇu `qSbhsYrh educated citizens
anjhnj `lKkrh other writers Plural
nhgyrkrh town people formation
uhi `Cflrh `rMhi `pfw ygfwyCl/ So the boys were exempted.
uhr yc™h uhr s™hnfqr BybXJ ynfw/ His worries are about his children’s
future.
mìYrh ahghymkhlfk `qKh krfbn/ The ministers will meet tomorrow.
`xn `lhfkrh yk Bhbfb bh Bhbfb nh uh ynfw `khno bvyºmhn `lhk khnhkyRo pfrhwh
kfr kKfnh/
As if any intelligent person would give a hoot what people think or don’t
think.
kvmhrY `mfwr sfÃ `khno xvbfkr Gyn©Tuh `qKfl mh-bhbhrh \y#gä nh-Mfw phfrn nh/
Parents cannot help worrying when they see their young daughter getting
close to a young man.
As Tagore said repeatedly, a grammatical rule in Bangla is a sitting target

for its exceptions. Here are some inanimate nouns which take on human
traits through the addition of -rh.
sMsh `qKh `gl CyRfw pRh `si uhfsrh sb lhfl lhl/

It was suddenly seen that all those scattered cards were red.
esb BhXhrh yk eki zhwghw blh MfÉC?

Are all these languages spoken in the same place?
The following consecutive sentences from a contemporary novel show the

flexibility of plural formation in Bangla as well as the seamless transition
from gvflh to -rh when the stars start to communicate.
run uhykfw `qKl ahkhfS ahz afnk uhrh PvftfC/ uhrhgvflh `xn rufnr yqfk
uhykfw ahfC ahz/ `xn uhykfw uhykfw rufnr khfC ek bhuòh phThfÉC uhrhrh/
Roton saw that many stars had appeared today. It was as if the stars
were looking at her. As if by looking at her the stars were sending her
a message.
4.8.10 Plural formation of names
In English we can add a plural ending to last names to refer to a family

or a group of people: the Johnsons, the Smiths. In Bangla we add -rh to
someone’s first name or to the name we call them to imply that person
plus his family or his group sfMlrh Shohel and his friends, qYfp~qvrh Dipendu
and his family, khkhrh Uncle and his family. 111
4
4.9 Definite – indefinite
Nouns
In English every noun phrase is either definite or indefinite. The distinction

is built into the language at a basic level and contributes to the difficulties
foreign learners have with English articles. Bangla is perfectly capable of
making a definite – indefinite distinction when the need arises but in many
cases the distinction is not expressed because the reference is clear from
the context.
When, after a lot of thought, we find that the only possible plural of a
honorific noun such as ybchrk judge is ybchrkrh or ybchrfkrh and we know
that a rh ending does not necessarily make a noun definite, we are tempted
to think that honorific nouns cannot form a definite plural. This is of course
not the case. When we compare the following two English sentences
1 indefinite: Judges should be merciful.

2 definite: The judges are at lunch.
there is hardly any scope for misunderstanding. In Bangla these two

sentences would be
1 indefinite: ybchrfkr (or ybchrkfqr) qwhbhn Mowh \ycu/

2 definite: ybchrkrh lhnæc KhfÉCn/
Apart from adding a classifier after a noun, definite noun phrases are cre-
ated through deictic and/or possessive adjectives:
ahmhr cSmh my glasses

`s myMlh that woman
e bjhphr this matter
E rhÄh that road
uhr …hmY her husband
ùhmhr `si khz this work of yours
uhfqr ei ahsbhb this furniture of theirs and so on
We have seen the shift from an indefinite classifier before the noun to a
definite classifier after the noun.
ekyt `Cfl a boy – `Cflyt the boy

ektv zhwgh a bit of space – zhwghtvkv the bit of space
This also works with low numbers
qvfth phyK two birds – phyK qvfth the two birds

112 yunKhnh ycyT three letters – ycyT yunKhnh the three letters
for example: Animate –
inanimate
khmhl khk qvfthfk uhRhbhr `c§h kfrfC/
Kamal tried to chase the two crows away.
The definite – indefinite distinction by the positioning of the number does
not work with bigger numbers. We do not say *`Cfl ChyûbSth the twenty-six
boys, most probably because we tend to think of twenty-six boys as a
group. When the emphasis is on the individual boys a deictic can be used
ei ChyûbSth `Cfl these twenty-six boys or ei `Cflgvflh these boys.
4.10 Animate – inanimate
The natural distinction between living (animate) beings and non-living

(inanimate) things is relevant in respect to Bangla nouns in the following
ways:
The classifier zn and the plural suffix rh are reserved for animate beings.
The classifier Khnh is reserved for non-animate things.
The lines between those two groups can be crossed. We have seen ahQKhnh
mh« ã«Yflhk a slip of a woman and uhfsrh the cards. By mixing up what
should naturally stay apart, authors want to convey a particular attitude.
We saw in the plural section that the animate plural ending rh can turn
adjectives into people gyrb poor → gyrbrh the poor. It can also turn a
verbal noun into people ycJkhr krhrh those who were shouting. For animals,
the neutral gvflh plural is the norm but when a farmer talks about his cows
he may well use grßrh.
4.11 Ordinary – honorific
Bangla distinguishes people on the basis of their status. Honorific pronouns

and verb endings are used for respected people. These can be professional
people like doctors, teachers, lawyers, politicians and professors or they
can be parents, grandparents and other respected relatives. Bangla has
the two terms Bqîflhk gentleman and BqîmyMlh lady to give us a general idea
of the kind of person we are talking about. There is not necessarily a
one-to-one relationship between the speaker’s personal relationship with
someone and the way he/she talks about that person or, in grammatical
terms, between 2nd and 3rd person honorific. We can address someone as
ahpyn (polite) and still talk about them as `s (ordinary) or we can address 113
4 someone as uvym (familiar) and still talk about them as yuyn (honorific). In
Nouns contemporary novels the main characters are quite often referred to as `s,
most likely because this creates a more familiar relationship, but there are
also novels in which all but the children are referred to as yuyn.
For our present purposes we need to remember that nouns with th and
gvflh /gvyl call for an ordinary verb form whereas nouns with yt, zn or rh can
go either way. This also means that th is never used with honorific nouns.
yt can be used with nouns which can be either honorific or non-honorific:
myMlhyt efsfCn/ The lady has arrived. Some nouns such as rhzh king, mìY
minister, dh∆hr doctor, kyb poet, etc. are always honorific and do not take
classifiers at all:
—Qhn mìY ybkhfl b∆éuh `qfbn/

The Prime Minister will give a speech this afternoon.
Here is a nice example which shows honorific and non-honorific uses of
`lhk person with different referents in the same sentence:
eu bR ekzn mhnY `lhk, x£hr Mvkvfm pÅhS-ekfShth `lhk `x `khno smw mhytfu
lvytfw pRfu phfr . . .
Such a well-respected important man that fifty or a hundred people would
fall to the ground at his command at any time . . .
4.12 Count – non-count
The distinction between count and noun-count is, in the first place, a
semantic one. Items that can be counted, such as people, marbles, rivers,
stars, radios and elephants are count nouns; rice, milk, metal, silk, patience,
love and sunshine are non-count nouns. The distinction matters because with
non-count nouns we need measure words or quantifiers to count them:
ek ylthr qVQ one litre of milk

qvi ykflh chl two kilos of rice
afnk Bhlbhsh much love
With count nouns we can use ekth, qvith and we can also add a classifier
to the noun itself to make it definite, except with honorific nouns as we
have seen.
Instead of ekth we use ektv with non-count nouns. Although many quan-
tifiers can go with either count or non-count nouns, some of them are
more selective. kfwk a few and kwth a few can only go with count nouns,
114 ektv can only go with non-count nouns.
Case
4.13 Case
Case is a characteristic feature of nouns which identifies the role of a

particular noun within a sentence. Case adds to the inherent meaning of
a bare noun the equipment it needs to function in a sentence.
There is some disagreement among linguists about the number of cases in

Bangla. This is mainly due to the desire to preserve Sanskrit patterns and
to the application of semantic criteria in the definition of cases.4
In order to present a clear picture, this grammar defines case by syntactic

criteria alone. Case is a category of nouns and pronouns which is usually,
but not always, identified by case-endings and marks grammatical relation-
ships within a sentence.
We have four cases in Bangla, each with its own set of case endings. All
case endings are added after classifiers such as th, yt, gvyl or gvflh.
Case endings for pronouns are given in Ch. 5.2.
4.13.1 Nominative
The nominative is the unmarked case which has no case ending and is
used for the subjects of sentences. Nominative nouns and pronouns often
appear at the beginning of sentences.
béy§ pRfC/ It is raining.

`shfMl bhzhfr xhfÉC/ Sohel is going to the market.
`Cflyt ghn ghw/ The boy sings.
nominative plurals are formed either with classifiers (see Ch. 4.5) or, for
animate nouns only, with -rh, erh
nouns ending in a vowel take -rh ra
bhbh father bhbhrh

Bhi brother Bhirh
mhys aunt mhysrh
mhyl gardener mhylrh
4 For a discussion of these issues see my article ‘Panini’s Magic – Towards a clearer
picture of the Bengali case system’, in Rainbow of Linguistics, T Media Publications,
Kolkata 2007. 115
4 `Cfl boy `Cflrh
Nouns `mfw girl `mfwrh
bív friend bívrh
Ch« student Ch«rh
nouns ending in a consonant take erh era or rh ra
mhnvX human being mhnvfXrh or mhnvXrh

`lhk person `lhfkrh
\ykl lawyer \ykflrh or \yklrh
dh∆hr doctor dh∆hrrh
ySÇk teacher ySÇkrh
mhylk owner mhylfkrh or mhylkrh
bhíb friend bhífbrh
4.13.2 Genitive
The genitive ending is added to nouns that modify other nouns and geni-
tive nouns by themselves often act as experiencer subjects in existential
and impersonal structures (see Ch. 30.2)
ynlYr ahwnh Nili-GEN mirror Nili’s mirror

`c§hr Pl effort-GEN result the result of the effort
urkhyrr mslh curry-GEN spice spices in the curry
It has the following case endings:
For nouns of more than one syllable ending in any single vowel except the
inherent vowel, r -r is added to the nominative form:
nominative genitive (of ) nominative genitive

bhbh father bhbhr Zhfmlh trouble Zhfmlhr
gÃh Ganges gÃhr cvlh cooker cvlhr
bhyR home bhyRr urkhyr curry urkhyrr
Shy™ peace Shy™r chyb key chybr
bív friend bívr bhlv sand bhlvr
zhqv magic zhqvr `Cfl boy, son `Cflr
`mfZ floor `mfZr ahflh light ahflhr
`Phfth photo `Phfthr lhghfnh planting lhghfnhr
For monosyllabic nouns ending in any single vowel and nouns ending in a
diphthong (ahi ai, ahw ay, w fy E oi or O ou), `wr -yer or er -er is added, though
116 simple r r endings are also found.
nominative genitive nominative genitive Case
mh mother mhfwr, mhr ph foot phfwr

gh body ghfwr yG ghee yGfwr
ã«Y wife ã«Yfwr Pv puff of air Pvfwr
Bîß brow Bîßfwr \phw way \phfwr
`B£h whistle `B£hfwr Bhi brother Bhifwr, Bhi-er
bi book bifwr Bw fear Bfwr, Bw-er
\Bw both \Bfwr, b\ wife b\fwr, b\-er
\Bw-er
`m May `m-er This ending is preferred for foreign
words and, in this case, to
distinguish it from `mfwr of the girl
Nouns ending in the inherent vowel drop the o and add er er
nominative genitive nominative genitive
k§ trouble kf§r ukò argument ufkòr
r∆ blood rf∆r p« letter pf«r
ph« vessel, phf«r uhJpxò significance uhJpfxòr
container
For all nouns ending in a consonant, the ending is er -er
\≠r north \≠frr grm heat grfmr
ghn song ghfnr gvN virtue, quality gvfNr
zhMhz ship zhMhfzr ùl oil ùflr
yqn day yqfnr `qowhl wall `qowhflr
`qS country `qfSr pyrbuòn change pyrbuòfnr
Genitive endings after classifiers follow the same phonological patterns.
after th, yt, Khnh, Khyn, gvflh, gvyl, r r is added
chqrKhyn the sheet chqrKhynr yqnth the day yqnthr
phyKgvyl the birds phyKgvylr biKhnh the book biKhnhr
mhnvXyt the person mhnvXytr M£hyRgvflh the pots M£hyRgvflhr
after zn, er is added
nominative genitive
ekzn one person ekzfnr
`lhkzn people `lhkzfnr 117
4 The plural ending for animate nouns rh ra changes to `qr der for the
Nouns genitive.
nominative genitive
`mfwrh the girls `mfwfqr
myMXrh the buffaloes myMXfqr
The plural classifier for inanimate nouns gvflh changes to gvflhr for the
genitive, gvyl to gvylr.
A small group of time and place words retain an older genitive form by
adding -khr to the nominative. This formation is well established for some
lexical items, particularly eKhnkhr and eKnkhr, but with other words the
er genitive is also in use. The genitive form -`kr for ahz today and khl
yesterday, tomorrow is a variation of the -khr form.
nominative genitive English

ahz ahzfkr of today
khl khlfkr of yesterday, of tomorrow
kfb kfbkhr of when
ahfg ahfgkhr, ahfgr of before, ago
eKn eKnkhr of now
uKn uKnkhr of then
`rhz `rhzkhr of everyday
eKhn eKhnkhr of here
`syqn `syqnkhr, `syqfnr of those days
mhZKhn mhZKhnkhr of the middle one
\pr \prkhr of the top
ynfc ynfckhr of the bottom
eibhr eibhrkhr, eibhfrr of this time
smw smwkhr, smfwr of the time
`khUh `khUhkhr of where
ahzkhl ahzkhlkhr, ahzkhflr of nowadays
4.13.3 Objective
The objective is used to mark both direct and indirect animate objects (see
Ch. 30.3.1). With inanimate objects (things) the case ending is usually
dropped but it can be used in more complex sentences to clearly mark the
different sentence parts.
118
mh `Cflthfk Khowhw/ Mother feeds the boy. Case
ahym bhbhfk dhklhm/ I called father.
The objective is used to mark the sentence subject with the imperfective
participle and a 3rd person form of Mowh be, become to express
obligation.
bhbhfk ahzfk ayPfs `xfu Mfb/ Father will have to go to the office today.
The case ending for the objective is ke `k:
nominative objective (to) nominative objective

amvk someone amvkfk Qhi midwife Qhifk
bhbh father bhbhfk mh mother mhfk
`lhk person `lhkfk mhnvXyt the person mhnvXytfk
The singular object case ending -`k is also added to the plural classifiers
gvflh and gvyl
`Cflgvyl the boys `Cflgvylfk
Ch«gvflh the students Ch«gvflhfk
The plural classifier for animate nouns rh ra changes to `qr der for
the objective, which makes the plural forms for genitive and objective
identical.
nominative objective
myMlhrh the women myMlhfqr
`lhfkrh the people `lhkfqr
bívrh the friends bívfqr
\yklrh the lawyers \yklfqr
Ch«rh the students Ch«fqr
In order to distinguish the two forms, an additional `k ke is sometimes
added to the `qr der ending for the objective.
ySyÇkh bhÉchfqrfk g¶p `Shnhn/ The teacher tells the children a story.
4.13.4 Locative
The locative marks physical or abstract positions, directions and processes

and corresponds to English prepositions such as on, in, by, at. The locative
has some specific uses with animate nouns.
119
4 nqYfu river-LOC on the river
Nouns skhfl morning-LOC in the morning
mfn mind-LOC in the mind
Mhfu hand-LOC by hand, with the hand
The locative has the following endings:
For nouns ending in a consonant or in a diphthong e e is added.
nominative locative
aíkhr darkness aíkhfr
anjhw wrong-doing anjhfw
khgz paper khgfz
khl time khfl
gîhm village gîhfm
Gr building, room Gfr
qhw danger qhfw
qvpvr midday qvpvfr
php sin phfp
bi book bifw (note the additional glide w y)
Nouns ending in a and occasionally nouns ending in o add w y or ù te.
The w ending is the more traditional form but ù endings on nouns ending
in a are on the increase. Undoubtedly the extra syllable is felt to be more
effective by many people.
nominative locative
ahSh hope ahShw or ahShfu
klkhuh Kolkata klkhuhw or klkhuhfu
khwqh method khwqhw or khwqhfu
kvwhSh fog kvwhShw or kvwhShfu
`c§h effort `c§hw or `c§hfu
thkh money thkhw or thkhfu
uvlnh comparison uvlnhw or uvlnhfu
bhsh house bhshw or bhshfu
xhwgh place xhwghw or xhwghfu
síjh evening síjhw or síjhfu
`Phfth photo `Phfthw or `Phfthfu
eth this ethfu
uh that uhfu
120
Nouns ending in i, u, e, o and diphthongs add ù te Multiple noun
attachments
ahflh light ahflhfu
bhyR home bhyRfu
`mfZ floor `mfZfu
rYyu system rYyufu
Shy™ peace Shy™fu
Svrß beginning Svrßfu
Nouns ending in the inherent vowel drop the o and add e e
ahn~q joy ahnf~q

ukò argument ufkò
qvAK regret qvAfK
pVbò east pVfbò
bhkj sentence bhfkj
mvMVuò moment mvMVfuò
The locative has no distinct plural forms but the singular endings can be
added to plural classifiers.
ghCgvflhfu tree-PL-LOC in the trees

`s yqngvylfu that day-PL-LOC in those days
uhr ãméyugvylfu his memory-PL-LOC in his memories
Personal pronouns do not usually take the locative case but the following
forms exist:
nominative locative
ahym I ahmhw, ahmhfu
uvym you (familiar) ùhmhw, ùhmhfu
ahpyn you (polite) ahpnhfu
4.14 Multiple noun attachments
When two or more nouns occur together in sentences, the required attach-
ments such as classifiers and case ending are, in most cases, added to the
final item only.
genitive case ending:
ahym bhbh, mh ahr Bhifbhnfqr sfÃ Cvytfu xhyÉC/

I father mother and sibling-PL-GEN with holiday-LOC go-1-PR-C
I am going on holiday with father, mother and my brothers and sisters. 121
4 objective case ending (with nouns, but not with pronouns):
Nouns
Thkvrmh —qYp, ybp†b o ybkhSfk dhkfln/
grandmother Prodip, Biplob and Bikash-OBJ call-3H-P-S
Grandmother called Prodip, Biplob and Bikash.
ahym —yuBh, srlh, yrmhfk ynmìN kfryC/
I Protibha Sorola Rima invitatation-do-1-PR-PERF
I have invited Protibha, Sorola and Rima.
locative case ending:
ahmrh cÑgîhm, `nhwhKhlY, byrShl ahr Kvlnhw ygfwyClhm/
we Chittagong, Noakhali, Borisal and Khulna-LOC go-1-P-PERF
We went to Chittagong, Noakhali, Borisal and Khulna.
-th and -yt:
uvym GyR, klm, k£hyc, chybth sb `tybflr \pfr `rfK xho/
you watch, pen, scissors, key-CL all table-GEN on put-PP go-2-PR-IMP
Put the watch, pen, scissors and the key on the table before you go.
-gvflh:
uhrh ahm, klh kmlhgvflh sb `Kfw `PflfC/
they mango banana orange-PL all eat-PP throw-3-PR-PERF
They ate up all the mangoes, bananas and oranges.
122
Chapter 5
Pronouns
5.1 Pronouns – overview
Pronouns are a sub-category of nouns and their main function is to stand

in for proper nouns or whole noun phrases. This is generally true except
for 1st and 2nd person pronouns as neither ahym I nor uvi , uvym, ahpyn you
actually stand for anything else. Possessive pronouns are often referred to
as possessive adjectives because they appear before nouns and modify the
meaning of nouns, but they are still pronouns, e.g. this is Hemingway’s
chair becomes this is his chair with the possessive pronoun his standing in
for Hemingway’s. It is more accurate to say that possessive pronouns can
be used attributively.
Here is an overview of the types of pronouns we find in Bangla.
5.1.1 Personal and possessive pronouns bjy∆bhck sbònhm
singular nominative genitive objective
1st ps ahym I ahmhr my ahmhfk me

2nd ps (fam) uvym you ùhmhr your ùhmhfk (to) you
2nd ps (int) uvi you ùhr your ùhfk (to) you
2nd ps (pol) ahpyn you ahpnhr your ahpnhfk (to) you
3rd ps (ord)1 `s, e, o he, she uhr, er, or his, her uhfk, efk, ofk him, her
3rd ps (hon)1 yuyn, iyn, \yn he, she u£hr, e£r, o£r his, her u£hfk, e£fk, o£fk him, her
1 The three way distinction in these forms expresses proximity: `s, uhrh is unmarked
(neutral), e, erh = here (near), o, orh = there (far). 123
5 plural nominative genitive objective
Pronouns 1st ps we our us
ahmrh ahmhfqr ahmhfqr
2nd ps (fam) ùhmrh you ùhmhfqr your ùhmhfqr (to) you
2nd ps (int) ùhrh you ùhfqr your ùhfqr (to) you
2nd ps (pol) ahpnhrh you ahpnhfqr your ahpnhfqr (to) you
3rd ps (ord)2 uhrh, erh, orh they uhfqr, efqr, ofqr their uhfqr, efqr, ofqr them
3rd ps (hon)2 u£hrh, e£rh, o£rh they u£hfqr, e£fqr, o£fqr their u£hfqr, e£fqr, o£fqr them
fam = familiar, pol = polite, ord = ordinary, hon = honorific
5.1.2 Inanimate pronouns (singular only) a—hynbhck sbònhm

nominative genitive objective locative
uh, `s it, this, that uhr uh, uhfk uhfu
5.1.3 Relative pronouns smáísVck sbònhm

personal nominative genitive objective
singular `x who xhr, x£hr whose xhfk, x£hfk (to) whom
plural xhrh, x£hrh xhfqr, x£hfqr xhfqr, x£hfqr
inanimate nom/obj genitive locative
singular xh what xhr of what xhfu in what
5.1.4 Interrogative (question) pronouns —SäsVck sbònhm

personal nominative genitive objective
singular `k who khr whose khfk (to) whom
plural khrh khfqr khfqr
inanimate nom/obj genitive locative
singular yk what ykfsr of what ykfs in what
5.1.5 Indefinite pronouns (someone) aynŸcw-`qjhuk

`k\ khro kh\fk ykCvfu
5.1.6 Reflexive pronouns (self, own) ahuÖbhck sbònhm

nominative genitive objective
singular ynfz ynfzr ynfzfk
plural ynfzrh ynfzfqr ynfzfqr
124 2 The three way distinction in these forms expresses proximity: `s, uhrh is unmarked
(neutral), e, erh = here (near), o, orh = there (far).
Pronouns
5.1.7 Deictic (demonstrative) pronouns ynfqòSk sbònhm
one-by-one
NEUTRAL `s, `sth that uhr, `sthr `sthfk `sthfu
NEAR e, eth this er, ethr e, eth efu, ethfu
FAR o, oth that or, othr o, eth ofu, othfu
5.2 Pronouns one-by-one
As we have seen, Bangla has the following types of pronouns: personal,

inanimate, relative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and deictic.
Gender
There is no gender distinction in Bangla pronouns. The 3rd person pronoun

refers to male and female alike. This can at first cause some confusion for
foreigners, particularly as the ordinary 3rd person pronoun in Bangla is
`s, which, to speakers of English, sounds like she. However, just as foreign
learners of English may, at first, be baffled by the identical forms for you
(singular) and you (plural), so the lack of gender distinction in Bangla is
merely a matter of adjustment.
Politeness
There are three degrees of politeness for the 2nd person: familiar, polite
and intimate.
There are two degrees of politeness for the 3rd person: ordinary and
honorific.
The second person polite ahpyn is the usual form of address between
strangers, acquaintances, work colleagues and anyone outside the immediate
circle of friends and family, but also for particularly respected members
of the family. Many Bengali women go through their whole adult lives
addressing their parents-in-law as ahpyn even if, as is usually the case, they
live with them. To address their parents-in-law as uvym would to them be a
sign of disrespect.
The second person familiar uvym is used between husband and wife, friends
and relatives, although it is not unusual for younger members of the family
to address their elders as ahpyn and be themselves addressed as uvym.
The second person intimate uvi is used between siblings and classmates.
Parents sometimes address their young children as uvi but, as the children 125
get older, a change to uvym is the norm. For anyone outside the immediate
5 circle of mutually close uvi relationships, the use of uvi is derogative rather
Pronouns than intimate and should therefore be avoided by foreigners.
It is unusual for adult Bengalis to change from ahpyn to uvym amongst them-
selves, but in their dealings with foreign informal tendencies, they are likely
to offer the use of uvym more easily. It is however best to use ahpyn to all
adults in the beginning. Children under the age of sixteen can be addressed
with uvym.
The 3rd person honorific is used to speak about people in a respectful

way, regardless of the speaker’s relationship with them. It is usual for a
married woman to refer to her husband as \yn when she is speaking to
anyone outside the immediate family.
Proximity – distance
For 3rd person pronouns Bangla distinguishes proximity to and distance

from the speaker so as to give us three categories: near, far and removed
from the context = neutral. This distinction is called deictic or demon-
strative and also applies to inanimate pronouns, adverbs and quantifiers
(see p. 138)
NEUTRAL singular plural

3rd person ordinary `s he, she uhrh they
3rd person honorific yuyn he, she u£hrh they
NEAR singular plural
3rd person ordinary e this person here erh these people here
3rd person honorific iyn this person here e£rh or enhrh these
people here
FAR singular plural
3rd person ordinary o that person there orh those people there
3rd person honorific \yn that person there o£rh or \nhrh or onhrh
those people there
In spoken language, the far forms are in common use, whereas in narra-
tive writing the neutral forms tend to be used. e is rarely used on its own
as a personal pronoun.
Case
Personal pronouns have three cases: nominative, genitive and objective.

Inanimate pronouns have four cases: nominative, genitive, objective
126 and locative.
Personal
5.2.1 Personal pronouns, nominative
pronouns
singular plural
1st person ahym ahmrh
2nd person familiar uvym ùhmrh
2nd person intimate uvi ùhrh
2nd person polite ahpyn ahpnhrh
3rd person ordinary (male and female)
NEUTRAL `s uhrh
NEAR e erh
FAR o orh
3rd person honorific (male and female)
NEUTRAL yuyn u£hrh
NEAR iyn e£rh or enhrh
FAR \yn o£rh or \nhrh
These are usually the subjects of sentences.
singular plural
1st person ahym ch Khi/ ahmrh ghn ghi/
I drink tea. We sing songs.
2nd fam uvym eKhfn Uhkfb/ ùhmrh yk cho?
You will stay here. What do you want?
2nd int uvi yk kryCs? ùhrh khlfk ahsyb ùh?/
What are you doing? You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you?
2nd pol ahpyn `khUhw xhfÉCn? ahpnhrh ahzfk `xfu phrfbn nh/
Where are you going? You won’t be able to go today.
ahpyn Bhl mhnvX/ ahpnhrh yk Ch«?
You are a good person. Are you students?
3rd person ordinary
NEUTRAL `s bi `lfK/ uhrh khz kfr/
He/she writes books. They work.
NEAR (this use is relatively rare in the singular)
e yk bflfC? erh bhLlh zhfn nh/
What did she say? They don’t know Bangla.
FAR o k£hqfC `kn? orh pfr ahsfb/
Why is she crying? They will come later. 127
5 3rd person honorific
Pronouns
NEUTRAL yuyn mhLs Khn nh/ u£hrh ronh yqfÉCn/
He doesn’t eat meat. They are setting off.
NEAR iyn ahmhr chch/ e£rh mhC pC~q kfrn/
He is my uncle. They like fish.
FAR \yn ekzn `lKk/ o£rh yqy^fu Uhfkn/
He is a writer. They live in Delhi.
5.2.1 Personal pronouns, genitive (possessive pronouns)
Possessive pronouns are used as adjectives before nouns (my father, your
pullover, their debt, etc.) and they can also function as subjects in impersonal
sentence structures (see Ch. 28.3).
singular plural
1st person ahmhr ahmhfqr
2nd person familiar ùhmhr ùhmhfqr
2nd person intimate ùhr ùhfqr
2nd person polite ahpnhr ahpnhfqr
NEUTRAL uhr uhfqr
NEAR er efqr
FAR or ofqr
NEUTRAL u£hr u£hfqr
NEAR e£r or enhr e£fqr or enhfqr
FAR o£r or \nhr o£fqr or \nhfqr
singular plural
1st person ahmhr klm `khUhw? ahmhfqr bhyRr shmfn
Where is my pen? in front of our house
2nd fam ùhmhr bhbh bflfCn/ ùhmhfqr prYÇhr pfr
Your father said so. after your exams
2nd int ùhr Khuh `qyK/ ùhfqr zvuhgvflh `Khl/
Let me see your notebook. Take off your shoes.
2nd pol ahpnhr ghyR efsfC/ ahpnhfqr ytykt yqn/
Your car has come. Give me your tickets.
3rd person ordinary
NEUTRAL uhr asvK/ uhfqr thkh `ni/
128 He is ill. They have no money.
NEAR (this use is relatively rare) Personal
er chkyr MfwfC/ e`qr bigvflh eKhfn/ pronouns
He has found a job. Their books are here.
FAR or mhbhbh `ni/ ofqr bhyR `khUhw?
She has no parents. Where is their house?
3rd person honorific
NEUTRAL u£hr ã«Y bR aMLkhrY/ u£hfqr `Cflfmfw `ni/
His wife is very haughty. They don’t have children.
NEAR e£r afnk bvyº/ e£fqr ahzfk Cvyt/
He is very wise. They have a holiday today. or
enhr ã«Y efsfCn/ enhfqr asMj lhgfÉC/
His wife has come. They are fed up.
FAR \nhr mh mhrh `gfCn/ \nhfqr afnk khz ahfC/
His mother has died. They have a lot of work. or
o£r yKqh `pfwfC/ o£fqr Gr `Cht/
He is hungry. Their house is small.
5.2.1 Personal pronouns, object case
In sentences these pronouns occur as the direct or indirect objects of verbs.

Note that the plural forms for the object case are the same as for the
genitive plural.
singular plural
1st person ahmhfk 3 ahmhfqr or ahmhfqrfk
3
2nd person familiar ùhmhfk ùhmhfqr or ùhmhfqrfk
2nd person intimate ùhfk ùhfqr or ùhfqrfk
2nd person polite ahpnhfk ahpnhfqr or ahpnhfqrfk
NEUTRAL uhfk uhfqr or uhfqrfk
NEAR efk efqr or efqrfk or
FAR ofk ofqr or ofqrfk or
NEUTRAL u£hfk u£hfqr or u£hfqrfk
NEAR e£fk e£fqr or e£fqrfk or
enhfqr or enhfqrfk
FAR o£fk o£fqr or o£fqrfk or
\nhfqr or \nhfqrfk
3 ahmhw instead of ahmhfk is also in use. 129

5 singular plural
Pronouns
1st person ahmhfk qS thkh qho/ `s ahmhfqr ykCv bflyn/
Give me ten Taka. He didn’t tell us anything.
`s ahmhw —Sä kfryn/
He didn’t ask me.
2nd fam `Cflyt ùhmhfk `cfn nh/ ahym ùhmhfqr shMhxj krb/
The boy doesn’t know I will help you.
you.
ahym ùhmhw ymfUj blyC nh/
I am not lying to you.
2nd int ùhfk ahzi `xfu Mfb/ ùhfqr yk blh MfwfC?
You have to go today. What have you been told?
2nd pol ahpnhfk Qnjbhq/ `s ahpnhfqr nhymfw `qfb/
Thanks to you. He will drop you off.
3rd person ordinary
NEUTRAL uhfk ycyT ylfKC? uhfqr ykCv thkh qho/
Have you written to her? Give them some money.
NEAR ahym efk ycyn nh/ bhyRowhlh efqr uhyRfw yqfwfCn/
I don’t know him. The landlord has kicked them
out. or
ahym efqrfk kUh yqfwyC/
I have promised them.
FAR ofk bsfu qho/ uvym ofqr `khUhw `qfKC?
Let him sit down. Where did you see them? or
ahmrh o`qrfk smUòn krfu phyr
nh/
We can’t support them.
3rd person honorific
NEUTRAL ahym u£hfk dhk yqlhm/ uvym u£hfqr Mhshfu phrfb/
I called him. You will be able to amuse them.
NEAR ahym e£fk yk dhkb? ahym e£fqr ekth g¶p blb/
What should I call him? I will tell them a story. or
enhfk záhlhfb nh/ ahym e£fqrfk cfl `xfu bflyC/
130 Don’t bother him. I have told them to leave. or
enhfqrfk thkh yqfu Mfb/ Inanimate
They have to be paid. pronouns
FAR ahym o£fk `SKhi/ ahmrh o£fqr qhowhu yqfwyC/

I teach him. We have invited them. or
ahym \nhfk ch yqiyn / ahym o£fqrfk shu yqn smw
`qiyn/ yqlhm/
I didn’t give him any tea. I have given them seven days. or
uvym \nhfqrfk Khowhfu phrfb?
Will you be able to feed them?
5.2.2 Inanimate pronouns
Inanimate pronouns refer to non-human objects, facts or circumstances. As

a general principle, the objective forms of all inanimate pronouns are the
same as the nominative forms, though the grammatical distinction of course
remains and we find occasional `k endings for the object forms when the
distinction is important. There are no plural forms. For plural references
to inanimate objects demonstrative (deictic) pronouns can be used (see
Ch. 4.3 p. 105).
There are two nominative singular neutral forms uh and `s. As we have
seen, `s can also refer to humans, uh can only be used for inanimate
referents. Both uh and `s can stand for a whole set of circumstances, much
like this and that in English. The difference between them is that uh has a
neutral tone whereas `s conveys a slightly more personal engagement.
with uh:
'bjhphrthr ybsqéSuh `bhZhfnhr smw yCl nh/" 'uh ahym bvZfu `pfryC/"
‘There was no time to explain the incongruity of the matter.’ ‘I have
understood that.’
with `s:
'ahpyn yk blfu chfÉCn `x ahpyn uhfk ybSáhs kfrn nh?" '`si/"
‘Are you saying that you don’t believe him?’ ‘That’s it.’
`s is listed under deictics (5.2.7)
nominative uh genitive uhr objective uh(fk) locative uhfu
nom uh ùh abSj/ That is obvious.
uh kKno Mfb nh/ That will never happen.
uh Mfl if this is so, in that case 131
5 gen uhr \pfr on top of that, besides
Pronouns uhr \f¶th kUho suj Mfu phfr/ The opposite of this can also be true.
uhr khrfN ahmrh ahr `qyr krb nh/ For that reason we won’t delay any
more.
obj ahym uh zhnuhm nh/ I didn’t know that.
uvym yk uh `qK yn? Didn’t you see that?
\yn uh krfu phrfbn nh/ He won’t be able to do that.
loc uhfu ùhmhr yk? What is it to you?
uhfu ahn~q yCl ahmhr/ There was pleasure in it for me.
uhfuo uhr uéyú MyÉCl nh/ That, too, didn’t satisfy him.
5.2.3 Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are used in correlative structures and follow the same
pattern as 3rd person personal pronouns. For animate nouns the dis-
tinction between ordinary and honorific forms remains in place. English
makes no distinction between interrogative and relative pronouns, so the
English equivalents here would be structures of the type the man who
came, those who waited, etc.
5.2.3.1 Animate relative pronouns:
ordinary: singular plural

nominative `x who xhrh
genitive xhr whose xhfqr
objective xhfk (to) whom xhfqr or xhfqrfk
honorific:
nominative yxyn who x£hrh
genitive x£hr whose x£hfqr
objective x£hfk whom x£hfqr or x£hfqrfk
nom, sg, ord `x ei kUh bflfC uhfk ybSáhs krh xhw nh/
The person who said this is not trustworthy.
nom, pl, ord xhrh ghn `gfwfC uhfqrfk yk `cn?
Do you know those who sang?
gen, sg, ord xhr ShyR uvym pfr ahC `s yk ykCv blfb nh?
Won’t the person whose saree you are wearing object?
gen, pl, ord xhfqr zvuhgvflh eKhfn ahfC uhrh `khUhw/
132 Where are the people whose shoes are here?
obj, sg, ord xhfk ahym skhfl `qKlhm uhfk ahr ycnuhm nh/ Interrogative
I wouldn’t be able to recognise the person I saw this morning. pronouns
obj, pl, ord pvylS xhfqr QfrfC uhrh ykCv kfryn/
Those who were caught by the police didn’t do anything.
nom, sg, hon yxyn bith ylfKfCn yuyn Kvlnhw Uhfkn/
The man who wrote this book lives in Khulna.
nom, pl, hon x£hrh Kbfrr khgz pfRn uhfqr ùh eth zhnh \ycu/
Those who read newspapers should know about this.
gen, sg, hon uvym x£hr ghyR chlho yuyn yk ùhmhfk Bhl `bun `qn?
Does the man whose car you drive give you a good salary?
gen, pl, hon x£hfqr zfnj Khbhr ∏uyr krC u£hrh ùh afnk pfr ahsfbn/
The people for whom you are getting the food ready won’t be
here until a lot later.
obj, sg, hon uvym x£hfk `qbuhr mu By∆ kr yuyn SvQv ekzn shQhrN mhnvX/
The one whom you worship like a god is only an ordinary man.
obj, pl, hon ahmrh x£hfqrfk shMhxj krfu `cfwyC u£hrh ahr `ni/
Those whom we wanted to help are no longer here.
5.2.3.2 Inanimate relative pronouns
nominative xh genitive xhr objective xh, xhfk locative xhfu

nominative xh MfwfC uh ahmhfqr `qhX yCl nh/
What has happened was not our fault.
genitive xhr `c§hw uvym eu bjÄ uh `CfR yqfl Bhl Mu/
It would be better to give up what you are trying so hard to achieve.
objective uvym ahmhfk xh yqfwC uh ahym kKno Mhyrfw `Plb nh/
I will never lose what you have given me.
locative xhfu uhr Bhl Mfb uh `s ynfzo `bhfZ nh/
He himself doesn’t understand what is good for him.
xhfu is also used as a subordinate conjunction meaning so that, in order to
(see Chapter 10.2).
5.2.4 Interrogative pronouns
5.2.4.1 Animate interrogative pronouns
Bangla distinguishes between singular and plural interrogatives for animate nouns.
This distinction cannot be rendered accurately in the English translation. 133
5 singular plural
Pronouns nominative `k who? khrh
genitive khr whose? khfqr
objective khfk (to) whom? khfqr(fk)
anm, nom, sg \yn `k? Who is he?
`k ùhmhfk ei kUh bflfC? Who told you this?
bhzhfr xhfb `k? Who will go to the market?
anm, nom, pl orh khrh? Who are they?
khrh eKhfn Uhfk? Who lives here?
khrh ùhmhr sfÃ efsfC? Who has come with you?
anm, gen, sg eth khr bi? Whose book is this?
khr kUh blC? Who are you talking about?
chth khr Bhl lhfg yn? Who didn’t like the tea?
anm, gen, pl egvflh khfqr yzyns? Whose things are these?
khfqr shMhxj phowh xhfb? Whose help will be available?
uvym kflfz khfqr sfÃ Uhk? Who are you living with at
college?
anm, obj, sg uvym khfk dhkC? Whom are you calling?
biyt khfk `qb? Whom should I give the book to?
ùhmhr khfk Bhl `lfgfC? Whom did you like?
anm, obj, pl ei thkh ynfw khfqr shMhxj krfb? Whom will you help with
this money?
khfqr eKni `xfu Mfb? Who has to leave right now?
uvym khfqr ei kUh bflC? Whom did you say this to?
5.2.4.2 Inanimate interrogative pronouns
nominative yk what? genitive ykfsr of what? objective yk what? locative

ykfs in what? how?
nominative yk MfwfC? What has happened?
yk bjhphr? What is the matter?
ahbhro yk? What now?
genitive uvym ykfsr Bw pho? What are you afraid of ?
biyt ykfsr \pfr? What is the book about?
egvflh ykfsr zfnj? What are these for?
objective o yk bflfC? What did he say?
ahym yk zhyn? What do I know?
yk krC? What are you doing?
134
locative ahmrh ykfs kfr xhb? How will we go? Indefinite
ùhmhfk apmhn kfrfC ykfs? How (in what) did he insult you? pronouns
ahmrh bhÉchfqr rÇh krb ykfs? How will we protect the
children?
5.2.5 Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns follow on logically here as their formation is based on

interrogative pronouns. Bangla has no negative pronouns so indefinite
pronouns carry more weight in Bangla than in English. There are, logically,
no plural forms for indefinite pronouns but the distinction between animate
and inanimate remains. Indefinite pronouns translate as someone/anyone
or something/anything.
animate inanimate
nominative `k\ ykCv
genitive khro ykCvr
objective kh\fk ykCv
locative — ykCvfu
nom, anm `k\ abSj ahpy≠ krfb/ Someone will of course object.
`k\ yk rhg kfryn? Wasn’t anyone angry?
ahzfk `k\ ahsfb nh/ No-one will come today.
gen, anm khro sfÃ kUh blhr iÉCh `ni ahmhr/ I don’t feel like talking
to anyone.
egvflh sb khro mfn ùh Uhkfbi/ All this will be remembered
by someone.
khro khC Ùfk thkh `nfb nh/ Don’t take money from anyone.
obj, anm ahym kh\fk a…yÄfu `Plfu chi nh/ I don’t want to make
anyone uncomfortable.
uvym bhghfn kh\fk `qfKC nhyk? You saw someone in the
garden, didn’t you?
khzth kh\fk krfui Mfb/ Someone will have to do this job.
nom, inanm ykCv MfwfC, uhi nh? Something has happened, hasn’t it?
eKhfn ykCv `ni/ There is nothing here.
ykCv ùh ahfgr mu Ùfk `gfC/ Something has remained the
same as before.
gen, inanm ahmrh ykCvr Bw kyr nh/ We are not afraid of anything.
ykCvr `c§h krfb nh? Won’t you try something?
o eKno ykCvr ahSh rhfK/ He is still hoping for something.
135
5 obj, inanm ykCv blhr qrkhr yCl/ Something needed to be said.
Pronouns uvym yk ykCv Khfb? Will you eat something?
ykCv ùh `bhfZ nh/ He doesn’t understand anything.
loc, inanm yk≤ uhr ahr ykCvfu ahgîM `ni/ But he is not interested in
anything any more.
uhr ykCvfu mn Khrhp Mfw `gfC/ Something has made him sad.
uvym ykCvfu yk uhfk sf~qM kr? Do you doubt him for some
reason?
5.2.6 Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns follow the same categories as personal pronouns. They

often follow nouns or personal pronouns but can also appear by themselves.
Reflexives can only be used with sentence subjects. Singular reflexives can
be used with plural nouns and pronouns.
singular plural
nominative ynfz ynfzrh
genitive ynfzr ynfzfqr
objective ynfzfk ynfzfqr(fk)
nom, sg ahym ynfz xhb/ I will go myself.
`s ynfzo `Bfb abhk Mfw `gfC/ He himself was amazed when
he thought about it.
nom, pl ahmrh ynfzrh `khno ysfãtm q£hR krhfu phyr nh? Can we ourselves
not come up with a system?
ùhmrh ynfzrh khpvrßX bhynfwC/ You have turned yourselves into
cowards.
gen, sg ùhmhr ynfzr shMs `ni? Don’t you have any courage yourself ?
uhr ynfzr mfQj sôpVNò yCl/ He was complete in himself.
gen, pl orh uhfqr ynfzfqr oXvQgvflh bjbMhr kfr/ They use their own
medicines.
ahmhfqr ynfzr thkh ùh `ni/ We don’t have any money ourselves.
obj, sg ynfzfk uvym xuth apyrMhxò mfn kr uh uvym no/ You are not as
indispensable as you think.
ynfzfk péyUbYfu a—fwhznYw mfn MfÉC/ He considered himself
superfluous in the world.
obj, pl ahmrh ynfzfqr TkhyÉC/ We are deceiving ourselves.
sbhi béy§ Ùfk ynfzfqr b£hchfu `c§h krl/ Everybody tried to protect
136 themselves from the rain.
Two other forms ynz… and ahpn need to be mentioned here. Both of Reflexive
them belong to a somewhat more formal register than ynz. ynz… is, strictly pronouns
speaking, not a pronoun but an isolated adjective meaning own. It is equi-
valent to the genitive form of ynfzr (genitive form of ynz) and is therefore
included here.
ùhmhr yk ifÉC kfr nh ynz… ekth bhyR `pfu?

you-GEN what wish do-3-PR-S not ynz… one-CL home get-IP
Wouldn’t you like to have your own home?
or ykCv ynz… ybyc« xvy∆ ahfC/

he-GEN some ynz… colourful logic [exists]
He has his own colourful logic.
ySf¶pr ynz… `khno \fØSj `ni/

art-GEN ynz… any purpose [is absent]
Art itself has no purpose.
ahpn (the 2nd person polite pronoun ahpyn is derived from this) appears in
all four cases:
nom ahpn, ahpyn gen ahpnhr obj ahpnhfk loc ahpnhfu
The nominative ahpn is used mainly to define family relationships:
`s ahmhr ahpn chch/

He is my own uncle, i.e. my father’s brother.
ahmhr ahpn `bhn `ni/

I-GEN ahpn sister [is absent]
I don’t have a sister.
The nominative ahpyn and the doubled nominative ahpnh ahpyn often trans-
late as by itself, on its own:
SrYrth ahpyn Bhl Mfw `gfC/

health-CL ahpyn good become-PP go-3-PR-PERF
His health got better by itself.
`tylfPhfn ahbhr k£v k£v Sûq/ ahpnh ahpyn yTk Mfw `gl nhyk?
telephone-LOC again kl kl sound. ahpyn ahpyn right become-PP
go-3-P-S not what?
The telephone made a kL kL sound again. Had it put itself straight?
137
5 In the genitive ahpnhr corresponds to own, belonging to
Pronouns
\yn ahpnhr khz krfu cfl `gfCn/
he-H ahpnhr work do-IP go-3H-PR-PERF
He has left to do some work of his own.
eKhfn smÄ ùhmhr ahpnhr/
here everything your ahpnhr
Here everything is your own.
The objective use occurs mostly in formal writing.
`s ahpnhfk Kvb chlhk mfn kfr/
he ahpnhfk very clever mind-LOC do-3-PR-S
He considers himself very clever.
uvym ahpnhfk rÇh krfu phrfb nh/
you-F-SG ahpnhfk protect do-IP be able to-2F-FUT not
You won’t be able to protect yourself.
The reflexive locative ahpnhfu is used in this famous sentence by
Tagore:
xyq uvym ahpnhfu ahpyn Shy™ pho ebL chryqfk sh™ánh qhn krfu phr, uhMfl zYbn
smî∞h“Yr `cfw shUòk/
if you ahpnhfu self peace get-2-PR-S and four direction-LOC solace
give-do-IP be able to-2-PR-S then life empress than meaningful
If you gain peace within yourself and are able to give comfort all around,
then your life is more meaningful than that of an empress.
the double use of ynz implies each
mhnvX ynz ynz zYbn ynfw clfC/
human being ynz (×2) life
Each human being lives their own life.
5.2.7 Deictics (demonstratives)
Deixis is a dimension which extends beyond pronoun formation. We

have already seen it in personal pronouns. It also applies to inanimates,
demonstrative adjectives and to pronouns of time, place and manner,
adverbials and quantifiers. The basic three deictic forms `s, e and o can
stand on their own as animate as well as inanimate pronouns. They can
function as adjectives with all nouns, singular and plural (`s `lhk that
person, e `Cfl this boy, o g¶pgvflh those stories) or non-count (ei \fØfSj
138 to this purpose) nouns and they can combine with singular and plural
classifiers to form independent pronouns (`sth, eth, oth, `sgvflh, egvflh, ogvflh). Deictics
An emphatic i is often added to the basic forms.
e - ei, o - oi or E, `s - `si
Here is an overview of the forms involved:
NEUTRAL NEAR FAR
personal pronouns, singular yuyn iyn \yn

personal pronouns, plural uhrh e£rh, enhrh o£rh, \nhrh
inanimate pronouns uh, `s e o
inanimate pronouns with singular classifier `sth eth oth
inanimate pronouns with plural classifier `sgvflh egvflh ogvflh
time uKn eKn o smw
location `sKhfn eKhfn oKhfn
direction `syqfk eyqfk oyqfk
manner ùmn emn amn
type `s rkm e rkm o rkm
quantifiers uu eu au
This is in itself a pleasingly neat and logical system. In actual language use
there is a tendency to divide the labour between e and o - e is more often
used for non-human referents, o for humans, which means that the original
deictic dimensions are no longer in force. In combination with classifiers
th or gvflh they are again restored.
Examples are given here for what can be considered deictic pronouns
and adjectives only. For basic deictics we have the following distribution:
nominative and genitive forms can stand alone as pronouns as well as
appear attributively before nouns, i.e. as adjectives. Nominative and
objective forms are the same but the objective case ending `k is sometimes
added. The locative forms are not used attributively.
5.2.7.1 Basic deictics:
nom gen obj loc

NEUTRAL `s uhr `s uhfu
NEAR e er e(`k) efu
FAR o or o(`k) ofu
NEUTRAL, nom, pron `s yk? What is this?
NEUTRAL, nom, adj `s kh’ ykfsr? What is this fuss about?
NEUTRAL, gen uhr mhfn yk? What does that mean? 139
5 NEUTRAL, obj `s ahym zhyn/ I know that.
Pronouns NEUTRAL, loc ahmhr uhfu ykCv efs It doesn’t make any difference to
xhw nh/ me.
NEAR, nom, pron e ùhmhr bi/ This is your book.
NEAR, nom, adj e zhmhth khr? Whose shirt is this?
NEAR, gen er zbhb ahym yk Can I reply to this?
yqfu phyr?
NEAR, obj e ùh blfC/ This is what he is saying.
NEAR, loc efu ektv mslh This needs some seasoning.
yqfu Mfb/
FAR, nom, pron o ykCv nw/ That’s nothing.
(this use is rare)
FAR, nom, adj o bigvflh `khUhw? Where are those books?
FAR, gen or svfxhg `ni/ No chance of that.
(this use is rare)
FAR, obj uvym o yk ynfz `qfKC/ Did you see that yourself ?
(this use is rare)
FAR, loc ùhmhr ofu ahgîM yk? What is your interest in that?
5.2.7.2 Singular deictics with th
nom gen obj loc

NEUTRAL `sth `sthr `sth `sthfu
NEAR eth ethr eth(`k) ethfu
FAR oth othr oth(`k) othfu
NEUTRAL, nom `sth ahmhr nuvn ahwnh/ That is my new mirror.
NEUTRAL, gen `sthr pfr ahr yk Mfu phfr? What else can occur after that?
NEUTRAL, obj `sth ahym ybSáhs krfu `cfwyC/ I wanted to believe that.
NEUTRAL, loc `sthfu mhfwr qvAK/ That is what mother is sad about.
NEAR, nom eth Kvb Bhl/ This is very good.
NEAR, gen ethr ypCfn afnk kUh/ There is a long story behind this.
NEAR, obj ahym eth ynfz `Pfl yqfwyC/ I threw this away myself.
NEAR, loc ahym ethfu ahr mn Khrhp I won’t let this get me down
krb nh/ any more.
FAR, nom oth ùh uhr bR Bvl/ That is his big mistake.
FAR, gen `s othr k§ phwyn/ That didn’t cause him any
problems.
FAR, obj ahym oth uhr khC Ùfk SvfnyC/ I heard this from him.
FAR, loc uhrh othfu eu KvyS `kn? Why are they so happy about
140 that?
Deictics
5.2.7.3 Plural deictics with gvflh (gvyl is a variant of gvflh )
nom gen obj loc

NEUTRAL `sgvflh `sgvflhr `sgvflh(`k) `sgvflhfu
NEAR egvflh egvflhr egvflh(`k) egvflhfu
FAR ogvflh ogvflhr ogvflh(`k) ogvflhfu
NEUTRAL, nom `sgvflh afnk mwlh/ Those are very dirty.
NEUTRAL, gen `sgvflhr mhylk `k? Who owns those?
NEUTRAL, obj `sgvflh syrfw qho/ Move those!
NEUTRAL, loc `sgvflhfu `phkh ahfC/ There are worms in those.
NEAR, nom egvflh ahmhr Cyb/ These are my pictures.
NEAR, gen egvflhr ahro ahfC? Are there any more of these?
NEAR, obj egvflhfk yun Bhfg These are divided into three parts.
Bhg krh Mw/
NEAR, loc egvflhfu guò ahfC/ There are holes in these.
FAR, nom ogvflh yk nuvn? Are those new?
FAR, gen ogvflhr rL Bhl lhfg? Do you like the colour of those?
FAR, obj ogvflh anj ekzn Someone else has taken those.
ynfw `gfC/
FAR, loc uvym ogvflhfu shbhn yqfwC? Did you put some soap in with
those?
The use of animate locative pronouns is given in Ch. 14.5.
141
Chapter 6
Verbs
6.1 Verb morphology
If nouns provide the building blocks of sentences then verbs supply the
dynamics. They are the doing, being or becoming elements of the whole and
they determine which other elements accompany them. Every verb form
used in speech and writing consists of a stem and a verb ending. While
the stem gives us the meaning, the verb ending gives us either the person
and tense or the mode of the action.
6.2 Verb classes
Bengali verbs can be classed into six groups according to their conjugation
patterns. These are determined by the stem formation of the individual
verb. The stem of a verb is the base form which remains when verb endings
are taken away.
C = consonant, V = vowel (this includes all vowels with the exception

of a)
Class 1 CVC/ VC e.g. `lK lekh write, `qK dækh see, kr kfr do,
oT oth rise
Class 2 CaC, aC e.g. Uhk thak stay, ahs as come, ahn an bring
Class 3 CV e.g. M hf be, `Sh sho lie down, `q de give, `n ne take
Class 4 Ca e.g. xh ya go, ph pa, Kh kha eat, ch ca want
Class 5 CaCa/CVCA e.g. chlh cala drive, Gvmh ghuma sleep (extended
verbs)
Class 6 extended o e.g. eg ego advance, `bfrh bero go out
142 conjugation,
Vowel mutation
6.3 Vowel mutation
Bangla verb conjugation is very regular but all verbs have a systematic
vowel mutation. This is a bit like the change in English verbs from simple
present sing to simple past sang, come – came, get – got, find – found,
except these count as irregular verbs in English and need to be learnt indi
vidually. In Bangla the vowel mutation is systematic and affects all verbs,
so basically there are no irregular verbs.
In order to understand the way Bangla verb forms change from one person
to another, we postulate a high stem and a low stem for all verbs, except
for those whose stem vowel is a. The stem of a verb is the fragment we
are left with when the verb endings are dropped.
If we take the form ahym ylyK I write with its verbal noun `lKh and drop off
the endings we are left with two stems: high ylK , low `lK. These are the
two base forms for all other forms of `lKh.
Vowel mutation occurs between two adjacent vowels as set out in the
diagram:
i u i-e ahym ylyK ami likhi uvym `lK tumi lekho

e o e-æ ahym `qyK ami dekhi uvym `qK tumi dækho
æ f u-o ahym bvyZ ami bujhi uvym `bhZ tumi bojho
a o-f ahym kyr ami kori uvym kr tumi kfro
Note that the change in pronunciation from e to æ and o to f is not

reflected in the spelling. Here are the simple present verb forms of two
representative verbs:
blh speak: ahym byl boli, uvym bl bflo, uvi byls bolis, `s bfl bfle, ahpyn
bfln bflen
`Plh throw: ahym `Pyl pheli, uvym `Pl phælo, uvi `Pyls phelis, `s `Pfl phæle,
ahpyn `Pfln phælen
Class 1 and Class 3 verbs have a vowel mutation in the stem between high
and low.
Class 1 verbs (CVC) have the low stem for the verbal noun as well as the
following simple present verb forms: 2nd person familiar and polite, 3rd
person ordinary and honorific.
All other verb forms take the high stem. 143

6 Here are the stem patterns with the verb `bhZh understand (stems bvZ - `bhZ)
Verbs as an example:
simple present high bvyZ low `bhZ high bvyZs low `bhfZ low `bhfZn
all other tenses high bvZlhm high bvfZC high bvZyus high bvZfC high bvZfbn
imperative (pr) — low `bhZ high bvZ high bvZvk low/high
`bhfZn, bvZvn
imperative (fut) — high bvZ high bvyZs — high bvfZn
verbal noun: low `bhZh, `bhZbh imperfective participle: high bvZfu
perfective participle: high bvfZ conditional participle: high bvZfl
Class 3 verbs (CV) differ from Class 1 (CVC) verbs in the formation of the
future tense forms. All but the 2nd person intimate have low stem in the
future. Other tenses and nonfinite verb forms follow the same patterns as
Class 1 verbs.
Here are the stem patterns with the verb `Shwh lie down (stem Sv - `Sh) as an
example:
simple present high Svi low `Sho high Svs low `Shw low `Shn
future low `Shb low `Shfb high Svyb low `Shfb low `Shfbn
all other tenses high Svlhm high SvfwyC high Svyus high SvfÉC high SvfwyCfln
imperative (pr) — low `Sho low `Sh high Svk low `Shn
imperative (fut) — low `Shfb high Svs — low `Shfbn
verbal noun: low `Shwh, `Shbh imperfective participle: high Svfu
perfective participle: high Svfw conditional participle: high Svfl
In Class 2 and 4 verbs with a in the stem, vowel mutation does not occur,
but the a in the stem changes to e in present and past perfect in all persons
and the perfective participle. Verbs of this type in class 4 (xh, gh, ph, Kh, etc.)
change their stem from a to either e or ai in the simple past, past habitual,
imperfective participle and conditional participle. The individual patterns
are shown below. xhowh go is the only verb in Bangla with some real irre
gularities in that it has a perfective stem yg-, `g-. The verb chart for xhowh
is given in (n).
In Class 5 (extended) verbs vowel mutation does not occur in verbs with
either a, u or du in the stem. In all other extended verbs the present and
past perfect in all persons as well as the perfective participle have the high
144 stem.
`bhZhfnh – bvyZfw, bshfnh bfsano – bysfw bosiye, `qKhfnh dækhano – `qyKfw dekhiye, Verb forms
`SKhfnh – ySyKfw
Class 6 is a small group of extended verbs with an alternative second vowel
o instead of a, i.e. Gvmfnh instead of Gvmhfnh sleep. All of these verbs can also
appear with o-kar in the second syllable (Gvfmhfnh). This conjugation pattern
is standard in West Bengal. A list of the verbs concerned is given in 6.8.
6.4 Verb forms
There are eight tenses:
simple present, present continuous, present perfect, future,

simple past, past continuous, past perfect and past habitual.
There are five verb endings for six persons:
1st person ahym

2nd person familiar uvym
2nd person intimate uvi
3rd person ordinary `s
2nd person polite and 3rd person honorific ahpyn, yuyn
Note that Bangla does not distinguish gender, either in its pronouns or in
its verb endings.
Verb conjugation is the same for singular and plural, i.e.
ahmrh we has the same verb endings as ahym I

ùhmrh you (fam, pl) has the same verb endings as uvym you (fam, sing)
ùhrh you (intimate, pl) has the same verb endings as uvi you (intimate,
sing)
uhrh, orh they (ord) have the same verb endings as `s, o he, she (ord)
ahpnhrh you (hon, pl) and u£hrh they have the same verb endings as ahpyn you
(hon, sing) and \yn he, she (hon)
There are two forms for the third person, ordinary and honorific (see
Ch. 5.2)
There are three forms for the 2nd person, familiar, honorific and intimate
(see Ch. 5.2)
Note that all honorific forms have the same endings. For neuter uh it and all
other third person uses the ordinary forms (as for `s he, she) are used. 145
6
verb endings 1st ps 2nd ps fam 3rd ps ord 2nd ps int hon, 2nd
Verbs
and 3rd ps
present tenses i o e ish en

past tenses i (past
(tense marker l) habitual: ish)
past habit am e o en
(tense marker t)
future (tense o e e i en
marker b)
The columns for 2nd ps int uvi and 3rd ps ordinary `s have been reversed
in the chart to show the (shaded) area of difficulty in remembering verb
endings correctly.
Non-finites
In addition to these, every verb has four nonfinite forms (an explanation
is given at the beginning of Ch. 29).
1 verbal noun: h -a is added to the low stem of Class 1 and Class 2 verbs,
owh oya to Class 3 (Ca) and Class 4 (CV) verbs and `nh nd to Class 5 and
Class 6 (extended) verbs
2 imperfective participle: ù te is added to the high stem of the verb.
3 perfective participle: e e is added to the high stem of the verb.
4 conditional participle: `l le is added to the high stem of the verb.
Imperatives
Bangla verbs have two imperative forms, present and future for the follow
ing persons:
2nd person familiar, 2nd person intimate, 2nd person polite, 3rd person
honorific. Many of these forms are identical to the simple present and
future tense verb forms. The 2nd person intimate present imperative is
identical to the low verb stem, the 2nd person intimate future imperative
is identical to the simple present verb form.
3rd person ordinary (present imperative only).

146
All these forms are given in the following conjugation tables. Some Conjugation
additional notes on variations and irregularities are given at the end of tables
the tables. Wherever two alternative forms are given, the first form is more overview
standard, the second more colloquial. Separate sections on imperatives and
nonfinite verb forms are given in 6.9 and 6.10, respectively.
6.5 Conjugation tables overview
The following complete conjugation charts are given below:
Class 1
(a) CVC vowel mutation u o bvZ - `bhZh understand
(b) CVC vowel mutation o f bl - bl say, speak
(c) CVC vowel mutation i e ylK - `lK read
(d) CVC vowel mutation e æ `Pl - `Pl throw
(e) VC vowel mutation u o \T - oT rise, get up
Class 2
(f) CaC Uhk stay
(g) aC ahn bring
(h) aC ahs come
Class 3
(i) CV vowel mutation o - f Mo - M be, become
(j) CV vowel mutation u o Sv - `Sh lie, lie down
(k) CV vowel mutation i e yq - `q give
Class 4
(l) Ca ph get, receive
(m) Ca ch want
(n) Ca xh go
Class 5
(o) CuCa Gvmh sleep
(p) CVCa `bhZh explain
(q) CaCa chlh drive
Class 6 oconjugation
(r) variation without okar eg advance
(s) variation with okar `bfrh go out
(t) incomplete verb ahC ach be present, exist, have
(u) incomplete verb n- be not 147
6 6.6 Conjugation charts
Verbs
Note that all verb forms ending in o are pronounced as closed o and are
also found with o-kar endings. This applies to the following forms of all
verbs and is nothing more than a spelling convention.
examples with krh do, make

1st person future tense: krb or krfbh
2nd person familiar (uvym - ùhmrh) all present tenses:
kr or kfrh, krC or krfCh, kfrC or kfrfCh
3rd person ordinary (`s - uhrh) all past tenses:
krl or krflh, kryCl or kryCflh, kfryCl or kfryCflh, kru or krfuh
In this book the o-kar endings have been added only for the 2nd person fam
iliar (uvym) imperative forms to distinguish them from the second person
intimate (uvi) forms and for the verbal noun endings of extended verbs.
For demonstration purposes, here is the chart for `bhZh understand with all
the o-kars added:
o-kar demonstration `bhZh understand
simple present bvyZ `bhfZh bvyZs `bhfZ `bhfZn

pres. continuous bvZyC bvZfCh bvZyCs bvZfC bvZfCn
present perfect bvfZyC bvfZfCh bvfZyCs bvfZfC bvfZfCn
future tense bvZfbh bvZfb bvZyb bvZfb bvZfbn
simple past bvZlhm bvZfl bvZyl bvZflh bvZfln
past continuous bvZyClhm bvZyCfl bvZyCyl bvZyCflh bvZyCfln
past perfect bvfZyClhm bvfZyCfl bvfZyCyl bvfZyCflh bvfZyCfln
past habitual bvZuhm bvZfu bvZyus bvZfuh bvZfun
imperative (pr) — `bhfZh `bhZæ bvZvk bvZvn,
`bhfZn
imperative (fut) — bvfZh bvyZs — bvZfbn
148
Conjugation
Class 1 CVC
charts
(a) u d mutation `bhZh understand [with the same pattern: `Khlh open,
ùhlh lift, raise `Bhlh forget, `Shnh hear, listen, `Ghrh turn, `bhnh knit,
weave]
simple present bvyZ `bhZ bvyZs `bhfZ `bhfZn

pres. continuous bvZyC bvZC bvZyCs bvZfC bvZfCn
present perfect bvfZyC bvfZC bvfZyCs bvfZfC bvfZfCn
future tense bvZb bvZfb bvZyb bvZfb bvZfbn
simple past bvZlhm bvZfl bvZyl bvZl bvZfln
past continuous bvZyClhm bvZyCfl bvZyCyl bvZyCl bvZyCfln
past perfect bvfZyClhm bvfZyCfl bvfZyCyl bvfZyCl bvfZyCfln
past habitual bvZuhm bvZfu bvZyus bvZu bvZfun
imperative (pr) — `bhfZh `bhZæ bvZvk bvZvn,
`bhfZn
imperative (fut) — bvfZh bvyZs — bvZfbn
verbal b-form VN imperfective perfective conditional
noun (VN) participle (IP) participle (PP) participle (CP)
`bhZh `bhZbh bvZfu bvfZ bvZfl
(b) o - f mutation: blh bfla say, speak [with the same pattern: krh do,
Gth happen, occur, clh go, move, Qrh hold, pRh read, fall, bsh sit, Brh fill,
mrh die, srh move]
simple present byl bl byls bfl bfln

pres. continuous blyC blC blyCs blfC blfCn
present perfect bflyC bflC bflyCs bflfC bflfCn
future tense blb blfb blyb blfb blfbn
simple past bllhm blfl blyl bll blfln
past continuous blyClhm blyCfl blyCyl blyCl blyCfln
past perfect bflyClhm bflyCfl bflyCyl bflyCl bflyCfln
past habitual bluhm blfu blyus blu blfun
imperative (pr) — bflh blæ blvk blvn,
bfln
imperative (fut) — bflh, byls — blfbn
bylfwh
blh blbh blfu bfl blfl
149
6 (c) i - e mutation: `lKh write [with the same pattern: `knh buy, `glh swallow,
Verbs `cnh know, recognise, `C£Rh tear, `SKh learn]
simple present ylyK `lK ylyKs `lfK `lfKn

pres. continuous ylKyC ylKC ylKyCs ylKfC ylKfCn
present perfect ylfKyC ylfKC ylfKyCs ylfKfC ylfKfCn
future tense ylKb ylKfb ylKyb ylKfb ylKfbn
simple past ylKlhm ylKfl ylKyl ylKl ylKfln
past continuous ylKyClhm ylKyCfl ylKyCyl ylKyCl ylKyCfln
past perfect ylfKyClhm ylfKyCfl ylfKyCyl ylfKyCl ylfKyCfln
past habitual ylKuhm ylKfu ylKyus ylKu ylKfun
imperative (pr) — `lfKh `lKæ ylKvk ylKvn,
`lfKn
imperative (fut) — ylfKh ylyKs — ylKfbn
`lKh `lKbh ylKfu ylfK ylKfl
(d) e - æ mutation: `Plh phæla throw [with the same pattern: `qKh see, `Tlh
push, `bch sell]
simple present `Pyl `Pl `Pyls `Pfl `Pfln

pres. continuous `PlyC `PlC `PlyCs `PlfC `PlfCn
present perfect `PflyC `PflC `PflyCs `PflfC `PflfCn
future tense `Plb `Plfb `Plyb `Plfb `Plfbn
simple past `Pllhm `Plfl `Plyl `Pll `Plfln
past continuous `PlyClhm `PlyCfl `PlyCyl `PlyCl `PlyCfln
past perfect `PflyClhm `PflyCfl `PflyCyl `PflyCl `PflyCfln
past habitual `Pluhm `Plfu `Plyus `Plu `Plfun
imperative (pr) — `Pflh `Plæ `Plvk `Plvn,
`Pfln
imperative (fut) — `Pflh `Pyls — `Plfbn
`Plh `Plbh `Plfu `Pfl `Plfl
150
(e) VC oTh rise, ascend [with the same pattern: oRh fly] Conjugation
charts
simple present \yT ofTh \yTs ofT ofTn

pres. continuous \TyC \TC \TyCs \TfC \TfCn
present perfect \fTyC \fTC \fTyCs \fTfC \fTfCn
future tense \Tb \Tfb \Tyb \Tfb \Tfbn
simple past \Tlhm \Tfl \Tyl \Tl \Tfln
past continuous \TyClhm \TyCfl \TyCyl \TyCl \TyCfln
past perfect \fTyClhm \fTyCfl \fTyCyl \fTyCl \fTyCfln
past habitual \Tuhm \Tfu \Tyus \Tu \Tfun
imperative (pr) — ofTh oTæ \Tvk \Tvn, ofTn
imperative (fut) — \fTh \yTs — \Tfbn
oTh oTbh \Tfu \fT \Tfl
Class 2
(f) CaC Uhkh stay, remain, live [with the same pattern: k£hqh cry, k£hph shiver,
khth cut, chph press, ChRh leave, zhgh wake, dhkh call, Uhmh stop, nhch dance,
nhmh descend, phrh be able to, Phth burst, b£hch survive, bhRh increase, BhÃh
break, Bhbh think, Bhlbhsh love, mhnh observe, mind, mhrh beat, lhgh attach,
stick, shrh finish, M£hth walk, Mhrh be lost, Mhsh laugh, smile
simple present Uhyk Uhk Uhyks Uhfk Uhfkn

pres. continuous UhkyC UhkC UhkyCs UhkfC UhkfCn
present perfect ÙfkyC ÙfkC ÙfkyCs ÙfkfC ÙfkfCn
future tense Uhkb Uhkfb Uhkyb Uhkfb Uhkfbn
simple past Uhklhm Uhkfl Uhkyl Uhkl Uhkfln
past continuous UhkyClhm UhkyCfl UhkyCyl UhkyCl UhkyCfln
past perfect ÙfkyClhm ÙfkyCfl ÙfkyCyl ÙfkyCl ÙfkyCfln
past habitual Uhkuhm Uhkfu Uhkyus Uhku Uhkfun
imperative (pr) — Uhfkh Uhkæ Uhk, Uhkvn,
Uhkvk Uhfkn
imperative (fut) — Ùfkh Uhyks — Uhkfbn
Uhkh Uhkbh Uhkfu Ùfk Uhkfl
151
6 (g) aC ahnh bring [with the same pattern: ah£kh draw, ah£th fasten, tighten]
Verbs
simple present ahyn ahn ahyns ahfn ahfnn

present continuous ahnyC ahnC ahnyCs ahnfC ahnfCn
present perfect efnyC efnC efnyCs efnfC efnfCn
future tense ahnb ahnfb ahnyb ahnfb ahnfbn
simple past ahnlhm ahnfl ahnyl ahnl ahnfln
past continuous ahnyClhm ahnyCfl ahnyCyl ahnyCl ahnyCfln
past perfect efnyClhm efnyCfl efnyCyl efnyCl efnyCfln
past habitual ahnuhm ahnfu ahnyus ahnu ahnfun
imperative (pr) — ahfnh ahnæ ahnvk ahnvn, ahfnn
imperative (fut) — efnh ahyns — ahnfbn
verbal b-form imperfective perfective conditional
noun (VN) VN participle (IP) participle (PP) participle (CP)
ahnh ahnbh ahnfu efn ahnfl
(h) aC ahsh come. This verb has some irregularities.
simple present ahys ahs ahyss ahfs ahfsn

present continuous ahsyC ahsC ahsyCs ahsfC ahsfCn
present perfect efsyC efsC efsyCs efsfC efsfCn
future tense ahsb ahsfb ahsyb ahsfb ahsfbn
simple past elhm, efl, eyl, el, efln,
ahslhm ahsfl ahsyl ahsl ahsfln
past continuous ahsyClhm ahsyCfl ahsyCyl ahsyCl ahsyCfln
past perfect efsyClhm efsyCfl efsyCyl efsyCl efsyCfln
past habitual ahsuhm ahsfu ahsyus ahsu ahsfun
imperative (pr) — ahfsh ahw, ahs ahsvk ahsvn, ahfsn
imperative (fut) — efsh ahyss — ahsfbn
ahsh ahsbh ahsfu efs efl, ahsfl
Class 3 CV
(i) CV Mowh be, become. This verb has some irregularities.
simple present Mi Mo Ms Mw Mn
present continuous MyÉC MÉC MyÉCs MfÉC MfÉCn
152 present perfect MfwyC MfwC MfwyCs MfwfC MfwfCn
Conjugation
future tense Mb Mfb Myb Mfb Mfbn charts
simple past Mlhm Mfl Myl Ml Mfln
past continuous MyÉClhm MyÉCfl MyÉCyl MyÉCl MyÉCfln
past perfect MfwyClhm MfwyCfl MfwyCyl MfwyCl MfwyCfln
past habitual Muhm Mfu Myus Mu Mfun
imperative (pr) — Mo M Mk, M\k, `Mhk Mn, Mfwn
imperative (fut) — Mfwh Ms — Mfbn
Mowh Mbh Mfu Mfw Mfl
(j) CV `Shwh lie down [with the same pattern: `Qhwh wash]
simple present Svi `Sho Svs `Shw `Shn

present continuous SvyÉC SvÉC SvyÉCs SvfÉC SvfÉCn
present perfect SvfwyC SvfwC SvfwyCs SvfwfC SvfwfCn
future tense `Shb `Shfb Svyb `Shfb `Shfbn
simple past Svlhm Svfl Svyl Svl Svfln
past continuous SvyÉClhm SvyÉCfl SvyÉCyl SvyÉCl SvyÉCfln
past perfect SvfwyClhm SvfwyCfl SvfwyCyl SvfwyCl SvfwyCfln
past habitual Svuhm Svfu Svyus Svu Svfun
imperative (pr) — `Sho `Sh Svk Svn, Svfwn
imperative (fut) — Svfwh Svs — `Shfbn
`Shwh `Shbh Svfu Svfw Svfl
(k) CV `qowh give, also `nowh take. These verbs have some irregularities.
simple present `qi, yqi qho yqs `qw `qn, yqn

present continuous yqyÉC yqÉC yqyÉCs yqfÉC yqfÉCn
present perfect yqfwyC yqfwC yqfwyCs yqfwfC yqfwfCn
future tense `qb, yqb, qfbh `qfb, yqfb yqyb `qfb, yqfb `qfbn, yqfbn
simple past yqlhm yqfl yqyl yql yqfln
past continuous yqyÉClhm yqyÉCfl yqyÉCyl yqyÉCl yqyÉCfln
past perfect yqfwyClhm yqfwyCfl yqfwyCyl yqfwyCl yqfwyCfln
past habitual yquhm yqfu yqyus yqu yqfun
imperative (pr) — qho `q, yq yqk `qn, yqn
imperative (fut) — yqfwh yqs — `qfbn
verbal noun (VN) b-form imperfective perfective conditional
VN participle (IP) participle (PP) participle (CP)
`qowh, `qwh `qbh, yqbh yqfu yqfw yqfl 153
6 Class 4 Ca
Verbs
(l) Ca phowh get, receive [also Khowh eat]
simple present phi pho phs phw phn

present continuous phyÉC, phÉC, phyÉCs, phfÉC, phfÉCn,
phiyC phiC phiyCs phifC phifCn
present perfect `pfwyC `pfwC `pfwyCs `pfwfC `pfwfCn
future tense phb phfb phyb phfb phfbn
simple past `plhm `pfl `pyl `pl `pfln
past continuous phyÉClhm phyÉCfl phyÉCyl phyÉCl phyÉCfln
past perfect `pfwyClhm `pfwyCfl `pfwyCyl `pfwyCl `pfwyCfln
past habitual `puhm `pfu `pyus `pu `pfun
imperative (pr) — pho ph phk phn
imperative (fut) — `pfwh phs — phfbn
phowh phbh `pfu `pfw `pfl
(m) Ca chowh want [with the same pattern ghowh sing, nhowh bathe]
simple present chi cho chs chw chn

pres. continuous chyÉC, chÉC, chyÉCs, chfÉC, chfÉCn,
chiyC chiC chiyCs chifC chifCn
present perfect `cfwyC `cfwC `cfwyCs `cfwfC `cfwfCn
future tense chb, chfb, chyb, chfb, chfbn,
chib chifb chiyb chifb chifbn
simple past chilhm chifl chiyl chil chifln
past continuous chyÉClhm, chyÉCfl, chyÉCyl, chyÉCl, chyÉCfln,
chiyClhm chiyCfl chiyCyl chiyCl chiyCfln
past perfect `cfwyClhm `cfwyCfl `cfwyCyl `cfwyCl `cfwyCfln
past habitual chiuhm chifu chiyus chiu chifun
imperative (pr) — cho ch chk chn, chifwn
imperative (fut) — `cfwh chs — chifbn
chowh chibh, chbh chifu `cfw chifl
154
(n) xhowh go. This verb has some irregularities. Conjugation
charts
simple present xhi xho xhs xhw xhn

pres. continuous xhyÉC xhÉC xhyÉCs xhfÉC xhfÉCn
present perfect ygfwyC, ygfwC, ygfwyCs, ygfwfC, ygfwfCn,
`gyC `gC `gyCs `gfC `gfCn
future tense xhb xhfb xhyb xhfb xhfbn
simple past `glhm `gfl `gyl `gl `gfln
past continuous xhyÉClhm xhyÉCfl xhyÉCyl xhyÉCl xhyÉCfln
past perfect ygfwyClhm, ygfwyCfl, ygfwyCyl, ygfwyCl, ygfwyCfln,
`gyClhm `gyCfl `gyCyl `gyCl `gyCfln
past habitual `xuhm `xfu `xyus `xu `xfun
imperative (pr) — xho xh xhk xhn,
xhifwn
imperative (fut) — `xfwh xhs — xhfbn
xhowh xhbh `xfu ygfw `gfl
Class 5 CVCa or CaCa
(o) CuCa, CouCa (extended verbs) Gvmhfnh sleep [with the same pattern
`qHRhfnh run, `p£HChfnh arrive, lvkhfnh hide]
simple present Gvmhi Gvmho Gvmhs Gvmhw Gvmhn

pres. continuous GvmhyÉC GvmhÉC GvmhyÉCs GvmhfÉC GvmhfÉCn
present perfect GvymfwyC GvymfwC GvymfwyCs GvymfwfC GvymfwfCn
future tense Gvmhb Gvmhfb Gvmhyb Gvmhfb Gvmhfbn
simple past Gvmhlhm Gvmhfl Gvmhyl Gvmhl Gvmhfln
past continuous GvmhyÉClhm GvmhyÉCfl GvmhyÉCyl GvmhyÉCl GvmhyÉCfln
past perfect GvymfwyClhm GvymfwyCfl GvymfwyCyl GvymfwyCl GvymfwyCfln
past habitual Gvmhuhm Gvmhfu Gvmhyus Gvmhu Gvmhfun
imperative (pr) — Gvmho Gvmh Gvmhk Gvmhn
imperative (fut) — Gvymfwh Gvmhs — Gvmhfbn
Gvmhfnh Gvmhbh Gvmhfu Gvymfw Gvmhfl
155
6 (p) CVCa `bhZhfnh explain [with the same pattern: oThfnh raise, lift, Tkhfnh cheat,
Verbs `dhbhfnh immerse, drown `phRhfnh ignite, set on fire, `SKhfnh teach, `Shnhfnh
tell, make listen]
simple present `bhZhi `bhZho `bhZhs `bhZhw `bhZhn

pres. continuous `bhZhyÉC `bhZhÉC `bhZhyÉCs `bhZhfÉC `bhZhfÉCn
present perfect bvyZfwyC bvyZfwC bvyZfwyCs bvyZfwfC bvyZfwfCn
future tense `bhZhb `bhZhfb `bhZhyb `bhZhfb `bhZhfbn
simple past `bhZhlhm `bhZhfl `bhZhyl `bhZhl `bhZhfln
past continuous `bhZhyÉClhm `bhZhyÉCfl `bhZhyÉCyl `bhZhyÉCl `bhZhyÉCfln
past perfect bvyZfwyClhm bvyZfwyCfl bvyZfwyCyl bvyZfwyCl bvyZfwyCfln
past habitual `bhZhuhm `bhZhfu `bhZhyus `bhZhu `bhZhfun
imperative (pr) — `bhZho `bhZh bvZhk `bhZhn,
bvyZfwn
imperative (fut) — bvyZo `bhZhs — `bhZhfbn
`bhZhfnh `bhZhbh `bhZhfu bvyZfw `bhZhfl
(q) CaCa chlhfnh lead, drive [with the same pattern ahtkhfnh stop, arrest,
khmRhfnh bite, záhlhfnh ignite, uhkhfnh stare, look at, q£hRhfnh stand, phThfnh
send, phlhfnh flee, b£hchfnh save, lhghfnh employ, Mhrhfnh lose]
simple present chlhi chlho chlhs chlhw chlhn

pres. continuous chlhyÉC chlhÉC chlhyÉCs chlhfÉC chlhfÉCn
present perfect chylfwyC chylfwC chylfwyCs chylfwfC chylfwfCn
future tense chlhb chlhfb chlhyb chlhfb chlhfbn
simple past chlhlhm chlhfl chlhyl chlhl chlhfln
past continuous chlhyÉClhm chlhyÉCfl chlhyÉCyl chlhyÉCl chlhyÉCfln
past perfect chylfwyClhm chylfwyCfl chylfwyCyl chylfwyCl chylfwyCfln
past habitual chlhuhm chlhfu chlhyus chlhu chlhfun
imperative (pr) — chlho chlh chlhk chlhn,
chlhifwn
imperative — chlhifwh chlhs — chlhfbn
(fut)
chlhfnh chlhbh chlhfu chylfw chlhfl
156
Conjugation
Class 6 o-conjugation
charts
(r) variation without o-kar: egfnh advance [with the same pattern: kvlfnh be
sufficient, Gvmfnh sleep, ycbfnh chew, yzrfnh relax, yPrfnh return `brfnh go out]
simple present egi ego eygs egw egn

present continuous egyÉC egÉC egyÉCs egfÉC egfÉCn
present perfect eygfwyC eygfwC eygfwyCs eygfwfC eygfwfCn
future tense egb efghfb egyb efghfb egfbn
simple past eglhm egfl egyl egl egfln
past continuous egyÉClhm egyÉCfl egyÉCyl egyÉCl egyÉCfln
past perfect eygfwyClhm eygfwyCfl eygfwyCyl eygfwyCl eygfwyCfln
past habitual eguhm egfu egyus egu egfun
imperative (pr) — ego efgh egvk egn
imperative (fut) — eygfwh — egfbn
egfnh egbh egvfu, efghfu eygfw egvfl, efghfl
(s) variation with o-kar: `bfrhfnh go out
simple present `bfrhi `bfrho `bfrhs `bfrhw `bfrhn

present continuous `bfrhyÉC `bfrhÉC `bfrhyÉCs `bfrhfÉC `bfrhfÉCn
present perfect `byrfwyC `byrfwC `byrfwyCs `byrfwfC `byrfwfCn
future tense `bfrhb `bfrhfb `bfrhyb `bfrhfb `bfrhfbn
simple past `bfrhlhm, `bfrhfl, `bfrhyl, `bfrhl, `bfrhfln,
`brßlhm `brßfl `brßyl `brßl `brßfln
past continuous `bfrhyÉClhm `bfrhyÉCfl `bfrhyÉCyl `bfrhyÉCl `bfrhyÉCfln
past perfect `byrfwyClhm `byrfwyCfl `byrfwyCyl `byrfwyCl `byrfwyCfln
past habitual `bfrhuhm `bfrhfu `bfrhyus `bfrhu, `brßu `bfrhfun
imperative (pr) — `bfrho `bfrh `brßk `bfrhn
imperative (fut) — `byrfwh `bfrhs — `bfrhfbn
`bfrhfnh `bfrhbh `bfrhfu, `brßfu `byrfw `bfrhfl, `brßfl
(t) incomplete verb ahC- be present, exist, have (simple present and simple
past only)
simple present ahyC ahC ahyCs ahfC ahfCn 157

simple past yClhm yCfl yCyl yCl yCfln
6 (u) incomplete verb n- be not (simple present only)
Verbs
ahym uvym uvi `s ahpyn, yuyn
simple present ni no ns nw nn
conditional participle (CP) nifl
6.7 Other verb endings
There are some alternative forms for some verb endings which ought to
be recorded in order to complete the picture.
(1) 1st person future
Instead of bo we find, in Bangladeshi spoken language, um for Class 1

and 2 verbs and mu for Class 3 and 4 verbs: korum I (we) will do, bolum
I (we) will say, parum I (we) will be able to and demu I (we) will give,
khamu I (we) will eat, pamu I (we) will get. These forms are rarely written.
(2) 1st person simple past and past habitual
Instead of lhm and uhm we sometimes find lvm and uvm or `lm and ùm. lvm
and uvm are used in Kolkata speech and writing, `lm and ùm are likely
to be older forms.
(3) 3rd person ordinary simple past
In some older texts le endings (identical to the 2nd person familiar)

are used instead of lo endings. This occurrence is restricted to animate
subjects and a handful of common verbs such as ahnh bring, krh do,
`qowh give, `qKh see, `nowh take, pRh read, phrh be able to, blh say, Bhbh
think, and is not used in modern speech.
(4) colloquial present perfect forms of ahsh come (mainly Kolkata)
ahym uvym uvi `s ahpyn, yuyn

present perfect esyC esC esyCs esfC esfCn
(5) colloquial present continuous and present perfect forms (all verbs).
In the present continuous -ù -te is inserted between the stem and the
verb ending. These are older forms which are commonly used in spoken
language in Bangladesh. There is a paradigm shift here: lengthening
158 of the present continuous forms shifts the standard present continuous
form kryC, BhbyC, phiyC to the present perfect. Note that extended verbs Extended
(Class 5 and 6) always insert an i i at the end of the stem: ahym GvmhiyC o-kar verbs
– I have slept, `s ghyRth chlhifC He drove the car. These forms are rarely
written. Note: because of the shift in meaning in these forms and the
potential for misunderstandings, their use is not recommended for
learners.
present continuous krfuyC krfuC krfuyCs krfufC krfufCn

ahnfuyC ahnfuC ahnfuyCs ahnfufC ahnfufCn
KhifuyC KhifuC KhifuyCs KhifufC KhifufCn
present perfect kryC krC kryCs krfC krfCn
ahnyC ahnC ahnyCs ahnfC ahnfCn
KhiyC KhiC KhiyCs KhifC KhifCn
(6) A note on polite/honorific present imperatives: un imperatives (krßn,

blvn, ahsvn) are rarely used in Bangladesh.
6.8 Extended o-kar verbs
As indicated in 6.3 there are a number of extended verbs (verbal noun in

ahfnh ano) which have an alternative conjugation pattern in ofnh ono. We
refer to this alternative pattern as o-kar conjugation but include in this
term the inherent vowel pattern, e.g. instead of Gvfmhfnh we also find the
spelling Gvmfnh. Only two extended verbs in Bangla egfnh (efghfnh) advance
and `brfnh (`bfrhfnh) go out, come out, be published do not have the ahfnh
ano conjugation at all, i.e. there are no forms such as *eghfnh, *eghi or
*`brhi, *`brhyÉC , etc. They are also the only two instances of verbs with a
low stem vowel following the o-kar conjugation. All other verbs with the
ano - ono pattern have a high stem vowel in the onoconjugation. The
ano-conjugation can have either the low or the high stem. Note that no
extended verbs with a in the stem, such as phThfnh send, ahtkhfnh confine,
obstruct, zhpthfnh seize, clasp participate in the o-kar conjugation. Here is
a list of verbs which can conjugate either way:
a-kar o-kar
conjugation conjugation
\lthfnh, olthfnh \lfthfnh turn upside down
— efghfnh or egfnh advance
k£vckhfnh, `k£hckhfnh k£cfkhfnh shrink, contract 159
6 k£vchfnh, `k£hchfnh k£vfchfnh chop finely
Verbs kvRhfnh kvfRhfnh gather, collect
kvphfnh, `khphfnh kvfphfnh strike, dig
kvlhfnh, kvflhfnh kvflhfnh be sufficient, be adequate
yK£chfnh yK£fchfnh grimace, make faces
gvChfnh, `ghChfnh gvfChfnh tidy up, put into order, arrange
gvthfnh, `ghthfnh gvfthfnh roll up, wind up
Gvmhfnh Gvfmhfnh sleep
ycbhfnh ycfbhfnh chew, masticate
c£vwhfnh, `c£hwhfnh cvfwhfnh ooze, leak, fall in drops
cvlkhfnh cvlfkfnh scratch, itch
yzwhfnh yzfwhfnh keep alive, preserve
yzrhfnh yzfrhfnh relax, take a rest
zvRhfnh zvfRhfnh cool, soothe, calm
Zvlhfnh, `Zhlhfnh Zvflhfnh suspend, hang
yTkrhfnh yTkfrhfnh scatter, disperse
dvbhfnh, `dhbhfnh dvfbhfnh plunge, drown
UvbRhfnh, ÙhbRhfnh UvbfRhfnh fall flat on one’s face
`qHRhfnh `qHfRhfnh run, rush, dash
ynbhfnh, `nbhfnh ybfbhfnh extinguish, put out (fire)
pvRhfnh, `phRhfnh pvfRhfnh set on fire, incinerate, burn, afflict
pvrhfnh pvfrhfnh fill, fulfil, satisfy
`p£HChfnh `pHfChfnh arrive, reach, come
P£vphfnh, `P£hphfnh P£vfphfnh sob, whimper
Pvthfnh, `Phthfnh Pvfthfnh cause to bloom, boil
Pvrhfnh Pvfrhfnh terminate, conclude, finish
Pvslhfnh, `Phslhfnh Pvsflhfnh instigate, entice, seduce
yb£Qhfnh, `b£Qhfnh ybfQhfnh pierce, prick
ybkhfnh ybfkhfnh sell, give away
ybgRhfnh ybgfRhfnh corrupt, spoil
bvlhfnh bvflhfnh caress, pass (hand) lightly over
— `bfrhfnh or `brfnh go out, come out, be published
yBzhfnh, `Bzhfnh yBfzhfnh make wet, soak
ymthfnh, `mthfnh ymfthfnh accomplish, finish, settle, compromise
ymShfnh, `mShfnh ymfShfnh mix, blend, join, unite
mvckhfnh, `mhckhfnh mvcfkhfnh sprain, twist, injure
lvkhfnh lvfkhfnh hide, put out of sight
Svkhfnh Svfkhfnh dry, extract moisture
SvQrhfnh, `ShQfrhfnh SvQfrhfnh rectify, correct
160
Non-finite
6.9 Non-finite verb forms
verb forms
Each Bangla verb has four nonfinite verb forms: a verbal noun, an imperfec
tive participle, a perfective participle and a conditional participle. Although
these forms need a finite verb form to go with them, they all have a variety
of functions and uses and play an important role in the structuring of Bangla
sentences. For a detailed explanation of these forms see Chs 20–23.
6.9.1 Verbal noun
The verbal noun is the form given in dictionaries. It behaves like any other
noun in that it can be the subject of a sentence and it can have modifiers,
classifiers and case endings.
Verbal nouns are formed by adding ah a to the low stem of Class 1 and 2
verb stems, owh owa to the low stem of Class 3 and 4 verbs and `nh no to
the verb stems of Class 5 and 6:
stem verbal noun

Class 1 and 2 kr krh do
`qK `qKh see
oT oTh rise
ahn ahnh bring
ahs ahsh come
Class 3 and 4 xh xhowh go
`q `qowh give
M Mowh be
Class 5 and 6 chlh chlhfnh drive
Gvmh Gvmhfnh sleep
efgh efghfnh advance
kvflh kvflhfnh suffice
bh verbal noun
There is an alternative verbal noun form in bh ba which is usually added
to the low stem of Class 1 verbs and the low stem of all other verbs though
high stem forms are also found.
stem bh ba – verbal noun

`lK `lKbh or ylKbh write
`bhZ `bhZbh or bvZbh understand
oT oTbh or \Tbh rise, get up 161
6 nhm nhmbh get down
Verbs `q `qbh or yqbh give
xh xhbh go
phTh phThbh send
kvflh kvflhbh suffice
This form used to be a future tense verbal noun but has lost the tense
component in contemporary language use. The bh ba – verbal noun form
in the nominative remains in use only in one particular structure with mh«
but the genitive forms (Khbhr, xhbhr, krbhr, blbhr, `qbhr, `qKbhr, phThbhr etc.) are
still in use.
6.9.2 Imperfective participle
The imperfective participle ends in -ù te. This form has often been called
the infinitive because some of its uses are equivalent to the use of infinitives
in other languages:
ahym uhfk `qKfu efsyC/ → I have come to see him.

`s klhth `Kfu chw nh/ → He doesn’t want to eat the banana.
ahym pfr ahr Uhkfu phrb nh/ → I won’t be able to stay afterwards.
ahym `slhi krfu zhyn nh/ → I don’t know how to sew.
However, for a language with multiple nonfinite verb forms such as Bangla,
the term infinitive is not specific enough.
The imperfective participle also includes present participle uses. It adds

-ù te to the high stem of the verb, making it identical to the 2nd person
familiar past habitual. The imperfective participle is discussed in Ch. 21.
stem imperfective participle

kr krfu do, make
Svn Svnfu hear, listen
\T \Tfu rise, get up
`Kl `Klfu play
`qK `qKfu see
ycn ycnfu know, recognise
ahs ahsfu come
Uhk Uhkfu stay
yq yqfu give
162 yn ynfu take
M Mfu be, become Non-finite
Sv Svfu lie, lie down verb forms
chlh chlhfu lead, drive
Gvmh Gvmhfu sleep
`bfrh `bfrhfu go out
Note the following forms:
`xfu from xhowh go

`Kfu from Khowh eat
`pfu from phowh get, receive
ghifu from ghowh sing
chifu from chowh want
6.9.3 Conditional participle
The conditional participle adds `l le to the high stem of Class 1 and Class 3
verbs. Class 2 verbs add `l le to the a stem of the verb. In Class 4 verbs
the a changes to e or to ai in the stem before adding the `l le ending. The
conditional participle is identical in form to the 2nd person familiar simple
past. The conditional participle is discussed in Ch. 22.
stem conditional participle

Class 1 and 3 Gt Gtfl happen, occur
uvl uvlfl lift, raise
bvZ bvZfl understand
M Mfl be, become
yq yqfl give
Sv Svfl lie, lie down
Class 2 Uhk Uhkfl stay, live
ahn ahnfl bring
Uhm Uhmfl stop
Class 4 ph `pfl get, receive
Kh `Kfl eat
gh ghifl sing
ch chifl want
Note the following forms:
`gfl from xhowh go

efl or ahsfl from ahsh come
`Kfl from Khowh eat 163
6 chifl from chowh want
Verbs yqfl from `qowh give
ynfl from `nowh take
Mfl from Mowh be, become
Extended verbs (Class 5 and 6) form the conditional participle in the
regular way:
phTh phThfl send
`ghCh `ghChfl arrange, tidy up
kmh kmhfl reduce
yzrh yzrhfl relax
`p£HCh `p£HChfl reach
q£hRh q£hRhfl stand
`qHRh `qHRhfl run
Gvmh Gvmhfl sleep
efgh efghfl advance
6.9.4 Perfective participle
The perfective participle describes events that have already happened or

actions that have already been carried out. The perfective participle is
discussed in Ch. 23.
e -e is added to the high stem of the verb. All verbs with ah a in the stem
form the perfective participle with an e e stem. The perfective participle
of any verb can also be obtained by subtracting the personal ending of
present perfect verb forms, e.g. take -yC from ygfwyC I have gone or -`Cn
from `KfwfCn you (pol) have eaten and what remains is the perfective
participle. This is true for all verbs in Bangla.
stem perfective participle
bs bfs sit
cl cfl move
ykn ykfn buy
ySK ySfK learn
zhn `zfn know
lhg `lfg stick, attach
ahs efs come
kht `kft cut
ChR `CfR leave
164 nhm `nfm get down
Note the following forms: Imperatives
ygfw from xhowh go

`Kfw from Khowh eat
`pfw from phowh get, receive
yqfw from `qowh give
ynfw from `nowh take
Mfw from Mowh be, become
Extended verbs (Class 5 and 6) drop the a (or o) from the stem and add
ifw iye to the high stem, though averbs do not change their stem to e.
Extended verbs do not have vowel mutation in the stem except in the
perfect tenses and the perfective participle where the high vowel is used:
`bhZhfnh explain, ahym `bhZhi I explain, ahym `bhZhlhm I explained, ahym `bhZhb
I will explain but
perfective participle bvyZfw having explained, perfect tense ahym bvyZfwyC
I have explained
`SKhfnh teach, ahym `SKhi I teach, ahym `SKhlhm I taught, ahym `SKhb I will teach
but
perfective participle ySyKfw having taught, perfect tense ahym ySyKfwyC
I have taught
stem perfective participle

Gvmh Gvymfw sleep
chlh chylfw lead, drive
Khowh Khifw feed
`bhZh bvyZfw explain
pRh pyRfw teach
ahtkh ahtykfw obstruct, arrest
phlh phylfw flee
b£hch b£hycfw save
lhgh lhygfw plant, employ
Tkh Tykfw cheat, deceive
6.10 Imperatives
Imperatives are the verb forms used for direct address. Imperatives in
Bangla have a wider application than they do in English as they are not
just about telling someone what to do but are also used to direct third 165
6 person activities and to pronounce blessings, dismissals or curses. Imperatives
Verbs are found for all 2nd (uvym, uvi, ahpyn) and 3rd persons (`s, yuyn) and it is
not unreasonable to suggest a 1st person imperative with the meaning let’s,
but since these imperative forms would all be identical to 1st person
simple present forms, they are not given here. For all but the 3rd person
ordinary there are two forms, present and future.
2F = 2nd person familiar uvym, ùhmrh
H = 2nd and 3rd person honorific ahpyn, ahpnhrh, yuyn, u£hrh
2I = 2nd person intimate uvi, ùhrh
3 = 3rd person ordinary `s, uhrh
Class 1
CVC u - o vowel change `mhCh wipe present future
2F `mhfCh (mocho) mvVfCh mucho
H `mhfCn, `mhCvn mvCfbn
2I `mhC (moch) mvyCs
3 mvCvk —
CVC o - f vowel change blh speak present future
2F bflh (bflo) bflh (bolo)
H bfln, blvn blfbn
2I bl (bol) byls
3 blvk —
CVC i - e vowel change `lKh write present future
2F `lfKh (lekho) ylfKh
H `lfKn, ylKfbn
(typo), ylKvn ylKfbn
2I `lK (lekh) ylyKs
3 ylKvk —
CVC e - æ vowel change `Plh throw present future
2F `Pflh (phælo) `Pflh (phelo)
H `Pfln, `Plvn `Plfbn
2I `Pl (phæl) `Pyls (phelis)
3 `Plvk —
VC u - o vowel change oTh rise present future
2F ofTh (otho) \fTh
H ofTn, \Tvn \Tfbn
2I \T (oth) \yTs
3 \Tvk —
166
Class 2 Imperatives
CaC Uhkh stay present future

2F Uhfkh (thako) Ùfkh (theko)
H Uhfkn, Uhkvn Uhkfbn
2I Uhk (thak) Uhyks
3 Uhk, Uhkvk —
aC ahsh come present future

2F ahfsh (aso) efsh (eso)
H ahfsn, ahsvn ahsfbn
2I ahw, ahs (as) ahyss
3 ahsvk —
Class 3
CV Mowh be present future

2F Mo (hfo) Mfwh Mfb
H Mn Mfbn
2I M (hf) Ms (hos)
3 `Mhk —
CV `qowh give present future

2F qho, yqfwh `qfb
H yqn, `qn `qfbn
2I yq, `q yqs
3 yqk —
CV `Shwh lie down present future

2F `Sho, Svvfwh Svfb
H `Shn Svfbn
2I `Sh Svs
3 Svk —
Class 4
Ca chowh want present future

2F cho, `cfwh chifb
H chn chifbn
2I ch chs
3 chk —
167
6 Ca phowh get, receive present future
Verbs 2F pho phfb
H phn phfbn
2I ph phs
3 phk —
Ca xhowh go present future
2F xho, `xfwh xhfb
H xhn xhfbn
2I xh xhs
3 xhk —
Class 5
CVCa Gvmhfnh sleep present future

2F Gvmho, Gvymfwh Gvmhfb
H Gvmhn Gvmhfbn
2I Gvmh Gmhs
3 Gvmhk —
CVCa `bhZhfnh explain present future
2F `bhZho `bhZhfb
H `bhZhn `bhZhfbn
2I `bhZh `bhZhs
3 `bhZhk —
CaCa chlhfnh lead, drive present future
2F chlho, chylfwh chylfwh
H chlhn chlhfbn
2I chlh chlhs
3 chlhk —
Class 6
CVCo `bfrhfnh go out present future
2F `bfrho `bfrhfb
H `bfrhn `bfrhfbn
2I `bfrh `bfrhs
3 `brßk —
6.11 Negation
Negation is closely linked to verbs. Here is an initial outline of how Bangla

168 verbs are negated. Negation is discussed in Ch. 33.
(a) with nh Negation
The usual way of negating a sentence is to add the negative particle nh after
the verb:
affirmative negative
ahym ahzfk xhb/ → ahym ahzfk xhb nh/
I will go today. I will not go today.
ahym asvñ yClhm/ → ahym asvñ yClhm nh/

I was ill. I was not ill.
béy§ pRfC/ → béy§ pRfC nh/

Rain is falling. Rain is not falling.
(b) with yn
Two out of the eight tenses in Bangla do not follow this pattern. Both the
present perfect and the past perfect form their negatives with the simple
present tense form of the verb followed by yn. yn carries both a negative
and a past tense component. It is often attached to the verb. yn never
appears anywhere other than straight after a simple present verb form. It
cannot be used as a sentence negator.
ahym kUhth bflyC/ → ahym kUhth bylyn/

I said that. → I didn’t say that.
`Cflyt mhr `KfwfC/ → `Cflyt mhr Khw yn/

The boy got beaten up. → The boy didn’t get beaten up.
ahmhrh `nphfl ygfwyC/ → ahmrh `nphfl xhiyn/

We have been to Nepal. → We have not been to Nepal.
mh Kbrth zhynfwfCn/ → mh Kbrth zhnhnyn/

Mother told (us) the news. → Mother did not tell us the news.
ahym k†h™ MfwyClhm/ → ahym k†h™ Miyn/

I got tired. → I didn’t get tired.
`s GvymfwyCl/ → `s Gvmhwyn/
He slept. → He didn’t sleep.
(c) with n-
Copulative (equational) sentences have the zero verb in the simple present.
These sentences are negated with the incomplete verb n-. The full chart is
given on p. 158. Here are just two examples: 169
6 uvym ahmhr bív/ → uvym ahmhr bív no/
Verbs You are my friend. → You are not my friend.
gîhmth `bS bR/ → gîhmth `byS bR nw/
The village is quite big. → The village is not very big.
(c) with `ni
`ni is the invariable negation of the incomplete but very important verb
ahC- be present, exist in the present tense. `ni stays the same for all persons.1
ahmhr bhyR ahfC/ → ahmhr bhyR `ni/
I have a home. → I don’t have a home.
\yn klkhuhw ahfCn/ → \yn klkhuhw `ni/
He is in Kolkata. → He is not in Kolkata.
6.12 Incomplete verbs, verbal fragments and isolated

verb forms
Incomplete verbs have already been mentioned:
(a) The incomplete verb ahC- be present, exist has only simple present and
simple past tense forms. For all other forms, including the nonfinite
forms, the verb Uhkh stay is used.
(b) The invariable `ni is absent functions as the negation of ahC- for all
persons in the simple present tense. The past tense of `ni is ahym yClhm /
uvym yCfl / `s yCl / ahpyn, yuyn yCfln nh, the future tense is formed with either
Uhkh stay or Mowh be, become and nh.
(c) The incomplete verb n- is not has only simple present tense forms (ni,
no, nw, nn) and the conditional participle nifl. This verb is used to
negate equational (copulative) statements which have the zero verb in
affirmative sentences.
Verbal fragments:
(d) bft of course no doubt is the only remnant of an older verb bth be. It
is no longer used as a 3rd person simple present verb form but as a
sentence adverb, often at the end of the sentence.
1 The pronunciation of this word changes to nhi in some areas, though this form is
170 rarely written.
uh sMfz `chfK pfR nh bft/ Periphrastic
that easily eye-LOC fall-3-PR-S not bft tenses
That is of course not immediately obvious.
(e) Mbv, related to the verb Mowh be, become is used as an attributive adjective
meaning future, to be:
uhr Mbv SáSvr

her future father-in law
Isolated verb forms:
(f) bvyZ is the 1st person simple present of `bhZh understand, a fully func
tioning verb, but bvyZ is used as a sentence adverb meaning I suppose,
no doubt.
o bvyZ Cvytfu `gfC/

he bvyZ holiday-LOC go-3-PR-PERF
He has gone on holiday, no doubt.
(g) `gl, the 3rd person simple past form of xhowh go, is used as an
attributive adjective to mean past, gone by: `gl bCr last year. The
use of `gl is more restricted but very similar to that of the adjective
gu last.
(h) ahsfC is the 3rd person present continuous form of ahsh come. It is used
as an attributive adjective meaning next, the following: ahsfC mhfs next
month.
(i) the perfective participle of blh speak bfl has a variety of nonverbal
uses. Examples are given in Ch. 29 and in 29.6.
6.13 Periphrastic tenses
Periphrastic (or compound) tenses are tenses which are formed with the
help of auxiliary verbs. The present perfect and the future tense in English
are formed with have and will, respectively.
present perfect: I have seen, you have gone, etc.

future tense: I will go, they will consider, etc.
Many Bangla grammar books count two additional tenses:
1 the future perfect, formed by a perfective participle with the future tense
of Uhkh stay. 171
6 ahym nuvn shifkl ykfn Uhkb/
Verbs I new bicycle buy-PP stay-1-FUT
I will have bought a new bicycle.
afnfk lÇ kfr Uhkfbn . . .

many notice-do-PP stay-3-FUT
Many will have noticed . . .
2 the future continuous (or progressive), formed by an imperfective par

ticiple with the future tense of Uhkh stay
ahym khzth krfu Uhkb/

I work-CL do-IP stay-1-FUT
I will keep doing this work.
Mwfuh bh ahfÄ ahfÄ Bvlfuo Uhkfb/

perhaps EMP slowly (×2) forget-IP EMP stay-3-FUT
Slowly you will perhaps even forget.
The intention behind adding these two structures as tenses is to make the
Bengali tense system more symmetrical:
present (i) simple (ii) continuous (iii) perfect

past (i) simple (ii) continuous (iii) perfect
future (i) simple (ii) continuous (iii) perfect.
The fact is, however, that the perfective participle and the imperfective
participle can combine with forms of Uhkh in the simple present, the simple
past and the past habitual as well as in the future tense.
perfective participle:
simple present: ufb zYbfn emn aÀvu Gtnh mhfZ mhfZi Gft Uhfk/
but life-LOC such strange event sometimes EMP
happen-PP stay-3-PR-S
But strange things sometimes happen in life.
simple past: mhnvXyt ahmhr yqfk uhykfw Uhkl/

man-CL I-GEN stare-PP stay-3-P-S
The man kept staring at me.
past habitual: `mfZth s£jhJfs£fu Mfwi Uhku/

floor-CL wet be-PP EMP [is present]
The floor used always to be wet.
172
imperfective participle: Periphrastic
tenses
simple present: Pfl pyrbhfrr ahwun `Cht Mfu Uhfk/
result-LOC family-GEN extent small be-IP stay-3-PR-S
As a result the family is getting smaller.
simple past: ybSánhUbhbv ektv shmfl ynfw Bhu `Kfu Uhkfln/
Biswanath a bit control-PP take-PP rice beaking-IP
stay-3-P-S
Biswanath pulled himself together and carried on eating.
past habitual: `s uKn zvwh `Klfu Uhku/
He then gambling play-IP stay-3-P-HABIT
He used to be a gambler then.
For this reason the future perfective and the future continuous are con
sidered to be aspective features but not tenses in this book. For more on
combinations with Uhkh and ahfC see Ch. 32 Aspect.
173
Chapter 7
Adjectives
Adjectives come in all shapes and sizes and don’t necessarily have any
distinctive features. lhl is an adjective, mhl is a noun, k§ is a noun, n§ is
an adjective, chlhk is an adjective, uhlhk is a noun, qÇ is an adjective, kÇ
is a noun.
There are, however, quite a few specific endings for adjectives which are
derived from nouns or verbs. So, even though we cannot know for sure
that a new word is not an adjective, these endings can identify words as
adjectives. A list of these is given on p. 77 (adjective derivation).
7.1 Types of adjectives
Adjectives are descriptive or modifying words. Bangla adjectives are non-

declineable which means that they do not take case endings. The main
types of adjectives in Bangla are:
(a) qualifying (descriptive) adjectives. They can express:
(i) physical attributes, such as size, shape, age, material, colour:
bR big, pvrhfnh old, khnh blind, grm hot, yuuh bitter, lhl red,
S∆ hard, ybyCê varied, `shnhyl golden, `PkhfS pale, Qhrhl sharp,
—hcYn ancient, ãp§ clear, phkh ripe, nkl artificial
(ii) non-physical characteristics:
lhzvk shy, mhnybk humane, sMz simple, shQhrN ordinary,

bvyºmhn wise, Bî∞h™ deluded, yqfSMhrh confused, yBê different,
mhnY honourable, ymu temperate, —bl strong, powerful,
bhyk remaining, qhwY responsible
174
(iii) opinions, comments: Attributive
uses
a—fwhznYw unnecessary, kyTn difficult, bhfz worthless, sv~qr
beautiful, ybp°nk dangerous, anvpxv∆ unsuitable, ybKjhu famous,
ybSáÄ faithful, béUh futile, mfnhrm delightful, pleasant, aÀvu strange,
`xhgj worthy, qhrßN excellent
(b) quantifying, numeral, ordinal: sb all, afnk much, ykCv some, a¶p a little,
qvith two, p£hcth five, Mhzhrth a thousand, —Um first, y#uYw second . . .
(c) possessive: ahmhr my, ùhmhr your, uhfqr their, uhr ynfzr his own, ynz…
one’s own
These are pronouns used as adjectives.
(d) distributive: anj other, —yu each, —fujk each, ekmh« only
(e) interrogative: yk what, `khn which, `kmn how, ku how much . . .
(f) deictic (demonstrative): e this, ei this, o that, oi that, `s that, `si that
These are pronouns used attributively.
When an adjective occurs directly before the noun it is called attributive,

e.g. ekth sv~qr skhl a beautiful morning, xfU§ khrN sufficient cause, kRh kUh
harsh words. When it occurs as a complement it is called predicative,
e.g. phyn pyr©khr the water is clean, ahmrh Kvb k†h™ , we are very tired.
Here is a sentence with both an attributive (ahsl) and a predicative (yBê)

adjective:
asvKytr ahsl khrN ektv yBê/

The real cause of the illness is a bit different.
7.2 Attributive uses
(a) qualifying, descriptive adjectives
sbvz ahmgvflh the green bR a…yÄ considerable

mangoes discomfort
bR M£hyRth the big pot lhl myrc red pepper
Qhrhl Cvyrth the sharp knife bhys Bhu stale rice
bvRh mhnvX old people pvrhfnh bigvflh the old books
ekzn ybKjhu ek ZkZfk on a sparkling
`lKk a famous writer skhlfblhw morning
175
7 (b) quantifiers and numbers
Adjectives
afnk khz much work ykCv smsjh some problems
ayQkhLS `Çf« in most fields ahro qi more yoghurt
eu ahn~q so much joy uhr —Um znÖyqn his first birthday
ektv qvQ a little bit of milk kfwkzn a few people
afnk Zv£yk much risk smÄ SMfr in the whole town
(c) possessives
ahmhr shifkl my bicycle uhr ayB“uhgvflh his experiences

ahmhfqr zYbn our lives uhfqr bhyRfu at their house
uhr asvK his illness ùhmhfqr åN your loan
(d) distributive
anj mhnvX other people uhr ekmh« iÉCh his only wish
—fujkyt pvrßX each man —yuyt `Cfl every boy
(e) interrogative
kwth —Sä how many `kmn mhnvX what kind of

questions person
ku uhyrK what date yk rL what colour
ku qhm what price `khn yqfk which way
ku ch\l how much rice khr ayQkhr whose right
`kmn rhÄh what kind of yk qrkhr what need
road
(f) deictic
`si myMlh that woman e bCr this year

emn `mzhz such a temper oi QhrNhth that idea
`si `D\ that wave ei bjhphrgvyl these matters
`si Shy™fu in that peace emn `byMshb such extravagance
Separating the different types of adjectives gives us an overview of the

structures involved. In actual language use all these sub-groups can combine
with one another to form noun phrases. The combinability and order of
these will be discussed in Chapter 13, the noun phrase. Here are just a
few examples. Distributive and interrogative adjectives are included under
quantifying adjectives. Unlike in English (this our purpose?) possessive and
deictic adjectives combine easily in Bangla.
176
possessive deictic quantifying qualifying noun Predicative uses
ahmhr sb yzyns all my things

ùhmhr ei bR `cwhrth that big chair of
yours
uhr ku sv~qr Mhys that so beautiful
smile of his
ahmhfqr `s nuvn bhsh that new house
of ours
uhr —yu Ch« each of his students
uhfqr ei ahlhqh ãkvfl in this separate
school of theirs
e sb bhfz kUh all this nonsense
ahmhr afnkgvflh —Sä my many questions
7.3 Predicative uses
All but descriptive, qualifying adjectives are rather restricted in their use
as predicates:
(a) descriptive, qualifying (see below)

(b) quantifying, numeral, ordinal adjectives become nouns.
ùhmhr svK ahmhr sb/ Your happiness is my everything.

eth —Um/ This is a first or This comes first.
ahuÖShsn uhr afnk ykCv/ Self-discipline means a lot to him.
(c) possessive and (f) deictic adjectives revert back to being pronouns.
`lKhth ahmhr ynfzr/ The writing is my own.

klmth ùhmhr/ The pen is yours.
smsjhth ei/ The problem is this.
Khuhgvflh uhr nw/ The notebooks are not his.
`qSth yk ahmhfqr nw? Is this country not ours?
—Ähb ùh `si/ The suggestion is this.
(d) distributive adjectives are not used predicatively.

(e) interrogatives
ùhmhr bws ku? lit: your age how much = How old
are you?
efu uhr ahpy≠ yk? lit: in this his objection what =
What is his objection? 177
7 uhr SrYr eKn `kmn? lit: his health now how = How is he now?
Adjectives ahmhr Uhlh `khnth? Which one is my plate?
`Cflyt `kmn? What is the boy like?
Sentences with predicative adjectives can be equational (copulative) when
the adjective stands on its own. Adjectives can also be part of a verb phrase
in active sentences:
equational: qvith yzyns ahlhqh/ The two things are separate.

active: qvith yzyns ahlhqh Mfw `gfC/ The two things have become
separate.
ei —fSär \≠r ayu kyTn/
The answer to this question is too difficult.
esb ghfnr aUò Kvb pyr©khr nw/
The meaning of all these songs is not very clear.
mhnvXfk svKY krbhr Çmuh ùhmhr ashQhrN/
Your ability to make people happy is extraordinary.
Adjectives with Mowh be, become describe a process.
uhr ph qvyt ashR Mfw `gfC/
Both her legs became numb.
`si rhf«i yk uhr ronh `qowh s®b MfwyCl?
Would it have been possible for him to leave that night?
7.4 Verbal adjectives
The verbal nouns of many verbs can be used as adjectives. In English these
can often only be rendered with relative clauses. Here is a beautiful sentence
which shows the potential of descriptive adjectives. Verbal adjectives are
underlined. The gloss is given below.
`sH~qxò Brh bhLlhfqS, shfpr mu ah£khb£hkh Su Su nqY,

beauty fill-VA Bangladesh, snake-GEN like zigzag hundred (×2) river
`Cht-`Cht sbvz phMhfR-`Grh k£hfcr mu …ÉC zfl Brh zhlhSw,
small (×2) green mountain-LOC surround-VA glass-GEN like clear
water-LOC fill-VA net
béy§fu `Bzh bnBVym,
rain-LOC moisten-VA forest land
sv~qr sbvz Qhfp Qhfp `nfm xhowh chfwr bhghn,
178 beautiful green step-LOC (×2) descend-PP go-VA tea-GEN garden
péyUbYr sbfcfw bR luhfnh ghfCr zÃl, Comparison of
world-GEN all than big extend-VA tree-GEN jungle adjectives
bnj pSvphyK ahr rfwl `bÃl thighfrr bhsñhn/
wild animal bird and royal tiger-GEN habitation.
Bangladesh is filled with beauty, hundreds of criss-crossing rivers like snakes,
small nets of water clear as glass, surrounding the green mountains, forests
moistened by the rain, beautiful green tea gardens descending step by step,
the world’s biggest creeper forest, the home of wild animals and the Royal
Bengal tiger.
Verbal adjectives are discussed in Ch. 20.5.
7.5 Comparison of adjectives
Comparison in English involves comparative and superlative forms of

adjectives: good, better, best; big, bigger, biggest. Bangla structures are
simpler in that the adjective does not change at all. A few Sanskritic forms
are still in use with comparative forms in ur tfro and superlative forms in
um tfmo but they are only used with a few specific adjectives. Here are
some of them:
base form (positive) comparative superlative
gvrß gvrßur gvrßum important

bMv bMvur bMvum abundant
\Éc \Écur \Écum high
yb“ yb“ur yb“um learned, erudite
Gn Gnur Gnum dense
There are a few other remaining superlative forms which are used as
independent adjectives and often do not imply any overt comparison.
`Sî©T best from `Sîw good, kyn©T youngest, `zj©T eldest, Gyn©T close from
Gn dense
Here are two sentences which show these uses. The first one also shows
that the old superlative forms have lost their superlative connotations:
`s yqngvylfu zw™ ahr mhluY Gyn©T Ùfk Gyn©Tur MfÉC/

In those days Jayanta and Maloti were growing closer and closer.
ebL —bl klfrhl —blur Mfw \Tl akUj kvJysu ghlhghyl bMn kfr/
And the loud uproar was getting louder, accompanied by ugly,
obscene swearing. 179
7
7.5.1 With ahro more
Adjectives
For simply stating that something is more difficult, beautiful, stressful, the
adverb ahro is placed before the adjective:
eth ahro kyTn/ `s ahro sv~qr/ ei khzth ahro k§kr/

This is more difficult. She is more beautiful. This work is more stressful.
`khnth ahro sÄh? ahmhrth ahro bR/ `s ahro chlhk/
Which one is cheaper? Mine is bigger. He is more clever.
egvflh ahro phkh/ ahmhr bhbh ahro ybKjhu/ eth ahro BhrY/
These are riper. My father is more famous. This is heavier.
ahro can be used as an adjective with nouns:
ahym ahro ch Khb/ or ahro thkh ahfC/ ahmhr ahro khgz qrkhr/
I will drink more tea. He has more money. I need more paper.
and as a noun by itself:
svflKhr Mwfuh ahro zhnbhr iÉCh yCl/
Sulekha-GEN perhaps more know-baVN-GEN wish [was]
Perhaps Sulekha wanted to know more.
ahro can be expanded by afnk much or by `byS too much or by both.
u£hr pyrf—yÇuth ahro afnk `byS ybrht/
his perspective-CL more much too much big
His perspective is vastly bigger.
7.5.2 With `cfw than
For: He is taller than I am Bangla simply says He than me (genitive) is

tall, except that the word for than is a postposition and follows me and,
as usual in equational sentences, there is a zero verb.
`s ahmhr `cfw lôbh/

he of me than tall
ahmhfqr gîhm ùhmhfqr gîhfmr `cfw `Cht/
our village your village-GEN than small
Our village is smaller than yours.
`mfwyt uhr mhfwr `cfw sv~qr/
girl-CL her mother-GEN than beautiful
180 The girl is more beautiful than her mother.
ùhmhr bhylS ahmhr bhylfSr `cfw nrm/ Comparison of
your pillow my pillow-GEN than soft adjectives
Your pillow is softer than mine.
Both the items being compared need to be mentioned. If we were to say:

*ùhmhr bhylS ahmhr `cfw nrm/ the sentence would mean
*Your pillow is softer than me which is unlikely to be the intended
meaning.
A postposition `cfw demands a preceding genitive and this genitive cannot

do double duty. The only way to get around the repetition is to use a
double genitive:
ùhmhr bhylS ahmhrthr `cfw nrm/

your pillow my-CL-GEN than soft
Your pillow is softer than mine.
Here are more examples with `cfw:
ùhmhfqr `qfSr ahbMhowh ahmhfqr `qfSr ahbMhowhfrr `cfw Bhl/

your-PL-GEN country-GEN weather our country-GEN weather-GEN
than good
The weather in your country is better than in ours.
mhnvfXr SrYr ynfw er `cfw svKY Mowh s®b nw/

human being-GEN take-PP this-GEN than-POSTP happy be-VN
possible [is not]
For a human being no greater physical well-being than this is possible.
The genitive noun or pronoun can come first:
er `cfw nh pRh Bhl `x/

this-GEN than not read-VN good that
Not reading (at all) is better than this.
When something is very much more than, bigger or better we can use afnk
much or afnk `byS very much
SrYr my~qfrr `cfw afnk afnk bR/

body temple-GEN `cfw much much big
The body is much bigger than a temple.
uvym uhr `cfw afnk Bhl ylKfu phr/

you he-GEN `cfw much good write-IP be able to-2-PR-S
You can write much better than he can. 181
7 This is also useful for comparing amounts:
Adjectives
uhfqr ahmhfqr `cfw afnk `byS thkh ahfC/
they we-GEN `cfw very much money [is present]
They have much more money than we do.
ahro more can also be used for amounts:
uhr ahmhr `cfw ahro bív ahfC/
she-GEN I-GEN `cfw more friend [is present]
She has more friends than I do.
or uhr ahmhr `cfw ahro afnk bív ahfC/
she-GEN I-GEN `cfw more much friend [is present]
She has a lot more friends than I do.
km less is used for comparing down.
`s ùhmhr `cfw km `bhfZ/
he you-GEN `cfw less understand-3-PR-S
He understands less than you do.
aí ebL ynrÇr bjy∆r mfQj uPhu Kvb km/
blind and illiterate person-GEN between difference very little
There is very little difference between an illiterate and a blind person.
7.5.3
Three other postpositions Ùfk, chifu and Mfu can be used instead of `cfw.
Both chifu and Mfu are really non-finite verb forms, namely the imperfective
participles of chowh look and Mowh be. But then, both `cfw and Ùfk are also
originally perfective participles of chowh look and Uhkh stay, respectively.
They have moved a long way from their verbal origins, particularly in their
case use.
ei bhsh bhyRr Ùfk ahro afnk bR/
this EMP home-GEN more much big
This house is much bigger than home.
bhghfnr khz rhêh krhr Ùfk pyrSîmY/
garden work cook-do-VN-GEN Ùfk laborious
Gardening is harder work than cooking.
khzth ùhmhr ahrhfmr chifu zrßyr/
work-CL your relaxation-GEN chifu urgent
182 The work is more urgent than your relaxation.
In the following three sentences the genitive noun phrases come first: Comparison of
adjectives
Khbhfrr Mfu zl Khowh gvrß¥pVNò/
food-GEN Mfu water drink-VN important
Water is more important than food.
uhr Ùfko xh gvrßuápVNò, uh Ml . . .
that-GEN Ùfk EMP what-REL important that PC . . .
And what is more important than that . . .
ymUjh kUh blhr Ùfk cvp kfr Uhkh Bhl/
lie word say-VN-GEN Ùfk quiet-do-PP stay good
It is better to keep quiet than to lie.
7.5.4 Negated comparison
Since most comparative sentences are equational in structure, they are

negated with n-
ùhmhr rhêh uhr rhêhr `cfw Khrhp nw/
your cooking her cooking-GEN `cfw bad [is not]
Your cooking is no worse than hers.
eth af¬r `cfw zytl nw/
this maths-GEN `cfw complex [is not]
This is no more complex than maths.
with verbal structures nh is added at the end:
`s ùhmhr `cfw sMfz bhLlh kUh blfu phfr nh/
he I-GEN `cfw easily Bangla word speak-IP be able to not
He does not find speaking Bangla any easier than you do.
7.5.5 Superlative – sbfcfw
When we compare three or more items we use a superlative (biggest, best).

In Bangla we simply use `cfw with the word sb all before it.
eth sbfcfw Bhl/
this sbfcfw good
This is the best.
bhLlhfqfSr ahm sbfcfw mzhr/
Bangladesh-GEN mango sbfcfw delicious.
The mangoes of Bangladesh are the most delicious. 183
7 sBj zgfur sbfcfw —fwhznYw yzyns Ml khgz/
Adjectives committee world sbfcfw necessary thing PC paper
The most indispensable item in the world of committees is paper.
for comparing amounts we use `byS much.
uvym sbfcfw `byS kUh bflyCfl/

you sbfcfw much word speak-2-P-PERF
You talked the most.
syí sbfcfw `byS Bhu `KfwfC/
Shondhi sbfcfw much rice eat-3-PR-PERF
Shondhi has eaten the most.
`s sbfcfw `byS `bun phw/
he sbfcfw much salary get
He gets the biggest salary.
This sentence, as it is about people, could also be done with sbhr `cfw of
all (people)
`s sbhr `cfw `byS `bun phw/

There is a slight difference in meaning between the two: sbfcfw `byS `bun
means the biggest salary out of all the other salaries whereas the sentence
with sbhr `cfw compares the people: He earns the most out of everyone.
Here are three more examples:
`s sbhr `cfw `byS k§ krl/

he of all much trouble take-3P-S
He tried the hardest of everyone.
`mfwyt sbhr `cfw cvpchp/
girl-CL of all quiet
The girl is the quietest of all.
qhqv sbhr `cfw Bhl g¶p blfu phfrn/
Dadu of all good story tell-IP be able to-3H-PR-S
Dadu can tell better stories than anyone.
7.5.6 Superlative with mfQj among
If we want to specify the group which is being compared we can use

the postposition mfQj among or just use a genitive as in the previous
184 structures.
yMmhlw smÄ phMhfRr `cfw bR/ Comparison of
Himalaya all mountain-GEN `cfw big adjectives
The Himalayas are the highest of all mountains.
`Cflfqr mfQj mQv sbfcfw g®Yr/
boy-PL-GEN among Modhu of all serious
Modhu is the most serious of all the boys.
egvflhr mfQj sbfcfw bR Ml yMlnhybl/
this-PL-CL-GEN among of all big PC Hilnabil
Among them Hilnabil is the biggest.
7.5.7 Comparing equals
When two items are equal we use the postposition mu.

`s uhr bhbhr mu/ He is like his father.
`s uhr bhbhr mu lôbh/ He is as tall as his father.
`s uhr bhbhr mu kUh bfl/ He talks like his father.
These can also be negated:
`s ahmhr mu bhfz yc™h kfr nh/
she I-GEN mu needless worry do-3-PR-S not
She does not fret the way I do.
nuvn `cwhrth pvfrhnthr mu ahrhfmr nw/
new chair-GEN old-CL-GEN mu comfort-GEN [is not]
The new chair is not as comfortable as the old one.
7.5.8 With `xmn-ùmn as – as
This correlative pair is designed for comparisons. It is especially useful for

more elaborate comparisons.
síjhfblh zÃflr mfQj yqfw `M£ft `gfl `xmn Z£hfk-Z£hfk mSh efs `C£fk Qfr, u£hr
yc™ho u£hfk ùmni `C£fk Qfr qLShfu lhgfl/
evening hour jungle-GEN in through walk-PP go-CP `xmn swarm-LOC
(×2) mosquito come-PP encircle-PP hold-3P-S his thought also he-OBJ
ùmn EMP encirle-PP hold-3-PR S sting-PP start-3P-S
Just as the mosquitos on his evening walk in the jungle were encircling him
in swarms, so his thoughts were crowding in on him, eating away at him.
More examples are given in Ch. 29.8. 185
7 7.5.9 With uvlnhw in comparison to
Adjectives
uvlnh means comparison and is related to uvl balance, weighing machine
and to the adjective uvlj comparable.
anjhnj aÅflr uvlnhw uh kuth \êu yCl uh blh xhw nh/

other area-GEN comparison-LOC that how much developed [was]
that say-VN go-3-PR-S not
How developed it was compared to other areas is impossible to say.
yM~qv aUbh `bH#Qfmòr uvlnhw islhm Qfmòr bws afnk km/

Hindu or Buddhist-GEN comparison-LOC Islam religion-GEN age
much little
In comparison with Hinduism or Buddhism, Islam is much younger.
7.5.10 With khfC, khChkhyC near or phfS alongside
This is quite similar to the structure with uvlnhw.
ùhmhr `cMhrhr khChkhyCo ahym `ni/

you-GEN beauty-GEN near EMP I [is absent]
I am nowhere near as beautiful as you.
qyÇN-ahyPîkhr grfmr khfC e nhyk ykCvi nw/

South Africa-GEN heat-GEN khfC this not what something EMP
[is not]
Compared to the heat in South Africa this, I take it, is nothing.
7.5.11 Genitive comparisons
A graceful but somewhat restricted method of comparison is with the

genitive only. It only works with a few adjectives:
`s ahmhr bR/ (this can only be used with age)

he I-GEN big
lit: he of me big
He is older than me.
ahmhr `bhn ahmhr yun bCr `Cht/

my sister I-GEN three year small
186 My sister is three years younger than me.
Here are three other comparative uses of bR big: Comparison of
adjectives
abSj er ekth Kvb bR bjyuœm ahfC/
of course that-GEN one-CL very big violation [is present]
Of course there is a much more serious violation than this.
zYbn ahftòr bR nh uhr \f¶thth?
life art-GEN big or it-GEN opposite
Is life superior to art or the other way round?
mhyt `shnhr bR/
soil gold-GEN big
Soil is more precious than gold.
Here is one with ahfg before:
anjyqn er afnk ahfg Gvm Ùfk \fT pfR/

other day this-GEN much early sleep from rise-PP fall-3-PR-S
On other days he gets up much earlier than this.
one with `byS much:
ahgîhfu yun-chr yqfnr `byS `qKbhr mu ykCv `ni/

Agra-LOC three four day-GEN much see-baVN-GEN like something
[is absent]
There is nothing much in Agra to see that will take longer than three or
four days.
7.5.12 Non-comparative `cfw
It is worth mentioning at the end of this section that uhr `cfw can be used
in the sense of rather or instead. This is an additional use of `cfw which is
not directly comparative and does not involve adjectives. The more usual
word for rather is brL , the word for instead is pyrbfuò.
uhr `cfw ahluhfk blfl `kmn Mw?

that-GEN `cfw Alta-OBJ say-CP how be-3-PR-S
How would it be if he told Alta instead?
uhr `cfw rhêhbhêhth ySfK nho/
that-GEN `cfw cooking learn-PP take-2-PR-IMP
Learn to cook instead!
187
7
7.6 Quantifiers
Adjectives
Quantifiers are differentiated from other adjectives by their ability to take a
classifier without turning into a noun. When we add the classifier th to an
adjective, that adjective becomes a noun and can no longer be used attribu-
tively. ei lhlth this red one but not *ei lhlth klm. Quantifiers, on the other
hand, can be used attributively with or without a classifier: afnk zl and
afnkth zl a lot of water. Here are the important quantifiers and their uses.
7.6.1 au, eu and ku so much
These can function as adjectives or adverbs. They can be used with count
and non-count nouns and can take singular and plural classifiers. The use
of ku is restricted to exclamative sentences.
as adjectives
ku phyK, ku `phkh! How many birds, how many insects!

au bhlv ùhmhr khpfRr mfQj `khUh Ùfk?
so much sand your clothes-GEN in where from
Where is all that sand in your clothes from?
uvym syuj uhfk eugvflh bi `qfb?
you true he-OBJ so much-PL-CL book give-2-FUT
Will you really give him so many books?
as adverbs
ykCv mhnvfXr kphl euthi Khrhp `x . . .

some person-GEN fate so much-CL EMP bad that
Some people have such bad luck that . . .
ynfzfk au `Cht mfn kyr `kn?
self-OBJ so much small mind-LOC do-1-PR-S why
Why do I think of myself as so insignificant?
uh auth ãp§ kfr `chfK pfR nh/
that so much clear do-PP eye-LOC fall-3-PR-S not
That is not so obvious.
as nouns
ahym euth chiyn/ I did not want this much.

188 uvym ku `Kfu phr! How much you can eat!
Quantifiers
7.6.2 afnk much, many
afnk can be used with count and non-count nouns. It can take th or gvflh
and it can function as an adverb meaning very.
`s afnk khyMnY/ That’s a long story.

afnk rhu Mfw `gfC/ It is very late.
with th
ahmhr afnkth smw ei bhrh~qhw `dkfcwhfr bfs `kft xhw/

my much-CL time this-EMP verandah deckchair-LOC sit-PP spend-PP
go-3-PR-S
Much of my time is spent sitting on a deckchair on this verandah.
uhr mfnr mfQj afnkth Bhlbhsh lvykfw rhKh yCl/

his heart-GEN much-CL love hide-PP keep-VN [was]
There was a lot of love hidden in his heart.
with gvflh /gvyl
ùhmhr afnkgvyl ycyT zfm Uhkfb/

your many-CL letter collect-PP stay-3-FUT
Many of your letters will have piled up.
gîhfmr opr —h™ Ùfk afnkgvflh bjhfWr dhk `Shnh xhw/

village-GEN other end from many-CL frog-GEN song hear-VN
go-3-PR-S
From the far end of the village the croaking of many frogs can be heard.
as an adverb
uvym xh bflC afnk Bhl `lfgfC ahmhr/

you what say-2-PR-PERF much good feel I-GEN
I liked very much what you said.
ùhmhfqr bhyRfu afnk sMfz Dvkfu phrh xhw/

your home-LOC much easy enter-IP be able o-VN go-3-PR-S
It is very easy to get into your house.
with Khyn as a time adverbial
`s ghnyto xKn afnkKhyn `SKhfnh Mfw `gfC . . .

that song-CL also when much time teach-VN be-PP
go-3-PR-PERF
When that song also had been practised for quite some time . . . 189
7 with an -e ending afnk becomes a noun meaning many people:
Adjectives
ahmrh afnfki u£hfk …hgu zhnhfu y#Qh kyr yn/
we many EMP sheH-OBJ welcome inform-IP quarrel not do-1-PR-PERF
Many of us were not unwilling to welcome her.
ahr SvQv ahym shÇY yClhm nh, ahro afnfk yCl/
and only I witness [was not] more many [was]
And I wasn’t the only witness, there were a lot more people there.
7.6.3 ektv a bit, a little
ektv can be used as an adjective or an adverb. ektv can be seen as the non-
count version of ekth, and as such does not take th or gvflh but combines
only with Khyn.
as an adjective
uhfk ektv smw yqfu Mfb/
he-OBJ a little time give-IP be-3-FUT
He needs to be given a bit of time.
ahmhr ektv sf~qM ahfC/
I-GEN a bit doubt [is present]
I have some doubts.
Here is a combination with ahQtv half
`mfwfqr sfÃ ektv ahQtv `ghQvlYr Bhbo ahmhr `bS ahfs/
girl-PL-GEN with a bit half twilight-GEN mood also I-Gen quite
come-3-PR-S
I also have quite a talent for flirting with the girls.
as an adverb
ahym ahr ektv Gvmhb/
I more a little sleep-1-FUT
I will sleep a bit more.
`Cflyt ektv pfr ahbhr efs pRl/
boy-CL a bit later again come-PP fall-3-P-S
The boy came back again a bit later.
doubled as an adverb with kfr: bit by bit
rhfur gBYruh ektv ektv kfr bhRfu Uhfk/
night-GEN depth a bit (×2) do-PP increase-IP stay-3-PR-S
190 The night was gradually getting deeper.
with classifier Quantifiers
ektvKhyn grm ch yk yqfu phfrn nh?

a bit-CL hot tea give-IP be able to-2H-PR-S not
Can’t you give (me) just a little bit of hot tea?
Mhu qvyt mh« ektvKhyn bhyRfw
hand two-CL a bit-CL reach out-PP
reaching out both hands a little way
ektvKhyn yc™ho kfr nh `s/
a bit-CL think-do-3-PR-S not he
He does not think even a little bit.
7.6.4 kw, kwth
kw is a question word for numbers of count nouns. As a quantifier kwth

or kth is a shortened, colloquial form of kfwkth (see below). kw does not
combine with gvflh. kw is not used adverbially.
kwth Bhu a few mouthfuls of rice
kwth `Cfl a few boys
The question words kw and kwth are given in Chapter 11.9.
7.6.5 kfwk a few
This is a quantifier for individual items of count nouns. Since it is essentially

plural in form, it combines with singular classifiers only.
kfwkyt ql efs `gfC eir mfQj/
a few-CL group come-PP go-3-PR-PERF this-GEN within
By then a few groups had arrived.
kflfz Byuò Mbhr —Um kfwk yqfnr mfQji
college enrolled be-baVN-GEN first few day-GEN within
within the first few days of enrolling in college
The following three sentences show the way the quantifier interacts with
classifiers other than th.
khChkhyC `x kfwkzn q£hyRfw ahfCn, uhfqr ekzfnr nhm SySBVXN ysLM/
close that a few-CL stand-PP [is present] they-GEN one-CL-GEN
name Shoshibhushan Singh.
One of the people who was standing close by was a man called
Shoshibhushan Singh. 191
7 mhfwr ahlmhyr Ùfk Khnkfwk bi `bfC rhKyCflh/
Adjectives mother-GEN shelf from CL a few book choose-PP keep-3-P-C
She picked out a few books from mother’s shelf.
chkyr Ùfk absr gîMfNr yqn kfwfkr mfQji yuyn prphfr xh«h krfln/
job from leisure acceptance-GEN day a few-GEN with he-H other
shore-LOC journey do-3H-P-S
He died within a few days of retiring.
7.6.6 ykCv some, something
Here is a nice passage from Buddhadeva Bose which contains a few differ-
ent uses of ykCv:
`tybfl CRhfnh khgz, ykCv y—w bi, ykCv Pfth/ sbykCvfui ykCv nh ykCv aãPvt Sûq,
azhnh svfrr `rS, \Échyru o anvÉchyru kUh, ykCv Bhbhfbg, ahfrh ku ykCv `ssfbr
zYNòuhr mfQjo mhwhBfr zyRfw ahfC/
table-LOC scatter-VA paper, ykCv beloved book, ykCv photo. all ykCv-LOC
ykCv not ykCv undeveloped word unknown-VA voice-GEN resonance,
pronounced and unpronounced word, ykCv emotional excitement, more
how much ykCv this all-GEN raggedness-GEN among fascination fill-PP
connect-PP [is present]
Papers strewn over the table, some much-loved books, some photos. Some
obscure sounds, the resonance of an unknown voice, spoken and unspoken
words, some unresolved emotion and oh, so much more was wrapped up in
the fascinating raggedness of it all.
ykCv has the following uses

(a) in affirmative sentences as a noun or pronoun: something
ahym ykCv blfu chi/ I want to say something.

ei zhwghw ykCv MfwfC abSj/ No doubt something happened here.
(b) in negated sentences ykCv nh means not anything, nothing
uvym xyq `zfg Ùfk ykCv nh Svfn Uhk . . .

you if be awake-PP stay-PP ykCv not hear-PP stay-2-PR-S
If you didn’t hear anything while you were awake . . .
uhrh ykCv zhfn nh/

they ykCv know-3-PR-S not
192 They don’t know anything.
(c) ykCv can be modified by other quantifiers or adjectives. Quantifiers
ahym afnk ykCv `CfR yqfu rhyz ahyC/

I much ykCv leave-PP-give-IP agreed [I am]
I am prepared to give up a lot.
sb ykCv eKn uhr Mhfu/
all ykCv now his hand-LOC
Everything is now in his hands.
`mfwyt mhUh `nfR zhnhl ahr ykCv chi nh/
girl-CL head move-PP inform-3-P-S more ykCv want-3-PR-S not
The girl shook her head to say she did not want anything else.
o `byS ykCv bfl yn/
he much ykCv not say-3-PR-PERF
He didn’t say much.
eu ykCv ahym mfn rhKfu phrb nh/
so much ykCv I mind-LOC keep-IP be able to-1-FUT not
I won’t be able to remember so much.
ahmhfk a¶p ykCv yqfl clfb/
I-OBJ a little ykCv give-CP go-3-FUT
Just a little bit will do for me.
uhr `khno ykCv `Kfu iÉCh kfr nh/
he-GEN any ykCv eat-IP wish do-3-PR-S not
He doesn’t feel like eating anything at all.
emn ykCv ei sLshfr kKno Gftyn/
such ykCv this family-LOC ever not happen-3-PR-PERF
Nothing like this had ever happened in this family.
nh uvym anj ykCv mfn kr?
or you other something mind-LOC do-2-PR-S
Or are you thinking something different?
(d) ykCv is used as a quantifying adjective before count and non-count nouns
meaning some or an indefinite amount.
`tybfl CRhfnh ykCv bi ahfC/
table-LOC scatter-VA ykCv book [is present]
There are some books on the table.
uhfk ykCv oXvQ yqfu Mfb/
he-OBJ ykCv medicine give-IP be-3-FUT
He has to be given some medicine. 193
7 ykCv Qjhn-QhrNh ahfC xh bi pfR `SKh xhw/
Adjectives ykCv meditation impression [is present] that-REL book read-PP
learn-VN go-3-PR-S
There are some meditative ideas which can be learnt from books.
(e) When ykCv is doubled it indicates a smaller, less significant amount.
sb ùh bylyn uhfk, ykCv ykCv bflyC/

all EMP not say-1-PR-PERF she-OBJ ykCv ykCv say-1-PR-PERF
I didn’t tell her everything, just a little bit.
Prhys BhXhr ykCv ykCv Sûq ySfKfC mh«/

French language-GEN ykCv ykCv word learn-3-PR-PERF only
He has only learnt a few words of French.
(f) ykCvth can be used as an adjective, indicating a more well-defined small

amount than ykCv on its own. ykCvth is also used as an adverb to modify
adjectives, meaning somewhat.
`shmhfk ykCvth ahMu `qKhfÉC/

Sema-OBJ ykCvth hurt show-3-PR-C
Sema is looking somewhat hurt.
syzb ykCvth iuÄu krflh/

Sojib ykCvth hesitate do-3-P-S
Sojib was somewhat hesitant.
mhnvX yMshfb ahym ykCvth yÄymu/

person account-LOC I ykCvth immobile
As a person I am somewhat inflexible.
ykCth `qyr Mfw `gl yk?

ykCvth delay be-PP go-3-P-S what
Was there some delay?
(g) ykCvfu can have the normal locative use in something but it is also often
used as an adverbial phrase meaning at all.
uhr mn bsfb nh ykCvfu/

his mind sit-3-FUT not ykCvfu
He can’t concentrate on anything.
uKn nh `gfl uhfk ykCvfu `puhm nh/

then not go-CP he-OBJ ykCvfu find-1-P-HABIT not
194 If I hadn’t gone then I wouldn’t have found him at all.
`sth ahym Bhbfu chi nh/ ykCvfui nh/ Quantifiers
that-CL I think-IP want-1-PR-S not ykCvfu EMP not
I don’t want to think about that, not at all.
yk≤ ykCvfu ykCv Ml nh/

but ykCvfu ykCv happen-3-P-S not
But nothing at all happened.
The following sentence shows that ykCvfu in the sense at all is equivalent
to `mhfti at all
`sth `mhfti s®b Mfb nh, ykCvfui nh/

this-CL at all EMP possible be-3-FUT not ykCvfu EMP not
This will not be at all possible, no way at all.
(h) ykCv and `khno
Earlier on we had the phrase ykCv \≠r `qowhr ahfg. Compared to `khno
\≠r `qowhr ahfg the phrase with ykCv is somewhat more definite:
`khno \≠r `qowhr ahfg before he could make any reply
ykCv \≠r `qowhr ahfg before he could make some reply
The uses of `khno are given in Ch. 14.2.1.
7.6.7 Khynk some, somewhat
Both an adjective and an adverb, Khynk can take th and is used mainly with
non-count nouns.
Khynkth ∏M-∏c Ml/

some-CL uproar be-3-P-S
There was some uproar.
uhr fT£hft Khynkth qv§vymr Mhys `lfgi ahfC/

her lip-LOC some-CL naughtiness-GEN smile attach-PP EMP
[is present]
There is a mischievous smile permanently playing on her lips.
Here is a count-noun use:
rhifmhMn gp gp kfr `bS Khynkth bîjhy~d `Dfl yql uhr mvfK/

Raimohan gulp gulp-ONOM do-PP quite some brandy pour-PP
give-3-P-S his mouth-LOC
Raimohan gulped down quite a few brandies. 195
7 as an adverb:
Adjectives
ei `mfw Khynkth ahlhqh/
this girl some-CL separate
This girl is a bit different.
Khynkth `cnh, Khynkth afcnh k÷…r
some known-VA some unknown-VA voice
a somewhat familiar yet unknown voice
7.6.8 sb all, everything, sbhi everyone
sb, like afnk and ykCv, belongs to the type of quantifier that can do anything
and be everything. The only job it does not do is to function as an adverb
with adjectives. While we have afnk bR very big and ykCvth nrm a bit soft,
sb stays with its role as a quantifier and leaves the modification of degrees
to the adverb Kvb very. sb goes with count and non-count nouns. It combines
with singular and plural classifiers. It can function as an adjective or a
noun and it teams up with ykCv for the all-inclusive sb ykCv everything.
sb zhwgh everywhere, sb smw always, sb rkm all sorts, sb Qrfnr all kinds of,
ahmhfqr sb …pä all our dreams, `ssb mhnvX all those people, sb shfMbrh all the
Sahibs, e sbgvflh all these, sb mhnvX, sb `lhk everybody. As well as sb `lhk
there is the noun sbhi everybody (see below).
uhrho zhfn esb kUh/
they also know-3-PR-S this all word
They know all this too.
sb bhyRr `lhfkr khn Zhlhphlh Mfw `xu/
all house-GEN person-GEN ear deafened be-PP go-3-P-HABIT
Everyone in the house used to be almost deafened.
ahym sbgvyl Khuh ahlhqh `rfKyC/
I all-CL notebooks separate put-1-PR-PERF
I have put all the notebooks away separately.
`Cflyt sbth Bhu `Kfw `PflfC/
boy-CL all-CL rice eat-PP trow-3-PR-PERF
The boy has eaten up all the rice.
sb can also be used as a collective noun:
ahym eKni ygfw `lhkzn sb yPyrfw yqyÉC/
I right now go-PP people-CL all return-PP give-1-PR-C
196 I am going right now to send everyone back.
eKn sbth nh bvZflo prbuòY zYbfn ei sb kUh ofqr mfn pRfb/ Quantifiers
now all-CL not understand-CP even later life-LOC this all word
they-GEN mind-LOC fall-3-FUT
Even if they don’t understand everything now, they will remember all this
in later life.
sbhi everyone
Animacy and plurality are inherent in the meaning of this word so no
other plural indicators such as gvflh or rh are needed. No classifiers are used.
Case endings are singular.
sbhi uhr sfÃ kUh blfu chw/

all he-GEN with word speak-IP want-3-PR-S
Everyone wants to speak to him.
uhrh sbhi M£jh kfr bfs Uhfk/
they all yes do-PP sit-PP stay-3-PR-S
They all sit there and say yes.
sbhr Khbhr `qowh MfwfC/
everyone-GEN give-VN be-3-PR-PERF
Everyone has been given their food.
ahym sbhifk bysfw yqfwyC/
I everyone-OBJ seat-PP give-1-PR-PERF
I have seated everyone.
7.6.9 smÄ whole
smÄ can be used with count and non-count nouns. Due to its all-inclusive
meaning, it combines only with th. It does not function as an adverb.
bhLlh sbhr BhXh, smÄ bhWhylr BhXh/

Bangla everybody-GEN language whole Bengali-GEN language
Bangla is everyone’s language, the language of all Bengalis.
yk kfr smÄth yqn n§ kfrC?
what do-PP smÄ-CL day waste do-2-PR-PERF
How did you manage to waste the whole day?
197
7
7.6.10 shrh whole
Adjectives
shrh is almost exactly equivalent to smÄ. It is very commonly used in shrhyqn
all day. shrh can combine with th.
ahmrh shrhyqn bhifr yClhm/

we all day outside [was]
We were out all day.
shrh `qS `s yqn Pvyuò kfr/
shrh country that day enjoyment do-3-PR-S
The whole country rejoices on that day.
shrhth yqn Gvymfw khytfwfC zwqYp/
all-CL day sleep-PP spend-3-PR-PERF Jaydip.
Jaydip spent the whole day asleep.
7.7 Amounts (ahr - ahro more, afnk - `byS much, many)
These pairs complement one another in affirmative and negative sentences.

They can be used as adjectives, adverbs or nouns. Apart from the uses
given below ahr is also a coordinating conjunction meaning and and an
adverb in combination with indefinite pronouns and adjectives. These uses
are given in Ch 10.1 and 14.2.4, respectively.
7.7.1 Affirmative – negative contrasts
ahro more and afnk much are used in affirmative sentences. ahr more and
`byS much in negative sentences.
ahym ahro Bhu Khb/ ahym ahr Bhu Khb nh/
I will eat more rice. I won’t eat any more rice.
uhfk ahro ykCv qho/ uhfk ahr ykCv yqfwh nh/
Give him some more. Don’t give him any more.
ahro afnfkr sfÃ kUh MfwfC/ ahr khro sfÃ kUh Mwyn/
We talked to many more people. We didn’t talk to anyone else.
uhr afnk thkh ahfC/ uhr `byS thkh `ni/
198 He has a lot of money. He does not have a lot of money.
`s afnk kUh bfl/ `s `byS kUh bfl nh/ Amounts
He talks a lot. He doesn’t say much.
7.7.2 ahro
ahro is used to express more with numbers, with amounts and adverbs in
affirmative sentences. ahro is used in comparative structures.
numbers: ahro qvith klm `nb/ I will take two more pens.
ahro p£hcth Khm another five envelopes
ahro ybSzn efsfC/ Another twenty people came.
Note that ahr ekth is the normal way of saying one more, but ahro can be
used with ek for emphasis:
ahr ekth qho! Give me another one!

ahro ekth qho! Give me an additional one!
er ahfg ahro p£hcbhr uvym eki kUh bflC/
this-GEN before more five time you one EMP word say-2-PR-PERF
You have said this already five times before now.
amounts: ahro km yqfl clfb/ It’s fine if you give me less.
ahro afnk `qfS xhfb/ He will go to many more countries.
adverbs: ahro shmfn nhmhfbn/ Drop me off a bit further on.
khzth ahro sMfz krh xhfb/ The work can be made easier.
kvfch ahlv kvfch `pwhfzr sfÃ ahro xh yCl sb ymySfw `r£fQ `Pll/
chopped potato chopped onion-GEN with more what-R [was] all
mix-PP cook-PP throw-3-P-S
She mixed chopped potatoes with chopped onions and whatever else there
was and cooked it all.
phTk ynfzi klm uvfl ycyTKhnh ahro mfnr mu kfr ynyÉCfln/
reader self pen lift-PP letter-CL more mind-GEN do-PP take-3H-P-C
The reader took up the pen himself and made the letter more to
his liking.
7.7.3 ahr
ahr combines with question words and indefinites and it is used in affirma-
tive sentences with ek one. 199
7 with ek:
Adjectives
ahr ekth svfxhg qho ahmhfk/
more one-CL chance give-2-PR-IMP I-OBJ
Give me one more chance!
ahr ektv Uhkfu phyr/

more a bit stay-IP be able to-1-PR-S
I can stay a little bit longer.
with question words:
ahr yk yknfu cho?

more what buy-IP want-2-PR-S
What else do you want to buy?
ahr kwth ghC lhghfb?

more how many tree plant-2-FUT
How many more trees will you plant?
with indefinites (in negative sentences):
ahr `khUho phfbn nh/

more somewhere get-2H-FUT not
You won’t get it anywhere else.
ahr ykCv Svnfu chw nh/

more something hear-IP want-3-PR-S not
He does not want to hear any more.
e kUh xKn bflfCn uKn ahmhr ahr ykCvi blhr `ni/

this word when-R say-3H-PR-PERF then-CR I-GEN more
something say-VN-GEN [is absent]
When he said this, there was nothing left for me to say.
euyqn uhi yqfwfCn yuyn - yk≤ ahr nw/

so much day that EMP give-3H-PR-PERF Hemchandra but more
[is not]
He had given just that for so long – but not any longer!
Occasionally ahr can be used temporally, meaning still:
`qKfu elhm, ahmhr khfC ahpnhr Mhsfu ahr Bhflh lhfg yknh/
see-IP come-1-P-S I-GEN close to you-GEN laugh-IP more good
feel-3-PR-S what not
200 I have come to see whether you still like laughing with me or not.
Distributive
7.7.4 `byS much, too much
adjectives
The different uses of afnk were given in 7.6.2.
`byS is its usual counterpart in negative structures (see above). In addition

to this, `byS is used in comparative structures: ùhmhr `cfw `byS more than you,
ybSzfnr `byS more than twenty people, yun mhiflr `byS more than three
miles.
When `byS is used in non-comparative affirmative sentences it usually means

too much.
o `byS yc™h kfr/

he too much worry-do-3-PR-S
He worries too much.
uhrh `byS thkh Krc kfrfC/

they too much money spend-do-3-PR-PERF
They have spent too much money.
`byS can be modified by afnk much or by Kvb very.

uhfqr afnk `byS xhowh-ahsh krfu Mw/
they-OBJ much too much go-VN come-VN do-IP be-3-PR-S
They have to do far too much travelling.
GyRr qhmth afnk `byS/

watch-GEN price-CL much too much
The price of the watch is far too high.
Occasionally `byS is used adverbially to express very:
qvzfn eksfÃ bfs `Kfl `byS Bhl lhfg/

two-CL together sit-PP eat-CP very much good feel
The two of them greatly enjoy sitting and eating together.
7.8 Distributive adjectives
7.8.1 —yu each
—yu is a distributive adjective more than a quantifier but it shares with quan-
tifiers the ability to take a classifier when it is used attributively. —yu is not
used predicatively or adverbially and it cannot take plural classifiers. 201
7 ahym —yuyt `Cflr SrYfrr zfnj yc™h kyr/
Adjectives I each-CL boy-GEN health-GEN for worry-do-1-PR-S
I worry about the health of each of the boys.
—yuyt ycyT ynfzr Mhfu ylfKfCn/
each letter own-GEN hand-LOC write-3H-PR-PERF
He wrote every letter in his own hand.
The use of —yuyqn every day is given in Chapter 8.3.2.
7.8.2 —fujk each
This is quite similar to —yu in its attributive use but it also forms an animate
noun in e —fujfk each person.
ahmrh —fujfki eki sfÃ uUhgu ebL —bMmhn/

we each EMP one EMP with gone there and flowing
We are each of us at the same time past and ongoing.
—fujk pvrßfXr `chK uhr yqfk yPfr ahsl/
each man-GEN eye she-GEN towards return-PP come-3-P-S
Every man’s eyes turned back towards her.
Note the use of the plural noun phrase with —fujk in this sentence:
—fujkyt \pzhuYwfqr zfnj ynyqò§ krh ahfC ñhn/

each-CL tribal person-PL-GEN fixed do-VN [is present] place
There is a place assigned to each of the tribal people.
202
Chapter 8
Adverbs
The work of an adjective is to modify a noun. The work of an adverb is

to modify anything other than a noun. The word class of adverbs contains
a considerable mixture of lexical items from time adverbials eKn now,
uJÇNhJ immediately, ahbhr again to adverbs of degree such as Kvb very, `mhfti
at all, sôpVNò completely.
In traditional Bangla grammar books adverbs are treated as a subgroup of

adjectives. This is not merely due to a lack in Bangla linguistic terminology
but lies in the somewhat fuzzy nature of adverbs themselves. The following
word classes contribute to the formation of adverbs:
1 locative noun forms: all adverbs with Bhfb and many other adverbs in
-e (`ghpfn secretly, qVfr far away, eKhfn here, efkbhfr completely, `zhfr force-
fully, mhfZ mhfZ sometimes, `mhfti at all and so on)
2 adjective plus nominative noun combinations: euyqn for so long, eKn
now, ebhr this time, ekqm completely, etc.
3 perfective participles: all adverbs with kfr
4 adjectives proper: bR big, Bhyr heavy, eu so much, ayu too much, xfU§
sufficient, ektv a bit, BYXN terribly and so on
5 If we follow the traditional division of adverbials into adverbs of time,
place and manner, we detect a close relationship between pronouns and
adverbs.
pronouns adverbs
time place manner
neutral uh, `s uKn `sKhfn ùmn
near e eKn eKhfn emn
far o — oKhfn omn
relative `x xKn `xKhfn `xmn
interrogative `k kKn `khUh `kmn 203
8 These represent only a tiny portion of existing adverbs but they show an
Adverbs underlying arrangement of the Bangla lexicon which is logical and elegant
in its simplicity. It is good to keep this basic orderliness in mind as we
enter the flourishing jungle of Bangla adverbs!
8.1 Formation of adverbs
There are many independent adverbs and there are a great number of
adjectives which can also function as adverbs.
Examples of these can be found in the lists below. There are also some
systematic ways of forming adverbs.
(a) kfr adverbs
The perfective participle of krh do can be added to adjectives, inter-

rogatives and to some nouns. Note that some Bangla adverbs will not
come out as English adverbs in the translation.
ei —hw ynyŸcu kfr blh xhw/

This can be said with some certainty.
nhrhwhNY mhfk afnk kfr bvyZfwyCl/

Narayani had explained (it) a lot to mother.
mhnvX xKn erkm kfr kUh bfl . . .

When people talk in this way . . .
Adverb combinations with kfr are particularly common with onomato-

poeia (see Ch. 36).
orh yPsyPs kfr kUh bll/

They spoke in whispers.
…hmYyz ebhr `Mh `Mh kfr Mhsfu Mhsfu blfln . . .

Swami laughed ho-ho and said . . .
(b) Bhfb adverbs
Adding the locative of Bhb manner, mode to many adjectives creates

adverbs. The first example allows a nominal reading of Bhfb in such
a/this way. Bhfb is often attached to the adjective.
eKno ùmynBhfb kUh bfl . . .

204 He still talks in just the same way . . .
mhnvXyt ykCvth aÀvuBhfb bjbMhr krl/ Uses of
The man behaved somewhat strangely. adverbs
`lhkytr bjy∆guBhfb afnk smsjh/

The man has a lot of personal problems.
(c) Adding e e (a locative ending) to some adjectives and nouns. This is

the same locative process by which postpositions are formed from nouns
(yBur - yBufr inside, \pr - \pfr above, ahg - ahfg before, phS - phfS beside)
and most of these postpositions can also be used as adverbs. It is note-
worthy that some adjectives participate in this process.
akhufr patiently, akhrfN for no reason, anhwhfs easily, abfSfX finally,

alfÇj imperceptibly, af¶p af¶p little by little, ahnmfn absentmindedly,
ahsfl actually, `ghpfn secretly, `zhfr forcefully, loudly, qVfr far away,
QYfr slowly, nhghfR incessantly, ynASfûq soundlessly, nYrfb silently,
pVfbò earlier, previously, —khfSj publicly, openly, sLfghpfn secretly,
sMfz easily, shqfr cordially, …ÉCf~q freely, easily
This pattern also provides the standard way of using onomatopoeia in
sentences (see Ch. 36).
ctcft sticky, cloying, ctpft quickly, tktfk brightly, ukufk sparklingly,

UpUfp heavily
(d) Some adverbs are formed by adding u to to adjectives and nouns.
aLSu partly, a™u at least, iuÄu here and there, œmhgu incessantly,
continuously, qvrBhgjbSu unfortunately, —Umu firstly, at first, —Qhnu mainly,
Plu consequently, as a result, bSu on account of, ybfSXu especially,
s®bu probably, possibly, shQhrNu usually, ãp§u clearly, …Bhbu naturally
8.2 Uses of adverbs
Adverbs can be classified according to the company they keep. Only a few
examples are given for each type. A more complete picture is given in the
semantic classification below. Note that the lists below include adjectives
acting as adverbs as well as quantifiers. Many adverbs and adjectives act-
ing as adverbs have multiple uses.
(a) adverbs modifying verbs:
CtPft quickly, uhRhuhyR quickly, QYfr slowly, akhufr patiently,

uRbfR hurriedly, MvbMv verbatim, ahnmfn absent-mindedly, yTk correctly 205
8 o uhRhuhyR cfl `gfC/ He went away quickly.
Adverbs M£jh, yTk bflC/ Yes, what you say is correct.
QYfr clvn/ Proceed slowly.
uhrh akhufr chylfw xhfÉC/ They are carrying on patiently.
o CtPft `qHRhfu phfr nh/ He is unable to run fast.
`mfwyt ahnmfn bhghfn GvrfC/ The girl is wandering around the
garden in an absent-minded way.
(b) adverbs modifying adjectives:
Kvb qhym very expensive

`byS chlhk too clever
afnk svKY very happy
`bS bR quite big
—hw as®b almost impossible
sôpVNò ahlhqh totally separate
efkbhfr phgl completely crazy
BYXN kyTn extremely difficult
as®b ybry∆kr impossibly annoying
qhrßN sv~qr extremely beautiful
(c) adverbs modifying other adverbs:
au sMfz so easily
ku sv~qrBhfb how beautifully
Kvb uhRhuhyR very quickly
afnk `zhfr very fast
ekqm `ghpfn totally secretly
ahro uhRhuhyR more quickly
(d) sentence adverbs
Sentence adverbs are quite distinct from other adverbs in that they do
not have multiple functions. Here are some examples:
yuyn `bhQ Mw yq^Yfu Uhfkn?

Perhaps he lives in Delhi?
`Kzvr syuj ahmhr Kvb y—w yCl/
Dates really were my favourites.
ahmhfk Mwfuh ektv ahfg cfl `xfu Mfb/
I will perhaps have to leave a bit early.
nhrYr sfÃ Gyn©Tuh rhyKyn bft `khno yqn/
206 Of course I never had any closeness with girls.
`s abSj ei sLbhq Svfn `khno Bhbh™r `qKhl nh/ Adverbs of
Of course when she heard the news she showed no change of heart. time
ahym brL ahr ekth ghn Svnb/

I would rather listen to another song.
ahym nh Mw e Gfrr `shPhw Gvfmhb/
I may as well sleep on the sofa in this room.
uvym ynŸcw Bvfl `gC . . .
You have undoubtedly forgotten . . .
kUhth ahsfl `k\ bflyn/
No-one actually said that.
Kvb s®bu `s `khno \≠r `qfb nh/
It is quite likely that he won’t reply.
8.3 Adverbs one-by-one
Adverbs can be divided into the following subgroups by meaning: time

adverbials, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of place, adverbs of manner
which include adverbs of vagueness, and adverbs of degree.
8.3.1 Time adverbials
There is some overlap between adverbials of time and of frequency. Adverbs

of frequency are given in 8.3.2.
afnkÇN a long time, for a long time
ùhmhr zfnj ahmrh afnkÇN afpÇh kryC/
We have been waiting for you for a long time.
abfSfX finally
abfSfX znuhr ∏cunj efsfC/
Finally the common people gained some awareness.
abfSfX Khbhrth efs `gl/
The food arrived at last.
ahfg before, ago
qv bCr ahfg two years ago
ahmrh ahfg uh \f^K kfryC/
We mentioned this earlier. 207
8 ahz, ahzfk today
Adverbs
ahzfk `khUhw ygfwyCfl?
Where did you go today?
ahzkhl nowadays (usually with simple present)

ahzkhl `lhfk mhbhbhr kUh mhfn nh/
Nowadays people don’t listen to their parents.
ahphuu for now
yPfrhz ahphuuA yc™hth qVr kfr yql/
Firoz pushed the thought away for the moment.
chkyr `CfR yqfwfC uhi ahphuu `bkhr/

He has given up his job so for the moment he is unemployed.
ahbhr again
uvym ahbhr kfb ahsfb?
When will you come again?
orh ahbhr ZgRh krfC/

They are fighting again.
ahbhr is also used as a linking conjunction (see 29.1)
iyumfQj in the meantime, by now
`lhkyt iyumfQj \fT q£hyRfw chryqfk PjhlPjhl kfr uhkhfÉCn/

The man got up and looked all around him in bewilderment.
`Cflyt iyumfQj BhbyCl, cfl xhbhr ei svfxhg/

By now the boy was thinking about his chances of leaving.
iqhnYL at present, for now

ahmrh iqhnYL uhr `cfw `byS zhyn nh/
For the moment we know nothing more than that.
eibhr this time
eibhr yk≤ ahym ahfg xhb/

This time, however, I will go first.
ebhr gîhfm efs pVfbòr mu ahkxòN anvBb krfu phrl nh ahrzv/

But when Arju came to the village this time he was unable to feel
208 the same attraction.
eÇvyn right now (also eKvyn, eKni), eKn now, eKno still Adverbs of
time
ahmrh eÇvyN uhfk uhRh yqyÉC/
We are throwing him out right now.
eKn now
eKn ahr yk krh xhw?
Now what else can be done?
eKn brL uh ahro `bfRfC/

Now it has increased instead.
eKno still, yet (often with the present perfect)

eKno `SX Mwyn?
Has it not finished yet?
aybnhSbhbv kflfzr yqngvflhr kUh eKno Bvlfu phfrnyn/

Abinashbabu hasn’t yet been able to forget those college days.
euÇN until now, by now, euyqn for so long, by now

euÇN `s `zfg `zfg prYÇhr Khuh `qfKfC/
Until now he has been awake looking through exam books.
skhfl ronh yqfl euÇN Sî∞YmÃl `p£HfC xhowh `xu/

If (we) had set off early we would have been able to reach Srimongol
by now.
euÇfN finally, after such a long time

euÇfN béº Bqîflhk ahSáÄ Mfln/
Finally the old gentleman was reassured.
Bqîflhk euÇfN kUh bll/

The gentleman finally spoke.
euyqn for so long, such a long time

mfn Ml euyqn `x or sfÃ ymfSyC, ofk ahmhr Gfr Dvkfu yqfwyC, `sthi ek mMh
aprhQ Mfw ygfwyCl ahmhr/
It felt as if I had committed a major offence by socialising with her for so
long and letting her come to my house.
euyqfnr pvrfnh `lhkfk ChRhfnh \ycu nw/

lit: an old person of so many days should not be sacked
If someone has been here for so long, he should not be sacked. 209
8 euyqfn finally, by now (after such a long time)
Adverbs
—Um-—Um efqr Snh∆ krfu ektv asvybfQ Mu yk≤ euyqfn `cMhrhr sfÃ
nhmgvflhfk `s `mlhfu phfr/
At first he had problems identifying everybody but by now he was able to
match up faces and names.
ebhr, eibhr this time

ahmrh eibhr yk≤ `bySÇN Uhkfu phrb nh/
We will not be able to stay for long this time.
ebhr `s uhr ã«Yfk ynfw efsfC/
This time he has brought his wife.
emn smw just then, at just that time
emn smw `bfz \Tflh b£hySr svmQvr Qáyn/
Just then the delightful sound of a flute rose up.
er mfQj in the meantime, by now
er mfQj bhÉchyt Gvymfw pfRfC/
By now the baby had fallen asleep.
eu bvfRh Mfw pfRfCn er mfQj/
By now he had become so old.
kKno ever (often present perfect)
\yn ùh yqy^fu er ahfg kKno ahfsnyn/
He had never been to Delhi before now.
zYbfn kKno ahrhm kfrnyn yuyn, ynfzr SrYrthfk qwh kfrnyn mvMVfuòr znj/
He had never taken any rest, never had, even for a moment, been indulgent
with his health.
kKno kKno sometimes
yk≤ kKno kKno Bvlœfm suj kUh `byRfw pfR/
But sometimes, by mistake, the truth comes out.
ahmhr kKno kKno ynfzr BhXhr kUh mvfK ahfs/
Sometimes I accidentally speak my own language.
khl, khlfk yesterday, tomorrow
khl sbhifk zhnhfu Mfb/
210 Tomorrow everyone will have to be told.
khl uhfk ybqhw yqfw ahslhm/ Adverbs of
Yesterday we said goodbye to him. time
KhynkÇN, ykCvÇN a while

orh `byrfw xhbhr pr qvzfni cvp kfr bfs rifln KhynkÇN/
After they had left, the two of them stayed sitting quietly for a little while.
KhynkÇN iuÄu kfr `SX pxò™ mhZhmhyZ pUthi Qrfln/
After some hesitation he took the middle road.
ykCvÇN mhUhw zl yqfl “hn yPrfu phfr/
He may regain consciousness if you pour some water on his head for
a while.
ycrkhl, ycryqn forever
yk≤ ahmhfqr bív¥ ycrkhl atvt Uhkfb/
But our friendship will remain unbroken forever.
ei ãméyu ycryqn ahmhr mfn Uhkfb/
This memory will stay with me forever.
uKn then, uKno still, yet
bkvl `brßfu xhfb yTk uKni `si glhth ahbhr `Shnh `gl/
Bakul was just about to go out when, just at that moment, that voice could
be heard again.
mMYfuhX ahbhr yk blfu xhyÉCfln, ahr uKn u£hr `chK efs pRl ahmhr yqfk/
Mohitosh was just about to say something else when he caught sight of me.
ufb uKno ei QhrNh zny—w Mwyn/
But at that time this idea was not yet popular.
uJÇNhJ immediately, directly
mnzvr gvyCfw kUh blfu phrflo uKÇNhJ uhr mhUhw kfr `khno zbhb el nh/
Even though Manjur is perfectly capable of coherent speech, he could not
immediately think of a reply.
uhrpr then, afterwards. uhrpr can also be a conjunction.
ahpnhfk —Ufm bNògvflh mvKñ krfu Mfb, uhrpr ycnfu Mfb, uhrpr ylKfu Mfb/
You first have to learn the letters by heart, then recognise them, then
write them.
uhrpr sb sbòfnfS pfR `gl/
Then everything disintegrated into disaster. 211
8 —Ufm at first
Adverbs
qvzfn —Ufm `byS kUh bflyn/
At first the two of them did not talk very much.
—Ufm Pvlgvflh Uhfk béyur mfQj Dhkh/

At first the flowers are covered within the stem.
mh« as soon as, ei mh« just now

mh« is a time adverbial as well as a restrictive degree adverbial (see 5.5.8).
mh« often appears straight after the phrase it modifies, giving it the charac-
ter of a postposition, e.g.: nhfm mh« in name only
mh« as a time adverbial can also stand on its own meaning just now, but it
is often preceded by ei this.
ahym mh« efsyC/

I have only just arrived.
orh eimh« cfl `gl/
They have just left.
biyt mh« —khS MfwfC/
The book has just been published.
mh« often appears after nominative verbal nouns. Examples of this use are
given in Ch. 20.1.5.
`SX last time

ahpyn ahmhfk `SX `qfKfCn ku yqn ahfg/
The last time you saw me was a long time ago.
`khUhw `SX `rfKyClhm uho yTk mfn pRfC nh/
And I can’t quite remember where I put it the last time I had it.
`SfX finally, in the end
`SfX aym SvQv `zfg yClhm/
In the end only I was awake.
ahmrh Mwfuh `SfX ahbhr eki rhÄhw cfl xhb/
Perhaps we will finish up on the same road again.
sfÃ sfÃ at the same time, immediately
This adverb retains its postpositional character in that it usually follows a
212 preceding genitive.
yk≤ `s sômhn khflr sfÃ sfÃ yblvú Mu/ Adverbs of
But that respect would fade away with time. frequency
bhbho gu Mowhr sfÃ sfÃ `Mlhfnr mh `s bhyR `SX krhr zfnj bR `Cflfk anbru
chp yqfu lhgfln/
Immediately after father’s death Helan’s mother started pressuring her
oldest son incessantly to dissolve the household.
sb smw always, all the time
uhr ùh sb smw ei eki abñh/

He is always in this same state.
`si l°h uhfk sb smw rhyWfw rhKu/

That shame would always make him blush.
sô—yu recently
uhr mh sô—yu mhrh ygfwfC/

His mother died recently.
yzynsth sô—yu nuvn ahyb©khr MfwfC/

This thing has only recently been newly invented.
`syqn that day, `s smw and `skhl at that time. All of these can be used for
talking about the distant past.
uhfko `syqn Kvb ybcylu `qfKyClhm/

I noticed that he was very agitated that day.
`s smfw myMlhfqr bhyRr bhifr `khno BVymkh yCl nh/

In those days, women had no role outside the home.
yk≤ `skhflr mvnySrh iLfryz nh `zfni iLfryz qyllp« nkl krfun/

But the scribes of those days copied out English documents without
knowing any English themselves.
8.3.2 Adverbs of frequency
Some adverbs, such as sb smw, can be time adverbials when they are com-
bined with stative verbs.
uhr sb smw mn Khrhp Uhfk/

He is always depressed. 213
8 and adverbs of frequency with active verbs:
Adverbs
`s ahmhfk sb smw `tylfPhn kfr/
She is always phoning me.
km rarely. km is used as a noun, adjective or adverb. The semantic impact
of km is less than expected or deficient in some way. km is also used in
comparisons (see Ch. 7.5.2)
`s km kUh bfl/
He doesn’t speak much.
emn Gtnh Kvb kmi Gft/
Such events happen very rarely.
—yuyqn every day
uhfu yk —yuyqn zl `qowh \ycu nw?
Should this not be watered daily?
ahmhfk —yuyqn afnk qVfr BîmN krfu Mw/
I have to travel a long distance every day.
—hw, —hwi often
uhr `chK qvyt ahmhr yqfk —hw yñr Mfwi ahfC/
Her two eyes are often fixed on me.
uhrh —hw ùhmhr kUh bfl/
They often talk about you.
bhr time
bhr is a noun which combines with numbers and quantifiers and can also be
doubled to imply again and again
afnk bhr many times

ahym afnk bhr klkhuhw ygfwyC/
I have been to Kolkata many times.
ekbhr once
ekbhr uhfk `qKlhm, SvQv ekbhr/
Once I saw him, only once.
ekbhr ei ybyœwh Svrß Mbhr pr, xyq ahflh Ùfk yzynsgvflh syrfw rhKh xhw, ufb
yk≤ ybyœwh Uhmfb nh/
Even if the things can be moved out of the light, once a reaction has
214 started it will not stop.
bhrbhr repeatedly, again and again Adverbs of
frequency
ahmrh bhrbhr eki Bvl kyr/
We make the same mistakes again and again.
ahmhr bhrbhr mfn MyÉCl uhr kUh/

I kept thinking about him.
mhfZ mhfZ, mhfZ mfQj sometimes

ahmhr mhfZ mfQj ahfg Cvyt Mfw xhw/
I sometimes finish work first.
mhfZ mhfZ ahmhr uhfk Kvn krfu iÉCh Mw/

Sometimes I feel like murdering her.
rYyumu regularly
`s rYyumu khz kfr nh/
He doesn’t work regularly.
uhr rYyumu dh∆hfrr khfC xhowh qrkhr/

He needs to go to the doctor regularly.
`rhz daily
`rhz eki khz krfu khro Bhl lhfg nh/
No one likes doing the same work everyday.
`rhz uhfk infzkSn yqfu Mw/

He has to be given a daily injection.
sb smw always, all the time with active verbs

ahmhfk sb smw eu záhlho `kn/
Why are you always irritating me so much?
`s sb smw qrzhthw uhlh yqfw xhw/

He always locks the door.
smw smw occasionally
ahmrh smw smw `tylfPhfn kUh byl/

We talk on the telephone occasionally.
uhfk smw smw anjfqr khC Ùfk ahlhqh rhKfl Mw/

It is a good idea to keep him separate from the others
from time to time. 215
8 shQhrNu usually
Adverbs
shQhrNu `s smfw ahmhr prfn Uhfk ayu shQhrN zhmh khpR/
Usually at that time I wear extremely ordinary clothes.
o shQhrNu bvQbhfr ahfs nh/

He doesn’t usually come on Wednesdays.
8.3.3 Adverbs of place
Some place adverbs are also postpositions and are discussed in Ch. 9. The
remaining common adverbs are given here.
eKhfn here, oKhfn there, `sKhfn there

All three adverbs can indicate either location or direction.
eKhfn `k\ `ni/ There is no one here.

ahmrh gukhl eKhfn efsyC/ We arrived here yesterday.
oKhfn nhyk ùhmhr qhqh ahfCn/ Your brother is there, isn’t he?
oKhfn ygfw khr sfÃ `qKh krb? Who are we going to meet when we get
there?
ahmrh `sKhfn `byS `qyr krb nh/ We won’t be there for very long.
`syqn ahmrho `sKhfn yClhm/ We were also there that day.
dhfn right, b£hfw left
Adjectives of direction are dhn right and b£h (or bhm) left. For adverbial uses
locative endings are added: dhfn xhn/ Go right! b£hfw xhn/ Go left! or the noun
for direction yqk can be added.
rhÄhth dhnyqfk/ The road is to the right.

bhyR rhÄhr b£hyqfk/ The house is on the left hand side
of the road.
eyqfk this way and oyqfk that way

eyqfk ahr `khno bhyR `ni/ There are no more houses this way.
oyqfk ekth `Cht Mhsphuhl/ There is a small hospital that way.
ephfr on this side, ophfr on that side

These give locations mainly, but can also be used for directions. The side
can refer to rivers, roads, fields or any open, visible space. ophr is also
216 used, half-jokingly, to refer to beyond life, i.e. death.
bhbh xKn ophr cfl `gfln . . . Adverbs of
When father went to that side . . . = when father died place
nqYr ophfr afnk nuvn ahmghC lhghfnh/

A lot of new mango trees are planted on the other side of the river.
rhÄhr eiphfr Ùfkh/
Stay on this side of the road.
qVr distance
qVr is a noun with the following adverbial uses:
afnk qVr or bMvqVr a long way away
bhyR pxò™ eKno bMvqVr/
We are still a long way from home.
ùhmhfk `qKfu ahmrh afnk qVfr efsyC/
We have come a long way to see you.
euqVr so far
euqVfrr pU yk kfr M£htb?
How can we walk such a long way?
a¶p qVr close by
`qhkhnth eKhn Ùfk a¶p qVfrr/
The shop is close by.
`khno qVr any distance
`s ahr `khno qVfr M£htfu chw nh/
She does not want to walk any further.
sb zhwgh everywhere
ghnth sb zhwghw ghowh Mw/
The song is being sung everywhere.
`shzh straight ahead
`shzh is an adjective meaning straight, honest, plain, simple. As a place
adverb it is used for directions.
`shzh ygfw ifãtSfn xhowh xhw/

Going straight will take you to the station.
217
8
8.3.4 Adverbs of manner
Adverbs
We will take a closer look at just a few common adjectives/adverbs. Adverbs
of manner answer to the question how `kmn? The non-specific answers are
ùmn, emn, amn.
8.3.4.1 emn, amn, ùmn, emnBhfb . . . so, such, in such a way, emyn just like
that, for no reason
The difference between them is the deictic near–far distinction, with ùmn
the neutral element. Both emn and amn can express emotional involvement.
emn is much more common than amn. They are adjectives but can also act
as adverbs modifying adjectives (emn khyMl so exhausted) or other adverbs
(amn uhRhuhyR so quickly). In order to modify verbs they can combine with
Bhfb. emnBhfb, ùmnBhfb in such a way. They are also occasionally used as
nouns:
emno Mwfuh as®b nw/

That is also perhaps not impossible.
ùmni ahym ahfg `qyKyn/
I have not seen such a thing before.
as adjectives:
uvym `x emn khz krfu phr . . .

that you can do such work . . .
ahmrh emn kUh kKno Svynyn/
We have never heard anything like this.
emn `k\ eKno znÖhwyn/
No-one like this has yet been born.
as adverbs:
emn asLKj \phfw in so many ways

eKno ùmynBhfb bfl/
They are still saying (it) in the same way.
`s `qhX `ShQrhfnh amn S∆ nw/
It is not so difficult to rectify that mistake.
ydfsôbr mhs, ubv SYu ùmn —bl nw/
218 It was December but it was not that cold.
Adding i to these words gives them emphasis but the use of emyn and amyn, Adverbs of
pronounced emni and omni, goes beyond mere emphasis. They are often manner
used as sentence adverbs meaning just like that, for no particular reason.
The equivalent ùmyn temni can mean in the same way.
`kn ei kUh blfl? emyn/ Why did you say that? Just because . . .
ahymo uhfk ùmyn `qfKyC/
I also thought of him in the same way.
ahbhr ùmyn MThJ shrh ahkhS ahflhyku Mfw pfR ek apr∑p qYyúfu/
And then again, suddenly, the whole sky is lit up by an incomparable
radiance.
8.3.4.2 Specific adverbs of manner
af¶p af¶p bit by bit, gradually

af¶p af¶p uhr “hn yPfr el/
He came round again gradually.
af¶p af¶p uhr zYbn Sy∆ Pvyrfw xhfÉC/
His strength to live is gradually running out.
ahfÄ softly, slowly, QYfr slowly
Often doubled, ahfÄ is used for sound as well as for speed or manner in
general. QYfr is more limited than ahfÄ in that it is used only with speed
and with time passing. QYfr is also often doubled. Roads in Bengal are often
marked with QYfr clvn/ or QYfr ghyR chlhfbn/ for Drive slowly!
qYGò yqnth QYfr QYfr `kft `gl/ The long day passed slowly.
ahfÄ ahfÄ kUh bl/ Speak softly!
`s Kvb ahfÄ ahfÄ khz kfr/ He works very slowly.
uhfk ynfw ektv ahfÄ egfu Mfb/ One has to proceed a bit carefully with him.
ekh, eklh, ekh ekh alone
ekh is the neutral word for alone.
ahym ekh Uhyk/ I live alone.
ekh khz krfu Bhl lhfg uhr/ He likes working alone.
eklh alone, without others. eklh tends to emphasise independence.
uvym eklh `xfu phrfb nh/
You can’t go by yourself. 219
8 `s eklh sb bhyRr khz kfr/
Adverbs She does all the housework by herself.
ekh ekh alone, lonely
This is more emotionally charged, and can imply lonelinessly or deliberately
setting oneself apart from others.
uvym yk ahmhfk eKhfn ekh ekh `rfK xhÉC?

Are you leaving me here by myself ?
ekh ekh mhfn yk? ahym yk `ni ùhmhr sfÃ?
What do you mean by ‘lonely’? Am I not with you?
eksfÃ, ekshfU together
eksfÃ `gfl Bhl Mu nh?
Wouldn’t it be better to go together?
bhÉchfqr eksfÃ ekth Gfr yqfl asvybQh Mfb nh ùh?
child-PL-GEN together one-CL room-LoC give-CP problem
be=3-FUT not EMP
It won’t be a problem putting the children together in one room, will it?
`zhfr fast, loud, forcefully, uhRhuhyR fast, quickly, soon
`zhr is a noun meaning force, strength. Adverbial uses retain this meaning,
as the examples show.
o Kvb `zhfr ghyR chlhw/
He drives very fast.
eu `zhfr kUh blfu Mfb nh/
You don’t have to speak so loudly.
`zhfr thn qho/
Pull hard!
`zhr kfr by force
ahmhfk `zhr kfr ynfw xhfb?
Will you take me with you by force?
uhRhuhyR comes from the noun uhRh hurry, urgency, so the adverb is concerned
with the passing of time. `zhfr, not uhRhuhyR, is used with verbs of movement:
ahym eu `zhfr M£htfu phyr nh/ I can’t walk that fast.
`s Kvb `zhfr `qHRhfu phfr/ He can run very fast.
`rlghyR Kvb `zhfr CvtfC/ The train goes very fast.
220 But when we go on such a train . . .
ahmrh uhRhuhyR `p£HChfu phrb/ We will be able to arrive quickly/soon. Adverbs of
`mfwyt uhRhuhyR ylKfu phfr/ The girl can write fast. vagueness
yTk precisely
ahr yTk uKn Gtnhth MfwfC/
And just at that moment it happened.
ahmrh yTk khgz ybyœ kyr nh/
We do not exactly sell paper.
`nMhu, `nMhJ perforce, of course
`nMhJi aBjhfsr `zhfr `s ekth bi efnyCl Mhfu kfr/
Through force of habit he had brought a book with him in his hand.
bkvl chph glhw uzòn krl 'Bhl Mfb nh blyC qhqh/ `nMhu ahym nuvn mhnvX/ nifl
lhPhlhyP `c£chfmyc kfr ek kh’i bhyQfw yquhm/"
Bokul threatened in a strained voice, ‘Not a good idea, Dada. Of course, I
am a new man. Otherwise I might have kicked up quite a fuss about this.’
sMfz easily
ahym sMfz uhr anvmyu phb/ I will easily get his permission.
orh sMfz sb `zfn `gfC/ They found out (about it) easily.
MThJ suddenly, immediately. MThJ can stand on its own or it can combine
with kfr.
MThJ e yk? What was this suddenly?
uhr MThJ mfn Ml . . . He suddenly remembered . . .
esb …pä MThJ gvylfw `gl/ All these dreams suddenly evaporated.
8.3.4.3 Adverbs of vagueness
The following are adverbs with an inbuilt vagueness factor:

`xn as if, so that, like
`xn is a conjunction as well as an adverb. As a conjunction it can be quite
clear where it is headed:
`k\ `xn nh zhfn

so that know one knows
but as an adverb its particular role is to fill an undefined gap. The Samsad
gives among its definitions for `xn I am failing to recollect just now, what’s
his name and so on. 221
8 ahbhr eKn yk `xn ekth Mfb/
Adverbs Something or other is going to kick off again.
efs suYS `ni `qfK `xn bR ahSáÄ Mfln/
When on her arrival she saw that Shotish was not there she felt somehow
greatly relieved.
`kmn `xn strange, uncomfortable
yk zhyn `kmn `xn mfn Ml/
I don’t know what came over me.
ei Mhu `xn ahr uhr nw/
It was as if his hand was no longer his.
`khno rkm somehow
ahmhfqr `khno rkm cfl/
We get by somehow.
ekrkm so so
`s ekrkmBhfb rhêh krfu phfr/
She can cook after a fashion.
`kmn zhyn lit: how I know is often used mid-sentence to indicate uncer-
tainty or vagueness. The sentence does not have to have a first person
subject.
ghnth Svfn `kmn zhyn khêhr mu lhgfC uhr/

The song somehow made her feel like crying.
8.3.5 Adverbs of degree
ayu very, too, excessively and ayuyr∆ excessive

ayu is a relatively formal equivalent of `byS much, too much and modifies
adjectives and nouns
ayuchlhk overly clever, ayubjÄ extremely fussy, ayuuú overheated,

ayu Çvqî extremely small, ei ayu Sh™ zhwgh this very peaceful place,
ekzn ayu shQhrN `mfw an extremely ordinary girl
ayuyr∆ usually has negative connotations
`mfwyt —fwhzfnr ayuyr∆ `byS kUh bfl/
222 The girl talks far more than necessary.
uhfqr mfQj ayuyr∆ ahflhcnh krh Mw/ Adverbs of
There are too many discussions going on between them. degree
a™u at least
uhfk a™u ch yqfu phrfu/
You could at least have given him some tea.
bhblvfk a™u sfÃ ynfw `gfl Bhl Mu/
It would have been good to take at least Bablu along.
ekqm, efkbhfr, sôpVNò entirely, totally
These three adverbs are similar in their use. sôpVNò is somewhat more formal
and can also be used as an adjective.
y«pvrhw yPfr xhbhr —≥yu —hw sôpVNò Mfw `gfC/

The preparations for returning to Tripura were almost complete.
qhqvr kUh ekqm Bvfl `gyClhm/
I had completely forgotten about Dadu.
pyŸcm ahkhfS sVxò efkbhfr `Mfl pfRfC/
In the western sky the sun had gone down completely.
smÄ péyUbY sôpVNò ynŸcl/
The whole world stood quite still.
kUhgvflh ùh efkbhfr ymfUjo nw/
The statement was not entirely a lie.
smwth ekqm n§ Mwyn/
The time was not entirely wasted.
emnyk even
`k\ bvZfu phfr nh ahmhr yk pyrbuòn MfwfC/ emn yk ahmhr bívrh ahmhfk yz“hsh
kfr ahym ynfzfk eu `Cht mfn kyr `kn/
No one can understand how I have changed. Even my friends ask me why
I have such a low opinion of myself.
zhMhfzr pfÇ ei —Nhylfu —fbS krh as®b emnyk `Cht lÅo ei zlpfU `xfu
phfr nh/
It is impossible for the ship to enter the canal. Even a small launch cannot
go on this waterway.
SYfur —Um sVcnhw e-Mhowh a—hsyÃk -emnyk, afShBn/

This weather at the beginning of winter is disconcerting, even improper. 223
8 kmpfÇ, kmfbyS more or less
Adverbs
`sth kmpfÇ shu Mhzhr mhil qVfr/
That is about seven thousand miles away.
ahmhr khfC kmpfÇ qvS thkh ahfC/
I have about two hundred Taka with me.
`kbl, SvQv, mh« only. `kbl and SvQv are very similar in use and can often be
exchanged for one another.
svkvmhr cfl xhfb/ `kbl `shmnhU uKno `bkhr bfs Uhkfb/

Sukumar will leave. Only Somnath will still be unemployed.
ahmhr `kbl ahro qvi yqn ahfC/
I only have another two days.
uhfqr SvQv ch yqfl clfb/
Giving them only tea is quite enough.
mh« can be used in the same way as `kbl and SvQv but it can also appear
after the phrase it modifies. In connection with ekmh« one only is used as
the adjective only:
`s ahmhr ekmh« `Cfl/ He is my only son.

`sth ekmh« \phw/ That’s the only way.
as an adverb:
mh« yun chr yqfnr mfQj anj mhnvX Mfw `gl kljhN/
Within only three or four days Kalyan became a different person.
mh« shu bCr ahfgr kUh/
This was only seven years ago.
…pämh«i Ùfk xhfb/
This will remain a dream only.
Kvb very
Kvb is one of the most common and most versatile adverbs in Bangla. It can
modify
(a) adjectives: Kvb bR very big, Kvb Bhl mhnvX a very good person, Kvb sv~qr very
beautiful, Kvb grm very hot
ei smw phyn Kvb km Uhfk/ At this time the water is very low.
\ilyt Kvb qYGò nw/ The will is not very long.
224 ybBîhy™fbhQ kryC Kvb/ I feel very confused.
(b) adverbs Adverbs of
degree
`s Kvb `zhfr M£htl/ He walked very fast.
Kvb qîßu ahmrh bív Mfw \yT/ We became friends very quickly.
`s ahmhr Kvb khfC bsl/ He sat very close to me.
`s Kvb sMzBhfb bll . . . He said very easily . . .
(c) verbs
ahym Kvb `KfwyC/ I had a lot to eat.

`s Kvb Mhsfu phfr/ He laughs a lot.
`mfwyt Kvb k£hqfC/ The girl is crying a lot.
\yn Kvb M£hftn/ He walks a lot.
ahr `s svfxhgo Kvb ynfÉC `s/ And he certainly took that chance.
Kvb can also act as an attributive adjective:
eth Kvbi yc™hr bjhphr/ This is a big worry.

`s Kvb khfzr mhnvX/ He works very hard.
ahmhr Kvb qrkhr yCl/ I needed (it) very much.
uhr Kvb bvyº ahfC/ He is very wise.
`s ofT Kvb `Bhfr/ He gets up very early.
In connection with ekth one plus classifier Kvb is used as an adjective or

adverb in negative sentences meaning hardly, not much. Examples are
given in Ch. 13.7.
qhrßN very
ofqr bhghn qhrßN bR/ Their garden is very big.
—Qhnu mainly
`s —Qhnu SYukhfl ahfs/ He comes mainly in the winter.

ahym —Qhnu `Cht g¶p pyR/ I read mainly short stories.
—hw almost, often
—hw is mainly an adverb but can occasionally be used as an adjective. When

the emphasiser i is added —hwi becomes an adverb of frequency, meaning
often (see above). —hw without an emphasiser can also mean often. Here is
its use as an adverb of degree:
uhr —hw sb khpR Mlvq/ Almost all her clothes are yellow.
eth sb mfn rhKh —hw as®b/ It is almost impossible to remember all of this. 225
8 ybfSXu especially
Adverbs
ahmhr ybfSXu zvuh yknfu efsyC/ We have come especially to buy some
shoes.
ahmhr ybfSXu ei kybuh Bhl lhfg/ I like this poem especially.
`bS quite
\yn `bS Bhl \pfqS `qn/ He gives fairly good advice.
BYXN extremely.
BYXN is both an adjective and an adverb modifying adjectives.
\yn BYXN rhfgr mhnvX/ He is a very bad-tempered man.
uhfqr bhyR BYXN bR/ Their house is extremely big.
`mhthmvyt approximately, roughly, `mhfti at all
eiBhfb `mhthmvyt cfl xhfb/ This way it will work, pretty much.
ahmrh `mhthmvyt yun Mhzhr thkh Krc kfryC/
We spent about three thousand Taka.
`mht as a noun means total. With a locative ending it usually means in total,
altogether.
ahym klkhuhw `mhft yunbhr `gyC/ I have been to Kolkata three times
in total.
With the emphasiser i it means at all and is used predominantly in nega-
tive structures.
ahym `sth `mhfti zhnfu chiyn/ I did not want to know this at all.
`mhfti Khrhp `Shnhw nh/ It doesn’t sound at all bad.
xfU§ sufficiently. This can be either an adjective or an adverb modifying
adjectives.
`s ahmhfqr xfU§ shMhxj kfrfC/ He has given us lots of help.
8.4 Order of adverbs
The order of different types of adverbs is usually time, place, manner:

orh `syqn uhfqr bhyRfu Kvb sv~qrBhfb ghn kfrfC/
They sang very beautifully at their house that day.
But adverbs can also appear at the beginning and end of sentences and
226 the order they appear in is relatively free.
Adverbs of the same type, however, go from the more general to the more Order of
specific: adverbs
ahz skhl nwthw at nine o’clock this morning

where English goes from the specific to the general. Here is an example for
place adverbs which shows the opposite arrangement of elements in the
two languages:
1 2 3 4 5
rLpvr `zlhr phwrhb~q gîhfmr ekth bhyRfu
5 4 3 2 1
at a house in the village of Payrabondo in the district of Rongpur
227
Chapter 9
Postpositions
Where English has prepositions before a noun, pronoun or noun-phrase,

Bangla has postpositions which follow the noun-phrase:
ùhmhr sfÃ
you-GEN with
with you
`tybflr ynfc
table-GEN under
under the table
uh ynfw
that about
about that
gu rhfur qvGòtnhr pfr
last night-GEN accident-GEN after
after last night’s accident.
Unlike English prepositions, Bangla postpositions are not a closed word

class. With a few exceptions, they are nouns in the locative case or perfec-
tive participle verb forms and the dividing line between what should or
should not count as a postposition is by no means clear. It is, however,
useful to treat postpositions as a word class in Bangla, not only to help
foreign learners, but also because many of the locative noun forms or
perfective participles concerned have changed or expanded their meaning
in their use as postpositions. There are also a few original, underived
postpositions.
228
Common
9.1 Common postpositions – overview
postpositions
– overview
(a) underived postpositions:
abyQ since, until znj, zfnj for, #hrh through, nhghq until, up to,
pxò™ until, —yu towards, ybnh without, mu, mun like
(b) postpositions derived from verbs:
ChRh without, except, Ùfk from, yqfw by, through, Qfr during, ynfw with
(instrumental), Mfu, Mifu from, Mfw through, via
(c) postpositions derived from nouns:
(i) spatial
\pfr on, above ynfc under, below

bhifr out, outside of yBufr in, inside of, within
shmfn in front of ypCfn behind
phfS beside khfC near, at, to
mfQj between, among mhfZ between, among
yqfk towards
(ii) temporal
ahfg before pfr after

(iii) circumstantial
sfÃ with smáfí about

ybrßfº against mhQjfm through
pfÇ for, on behalf of bqfl instead
pyrbfuò instead sôpfkò about
9.2 Case use
The general rule is that nominal postpositions require a preceding genitive,

verbal postpositions do not. There are, however, some exceptions to this. With
every entry below, the following points are given:
(a) meaning or range of meaning

(b) case ending of the preceding noun phrase
229
9 (c) occurrence and other uses
Postpositions (d) derivation
(e) for less common postpositions: synonymous postpositions
9.3 Postpositions one-by-one
9.3.1 a™r (also a™fr )
(a) within, at an interval of (b) nominative (c) not very common, also used
as a noun (d) nominal (e) pr pr
uhfqr gîhfm yun yqn a™r Mht bfs/

They have a market in their village every three days.
9.3.2 abyQ
(a) from, until (b) nominative (c) not very common (d) original postposi-
tion (e) Ùfk or pxò™
znÖ abyQ from birth

yk≤ smwi `br krfu phrlhm nh ahz abyQ/
But until today I couldn’t make the time.
9.3.3 ahfg
(a) before, ago, in front of (b) genitive (c) very common, also used as an
adverb (d) nominal
uhr ahfg before that

`shmbhfrr ahfg before Monday
er kfwk bCr ahfg a few years before that
smw qvpvr ekthr chr ymynt ahfg at 12.56 pm
u£hr ahshr ahfg or \yn ahshr ahfg before his arrival
ykCv \≠r yqfu phrhr ahfg before being able to make any reply
(a) meaning, (b) case ending of preceding noun, (c) occurrence and other uses, (d) deriv-
230 ation, (e) synonymous postpositions
9.3.4 \fØfS (also \fØfSj ) \pfr on, above
(a) to, towards (b) genitive (c) not very common (d) nominal, also used as
a noun meaning purpose, direction (e) yqfk
ahmhfqr xh«h gî∞hfmr \fØfSj our travel towards the village

uhr \fØfS ycyT phThfnh MfwfC A letter has been sent to him.
9.3.5 \pfr (also \pr, opr )
(a) on, on top of, above, on the topic of, more than, in addition to (b)
genitive (c) very common (d) nominal, also used as a noun meaning top,
also used as an adverb meaning above, upstairs, also used as an adverb
uhr opr or er \pr are used in statements to mean in addition to that.

`tybflr \pfr bi ahfC/ There is a book on the table.
ahmhr \pfr yuyn ÇvbÜ/ He is distressed about me.
mvfKr \pr kUh Svynfw yql/ He said this to my face.
uhr kybuhr \pfr ykCv smhflhcnh `byrfwfC/
Some reviews of his poetry have been published.
uhfrr \pr `mfl `qowh khpRgvflh
the clothes that were getting entangled on the line
ahmhr rhg MfÉC nh ùhmhr \pfr/ I am not angry with you.
uh ynBòr krfb ùhmhr thkhr chyMqhr \pfr/
That will depend on your financial requirements.
bws s≠frr \pr/ more than seventy years old
uhr kUhr \pr kUh blhr shMs khro `ni/
Nobody had the courage to contradict him.
9.3.6 khChkhyC
(a) close to, near, by (b) genitive (c) not very common (d) nominal, more
commonly used as a noun (e) khfC
ation, (e) synonymous postpositions 231
9 —hw —yuyqn ybfkfl nqYr khChkhyC bfs Ùfk kybuh `lfKn mnsvr shfMb/
Postpositions Mr Monsur sits by the river almost every afternoon writing poetry.
uhr bws y«fSr khChkhyC/ He is about thirty.
gîhfmr khChkhyC ahsfu `Cht bR sbhi Cvft el/
As he came close to the village everyone, young and old, came running.
9.3.7 khfC
(a) close to, near, by, to, from (b) genitive (c) very common (d) nominal,
also used as a noun in connection with Ùfk from: uhr khC Ùfk from him,
also used as an adverb
bhyRr khfC efs ghyRth Khrhp Mfw `gl/

When we got near the house the car broke down.
uhr mhbhbhr khfC Uhfk/ He lives with his parents.
SrJcf~qîr khfC phTkrh ycyT ylKu/ Readers used to write letters to
Saratchandra.
ùhmhr khfC shMhxj chiyC/ I am asking you for your help.
ISáfrr khfC —hUònh krh pray to God
khro khfC Çmh chowh ask someone’s forgiveness
ùhmhr khfC ahmhr `khno l°h `ni/ I am not embarrassed with you.
khfC is also used for comparisons (see Ch. 7.5).
ùhmhr khfC ahym gyrb/ Compared to you I am poor.
9.3.8 `cfw (also chifu )
(a) than, compared to (b) genitive (c) very common (d) verbal, also used as
a verb form meaning having asked (see Appendix 4 on compound verbs),
also used as an adverb meaning rather (see Ch. 7.5.12)
ahmhr `cfw yun bCr bR three years older than me

gukhflr `cfw Bhl better than yesterday
uhr mhfwr `cfw sv~qr more beautiful than her mother
uhfqr ahmhfqr `cfw \phzòn afnk `byS/ They have a much greater income ChRh except,
than we do. without
mvfKr chifu uhr gh afnk Prsh/ His body is a lot whiter than his face.
9.3.9 ChRh
(a) without, except, apart from (b) all cases (c) very common (d) verbal.
Unlike most other verbal postpositions in the perfective participle form,
ChRh is in the verbal noun form.
nom ahym ChRh sbhi cfl ygfwfC/
Everybody has left apart from me.
gen ahmhr ChRh sbhr syqò `lfgfC/
Everyone, apart from me, caught a cold.
obj kUhth ahym ùhmhfk ChRh kh\fk bylyn/
I have said this to no-one but you.
loc skhfl ChRh `x `khfnh smw ahsfu phr/
You can come any time except in the morning.
uh ChRh apart from that, also is often used at the beginning of sentences to
introduce additional information.
uhi `sKhfn yuyn rYyumu ghfnr uhylm `nn/ uh ChRh ahké§ Mn yUfwthfrr —yu/
So there he took regular singing lesson. And also he became attracted to
theatre.
uKfnh eKhfn ynwymu —qSònY Mu nh/ uh ChRh eKhfn xh `qKhfnh Mu uhfk yTk ysfnmh
blh sÃu nw/
At that time there were no proper exhibitions. And what was shown could
not rightly be called cinema.
'uvym ahflwhr ypCfn CvtC/" 'ahflwh!" 'uh ChRh ahr yk?"
‘You are chasing after a delusion.’ ‘Delusion!’ ‘What else?’
uvym ChRh ahr `k\ kKfnh e kUh bflyn/ No one but you has ever said this.
ahmhfk ChRh o `khUho xhw nh/ He doesn’t go anywhere without me.
ahym ùhmhr ã«Y ChRh ahr ykCv ni/ I am just your wife.
ekth ChRh ahmhr y#uYw `kht `ni/ I have but the one coat.
\yn ChRh yunzn `slsæmjhn yCl/ There were three salesmen apart
from him.
9
9.3.10 znj, zfnj (there is no difference in meaning or
Postpositions
use between the two forms)
(a) with animate nouns: for, on behalf of, about; with inanimate nouns:
due to, because of; with verbal nouns: in order to; with stretches of time:
for, for the duration of (b) genitive (c) very common (d) underived
`szfnj (where znj is preceded by a nominative) as well as eirzfnj and uhr

zfnj are used as conjunctions meaning so, therefore.
with preceding pronoun:
ùhmhr zfnj for you

uhr zfnj ahmhr afnk yc™h/ I worry a lot about him.
ynfzr znj qvAK krh feel sorry for oneself
with preceding noun:
yun yqfnr zfnj for three days

grfmr znj uhr Th’h `lfgfC/ He has caught a cold because of the heat.
eisb Zhfmlhr zfnj ahmhr yTkmu Gvm Mw nh/
Due to all this upheaval I can’t sleep properly.
khrN Gfrr khz iujhyqr znj afnfk ghn ghowh `CfR `qn/
The reason is that due to housework and so on many gave up singing.
with preceding verbal noun:
ei Cyb ∏uyr krhr zfnj `tkynySwhn ahnfu MfwyCl/

In order to get the film ready, a technician had to be brought in.
yuyn shyMfuj efsyCfln clyu gqjrYyufk —yu©T krhr zfnj/
He came to literature in order to establish a modern prose style.
9.3.11 Ùfk (1) (khC Ùfk )
(a) from, since (b) nominative, genitive after verbal nouns (c) very common,
also used as verb form (d) verbal
In combination with animate nouns khC Ùfk is more common than Ùfk on
its own. This use can be considered a double postposition but syntactically
the postposition khfC reverts back to its nominal function. More on com- Ùfk from
bined postpositions at the end of this chapter.
inanimate noun: rhÄh Ùfk from the road
animate noun: bhbhr khC Ùfk from father
Ùfk is often used in conjunction with pxò™ until:
skhl Ùfk rhu pxò™ from morning till night
ahz Ùfk ei mhfsr eky«S uhyrK pxò™
from today until the 31st of this month
uh Ùfk ahym \pfqS phi/ I get advice from that.
kphl Ùfk Ghm `mhCh wipe the sweat from one’s brow
Dhkh Ùfk klkhuh `byS qVr nw/ It is not very far from Dhaka to Kolkata.
ùhmrh kfb Ùfk eKhfn ahC? Since when have you been here?
ek `mrß Ùfk ybprYu `mrßfu xhowh go from one extreme to another
ahmrh ahfgr ahflhcnh Ùfk uh We realise that from the previous
lÇj kfryC/ discussion.
bhifr Ùfk uhkhfl uh sMfz `chfK This is not easily detected from the
pfR nh/ outside.
uhr Mhu Ùfk khgfzr tvkfrhth The piece of paper fell from his hand.
pfR `gl/
Here are two examples of Ùfk used with animate nouns:
ghdò Ùfk Svfn efs bll . . . heard from the guard, came
and said . . .
svurhL ahym mhnvX Ùfk qVfr bhs kyr/ So I live at a distance from people.
In some cases Ùfk can be used temporally meaning after:
`s Ùfk yk `x MfwyCl uhr `k zhfn/
Who knows what happened to him thereafter.
ahfmyrkh xhowhr Ùfk `s mq `CfR yqfwfC/
After going to America he gave up alcohol.
khC Ùfk:
ùhmhr khC Ùfk ahym yk `pfwyC? What have I received from you?
yPfrhz uhfqr khC Ùfk ybqhw ynfw . . . Having said good-bye to them, Firoz . . .
In the following example khC is clearly a noun:
ektv khC Ùfk `qKfl . . . When you look at it closely . . .
9 Ùfk is used with ynfz self meaning of his/her own accord
Postpositions
`s ynfz Ùfk ei kUh bll/ She said this of her own accord.
9.3.11 Ùfk (2)
(a) than, compared to (b) genitive (c) common, equivalent to `cfw

(d) verbal
ahym yk uhr Ùfk `byS zhyn? Do I know anything more than that?
uhr Ùfko xh gvrßuápVNò, uh Ml uhfqr Çmuh yCl pvrßXfqr Ùfk `byS/
More importantly, they were more powerful than the men.
`ghlhfpr Ùfk z£i Pvflr gí `byS uYbî∞/
The smell of jasmine is more intense than that of roses.
Comparative structures are given in Ch. 7.5.
9.3.12 yqfk
(a) towards, in the direction of, at, approximating (b) genitive, nominative
in fixed phrases (c) very common, also used as a noun (d) nominal
bl `ghflr yqfk gyRfw `gl/ The ball was rolling towards the goal.
síjhr yqfk efsh/ Come around at evening time!
`cHfØh Sufkr yqfk in around the fourteenth century
bhr bhr ahmhr `chK cfl xhyÉCl or sv~qr mvfKr yqfk/

Again and again my eyes were returning to her beautiful face.
with nominative
Gfrr pyŸcm yqfk ys£yR/ The stairs are on the west side of the house.
ahr qyÇN pyŸcm yqfk thylr Gr/
And towards the south-west is the tiled room.
ekzn —Qhn rcywuh ùfrh Sufkr `SX yqfk zYybu yCfln/

A major author was alive towards the end of the 13th century.
Here is an example which uses yqfk as a noun: yqfw with
sVxò, uvym `sîhfur \f¶th yqfk `xfu `cfwyCfl/
Surjo, you wanted to swim against the current.
9.3.13 yqfw
(a) with (instrumental), through, by, via, from, by means of (b) nominative,
object case with animate nouns (c) very common, also used as verb form
(d) verbal
`Khkh qvQ yqfw Bhu `mfK `KfwfC/ The boy ate rice mixed with milk.
phyK zhnhlh yqfw \fR `gfC/ The bird flew through the window.
cvl yqfw zl ZrfC/ Water is dripping off (her) hair.
rhÄhth `khnyqk yqfw? Which way is the road? or In which
direction do we go?
Mhu yqfw Bhu Khi We eat rice with our hands.
ycyn yqfw ch bhnhfnh prepare tea with sugar
qyR yqfw b£hQh tie with a rope
nhk yqfw r∆ pRh bleed from the nose
zhnhlh yqfw `qKh see through the window
rhÄh yqfw M£hth walk along the road
nuvn ybîz yqfw ahsh come via the new bridge
q£hu yqfw `T£ht khmRhfnh bite one’s lips
following animate nouns in the object case: with the help of, through,
from
uhfk yqfw ahsbhb srhfnh MfwfC/ The furniture was moved with
his help.
`s nhnhn rkm bi bhpfk yqfw He reads various books bought
ykynfw pfR/ by his father.
ùhmhr `qS `x ùhmhfk yqfw uhi chw/ Your country wants that from you.
The objective ending can be dropped when the noun is non-specific:
`lhk yqfw khz krhi I get this work done by someone.
9 Here is an example in which the function of yqfw hovers between postposi-
Postpositions tion and verb:
`khno `khno síjh `s ghn yqfw Bfr rhKu/
Some evenings she used to fill with song.
In the following sentence yqfw is a verb form:
uhfqr qvAK yqfw uvym yk svKY Mfu phrfb?
Can you be happy if you give them grief ?
9.3.14 #hrh
(a) by, through, by means of (b) nominative, occasionally genitive, genitive

after animate nouns (c) only in formal contexts, rare in spoken language
(d) underived (e) yqfw, ynfw
ei Sûq #hrh xh `bhZhw what is understood by this word . . .
ufkòr #hrh sb ykCv —mhN Not everything can be proved by argument.
krh xhw nh/
with animate nouns and pronouns:
ySÇfkr #hrh ySÇhybQhn Mw/ The curriculum is set by the teachers.
ahmhr #hrh ei khz Mfb nh/ This job won’t be done by me.
9.3.15 Qfr
(a) by, via, with, during, for (with time), not used with animate nouns,
mainly used with time and place (b) nominative (c) common, also used as
verb form (d) verbal
nhm Qfr dhkh call by name
kyqn Qfri lÇ kryC . . . I have been noticing for a few days . . .
ek súhM Qfr œmhgu béy§ MfÉC/ There has been incessant rain for one week.
ei rhÄh Qfr eygfw `gfl —QhnmìYr bhsBbn/
Further along this road is the prime minister’s residence.
ahmrh anj ekth rhÄh Qfr efsyC/ We came along a different route.
euÇN Qfr xh `qKl uh ymUjh, uh mhwh/
What he had seen up till now were just lies and illusions.
In some of these temporal uses, the meaning of Qfr comes close to the use nhghq up to
of zfnj for, but there is a difference in perspective:
(1) yun súhM Qfr béy§ MfwfC/ and (2) yun súhfMr zfnj béy§ MfwfC/ can both be trans-
lated as It has been raining for three weeks. Sentence (2) is more about
the amount of rainfall, sentence (1) about the stretch of time, the individual
days of incessant rain, the daily struggle to get the washing dry and things
like that. In other words, Qfr looks at the situation from the inside, zfnj
from the outside.
9.3.16 nhghq, nhghJ
(a) up to, until, by (with time) (b) nominative (c) not very common (d)
underived (e) mfQj, pxò™
ahr síjhfblh nhghq uhr kvytfr yPru/

And by evening he would return to his cottage.
ey—l mhs nhghq uhr afnk thkh phowh MfwfC/
By April he had received a lot of money.
ei Brshw yuyn `m mhs nhghq ahphqmÄk åNzhfl zyRfw pfRn/
In this belief, by May, he had got himself head over heels into debt.
9.3.17 ynfc
(a) under, underneath, below, often spatial (b) genitive (c) very common,
also used as an adverb (d) nominal
`tybflr ynfc underneath the table

phMhfRr ynfc at the foot of the mountain
Cybr ynfc below the picture
`lhkthr bws cy^fSr ynfc/ The man is less than forty years old.
9.3.18 ynfw
(a) with, about (b) nominative, objective with animates (c) very common,
also used as a verb form (d) verbal
9 s´w uhrpr ei bjhphrth ynfw afnk `BfbfC/
Postpositions Afterwards Sanjoy thought a lot about this matter.
ahzkhl pyrfbS ynfw chryqfk ahflhcnh clfC/
Nowadays the environment is being discussed everywhere.
uqvpyr asvñ SrYr ynfw yuyn ycyT ylfKn/
On top of that, in spite of his ill health, he writes letters.
ahmhfqr xh ahfC uh ynfw ahmrh gybòu Mfu phyr/
We can be proud of what we have.
er khrN ynfw py’urh nhnh rkfmr bjhKjh yqfwfCn/
Scholars have given various explanations as to the reasons for this.
with animate nouns and pronouns:
runfk ynfw kUh \Tl/ The topic of Roton came up.
ekzn aQòméu ã«Yfk ynfw syuj ùh `khfnh lhB `ni ahmhr/
Naturally, a half-dead wife is no use to me.
ahym ofqr sklfk ynfw pfrr yqni ydnhr Khowhlhm/
I fed them all dinner the following day.
\yn ã«Yfk ynfw `qhuhlh Gfrr \pfrr pVbò yqfkr khmrhw Uhfkn/
He and his wife live in the east room on the top floor of a two-storey
building.
in the following two examples ynfw is a verb form:
`Cflfmfwfqr ynfw `bRhfu xhn/ She takes the children visiting.

thkh ynfw bhzhfr xhfb/ He takes some money and goes to the market.
9.3.19 pfÇ
(a) for, on behalf of, in regard to (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal (e)
overlaps with zfnj
pfÇ comes from pÇ meaning side. There are some overlaps with zfnj:
ahym ùhmhr pfÇ —hUònh kyr/
ahym ùhmhr zfnj —hUònh kyr/
I pray for you.
pfÇ has the more limited and more specific range on behalf of, on the pyrbfuò instead
side of.
apr pfÇ (no genitive) is used at the beginning of sentences to mean

furthermore
ahmhr pfÇ eth blh kyTn/
It is difficult for me to say.
uhfqr pfÇ ei phTgvflh bvyZfw `qowh ùmn kyTn nw/
It is not so difficult for them to explain these lessons.
pU Mhrhbhr pfÇ cmJkhr zhwgh `sth/
This is a fantastic place for getting lost.
abSj esb uKn ùhmhr pfÇ Kvb zrßrY yCl nh/
Of course all this wasn’t very urgent for you at that time.
mhnvfXr pfÇ sfcun o xvy∆bhqY Mowh s®b/
It is possible for a human being to be aware and reasonable.
Kvb qhym `khno Mfãtfl Uhkh uhfqr pfÇ s®b Mw nh/
It is not possible for them to stay in a very expensive hostel.
with verbal noun:
nzrßflr kybuh nzrßlfk `bhZhr pfÇ Kvb mVljbhn/

Nazrul’s poetry is very valuable for an understanding of Nazrul.
9.3.20 pyrbfuò
(a) instead of, in place of (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal (e) overlaps
with bqfl
ycynr pyrbfuò lbN yqfwfC/ She added salt instead of sugar.

`mfwyt ShyRr pyrbfuò shtò pjh~t ypfí xhfb/
The girl will wear shirt and trousers instead of a saree.
ahym ùhmhr pyrbfuò `gfl Mu nh? Couldn’t I go in your place?
esb kUh blhr pyrbfuò khz krh \ycu/
Instead of all this talking we ought to do some work.
9
9.3.21 pfr (also pr )
Postpositions
(a) after (b) genitive (c) very common (d) nominal, also used as adverb
uhrpfr is used as a conjunction meaning then, afterwards

uhr ybfw Mowhr pr . . . after she got married . . .
ahlhqh Mowhr ek bCr pr . . . a year after the separation . . .
yqfnr pr yqn, bCfrr pr bCr day after day, year after year
khz Svrß Mbhr —hw yun mhs almost three months after starting work . . .
pfr . . .
ahz yun yqfnr pfr three days after today
yk≤ eKn mh Mbhr pr `s ahr —ujhKjhfnr Bw kfr nh/
But now, after becoming a mother, she is no longer afraid of rejection.
pfr is also used spatially:
ei rhÄhr pfr bhfm! Left after this road!
`shBhbhzhfrr pfr Sjhmbhzhfr Get off after Shobhabazar at Syambazar.
nhmfbn/
9.3.22 pxò™
(a) until, up to, as long as, used spatially and temporally (b) nominative,
ocasionally locative, can also follow verb forms (c) very common, often
used in combination with Ùfk from (d) nominal
The use of pxò™ as a noun in the sense of limit, extreme is rare but the
nominal meaning pervades many of the postpositional uses.
ahmhr pxò™ cfl efsyC/ I have reached my limit.

As a postposition pxò™ is extremely flexible and wide-ranging. What has
sometimes been perceived as an adverbial use of pxò™ in the sense of even,
or in `SX pxò™ finally, is largely a translation issue. The phrase internal struc-
ture is that of a postposition firmly attached to whatever precedes it.
ahz Ùfk rybbhr pxò™ from today until Sunday

phMhR Ùfk shgr pxò™ from the mountains to the sea
Mhsphuhl pxò™ `M£ft `xfu You will be able to walk as far as the hospital. pxò™ until
phrfbn/
khC pxò™ xhowh s®b Ml nh/ It was not possible to get up close.
preceding locative:
ybfwr ahfg pxò™ sb Bhifbhn bhbh-mhfwr sfÃ bhs krfb/
Until they get married all the siblings will live with their parents.
emnyk `chfK pxò™ `qfKnyn u£hfk/
lit: even up to eyes you didn’t see him
But you didn’t even see him.
In this and the following structures English has to resort to an adverbial
translation:
ekfP£hth zl pxò™ Khnyn/
lit: up to one drop of water you didn’t drink
You didn’t even have a drop of water.
uhfk sh™ánh `qbhr BhXh pxò™ `syqn K£vfz phiyn ahym/
That day I couldn’t even find the language to comfort him.
examples with `SX pxò™:
`SX pxò™ `s `b£fc `gfC/
He survived in the end (after all).
Bhbfu Bhbfu `SX pxò™ `s bvZfu `pfryCl . . .
After a lot of thought he finally understood . . .
uKno ahmhfqr ybSáhs yCl, ahpyn Mwu `SX pxò™ —yuSîßyu BÃ krfbn nh/
At that time we still believed that you wouldn’t perhaps, after all, break
your promise.
pxò™ following an imperfective participle:
This is unusual and perhaps not representative as both examples are taken
from the same novel,1 but this use of pxò™ should be noted.
uKno `s M£htfu pxò™ `SfKyn/ At that time he hadn’t even learnt

to walk.
ahmhr yqfk `s uhkhfu px™ò phrl nh/ He couldn’t even look at me.
1 ∏Slzhn~q mvfKhphQjhw, `x kUh blh Mwyn

9 Verbal nouns preceding pxò™ are often, but not always, either followed or
Postpositions preceded by the negative particle nh. In these cases pxò™ conveys the meaning
as long as:
\yn nh ahsh pxò™ uhrh eKhfn bfs Uhkfb/
They will remain sitting here until he comes.
yzynsth `BfW xhowh nh pxò™ ahbhr nuvn ekth ykfn ahnb `kn?
As long as the thing isn’t broken, why should I buy a new one?
9.3.23 phfn
(a) towards, in the direction of (b) genitive (c) rare (d) underived, yqfk and
—yu are much more commonly used
zhnhlhr bhifr ÄbÜ rhy«r aíkhfrr phfn `cfw Uhfkn yuyn/
He is looking out of the window towards the stillness of the dark night.
9.3.24 phShphyS, phfS, ahfSphfS
(a) near, alongside, next to (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal, also used
as a noun
bhyRr ahfSphfS `khn `qhkhn `ni/ There are no shops close to the house.
ùhmhr Cybr phShphyS ahmhfqr Our photo was printed alongside
Cyb Chph MfwfC/ yours.
bhyRr yTk phfS ekth kqm ghC/ There is a Kadam tree right beside
the house.
9.3.25 ypCfn, `pCfn
(a) behind, at the back of (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal
uhr ypCfn afnk qvAfKr kUh/ There is a very sad story behind it.
ahmhfk uhr ypCfn `tfn ynfw `gl/ He dragged me along behind him.
xhrh ahmhfqr ypCfn ahsfb uhrh ei BhXh bvZfb nh/
Those who come after us (our descendants) will not understand this
language.
9.3.26 —yu —yu towards
(a) towards (b) genitive (c) not very common, somewhat formal (d) un-
derived (e) yqfk is more common
ahr shiqhr —yu thno kfm `xfu phfr/

And his attraction towards Saida might also fade away.
yb“hfnr —yu u£hr yCl gBYr anvrhg/
He had a deep interest in science.
ynfzr —yu ab“h …hBhybk nw/
One does not usually look down upon oneself.
ek yb~qv Sîºh `ni ùhmhr ynfzr ã«Yr —yu/
You don’t have a modicum of respect for your own wife.
9.3.27 bqfl
(a) instead of (b) genitive (c) common, colloquial, equivalent to pyrbfuò

(d) nominal
`qSY BhXhr bqfl iLfryz `SKhfnh

teaching English instead of the local languages
ahphr kf÷ sMhnvBvyur bqfl yurãkhr/
There was censure rather than sympathy in his sister’s voice.
\fR clhr bqfl BhXh erkm lhP yqfw yqfw cfl/
Instead of flying, the language jumps about like this.
9.3.28 bhifr
(a) outside of, beyond (b) genitive (c) common, also used as noun (d)
nominal
Gfrr bhifr esb Mh\mh\ ykfsr? What is all that noise outside the house?
`qfSr bhifr ahflhcnhth clfC/ The discussion is going on outside the
country.
9 esb yzyns uhr yc™hr bhifr/
Postpositions All these things are beyond his imagination.
eyýnwhr shfMb b~qvk ynfw u£hbvr bhifr efln/

The engineer took a rifle and came out of the tent.
xh ahmhfqr nhghflr bhifr uhr yqfk nh `cfw phyr nh/

We can’t help looking towards the things that are beyond our reach.
9.3.29 bhfq
(a) after, except (b) nominative (c) not very common, pfr or ChRh are more
common (d) nominal
qv bCr bhfq `mfwyt ybflu Ùfk yPfr el/

Two years later the girl returned from abroad.
svnwnY bhfq bhyk `mfwfqr `s `cfn nh/

He doesn’t know the rest of the girls except for Shunoyoni.
—hw C shu mhs bhfq ahym syllfk kyP-Mh\fs `qKlhm/

Almost six months later I saw Sholil in the coffee-house.
9.3.30 ybnh
(a) without (b) locative noun phrase follows ybnh (c) not very common
(d) underived (e) more common: ChRh
ybnh is the only preposition in current use. In most contexts the postposition
ChRh can be used instead of ybnh but the unusual positioning of ybnh before
the accompanying noun phrase makes for an unobtrusive and elegant
phrase structure, particularly in contexts like ybnh `c§hw effortlessly, ybnh kf§
without problems, etc. From a structural point of view, ybnh acts more like
a prefix than a preposition.
ybnh bhCybchfr without discrimination

ybnh `nhytfS \fT cfl `gl got up and left without notice
ybnh `bufn `mfwfk pRhn/ He teaches the girl without a salary.
ybnh khrfN lhin `kft yqfwfC/ She put down the phone for no reason.
9.3.31 ybrßfº ybrßfº against
(a) against, in opposition to (b) genitive (c) common (d) derived from adjec-
tive ybrßº adverse, unfavourable
uhr ybrfº ùhmhr ayBfxhg ykfsr? What is your complaint against him?
xhrh ahmhr ybrßfº ofT those who rise against me
ybî∞ytS rhzhr ybrßfº kUh blfuo yuyn Bw `pfun nh/
He was not afraid to speak even against the British king.
9.3.32 yBufr, `Bufr
(a) in, within, inside (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal, remains very close
to its original nominal meaning
yBufr is usually spatial in meaning. It can also be used temporally or

transfiguratively but the postposition mfQj is more common in these con-
texts.
bjhfgr yBufr yk ahfC? What is in the bag?

zhqvGfrr yBufr anj `k\ yCl nh/ There was no one else in the museum.
qvi mhfsr yBufr uhr bhÉch Mfb/ Within two months her baby will be born.
yk≤ mfnr yBufr xh aíkhfrr mfQj MfÉC uh khro khfC …Ykhr kru nh/
But he would never admit to anyone what goes on in the dark recesses of
his mind.
9.3.33 mu, mun
(a) like, as, suitable for, according to (b) genitive, nominative (c) very common
(d) underived
mu is one of the most frequent and versatile postpositions in Bangla. The
examples below show its structural features and semantic range.
comparisons, with preceding genitive like, as
eKnkhr mu as now, ahfgr mu as before, uhr bhbhr mu like his father,
Bw-phowh ySSvr mu like a frightened child, rhfur mu aíkhr as dark as the
9 night, ahkhfSr mu \qhr as free as the sky, shgfrr mu gBYr as deep as the
Postpositions sea, tfmfthr mu tvktvfk lhl bright red like a tomato.
phUfrr mu bfs Uhfk/ (She) sits like a stone.

krhycr i~thrysyt `tî∞fnr mu like the intercity train in Karachi
ahym ybzlYr mun cfl `xfu phyr/ I can disappear like lightning.
with preceding verbal noun in the genitive: suitable, appropriate
svrmhfk pRhbhr mu `khno `mfw kflfz `ni/
There is no girl at the college to teach Suroma.
ùhmhfk blhr mu g¶p a suitable story to tell you
eKhfn ekth `Dhkhr mu P£hkh zhwgh/ Here was a gap suitable for entering.
`qfShºhr krbhr mu smw `ni ahmhr/ I don’t have the time to rescue the
country.
ei SMfr uhr qvAK `bhZhr mu mhnvX `ni ekzno/
There was not one person in this town who would understand her sorrow.
`qKhr mu zhwgh a place worth seeing
with abstract nouns in the nominative according to, to
my^kh bhyR bhynfwfC ynfzr pC~q mu/

Malika arranged the house to her own liking.
Gfr ahmhr —fwhzn mun sbi ahfC/
I have everything I need in the room.
mu, with a preceding genitive, is used for approximate time references.
anv©Thn shuthr mu `SX Mfb/ The event will be finished by about
seven o’clock.
qv G∂thr mu lhgfb/ It will take about two hours.
mu is attached to some abstract nouns and to some adjectives in the
nominative.
svybQhmu at one’s convenience, kUhmu as per instruction, iÉChmu as you like,

prhmSòmu as per advice yTkmu properly, Bhlmu well, KvySmu at one’s pleasure
9.3.34 mfQj mhZKhfn in
between
(a) within, among, in between, inside, in (b) genitive (c) very common
(d) nominal
mfQj can be used:

temporally to imply before or by a certain time
nwth qSthr mfQj between nine and ten o’clock

ek G∂thr mfQj within an hour
síjhr mfQj by evening
yuyn ahbhr `mhôbhshw yPrfbn yqn kvyRr mfQj/
He was returning to Mombasa again within twenty days.
spatially
qS mhiflr mfQj within ten miles, Gfrr mfQj in the room, `s mhfTr mfQj in
that field
Khuhth u£hr bigvflhr mfQj rfwfC/ The notebook was left among his books.
u£hbvr mfQj `khUho `s `ni/ He was nowhere in the tent.
uhr `qM bfnr mfQj pfR ahfC/ His body is lying in the forest.
figuratively
ùhmhr ahmhr mfQj between you and me,

uhr mfnr mfQj in his mind,
Bqî∞smhfzr `lhkfqr mfQj bjbMéu BhXh the language used in polite society
ahfr, er mfQj Khrhfpr yk ahfC? Honestly, what’s so terrible about this?
`s ynfzr mfQj mgä o uéú yCl/ He was self-absorbed and content.
bMvbcfnr mfQj uvymo ahC/ You are also included in that plural.
ei ymSî∞ pvrhfnh Bhb ahmhr mfQj uYbî∞ `bg ynfw yPfr el/
These old mixed-up feelings in me have returned with a vengeance.
9.3.35 mhZKhfn, mhZhmhyZ
(a) in the middle of (b) genitive (c) common (d) nominal (e) mfQj
9 rhzhr mu yqn khytfwfC `s, `khno Bhbnh `ni, `khno qhywuá `ni, ahkhS ahr
Postpositions péyUbYr mhZKhfn, sVfxòr ynfc Zflhmflh-ryWn —zhpyu/
He spent his days like a king, without worries or responsibilities,
a colourful bright butterfly in between the sky and the earth and
under the sun.
Khbhfrr mhZKhfn uhr mhUhw ei bvyº el/
In the middle of the meal she had this idea.
nqYr mhZhmhyZ `nHkhyt `Bfs xhfÉC/
The boat is floating in the middle of the river.
mhZKhfn can also be used temporally:
gu bCfrr mhZKhfn yqy^fu ygfwyCl/
He went to Delhi in the middle of last year.
9.3.36 mhfZ
(a) among, in the middle of, in between (b) genitive (c) not very common
(d) nominal (e) less common than mfQj
uhfqr ∏uyr pfUr mhfZ nhnh ybSî∞hm ñhfnr uhrh sv~qr sv~qr nhm yqfwyCl/
Along the paths they had built they had given beautiful names to various
rest stops.
afnfkr mhfZ uvym ekzn mh«/ You are just one among many.
9.3.37 mhQjfm
(a) through, by, by means of (b) genitive (c) not very common (d) nominal
(e) less common than yqfw
mhnbzYbn shUòk Mfb pfrr \pkhr shQfnr mhQjfm/

Human life gains significance through our endeavour to benefit others.
Sîfmr mhQjfm mhnvX `mrßq’ `shzh rhfK/
People keep their spines straight through hard work.
9.3.38 mhyPk mhrPu through
(a) according to (b) nominative (c) very rare (d) underived (e) mu is more
common
ahym ynfzr rßyvc mhyPk rhêh kyr/ I cook according to my own taste.
9.3.39 mhrPu
(a) through, by (b) nominative, genitive with pronouns (c) rare (d) un-
derived (e) yqfw or #hrh are more common
esb Kbr anjfqr mhrPu MThJ MThJ phi/

I get all this news suddenly through other people.
qVu mhrPu ycyTth phowh `gfC/
The letter was obtained through a messenger.
9.3.40 xhbJ
(a) since, for (with time) (b) nominative (c) rare (d) underived (e) ahfg Ùfk, Qfr
kwlh `ni qvyqn xhbJ/ There hasn’t been any coal for two days.
9.3.41 sfÃ
(a) with (b) genitive (c) very common, also used as an adverb (d) nominal
shfU is a common variation of sfÃ.

Although sfÃ is predominantly used with animate noun phrases to mean
in company with, it can also take on instrumental dimensions.
ahym ùhmhr sfÃ xhb/ I will go with you.

er sfÃ ahfC ahro ekyt iyÃu/ Alongside this there is another indicator.
uhfqr sfÃ ahmhr `khno ZgRh `ni/ I have no quarrel with them.
9 ufb Przhnhr pCf~qr sfÃ u£hr ùmn yml `ni/
Postpositions But there was no real match between his and Farzana’s preferences.
`bcv aynÉChr sfÃ \fT q£hRhflh/ Becu stood up reluctantly.
uhrh gfbòr sfÃ uvfl Qrfln/ They accomplished it with pride.
qvAfKr sfÃ bflfC he said with sadness
aymuhB `bS `zhfrr sfÃ bll . . . Amitav said forcefully . . .
9.3.42 sfµo
(a) despite, in spite of (b) nominative (c) common (d) nominal
mhnh krh sfµo ahymn ChwhCyb `qfK/

Even though he is forbidden, Amin goes to the cinema.
ifÉC Uhkh sfµo mhUh `nfR nh bll zwqYp/
Against his wish Joydip shook his head and said no.
eu kh’ sf≠áo `Cflyt sfÃ sfÃ Gvymfw pRl/
Despite these goings-on the boy fell asleep immediately.
aynÉCh sfµo afnk emn kUh efs `gfC xhfu `k\ Mwfuh qvAKo `pfu phfrn/
Unintentionally much has been said that could upset someone.
9.3.43 sôpfkò
(a) about, on the subject of (b) nominative with nouns, optional genitive
with animate nouns and pronouns (c) not very common, also used as a
noun (d) nominal (e) ynfw is more common in informal language
ekiBhfb ynfzfqr sôpq sôpfkò sfcun ni ahmrh/

We are not equally aware of our own treasures.
`si sôpfkò zhnfu chil/ (He) wanted to know about this.
Sfûqr Çmuh sôpfkò `khno QhrNh yCl nh uhr/
He had had no idea about the power of words.
`zms zfws sôpfkò ahmhfqr `kHuvMl —yuyqn bhRfC/
We are getting more curious about James Joyce every day.
9.3.44 smáfí shmfn in
front of
(a) about, on the subject of (b) nominative with nouns, optional genitive
with animate nouns and pronouns (c) not very common (d) nominal (e) ynfw
is used in informal contexts, ybXfw on the subject of is also used
uhr smáfí ekth kUh a word about him

e smáfí EyuMhysk —mhN phowh xhw/ There is historical evidence on this.
uhpsYr smáfí ymyMr ykCvi zhnu nh/

Mihir didn’t know anything at all about Taposi.
ùhmhr ycyTKhnh smáfí ahym BhbyC/ I am thinking about your letter.
ahmhr mh-bhbhr smáfí ahpyn ykCv zhfnn nh/

You don’t know anything about my parents.
shfU see sfÃ (Ch. 9.3.41)
9.3.45 shmfn, shmnhshmyn
(a) in front of, facing, ahead of (b) genitive (c) common. shmfn is more
common than shmnhshmyn. (d) nominal, also used as adverb
`gftr shmfn qhfrhwhn \pyñu Uhfkn/

The guard is present in front of the gate.
ahmhfqr shmnhshmyn yuyn q£hyRfw ahfCn/ He is standing in front of us.
uhr ahûbhfk mhfwr shmfn bll/
She said (that) to her father in front of her mother.
9.3.46 Mfu
Mfu is used in exactly the same way as Ùfk. The sadhu form Mifu is found
in older texts.
9 (a) (1) from, since (2) than, compared to (b) (1) nominative (2) genitive
Postpositions (c) not very common (d) imperfective participle form of Mowh be, become
(e) Ùfk is more commonly used
1 from, since
anhyqkhl Mfu since time immemorial, `khUh Mfu from where

`s smw Mfu uhfqr mfQj a…yÄth ahr®/
From that time on the awkwardness between them began.
2 than
rhQhr Mfu lyluh afnk bR/ Lolita is much taller than Radha.
yuyn ISár gvfúr Mfu ykCvth ahQvynk/
He was somewhat more modern than Ishwar Gupta.
`b£fc Uhkh mfr xhowhr Mfu `byS xìNhr/
Staying alive is more painful than dying.
9.3.47 Mfw
(a) as, for, on behalf of, via (b) nominative and genitive (c) common (d)
verbal, also used as a verb form
With a preceding genitive Mfw expresses on behalf of and usually follows
an animate noun phrase.
yuyn ahmhr Mfw blfln/ He spoke for me.

ahmhfqr Mfw `Klfu `gfl ahmrh auj™ KvSY Mb/
If you play in our place we will be infinitely happy.
grßfqr Mfw `k\ kUh blfu phrfb nh ùh/

But no-one can speak on behalf of the cattle.
With a preceding nominative Mfw expresses via in connection with travel.
ahmrh ymrpvr Mfw efsyC/ We have come via Mirpur.

o bhyR Mfw yPrfb/ He will return via his village.
In the following examples Mfw is a verb form meaning having become. Only
as a verb form can Mfw be negated, as in the last sentence.
oKhfn ekth bhyRfu `pywLfgãt Mfw Uhyk/ Postpositions –
I stay in a house there as (having become) a paying guest. other uses
rßmh phUr Mfw q£hyRfw ril/ Ruma stood still like a stone.
ahym uhr bív nh Mfw uhr Mfw ykCv blfu phrb nh/
Not being his friend I cannot speak on his behalf.
9.4 Postpositions – other uses
As we look at the other uses of postpositions we need to remind ourselves

that the majority of postpositions are themselves locative noun forms. In
the uses below they regain their nominal character. Underived postpositions
such as mu like, #hrh through, zfnj for or postpositions derived from verbs
Ùfk from, yqfw by, through, Qfr during, ynfw with do not occur attributively
or as adverbs.
9.4.1 Attributive uses
ynfcr pyrsLKjhfn in the statistics below

bhifrr mhnvX outside people (strangers)
afnkyqn ahfgr kUh events from long ago
phfSr bhyRfu in the house next door
chr mhs pfrr Gtnh/ events that occurred four months later
ahfgr uvlnhw compared to before
ahmhr khfCr mhnvX people close to me
shmfnr mhfs in the coming month
yk≤ yBufrr abñhth ektv yBê/ But things look a bit different on the inside.
9.4.2 Adverbial uses
pfr later
afnk yqn pfr ahbhr erkm Ml/ This happened again many years later.
uhrh pfr ahsfb/ They will come later.
eth pfr ahflhcnh krb/ We will discuss this later.
ahfg earlier, ago, first
\pMhrth ahfg qho/ Give me the present first.
ahfg Mhu-mvK Qvfw `ni/ (I) will wash my hands and face first.
255
9 All spatial postpositions can be used as adverbs.
Postpositions
`s bhifr `khUho xhw nh/ He doesn’t go out anywhere.
yBufr `k\ `ni/ There is no-one inside.
uvym shmfn ygfw q£hRho/ Go and stand at the front.
\pfr and ynfc as adverbs usually mean upstairs and downstairs:
`s \pfr Uhfk/ He lives upstairs.
ynfc ahr ekth P†jht ahfC/ There is another flat downstairs.
uhrh qvzfn Kvb khChkhyC/ The two of them are very close.
ahmrh ycryqn ypCfn q£hyRfw Will we forever be standing at the
Uhkb yk? back?
`qhkhnth eKhn Ùfk Kvb khfC/ The shop is very close to here.
ei `k~qîfk yGfr GVyNòZfRr —c’ uvlkhlhm Gtfu Uhfk, yk≤ yTk mhZKhfn ykCv `ni/
The tornado causes extensive chaos outside of this centre, but right in the
middle nothing happens.
sfÃ with, alongside
yryno sfÃ yCl/ Rini was also there.
`lhkth `x SvQv asJ uhi-i nw, ahbhr ymUjhbhqYo `si sfÃ/

It’s not just that the man is dishonest. He is also a liar.
sfÃ forms an adverb with kfr along

ahym uhfk sfÃ kfr ahmhr bhshw ynfw `glhm/
I took him along to my house.
eki same with sfÃ means at the same time

eki sfÃ er ekth bhifrr aUò ebL ekth a™ynòyMu aUò ahfC/
This has, at the same time, an external and also a hidden meaning.
9.4.3 Double postpositions
When two postpositions occur together, the first one reverts to its nominal
status. The second postposition determines the case ending of the first.
pr Ùfk ever since

uhr cfl xhowhr pr Ùfk
. . . ever since he left or from his departure onwards
256
aûbhr sfÃ kUh blhr pr Ùfk uhr mn Kvb Khrhp/ Double
Ever since talking to father he has been very down. postpositions
khC Ùfk from close

yzynsth ektv khC Ùfk `qKfl . . . If you look at it from close-up . . .
ahym ofk Kvb khC Ùfk lÇ krfu Uhyk/ I observe him very closely.
With doubled spatial postpositions, the first one often gives the position,
the second one the direction.
yBur yqfw through

lhl khfcr yBur yqfw uhkhl/ He looked through the red glass.
\pr yqfw above
ybmhn `mfGr \pr yqfw xhw/ Planes fly above the clouds.
mhZKhn Ùfk from within
mhZKhn Ùfk `s ynfzi ÇuybÇu Mfb/
The wound will come from within himself.
mhZ yqfw, mQj yqfw through
ekyt rhÄh bvfnh ghfCr zÃflr mhZ yqfw ygfwfC /
A road went right through the middle of the trees in the jungle.
—fujfkr mfQj yqfw ykCv nh ykCv nuvn Bhbnhyc™h —khS `pfwfC/

Through each person some new thoughts were revealed.
phS yqfw alongside
msyzfqr phS yqfw i\ynwn `bhfdòr rhÄh
the Union Board road alongside the mosque
yqk yqfw with respect to, along, around
khfzi esb yqk yqfw efqr mfQj `khno phUòkj `ni/
So in this respect there is not much to choose between them.
ei yqk yqfw yk xhowh xhw nh? Is it not possible to go this way round?
The following two examples show the difference in case use:
\pr yqfk along the top

rhÄhr phfSr \pr yqfk M£htfl khqh lhfg nh/
Walking along the top at the side of the road, you don’t get muddy.
257
9 \pfrr yqfk upwards
Postpositions
\pfrr yqfk nh uhkhfl, uhrh `qKfb nh/
If you don’t look up, you won’t see the stars.
Some postpositions are less likely to drop their locative endings than
others, simply because of their phonological shape. bhir outside does not
even exist as a dictionary entry. Both ahfg before and shmfn in front of are
so much more common than their nominative root words that the locative
endings stay.
ahfg pxò™ until before

yun mhs ahfg pxò™ ahym eth zhnuhm nh/
I didn’t know this until three months ago.
bhifr Ùfk from outside
uvym bhifr Ùfk yk ynfw efsC?
What have you brought from outside?
shmfn yqfw along the front
ghyRth shmfn yqfw ynfw xhn/
Take the car along to the front.
9.4.4 Modified postpositions
Now that we have seen the postpositions that can function as adverbs, it
is not surprising that these same postpositions can be preceded by modify-
ing adverbs.
ybfwr yTk ahfg directly before the wedding

uhr ahshr afnk pfr a long time after his arrival
ahmhr Kvb khfC very close to me
uhr qvyqn ahfg two days before this
bhbhr efkbhfr shmfn directly in front of father
mhytr qvi mhil \pfr two miles above ground
ahlhqh Mowhr ek bCr pr a year after the separation
uhr mrhr yun mhs ahfg three months before his death
258
9.5 khC Ùfk and other places khC Ùfk and
other places
This section brings together some semantic observations which do not
easily fit in anywhere else. Glosses are given to show the differences between
Bangla and English. In bhLlh BhXh pyrcw 2 Tagore points out that Ùfk from
can only be used with inanimate objects, which is why we have to say
amvfkr khC Ùfk lit: from close to a person from someone. This has to do
with physical locations and draws attention to the fact that Bangla is very
precise in naming the location and origin of things. Tagore gives two further
examples:
phyKr k÷ (or glh) Ùfk ghn ofT /

bird-GEN throat from song rise
The bird sings.
`lhfkr gh Ùfk gí `brßfÉC/

person-GEN body from smell emerge
The man smells.
Other examples with Ùfk are:
kUhth uhr mvK Ùfk Svnlhm/

word-CL his mouth from hear-1-P-S
I heard it from him.
béy§r Mhu Ùfk rÇh `pfwyC/

rain-GEN hand from protection find-1-PR-PERF
I have found protection from the rain.
ybpfqr mvK Ùfk —hfNr Bfw CvtfC/
danger-GEN mouth from life-GEN fear-LOC run-3-PR-C
He is running from danger in mortal fear.
Parallel to this, and moving away from Ùfk, we have phrases like the
following. It is noticeable how precise the Bangla phrases are compared
to the English and how the relevant body-parts are almost always named
where English takes a more holistic approach.
mhfwr Mhfu bhnhfnh rßyt

mother-GEN hand-GEN prepare-VA bread
bread prepared by mother
2 Rabindranath Tagore, bhLlh BhXh pyrcw, yqbj—khS, Dhaka 2002 259

9 `mfwmhnvfXr `pft kUh Uhfk nh/
Postpositions women-GEN stomach-LOC word stay-3-PR-S not
Women can’t keep things to themselves.
ynfzr phfw q£hRhfu phfr nh/

own foot-LOC stand-IP be able to-3-PR-S
He can’t stand up for himself.
Kbrth ynfzr khfn Svfn mn Khrhp Mfw `gfC/
news own ear-LOC hear-PP mind bad be-PP go-3-PR-PERF
Hearing the news he got depressed.
uhr nhk dhkfC/

his nose call-3-PR-C
He is snoring.
khfn `Shnhr o `chfK `qKhr ei smÄ Sûq o qéSj . . .
ear-LOC hear-VN-GEN and eye-LOC see-VN-GEN this EMP whole
sound and sight
all that he had heard and seen . . .
`s mfn ahGhu `pfwfC/
he mind-LOC shock get-3-PR-PERF
He had a shock.
`s Mhu chylfw khz krfC/
he hand drive-PP work do-3-PR-S
He works fast.
uhr mfnr `chfKr shmfn `mfwr Cybth `Bfs \Tl/
his mind-GEN eye-GEN in front of girl-GEN picture-CL float-PP
rise-3-P-S
He pictured the girl.
260
Chapter 10
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are joining words. They link together sentences or parts of

sentences. Bangla conjunctions divide into:
1 coordinating conjunctions
2 subordinating conjunctions
3 correlative conjunctions
Below are given the main conjunctions in Bangla, grouped by semantic

component as well as type. Many Bangla conjunctions also function as
adverbs, adjectives, pronouns or nouns. Since conjunctions are all about
linking sentences or parts of sentences, we will come back to them in the
context of complex and compound sentences in Chapter 29.
10.1 Coordinating conjunctions
10.1.1 Conjoining, adding and (see also 10.4 below)
o and, also
ahym xhb uvymo xhfb/
I go-1-FUT you o go-2-FUT
You and I will go.
ebL and
uhr khfC sb Svfn ebL ynfzr `chfK `qfK efsyC/
he-GEN by all hear-PP ebL own eye-LOC see-PP come-1-PR-PERF.
I heard it all from him and saw it for myself.
261
10 ahr and, more
Conjunctions
`s ekbhr Bhbl nh `khUhw xhfÉC ahr `kn bh xhfÉC/
he once think-3-P-S not where go-3-PR-C ahr why EMP go-3-PR-C
He didn’t think once where he was going or why he was going there.
ahbhr and, again, then
\fT q£hRhfln dh∆hr ∏m«, phwchyr krfln, ahbhr bsfln, ahbhr \Tfln/
get up-PP stand-3H-P-S Dr Mitra walk-do-3H-P-S ahbhr sit-3H-P-S
ahbhr get up-3H-P-S
Dr Mitra got up, paced up and down, sat down and stood up again.
10.1.2 Alternative or, instead
aUbh or
khro znj rhêh kfr yqfw ahsfun aUbh khro Mfw ycyT-p« ylKfun/
someone-GEN for cook-do-PP give-PP come-3H-P-HABIT aUbh
someone-GEN on behalf of letter write-3H-P-HABIT
She would return having done the cooking for someone or she would be
writing letters on someone’s behalf.
bh or
ahym Gr mvCb bh uvym Gr mvCfb?
I house wipe-1-FUT bh you house wipe-2-FUT
Shall I wash the floor or will you do it?
yk or
uhrh rhyz yk grrhyz uh ahym ykCvi zhyn nh/
they willing yk unwilling that I something EMP know-1-PR-S not
I have no idea whether they are willing or not.
ykLbh, ykôbh or
xhrh Çmuhw ahfC ykLbh xhrh Çmuhw `xfu chw . . .
they-REL power-LOC [is present] ykLbh they-REL power-LOC go-IP
want-3-PR-S
Those who have power or those who want to get power . . .
yknh whether or not
orh KvyS MfwfC yknh uh zhnfu `cfwyC/
they happy be-3-PR-PERF yknh that know-IP-want-1-PR-PERF
262 I wanted to know whether they were satisfied or not.
sb bjbñh yTkmu krh MfwfC yknh uho ùh `qKfu Mfb/ Coordinating
all arrangement properly do-VN be-3-PR-PERF yknh that also EMP conjunctions
see-IP be-3-FUT
We also have to see whether all the arrangements have been made
properly or not.
nh or
ahmhr qS nh bhr Uhlh lhgfb/
I-GEN ten or twelve plate need-3-FUT
I need ten or twelve plates.
`s xhfb nh Uhkfb eKno bflyn/

he go-3-FUT nh stay-3-FUT still not say-3-PR-PERF
He has not yet said whether he is going or staying.
nhyk or
`s `M£ft xhfbn nhyk yrkSh `nfbn yTk `ni/
he walk-PP go-3-H-FUT nhyk rickshaw take-3-H-FUT fixed [is absent]
Whether he will walk or go by rickshaw is not certain.
brL instead, rather

efu `Chtfqr pyrSîm kfmyn, brL `bfRfC/
this-LOC small-PL-GEN hard work not lessen-3-PR-PERF brL
increase-3-PR-PERF
But this did not reduce the children’s effort; rather it increased it.
10.1.3 Contrasting but
aUc however, yet

uhr sfÃ euyqfnr pyrcw, aUc uhr mhbhbhr sfÃ `qKh krfu `qw nh/
he-GEN with so long-GEN acquaintance aUc his parents-GEN with
see-VN do-IP give-3-PR-S not
I have known him for such a long time, yet he won’t let me meet his parents.
yk≤ but
ahym sb smw ei yqfk ahys yk≤ `Cflytfk ahzfk —Ufm `qKlhm/
I always this way-LOC come-1-PR-S yk≤ boy-CL-OBJ today first
see-1-P-S
I always come this way but I saw the boy for the first time today. 263
10 ufb but
Conjunctions
pfR yknh zhyn nh ufb pRbhr ùh kUh/
read-3-PR-S whether or not know-1-PR-S not ufb read-ba-VN-GEN
EMP word
I don’t know whether he studies or not but study he should.
ubv but, nevertheless

bhshgvflh ycnfu phrfC nh ubv rhÄhth mfn ahfC/
house-PL-CL jnow-IP be able to-3-PR-C not ubv road-CL mind-LOC
[is present]
He doesn’t recognise the houses but he remembers the road.
10.1.4 Causal because
khrN because
khzth Kvb sMz nw khrN shMhxj krhr mu `k\ `ni/
work-CL very easy [is not] khrN help-do-VN-GEN like someone
[is absent]
The work is not very easy because there is no-one who could help.
`knnh because
mvrygr bhÉch `byS xfÕr mfQj yqfw phln krfu Mw/ `knnh, syTk pºyu zhnh nh
Uhkfl mvrygr bhÉch phlh sMz nw/
chicken-GEN young much care-GEN within with rear-do-IP
be-3-PR-S. `knnh method know-VN not be-CP chicken-GEN young
breeding easy [is not]
Breeding baby chickens has to be done with much care because
breeding them is not easy when you don’t know the proper
method.
10.1.5 Consequential therefore
aueb therefore
uhr kuòbj `SX/ aueb klkhuhw yPfr `xfu asvybQh `ni/
he-GEN duty end. so Kolkata-LOC return-PP go-IP problem
[is not]
264 His duties were finished. So there was no problem in returning to Kolkata.
svurhL therefore, consequently Coordinating
conjunctions
`Cht chkyr Ùfk —fmhSn `pfw iwhdò-mhãthr pxò™ \Tflh/ svurhL `bufnr yqfk o
ahr yc™h yCl nh/
small job from promotion get-PP yard-master until rise-3-P-S. surhL
salary-GEN towards also more worry [was not]
He got promoted from a small job to station master. Hence there was no
more worry about his salary.
khfzi therefore, so
ahmhr ùh thkhr aBhb `ni/ khfzi ùhmhr l°h krhr yk ahfC?
I-GEN EMP money-GEN lack [is absent]. khfzi you-GEN
embarrassment-do-VN-GEN what [is present]
But I am not short of money. So why would you be embarrassed?
uhi so
uhr asfu `qyr MfwfC/ uhi Khrhp lhgfC/
he-GEN come-IP late be-3-PR-PERF. So bad feel-3-PR-C
He came late. That’s why he is feeling bad.
`sznj for this reason, therefore
mhnvXyt ektv anjrkm/ `szfnj uhr bív km/
man-CL a bit different. `szfnj he-GEN friend few
The man is a bit strange. That is why he has few friends.
uhMfl if this is so
uhMfl is a conditional clause which operates as the correlative in conditional
structures xyq – uhMfl if – then. It is also used as a preclause at the begin-
ning of sentences uhMfl ahym xhb nh in that case I won’t go. What distinguishes
it from purely temporal conjunctions like uhrpr then is that it always needs
a precursor, something to follow on from. Examples for uhMfl in conditional
sentences are given in Ch. 29.7.
nh Mfl otherwise, if this is not so

uhRhuhyR ∏uyr Mo/ nhMfl ahym ùhmhfk `rfK xhb/
quickly ready be-2-PR-IMP nh Mfl you-OBJ leave-PP go-1-FUT
Get ready quickly. Otherwise I will go without you.
265
10
10.1.6 Temporal
Conjunctions
uhrpr, uhrpfr then
ahmrh ahfg Bhu `Kfw `ni, uhrpfr uhs `Klb, `kmn?
we before rice eat-PP take-1-PR-S uhrpfr card play-1-FUT how
How about we eat first and play cards afterwards?
10.2 Subordinating conjunctions

Two-part correlation is the typical technique for sentence embedding, sub-
ordination and complex sentence structure in Bangla, so there are only very
few single subordinating conjunctions. In addition to this, non-finite verb forms
fulfil many of the functions subordinating conjunctions have in English.
(a) `x [1] that
uvym yk `qK yn `x uhr asvK MfwfC?
you what not-see-2-PR PERf that his illness be-3-PR-PERF
Did you not see that he was unwell?
bfl [1] that
efu `qfSr Çyu MfÉC bfl uhrh mfn kfr/
this-LOC country-GEN harm be-3-PR-C bfl they mind-LOC
do-3-PR-S
They think that this is harmful for the country.
(b) `x [2] that (resultative)
`s eu ycJkhr kfryCl `x bhÉchyt `k£fq \Tl/
he so much shouting-do-3-P-PERF that baby-CL cry-PP rise-3-P-S
He shouted so much that the baby started crying.
(c) bfl [2] because
uhr mn Khrhp bfl khro sfÃ kUh blfb nh/
his mind bad because someone-GEN with word speak-3-FUT not
He won’t speak to anyone because he is depressed.
(d) of purpose so that
`xn [1] so that
ahfÄ ahfÄ kUh bl bhÉchyt `xn Gvm Ùfk nh ofT/
softly (×2) word speak-2-PR-IMP child-CL `xn sleep from not
wake-3-PR-S
266 Speak softly so that the baby doesn’t wake up.
xhfu so that Correlative
conjunctions
ekth chkyrr `c§h kryC, xhfu cfl `xfu phyr eKhn Ùfk/
one-CL job-GEN attempt-do-1-PR-C xhfu move-PP go-IP be able
to-1-PR-S here from
I am looking for a job so that I can go away from here.
phfC so that not, lest

euyqn kUhth ùhmhfk bylyn phfC Bw pho/
so many days word-CL you-OBJ not say-1-PR-PERF phfC fear
get-2-PR-S
I didn’t tell you about this until now so as not to scare you.
(e) as, as if `xn [2]
mfn Ml Symòuho `xn ekth CqÖfbS Qfr ahfC/

mind-LOC be-3-P-S Sormita also `xn one-CL disguise take
[is present]
It seemed as if Sormita was also taking on a disguise.
`bcv `xn ahmhr kUh Svfn ahkhS Ùfk pRl/

Becu `xn my word hear-PP sky from fall-3-P-S
lit: it was as if Becu, hearing my words, fell out of the sky
Becu was stunned by what I said.
10.3 Correlative conjunctions
Correlatives come in pairs and make for quite different sentence structures
than in English, so much so that it is sometimes difficult to translate the
conjunctions themselves. Correlative uses are demonstrated in detail in
Ch. 29.8. Apart from the subordinating correlative structures below, there
are the following two coordinating correlative structures:
Mw - nh Mw either – or
`qK, mh, Mw uvym e bhyR `CfR cfl xho, nh Mw ahym xhb/
look mother Mw you this house leave-PP move-PP go-2-PR-IMP nh Mw I
go-1-FUT
Look, mother, either you leave this house or I will go.
Mw ahmrh ynfz xhb nh Mw kh\fk phyTfw `qb/

either we self go-1-FUT or some-OBJ send-PP give-1-FUT
Either we go ourselves or we send someone. 267
10 efk ùh - uhr pfr or uhr \pfr not only – but also
Conjunctions
efk ùh `s ahmhfk ybnwbhbv bfl, qhqh bfl nh, uhr pfr mhysmh Ùfk byÅu krfb
`s ùh `khno mfui \ycu Mfb nh/
one-LOC EMP he I-OBJ Binoybabu say-3-PR-S elder brother
say-3-PR-S not that-GEN on aunt from deprive-do-3-FUT that EMP
any way-LOC EMP ought be-3-FUT not
It is bad enough that he calls me Binoy Babu, not elder brother, but to
deprive me of an aunt on top of that is not at all right.
The following sentence contains a conditional clause within the second main
clause. This does not, however, affect the overall coordinating structure.
efk ùh p£hyzp£vyUfu ynfXQ ChRh kUhi `ni, uhr \pfr xyq Gfrr Shã« bhnhfu Uhk uh
Mfl bLSrÇh Mfb yk kfr?
one-LOC EMP almanac-LOC prohibition except word EMP [is absent]
that-GEN on if house-GEN rule make-IP stay-2-PR-S then family
protection be-3-FUT what do-PP
Not only are the almanacs full of prohibitions, but if on top of that you keep
on making your own family rules, how will the family line be preserved?
Here now are the subordinating correlatives:
xyq - uhMfl, xyq - ufb if – then

uvym xyq ahsfu phr uhMfl khlfk es/
you xyq come-IP be able to-2-PR-S uhMfl tomorrow come-2-FUT-IMP
If you can come, come tomorrow.
xyqo - ubvo even though
ahmrh xyqo afnk g¶p kyr ubv mfnr kUh kKno byl nh/
we xyqo much chat do-1-PR-S ubvo mind-GEN word ever
say-1-PR-S not
Although we chat a lot, we never talk about our feelings.
xh - uh that
ahym `s yqn xh `qKlhm uh ycryqn mfn Uhkfb/
I that day xh see-1-P-S uh forever mind-LOC stay-3-FUT
I will remember forever what I saw that day.
`x - `s he, she
`x `mfw `Phn kfryCl uvym yk uhfk `cn nh?
`x girl phone do-3-P-PERF you what she-OBJ know-2-PR-S not
268 Don’t you know the girl who phoned?
`x - uh that o, ahr and ebL
eth `x efkbhfr as®b uh uvym Bhl kfr zhn/
this-CL `x totally impossible uh you good do-PP know-2-PR-S
You know very well that that is quite impossible.
xKn - uKn when
bé§ xKn nhmfu lhgl uKn uvym yk rhÄhw yCfl?
rain when come down-IP start-3-P-S then you what road-LOC
[was]-2
Were you on the road when it started raining?
xu - uu so much
xuth Khrhp Mfb `s `BfbyCflh, uuth nw/
xu-CL bad be-3-FUT he think-3-P-PERF uu-CL [is not]
It was not as bad as he had thought.
`xmn - ùmn so
ayPfs sb khz `xmn clhr ùmni clfC/
office-LOC all work `xmn go-VN-GEN ùmn go-3-PR-C
All the work in the office is going the way it is supposed to go.
`xBhfb - `sBhfb that way
uvym pvrßXmhnvX Mfw `x Bhfb sLshr shzho `ghCho kybrh `si xfÕ Sûq ynfw nhRhchRh
kfrn/
you man be-PP `xBhfb world put straight-2-PR-S poet-PL that EMP
care-LOC word with move- do-3H-PR-S
The care with which you as a man put the world to rights is the same care
with which poets treat words.
10.4 o, ahr and ebL
In order to get to grips with the uses of o, ebL and ahr, here is something to
keep in mind. First, Bangla has naturally much less need for a conjunction
and. We sat and talked is ahmrh bfs kUh bllhm. You and I in Bangla is sim-
ply uvym ahym. When more people come along we can list them and add a
collective noun at the end, or we can add o or ahr before the last item:
uvym, ahym, rh\l, `sylnh sbhi or uvym, ahym, rh\l o `sylnh

you I Raul Selina everybody you I Raul o Selina
you, me, Raul and Selina 269
10 Second, when we look at the underlying meaning of these words ahr more,
Conjunctions o also, as well as, ebL in the same way, their uses become clearer.
without conjunction:
bi, Khuh, `pnysl, mhUh sb ahnfu Mfb prYÇh yqfu/

book notebook pencil head all bring-IP be-3-FUT exam take-IP
You will have to bring your books, notebooks, pencils and heads to take
the exam.
orh qv Bhi qv `bhn/
they two brother two sister
They are two brothers and two sisters.
ahmrh mhC mhLs Khi nh/
we fish meat eat-3-PR-S not
We don’t eat fish or meat.
Mhsh nh Mhshr sôpfkò ykCv blh Mw yn/
laugh-VN not laugh-VN relationship-LOC something not
say-VN-PR-PERF
Nothing was said about laughing or not laughing.
with ahr:
ahym eKhn Ùfk sfr xhb nh ahr ùhmhr krhr ykCv `ni/
I here from move-IP go-1-FUT not ahr you-GEN do-VN-GEN
something [is absent]
I am not moving from here, and there is nothing you can do about it.
with ebL :
o Kvb sv~qr g¶p `lfK ebL ghn rcnh kfr/

he very beautiful story write-3-PR-S ebL (in the same way) song
compose-do-3-PR-S
He writes stories and composes songs very well.
with o:
`s khro yqfk uhkhl nh kUh bllo nh/

he someone-GEN direction-LOC look-3-P-S not word say-3-P-S o not
He didn’t look at anyone and didn’t say anything.
270
Chapter 11
Interrogatives
Question words or interrogatives can be either pronouns, adjectives or

adverbs. This section brings them together and gives an overview of what
basic question words there are, how they expand and how they are used.
All question words in Bangla start with k.
11.1 Basic question words – overview
Here are the basic question words with their word classes:
`k who pronoun
yk what pronoun
`kn why adverb
`kmn how adverb
`khUh where adverb
kfb when adverb
kKn when adverb
`khn which adjective
ku how much adjective
kw, k how many adjective
11.2 `k who
`k and its case and number variations khr, khfk, khrh, khfqr are quite straight
forward in their use. Since they are pronouns they will appear where their
equivalent nouns would be:
for qhqv efsfC/ → `k efsfC?

Dadu has come. → Who has come? 271
11 or, as the complement in equational sentences:
Interrogatives
nominative sg iyn rh\l/ → iyn `k?
This is Raul. → Who is this?
genitive sg ùhmhr xhowhr kUh yCl/ → khr xhowhr kUh yCl?
You were supposed to go. → Who was supposed to go?
uvym bhbhr sfÃ xhfb/ → uvym khr sfÃ xhfb?
You will go with father. → Who will you go with?
objective sg mh svznfk K£vzfCn/ → mh khfk K£vzfCn?
Mum is looking for Sujon. → Who is Mum looking for?
nominative pl orh khlfk ahsfb/ → khrh khlfk ahsfb?
They will come tomorrow. → Who will come tomorrow?
genitive pl khkhfqr ahshr kUh/ → khfqr ahshr kUh
Uncle and his family are expected tomorrow. → Who is
expected tomorrow?
objective pl Bhifbhnfqr bkh `qfb/ → khfqr bkh `qfb?
(She) will scold the brothers and sisters. → Whom will
she scold?
`k and its case variants can be placed at the end of sentences for emphasis:
yk≤ ei abñhw Svfw pRfb `k? But under these circumstances who will
go to bed?
kUhth bflfC `k? Who said that?
`mfr `Plfb? `mfr `Plfb khfk? Kill? Kill whom?
Although the use of these interrogatives is usually restricted to animates,

the object case khfk is also used for inanimates in equational structures.
SMr khfk bfl? What is meant by ‘town’?
11.3 yk what
1 yk is both the nominative and the object case inanimate interrogative

pronoun:
nom: bjhfg yk ahfC? What is in the bag

obj: `phkh yk Khw? What do insects eat?
yk combines with a great number of nouns to form interrogatives.

with nouns indicating kind or type:
272 ykBhfb how, in what way ykrkm what kind yk Qrfnr what type.
with other nouns: yk what
ùhmhr yk asvybQh ahfC?

you-GEN yk problem [is present]
What is your problem?
uhr yk qrkhr?
he-GEN yk need
What does he need it for? or with yk the object of qrkhr
What does he need?
ahz yk bhr?
today yk day
What day is it today? The expected answer is a day of the week
rybbhr, `shmbhr, etc.
ùhmhr yk lhB?
you-GEN yk profit
What’s in it for you?
uhfqr yk ayQkhr?
they-GEN yk right
What right do they have?
yk \phw what method, yk mvSykl what problem, yk rL what colour
yk combines with some perfective participles to form interrogatives.
yk kfr how uvym yk kfr zhn? How do you know?
yk yqfw with what yk yqfw Kho? What do you eat it with?
yk ynfw about what yk ynfw yc™h kr? What are you thinking
about?
yk bfl saying what ùhmhk yk bfl dhkb? What should I call you?
2 yk is used as a question marker. In yes–no questions such as Are you
tired? Do you want to go with me? Is he your brother? Have you seen
him? yk is inserted, usually straight after the subject, with the effect of
turning a statement (declarative sentence) into a question.
declarative: uvym bhzhfr xhfb/ You will go to the market.

interrogative: uvym yk bhzhfr xhfb? Will you go to the market?
uvym yk k†h™? Are you tired?
uvym yk ahmhr sfÃ `xfu cho? Do you want to go with
me?
`s yk ùhmhr Bhi? Is he your brother?
uvym yk uhfk `qfKC? Have you seen him? 273
11 These two separate uses of yk, one as a pronoun and one as a question
Interrogatives marker, have caused quite a lot of headaches in the past. Tagore wanted
to introduce the spelling kY for the pronoun and reserve the spelling yk
for the question marker. Some uses of this can still be found in contem
porary literature but on the whole the initiative was not successful.
3 yk can also be a conjunction meaning or (see Ch. 10.1.2)
oth Bhl yk m~q ahym yk kfr blb?

that-CL good yk bad I yk do-PP say-1-FUT
How can I say whether this is good or bad?
11.4 `kn why
`kn is usually pronounced kæno but when it is used by itself as a plaintive

Why? the o ending is sometimes dropped.
`kn is a sentence adverb. It does not combine with nouns or adjectives.

`kn can be positioned:
(a) at the beginning of the sentence
`kn Mfb nh?

`kn be-3-FUT not
Why not?
`kn esb k§ kfryC?

`kn this all trouble-do-1-PR-PERF
Why did I go to all this trouble?
Just these two sentences show that `kn lends itself to rhetorical
questions and accusations, particularly when it occurs at the beginning
of the sentence. Its unmarked position straight after the subject gives
a more neutral impression.
(b) after the subject
Pvflr `kn emn sv~qr GîhN Mw?

flower `kn such beautiful scent be-3-PR-S
Why do flowers smell so nice?
uvym `kn efsC?

you `kn come-2-PR-PERF
274 Why have you come?
(c) at the end `kmn how
Putting `kn at the end of sentences adds emphasis.
uvym ykCv blyn `kn?

you something not say-2-PR-PERF `kn
Why didn’t you say something?
uhr eu `qyr MfÉC `kn?
he-GEN so much delay be-3-PR-C `kn
lit: why is his considerable delay occurring
What is holding him up?
11.5 `kmn how
`kmn is both an adjective and an adverb and can mean how as well as what
kind, what sort.
as an adjective:
\yn `kmn mhnvX/

he `kmn person
What kind of a person is he?
rhÄhth `kmn?
road-CL `kmn
What is the road like?
eth `kmn azvMhu?
this `kmn excuse
What kind of an excuse is this?
as an adverb:
uvym `kmn ahC?

you `kmn [is present]
How are you?
gîhmth `qKfu `kmn?
village-CL see-IP `kmn
What does the village look like?
Adding the perfective participle of krh do to `kmn (having done how) expands
its scope as an adverb.
275
11 `kmn kfr how
Interrogatives
phMhR `kmn kfr Ml?
mountain `kmn kfr be-3-P-S
How did mountains come into being?
`kmn kfr yC£fR `gfC?
`kmn kfr tear-PP go-3-PR-PERF
How did it get torn?
11.6 `khUh where
`khUh occurs with its locative ending `khUhw more often than it does without
it. The nominative appears in combinations with some postpositions `khUh
Ùfk from where, `khUh pxò™ up to where. ki koi and `kh ko are colloquial ver
sions of `khUhw. It can appear straight after the subject or follow the verb at
the end of the sentence. In existential sentences it always comes at the end.
uhr mhbhbh `khUhw Uhfkn?
his parents `khUhw live-3-PR-S
Where do his parents live?
`tîn `khUh Ùfk `CfRfC?
train `khUh from leave-3-PR-PERF
Where did the train leave from?
chybth ki?
key-CL where
Where is the key?
11.7 kfb and kKn when
These two interrogatives differ according to the time frame they occur in,
seen from the present moment into either the past or the future.
kfb has a time frame of more than a day and less than, say, twenty years.
It can be replied to with either a point in time or with the stretch of time
that has passed or is still to come.
yuyn kfb mhrh `gfCn? gu bCr/
When did he die? Last year.
uhrh kfb efsfC? gukhl/
276 When did they arrive? Yesterday.
ùhmhr prYÇh kfb? ahro qv mhs pfr/ kfb and kKn
When is your exam? In another two months. when
uvym uhfk `SX `qfKC kfb? bRyqfn/

When did you last see him? At Christmas.
ùhmrh kfb Ùfk ei `qfS? gu súhfM yun bCr Ml/
Since when have you been Since three years ago last week.
in this country?
khnhdh xhfb kfb? shmfn ahgvãt mhfs/
When will you go to Canada? Next August.
kKn has the same range of answers but within the time frame of a day.
o kKn efsfC? skhfl/
When did he arrive? This morning.
uvym kKn \fT `gC? ykCvÇN ahfg/
What time did you get up? A little while ago.
mh kKn rhêh krfb? ahr ektv pfr/
What time will mother cook? In a little while.
kKn `Kfu Mfb? Cwthr yqfk/
What time do we have to eat? Around six o’clock.
kUh Mfb kKn? Khbhfrr pfr/
When can we talk? After the meal.
It is important to note, however, that of the two words, kKn is the one that
can leave the present time frame and be used to talk about the distant past.
In a context of about a thousand years ago:
yk≤ yTk kKn u£hrh `qS ChRfln, uh ynyŸcu nw/
but exactly when they-H country leave-3-P-S that certain [is not]
But exactly when they left the country is uncertain.
In addition to these two, the following terms, involving other question
words, are used for asking about points of time:
`khn yqn what day
anv©Thnth `khn yqn? shmfnr rybbhr
Which day is the ceremony? Next Sunday.
ku uhyrK on which date
uvym ku uhyrfK xhÉC? ùr uhyrfK/
What date are you leaving? On the thirteenth. 277
11 yk bhr which day of the week
Interrogatives
ahz yk bhr? Svœbhr/
What day of the week is it today? Friday.
`khn smw, kthr smw or kthw ask for a more or less precise time:
ysfnmhth `khn smw `SX MfwfC? —hw ek G∂th ahfg/
What time did the film-show finish? Almost an hour ago.
bhs kthr smw ChRfb? yTk qvthw/
What time will the bus leave? At six o’clock precisely.
ùhmhr k†hs kthw? shfR Cwthw/
What time is your class? Half past six.
To ask about stretches of time we use combinations with ku how much
(see below).
11.8 `khn which
`khn is an adjective and as such always used in conjunction with a following

noun. The only way it can be used on its own is with a classifier `khnth which
one? or `khngvflh which ones?
Unlike yk in connection with nouns (yk asvybQh what problem, yk —Sä what
question) `khn presupposes a choice of options and asks for a specification.
zhmhth `khn `qhkhfn `knh? In which shop was the shirt bought?
ùhmhr `khn kybuh Bhl lhfg? Which poem do you like?
ghyRthr `khn thifpr iyń? What type of an engine does the
car have?
for place: orh `khnKhfn Uhfk? Where (in which place) do they live?
`Mhftlth `khn yqfk? Which way is the hotel?
eth `khn zhwgh? What place is this?
for time: Khbhr `khn `blhw? At what time (of the day) is the
meal?
ùhmhr `khn smw svybQh? What time is convenient for you?
bXòhkhl `khn mhfs Mw? During which months is the monsoon?
Doubling of `khn implies plural:
BîmfNr zfnj `khn `khn xhnbhMn phowh xhw? What kinds of transport are
available for travelling?
278 uvym `khn `khn `qhkhfn ygfwyCfl? Which shops did you go to?
ku how much
11.9 ku how much and kw how many
and kw how
many
These two adjectives ask about amounts.
kw can be used with countable items only, so it often appears with a

classifier, mainly with th, but also with yt, Khnh, zn or tvkv. It does not take
plural classifiers. kw appears without a classifier in combination with
measure words. kw combines with ek one: kfwk a few. kw is often shortened
to k.
without classifier: kw G∂th how many hours

kw mhil how many miles
kw yqn how many days
kw `kyz how many kilos
with classifier: kwzn yCl? How many people were there?
kKhnh bi ynfw efsfC? How many books did he bring?
kwyt Sûq ySfKC? How many words have you learnt?
kwth chyb qrkhr? How many keys are needed?
kwth is also used, as we have seen, with time. kwth bhfz lit: how many does
it ring = what time?
With the locative ending kwthw , or shortened kthw means at what time and
is asking for a specific time, given in numbers.
ku how much can be used with all noncount nouns but it is also used with
many count nouns and measure words. While kwth looks at individual items
ku looks at sums.
ku with measure words and nouns denoting time and space:
ku qhm lit: how much price = how much
ku qVr lit: how much distance = how far
ahr ku `qyr krfu Mfb? How long do (we) have to wait?
ku thkh how much money
ku smw at what time
kuÇN lit: how much moment = for how long (within a day)
ku yqn lit: how much day = for how long (longer than two days)
to compare:
`s kw yqn Uhkfb? How many (individual) days will he stay?
expects an answer in figures: ahro yun yqn another three days
`s ku yqn Uhkfb? How long will he stay? 279

11 expects a less precise answer: `mht yun súhfM about three weeks
Interrogatives
ku can function as an adverb with adjectives and other adverbs:
zhwghth ku bR? How big is the place?
ku km `qb? How much less do you want?
ku ahfg cfl `gfC? How long ago did he leave?
ku Bhl bhzhfu phfr? How well does he play?
ku is also used as a quantifier and can combine with th and gvflh to form
a noun. These uses are given in Ch. 7.6.
as a noun: kuth SvfnC? How much have you heard?

kugvflh ynfw xhb? How many should I take?
There is no significant difference in meaning between kwth and kugvflh ex
cept that kwth can be used with humans kwth `Cfl how many boys. kugvflh
(gvyl) can be used for animals but is unlikely with humans kugvyl grß uhr?
How many cows does he have?
ku as a quantifier: kuth shMs how much courage

kugvflh klh phuh how many banana leaves
11.10 Interrogatives as indefinites
Interrogatives are used in the formation of indefinite pronouns, adverbs

and adjectives, e.g.
`k who – `k\ someone, `khn which – `khno any, `khUh where – `khUho
somewhere, etc. (see Ch. 14.2)
But they can also function as indefinites themselves, usually in exclamative
sentences. Examples are given in Ch. 27.4.
280
Chapter 12
Emphasisers, particles,
interjections
This chapter gives the remaining word classes of Bangla, divided in the
following way:
1 emphasisers i, o and ùh

Each of these words has particular syntactic tasks and uses but can also
be employed to express attitude or emphasis.
2 particles uh, bh, nh, `kn, ki, yk, `x

These are syntactically loose items which are used to express attitude. All
of them also have other functions.
3 interjections ahÉCh, ahMh, bhA, ofgh, ahfr, omh . . .

These words are designed with the sole purpose of expressing feelings and
attitude. As the name suggests, they are thrown into conversations or narrative
and have no syntactic role. It is impossible to do these words justice by
taking them out of context and putting them into an analytical environment,
but I have tried to give a representative selection of them to show what
they do. The translations in this section are, by necessity, based on intuition
more than on accuracy. Glosses are given for many examples.
12.1 Emphasisers
12.1.1 i
i is a specifier which is attached to the end of words, after case endings,

and can go with almost anything. i emphasises the item it goes with but
we find plenty of sentences with more than one i. 281
12 mvSykl ùh `siKhfni/
Emphasisers, problem EMP that i place-LOC i
particles, There precisely is the problem.
interjections
The most regular use of i is with the deictics `s < `si, e < ei and o < oi.
These combinations are so commonplace that they have largely lost any
emphasis by themselves but this emphasis can be resurrected with the right
tone of voice:
`si is used idiomatically on its own to say Quite right! or Exactly!

Some uses of i are lexicalised: uh that – uhi so, therefore, ek one – eki
same, —hw almost – —hwi often emn such – emyn just like that, eKn now – eKni
right now, at once
The role of i is built into the syntax of particular structures and implies
as soon as:
with imperfective participle:
kUhth blfu nh blfui

word-CL say-IP not say-IP i
as soon as he said this
with conditional participle:
bhifr `gfli uhr sfÃ `qKh Ml/

outside go-CP i he-GEN with see-VN be-3-P-S
As soon as I went outside I saw him.
with perfective participle:
`Bhrfblh \fTi yk≤ mfn pRl . . .

dawn hour rise-PP i but mind-LOC fall-3-P-S
But immediately on waking up at dawn he remembered . . .
In some contexts the emphatic impact is quite pronounced compared to

the version without i.
without i with i
o bfs Bhu `Kfu lhgl/ – o bfsi Bhu `Kfu lhgl/

He sat down and started eating. He started eating as soon as he sat
down.
uvym sb zhn/ – uvymi sb zhn/

282 You know everything. You (of all people) know everything.
ahym ùh zhyn nh/ ahym ùh zhyni nh/ Emphasisers
But I don’t know! But I have no idea!
This example shows that i and ùh can go together, whereas i and o do not
usually occur together.
In other contexts the impact can be sensed but often not translated very well.
uhr `chK qvyt ahmhr yqfk —hw yñr Mfwi ahfC/

her eye two-CL I-GEN towards almost fixed be-PP i [is present]
Her two eyes are fixed on me.
ahym ybfwi ùh kyryn/
I marriage i ùh not do-1-PR-PERF
I am not even married.
nhfcr zfnji eu anUò/
dance-GEN for i so much mischief
It’s the dancing that causes so much mischief.
ahmhfqr ∏qny~qn zYbfn esb —sÃ ofTiyn ahfg/
our daily life-LOC all this topic not arise-3-PR-PERF i before
None of these topics ever even came up in our daily life.
We see that in this sentence i has positioned itself between the verb form
and the negation. It can also appear in the middle of verbs if they are in
the present perfect or the past perfect. In those cases the yCl ending can be
preceded by an emphasiser, but these cases are relatively rare. Here is an
example with both i and ùh halfway through the verb.
efsi ùh yC, ahr yk ayBfxhg ùhmhr?

come- i ùh -1-PR-PERF more what complaint you-GEN
I have come, what do you have left to complain about?
12.1.2 o
The basic difference between i and o is that i separates, o includes. i is a

dissociative emphasiser, o an associative emphasiser.1
Whereas i is an emphasiser and nothing but an emphasiser, o has a number

of different jobs.
1 Probal Dasgupta, Bangla in: George Cardona, Dhanesh Jain (eds) The Indo-Aryan
Languages, Routledge 2003. 283
12 1 o forms indefinite pronouns and adverbs from question words
Emphasisers,
khr whose – khro someone’s, `k who – `k\ someone, `khn which –
particles,
`khno any, `khUh where – `khUho somewhere. These are discussed
interjections
in Ch. 14.2.
2 o changes now eKn to still eKno and if xyq to even though xyqo
uhrh eKn `khUhw? Where are they now?

uhrh eKno ahfgr zhwghw/ They are still in the same place.
uvym xyq ahmhr kUh Svnfu . . . If you listened to me . . .
uvym xyqo ahmhr kUh `Shn nh . . . Even though you don’t listen to me . . .
3 o is a conjunction meaning and, also and sometimes or
ahymo xhb uvymo xhfb/ You and I will go.

ahymo ùhmhr sfÃ xhb/ I will also go with you.
nho Mfu phfr
not o be-IP be able to-3-PR-S
or maybe not
4 Added after the conditional participle and the perfective participle o
introduces a concessive element.
ahym sfÃ `gfl if I come too ahym sfÃ `gflo even if I come too
kuòbj kfr having done her duty kuòbj kfro even though she did her
duty
Here is the full sentence:
smÄ kuòbj phln kfro `s bkvyn `Kl/

complete duty follow-do-PP o-CONC she abuse eat-3-P-S
Even though she fulfilled all her obligations she was told off.
And here is one with a conditional participle.
kUh nh `zhghflo ymnh mfn mfn Kvb uéú yCl/

word not collect-CP o Mina mind-LOC (×2) very satisfied [was]
Even though she could not express it Mina was feeling very satisfied.
After the imperfective participle o is more likely to mean and, in addition
to that:
Mwfuh ahfÄ ahfÄ uhfqr sfÃ mYmhLsh krfuo phrb/

perhaps slowly (×2) they-GEN with reconciliation d-IP o be able
to-1-FUT
284 And perhaps slowly we will be able to make peace with them.
5 like i, o combines easily with ùh but there are no multiple occurrences Emphasisers
of o in sentences except when we get a double act: ùhmhro Bhl lhfg nh,
ahmhro Bhl lhfg nh/ You don’t like it and I don’t like it either. The posi-
tioning of o in sentences is not always obvious to speakers of English.
Here are some sentences to show this.
abSj uhr sfÃo ã«Y ahfC/
of course he-GEN with o wife [is present]
His wife was of course with him.
Bhbfuo uhr bvfkr yBurth zálzál kfr \Tflh/
think-IP o his breast-GEN inside-CL glare-ONOM do-PP rise-3-P-S
Just thinking about it filled him with gladness.
yuyn uh zhnfuno/
he that know-3H-P-HABIT o
And he knew it!
ahym shMhxj ynfwyC Dhkh —khySu ekhyQk ayBQhn Ùfko/
I help take-1-PR-PERF Dhaka published a few dictionary from o
I also consulted a few dictionaries published in Dhaka.
And here are two mid-word examples again:
blbhr mu ùh ykCv Gftoyn/
say-baVN-GEN like ùh something happen-3-PR-PERF o not
Nothing worth mentioning happened.
12.1.3 ùh
ùh is undoubtedly one of the most interesting single lexical items in

Bangla, partly because of its variability but also because it requires careful
listening and intuition more than learned analysis. ùh can act as the
correlative partner of xyq (see Ch. 29.7) or introduce the second half of a
sentence with a conditional participle:
khl xyq ahs ùh Bhl Mfb/
tomorrow if come-2-PR-S ùh good be-3-FUT
It will be good if you come tomorrow.
cfl `gfl ùh asvybQh yk?
move-PP go-CP ùh problem what
If she leaves, what’s the problem?
Other than that it tends to go its own way. We will look at some very
common ùh structures first and then at a variety of examples. 285
12 ùh on its own is used in conversation much like the English Well? So what?
Emphasisers, What then?
particles,
interjections
'ahmhr yk≤ uhfk Bhl lhfg nh/" 'ùh?"
‘But I don’t like him.’ ‘So what?’
uhi ùh/ Quite so! Exactly! yTk ùh/ Quite right!

uh ùh bft or uh ùh abSj/ That’s obvious! Of course!
nh ùh/ Of course not! or, with a questioning tone Not as far as I know.
ahfC ùh It’s there. Of course we’ve got it!
Khfb nh `kn? ahfC ùh/ Why won’t you eat? It’s there!
'ch `ni?" 'ahfC ùh/" ‘Is there no tea?’ ‘Yes, of course there is.’
ùh can be asking for reassurance or confirmation:

ahpyn ahz Uhkfbn ùh?
you today stay-3-FUT ùh
You will stay today, won’t you?
Bhl ahfCn ùh?

good [is present]-3H ùh
You are well, aren’t you?
ahmrh er mfuh ykCv kryC nh ùh?

we this-GEN like something do-1-PR-C not ùh
We are not doing anything like that, are we?
`mht kUh uvym eKn ybfwi krfu cho nh, ei ùh?

total word you now marriage do-IP want-2-PR-S not this EMP ùh
So basically, you don’t want to get married now, right?
ùhmhr ùh ahnhrs Bhl lhfg, uhi nh?

you-GEN ùh pineapple good feel so no
You like pineapple, don’t you?
yuyn zhfnn ùh ahpyn ahmhr eKhfn efsfCn?

he know-3H-PR-S ùh you I-GEN here come-3H-PR-PERF
He knows, doesn’t he, that you have come to me?
It can stand for an emphatic but:
qhm `byS ùh/

price too much ùh
286 But that’s too expensive!
ahym ykCvi bvyZ nh ùh/ Emphasisers
I something EMP understand-PR-S not ùh
But I don’t understand a thing!
ahym ùh mhnvX/
I ùh human being
But I am a human being!
It can offer encouragement after an imperative:
eKn ahsl bjhphrth yk uhi bl ùh/

now real matter what that EMP say-2-PR-IMP ùh
Now do say what the real matter is!
Or it can give a gently reminding nudge:
yk≤ uéuYw bjy∆yt `k uh ùh blfln nh/

but third person-CL who that ùh say-3H-P-S not
But you didn’t say who the third person was.
yk≤ e ùh `si pvfrhfnh khyMnY /
but that ùh that-EMP old story
But that is the same old story.
ahym fuh ahyC/
I ùh [is present]
But I am here.
orh ùh sb smw ZgRh kfr/
they ùh always fight-do-3-PR-S
They are always fighting.
`s ùh sb bjbñh kfrfC/
he ùh all arrangement do-3-PR-PERF
But she made all the arrangements.
ahmhfqr ùh ghyR `ni/
we-GEN ùh car [is absent]
We don’t have a car, though.
ahym ùh sb smfw Uhyk nh bhyRfu/
I ùh all time-LOC stay-1-PR-S not home-LOC
I am not always at home.
yk≤ uvym ùh `qfKC uhr yk rkm abñh/
but you ùh see-2-PR-PERF he-GEN what state
You saw the state he was in. 287
12 uh ChRh `xhghfxhgo ùh `ni/
Emphasisers, that apart contact ùh [is absent]
particles, Apart from that there is no contact.
interjections
Here is the mid-word appearance:
ahfg `qfKùhyClhm/ I had already seen it earlier.
12.2 Particles
Particles are lexical items which are taken out of their regular contexts
and sprinkled into the conversation to add a little twist or express attitude.
That Bangla is a language with attitude2 is particularly visible in these par-
ticles, in the way they unobtrusively combine with emphasisers and question
words, turn up in unexpected places and often add a note of sarcasm,
humour, irony or doubt.
12.2.1 uh
uh is, above all, a nominative and objective inanimate pronoun. It can stand
on its own as the subject or object of a sentence and is used in correlative
structures. But it can also act as a particle with no effect other than a
slight hesitation or looking for the right word. It usually occurs at the
beginning of sentences.
uh ahr qvfth Bhu `nfb?

uh more two-CL rice take-2-FUT
Will you have a bit more rice?
uh yk blfu chyÉCl?
uh what say-IP want-3-P-C
What did he want to say?
uh ku kfr mhifn `qfb mhfs?
uh how much do-PP salary give-3-FUT month-LOC
How much monthly salary will he give?
In the following two sentences uh acts almost like a contrasting conjunction
but:
288 2 Rabindranath Tagore, bhLlh BhXh pyrcw, —Um yqbj—khS sLãkrN Dhaka 2002, p. 25
mh kfb mhrh `gfC ahmhr/ uh, ek qhqh ahfC/ Particles
mothere when hit-go I-GEN uh one older brother [is present]
My mother died a long time ago. But I have an older brother.
ufb thkh ùh lhgfbi, uh `sthi ahym `qb/

but money EMP need-3-FUT EMP uh that-CL EMP I give-1-FUT
But it will cost money. I will pay.
12.2.2 bh
bh is a coordinating conjunction meaning but and it is often used with

question words adding a note of doubt or helplessness. It can follow or pre-
cede the interrogative directly or appear elsewhere in the sentence. In these
contexts bh is difficult to translate.
kUh bfl lhBi bh yk Mu?

word speak-PP gain EMP bh what be-3-P-HABIT
What would be the point in talking?
`bchrh yk bh krfb?
poor man what bh do-3-FUT
What will the poor man do?
`kn bh esb kUh/

why bh this all word
What’s the point of all this talk?
uvymi bh xhfb `kn?

you EMP bh go-2-FUT why
Why would you go?
`k\ bh efsfC bvyZ/

someone bh come-3-PR-PERF understand-1-PR-S
Someone has come, I take it.
eKn `gfl bh `qhX yk?

now go-CP bh fault what?
What is wrong with going now?
bh often follows Mwfuh perhaps:

ektv Khfth Mwfuh bh yCl `s/
a bit short perhaps bh [was] he
Perhaps he was a bit short. 289
12 bh can follow xyq if
Emphasisers,
xyq bh orh bvfZ . . .
particles,
if bh they understand-3-PR-S
interjections
If they could begin to understand . . .
12.2.3 nh
Apart from being the universal negator in Bangla, nh has the following uses:
as a conjunction or
ethi ùh? nh ahro ykCv?

this-CL EMP nh more something
This is it, isn’t it? Or is there anything more?
kUhth syuj nh ThÑh bvZfu nh `pfr . . .
word-CL true nh joke understand-IP not be able to-PP
uncertain whether this was true or a joke . . .
as a connector between indefinites or interrogatives:
shrh klkhuhr —hNYi `khUho nh `khUho ahtfk ahfC/

whole Kolkata-LOC living beings somewhere nh somewhere stick-PP
[is present]
All over Kolkata living beings are confined somewhere or other.
`Sî∞hfur kvfth Bhsfu Bhsfu `khUhw nh `khUhw ygfw `Tfk/
stream-GEN piece of straw float-IP (×2) where nh where go-PP
stop-3-PR-S
A piece of straw floating in the stream comes to a stop somewhere.
as a connector between imperfective participles:
ahbhr `Bhr Mfu nh Mfui cfl ahfs/

again dawn be-IP nh be-IP go-PP come-3-PR-S
And she comes back first thing in the morning.
as a particle following second person present and third person imperatives.
These uses are given in Ch. 27.3.
12.2.4 `kn why, ki where

Both `kn why and ki where are used as rhetorical questions, expressing
290 disbelief or doubt, or a challenge. Translations can only be approximate.
'`s ùh cfl `gfC/" 'cfl `gfC? ki?" Particles
he EMP move-PP go-3-PR-PERF move-PP go-3-PR-PERF where
But he has left! Left? I doubt it!
'`qfKC ùh?" 'ki nh ùh/"
see -2-PR-PERF EMP where not EMP
‘You’ve seen it, haven’t you?’ ‘No, I haven’t!’
'ofqr qvznfk dhk `qb/" 'E qvznfk `kn? sbhifk ahsfu bflh/"
they-OBJ two-CL-OBJ call give-1-FUT two-CL why everyone-OBJ
come-IP say-2-PR-IMP
‘I will call them both.’ ‘Why those two? Tell everyone to come!’
12.2.5 yk
yk has a variety of uses (see Ch. 11). In addition to these we find some
combinations with yk as a filler word or a wait-a minute-while-I decide-
what-to-say stop-gap. These combinations do not take kindly to being
taken out of context. Here are some of them.
orh yk nhyk ahzfk Uhkfb?
they yk not what today-3-FUT
They are staying today, are they?
syuji blfu yk/
true say-IP yk
You don’t say! (or something like that)
Here is a typical example with bh and yk together:
abSj ei ynfw ekth ghn nh ylfK bh `s kfr yk/
of course this with one-CL song not write-PP bh he do-3-PR-S yk
Of course, what does he do but write a song about it!
yk zhyn what do I know? is widely used, also on its own, to mean exactly
what is says.
o yk zhyn khr khC Ùfk SvfnfC/
he yk zhyn who-GEN to from hear-3-PR-PERF
He heard that from who knows where.
ahr yk what more? has a shoulder-shrugging effect
xhb ahr yk/
go-1-P-FUT more what
Might as well go. 291
12 Bfw mfr `gyClhm ahr yk/
Emphasisers, fear-LOC die-PP go-1-P-PERF more what
particles, I nearly died with fear.
interjections
yk `xn what as if indicates vagueness
`lhkyt eitvkv bfl yk `xn Bhbfu Uhfk/
man-CL this bit say-PP what as if think-IP stay-3-PR-S
The man said this much and then remained thinking about who knows
what.
12.2.6 `x
When used as a particle `x often has a softening or mollifying effect. It is

usually attached to the end of sentences and tends to resist translation. It
is similar to but weaker than ùh. More often than not it implies because.
emyn kfr yuyn `qKfu chn `x/

such do-PP he-H look-IP want-3-H-PR-S `x
He just wants to see it.
ahmhfqr mhnfu Mfb `x/
we-OBJ obey-IP be-3-FUT `x
Because we have to obey.
eu skhl skhl efl `x ahz?
so morning morning come-2-P-S `x today
You have come so early today?
anvmyu `qwyn `x/
permission not-give-3-PR-PERF `x
Because he didn’t allow it.
eu `zhfr kUh blhr qrkhr yCl nh `x/
so loud word say-VN-GEN need [was] not `x
It was not necessary to speak so loudly.
`x as an interjection can also occur mid-sentence with the same mollifying
effect:
ahym bhfpr bhyR `gfl orh `x Mhfs ahmhfk ynfw/

I father-GEN house go-CP they that laugh-3-PR-S I-OBJ with
It’s that when I go to my father’s house they laugh about me.
292 Some other items such as `xn, `kmn `xn, yk `xn are given in Ch. 8, p. 221ff.
Interjections
12.3 Interjections
Interjections express emotions such as joy, amazement, surprise, dismay,

disgust, fear, disdain, indignation, outrage, despair, pain or well-being. An
indication of their emotional content is given for each of the following
examples. This is only a small selection.3
ahÉCh OK, fine, well

ahÉCh, eKn ycyTth `qKfu phrb?
INT now letter-CL see-IP be able to-1-FUT
OK, now, could I see the letter?
ahÉCh, uhMfl ùh Bhl/
INT that be-CP EMP good
OK, that’s good.
ahMh oh, well now
ahMh, au \f≠yzu MÉC `kn?
INT such excited be-2-PR-C why
Oh, why are you getting so excited?
ahMh, ahym ùh uhi mfn kryC/
INT I EMP that EMP mind-LOC do-1-PR-C
Well now, that’s just as I thought.
bhA amazement, joy, surprise
bhA, yk sv~qr kUh blfu ySfKfC `mfwyt/
INT what beautiful word speak-IP learn-3-PR-PERF girl-CL
How beautifully the girl has learnt to speak.
bhA, yk ahnf~qr Kbr ùh/
INT what joy-GEN news EMP
What wonderful news!
ofgh, mhfgh expressing: despair, regret
ofgh, ahmhr zYbnth ChfrKhfr `gl `gh/
INT my life-CL ruin go-3-P-S INT
Oh, my life has gone to ruin.
3 It is surprisingly difficult to translate interjections without sounding either slightly

deranged, undignified or downright rude. I have at times smiled at Fie! You wretch!
Mercy on me! and Oh, how illstarred I am! in W.S Milne’s Practical Bengali Grammar
(1913) p. 283f. Now I can only say Mercy on me! 293
12 mhfgh, ahr yk sMj krb?
Emphasisers, INT more what endure-do-1-FUT
particles, Oh my, what more do I have to suffer!
interjections
\A expressing: revulsion
\A, yk bYBJs! Ugh, how awful!
\A, ahr Svnfu chi nh/
INT more hear-IP want-1PR-S na
Ugh, I don’t want to hear any more!
ahf“, ahfr expressing: exasperation, helplessness
`lhkyt bll, ahf“, ahmhr smUòj ykCvi `ni/
man-CL say-3-P-S INT my support something EMP [is absent]
The man said, ‘I have nothing at all to help me.’
ahfr er zfnj ùhmhr shMhxj qrkhr/
INT this-GEN for your help need
Don’t you see, that’s why I need your help!
ahf“ nh, ahfr nh no way or mild contradiction
qv mhs Qfr ùh SvQv p†jhni B£hzfu SvnyC/ ahf“ nh! ysyt bjhLfk kUh bfl efsyC/
two month during only plan EMP fold hear-1-PR-C INT City
Bank-LOC word speak-PP come-1-PR-PERF
For two months we’ve had nothing but failed plans. Enough is enough.
I have been to talk to the City Bank.
'`s xhfb nh ahpnhr sfÃ?" 'ahfr nh!"
he go-3-FUT not you-H-GEN with INT
‘Won’t he go with you?’ ‘No way!’
omh expressing: consternation, surprise
omh, `k bflfC `s kUhth?
INT who say-3-PR-PERF that word-CL
Well, I never, who said that?
yCA expressing: disgust
yCA! uvym ahmhfk ei nhfm ahr dhkfb nh/
INT you I-OBJ this name-LOC more call-2-FUT not
Argh, don’t call me by that name again.
yCA yCA! uvym eu Khrhp!

INT (×2) you such bad
294 Uh, you are so evil.
QjhJ expressing: disgust, exasperation Interjections
QjhJ, ekbhr Gvm BhWfl yk ahbhr Gvm ahfs?

INT one time sleep break-CP what again sleep come-3-PR-S
Duh, once you are awake how can you get to sleep again?
is expressing: pain, sympathy
is, ùhmhr bjUh lhgfC nh?
INT you-GEN pain feel-3-PR-C not
Uh, doesn’t that hurt?
is, ahym eth ùh zhnuhm nh/
INT I this-CL EMP know-1-P-HABIT not
Oh my goodness, I didn’t even know that.
Mhw, Mhw Mhw, Mhwfr oh dear (sympathy, impatience)
Mhw Mhw, eu `Cht bhÉCh!
INT such small child
Oh Lord, such a small child!
Mhwfr, efu mn Khrhp Mw nh?
INT this-LOC mind bad be-3-PR-S not
Oh dear, doesn’t that make one depressed.
qVr, qVr M, expressing: rejecting, anger
qVr, uhr sfÃ xhb `kn?
INT he-GEN with go-1-FUT why
No way, why should I go with him?
qVr M, ahr kubhr blb?
INT more how much time say-1-FUT
For goodness sake, how many more times do I have to tell you?
yk `r expressing: surprise
yk `r uvi ei smw?
INT you this EMP time
What, you at this time?
yk `r cvp kfr ahyCs `x? bflh nh yk blfu chs!
INT quiet-do-PP [is present]-2I that say-2-PR IMP not what say-IP
want-2I-PR-S
What? So quiet? Say what it is you want to say!
295
Part 3
Functions
Chapter 13
Noun phrase structure
This chapter gives a close-up of what goes on in Bangla noun phrases. The
structure of Bangla noun phrases ranges from bare nouns or even a single
deictic e this! to quite complex formations. In sentences, noun phrases occur
as subjects, objects, complements or locative phrases but their internal struc-
ture is the same. For the present purpose we take the noun phrase out of
its sentence context. The term modifier in connection with noun phrases
is used to describe the categories (a) to (d) below. Note that, apart from
classifiers (th, yt, etc.), which are attached to nouns, quantifiers or numerals,
all the remaining modifiers function as attributive adjectives and come before
the noun. When they come together, they appear in the following order.
13.1 The modifiers
(a) possessives ahmhr, ùhmhfqr, mhfwr . . .

(b) deictics: e, ei, o, oi, `s, `si
(c) quantifiers or numerals: afnk, ykCv, sb, ku, eu, shrh, ek, qvi , Mhzhr . . .
(d) qualifiers: (attributive, qualifying adjectives) bR, sv~qr, Khrhp . . .
The sequential order of modifiers is quite stable. The way they occur with
one another and their relationships with classifiers (x) within noun phrases
is set out below. Noun phrases do not necessarily have a classifier at all, as
we saw earlier. There can never be more than one classifier in a noun phrase.
(x) classifiers: th, `th, `t, yt, Khnh, zn, tv, gvflh . . .
Here are two typical patterns:
(a) (b) (c) (x) (d) noun

ahmhr e yun th `Cht `Cfl
these three small sons of mine 299
13 (a) (b) (c) (d) noun (x)
Noun phrase ùhmhr `s zrßyr khgz gvflh
structure those urgent papers of yours
13.2 Possessives
These range from simple attributive pronouns such as ahmhr, ùhmhr my, your
to whole phrases.
In the sentence below s®hbnh possibility is the subject and the focus of our
noun phrase. The whole preceding phrase counts as a modifier.
`shmbhfrr pfr uhr shfU ahr `xhghfxhg Mowhr s®hbnh Uhkfb nh/
Monday-GEN after she-GEN with more contact be-VN-GEN
possibility be-3-FUT not
After Monday there will be no possibility of any contact with
her any more.
However, in the great majority of cases, this slot is filled by single or two-
word genitives.
Possessives can take a classifier and form a noun phrase by themselves:

ahmhrth mine, ùhmhrth yours.
Possessives appear with nouns alone: ahmhr …hmY my husband, ahfgäwygyrr sLKjh
the number of volcanoes, shgfrr phyn the water of the ocean, pyrbuòfnr khrN
the reason for change.
Possessives combine with deictics, quantifiers and qualifiers and precede

them all.
with deictics:
(a) (b) NOUN (x)

ahmhfqr e —k¶p th
our this project- CL
this project of ours
uhr `s cfl xhowh

her that move-PP go-VN
this her leaving
Note that when the order of possessives and deictics is reversed, the
deictic inevitably becomes a noun phrase of its own:
300
ahmhr ei `Cfl this son of mine Deictics
but ei ahmhr `Cfl This is my son.
with quantifiers or numerals:
(a) (c) (x) NOUN

uhr sb smsjh
his all problem
all his problems
mhfwr ykCv gwnh

mother’s some jewellery
some of mother’s jewellery
uhfqr smÄ th sôpy≠

their total- CL property
the whole of their property
with qualifiers:
(a) (d) NOUN (x)

yrmhr sv~qr bhghn th
Rima’s beautiful garden- CL
Rima’s beautiful garden
uhr ynfzr ayñr mn th

his own restless mind CL
his own restless mind
13.3 Deictics
In combination with other modifiers, deictics follow possessives and precede

quantifiers and qualifiers.
Deictics are selective with quantifiers or numerals. They easily link up with
numbers, with kfwk a few, and with smÄ, skl, sb all. eu and au are them-
selves deictic quantifiers. Combinations with indefinite quantifiers such as
ykCv some or afnk much are unlikely. Pre-nominal quantifiers and numbers
usually produce an indefinite noun-phrase such as ekth `Cfl a boy, yunft Cyb
three pictures. With a deictic these noun phrases become definite ei ekth
`Cfl that one boy, ei yunft Cyb these three pictures.
301
13 (b) (c) (x) NOUN
Noun phrase `si ek th mvMVuò
structure that one CL moment
that one moment
`s sb Zhfmlh
all that fuss
ei kw th lhin
these few lines
Deictics combine with qualifiers:
(b) (d) NOUN (x)

ei nuvn ynwm
this new system
`s aBhbnYw Gtnh
that unexpected event
13.4 Quantifiers and numbers
As we have already seen, quantifiers and numbers have a special status in noun
phrases. Numbers almost automatically claim the classifier: p£hcth bi , never
*p£hc bith. Quantifiers are a bit more varied but they also take the classifier
away from the noun. Measure words such as ykflh kilo, mhil miles, gz yard, mn
maund can stand in for classifiers in that they follow a quantifier directly.
qvth ahnhrs two pineapples – qvi `zhRh ahnhrs four pineapples

yunth klh three bananas – yun Mhyl klh twelve bananas
Quantifiers and numbers combine with qualifiers:
(c) (x) (d) NOUN

ykCv phkh ahm
some ripe mangoes
Mhzhr th ybr∆kr —Sä
endless annoying questions
eu th bR shMs
so much recklessness
As we can see from these examples, quantifiers before the noun, with or
without a classifier, result in indefinite noun phrases, except in the example
302 with sb all which is all-inclusive and therefore definite.
Qualifiers
13.5 Qualifiers
Qualifier–noun combinations without a classifier are likely to produce

non-count or plural noun phrases.
non-count: sbvz shbhfnr qhm ku? How much is green soap?

`mhth ch\l yknfu Mfb/ Coarse rice has to be bought.
plural: kRh kUh harsh words k£hch klh green bananas

qhym khpR expensive QnY `lhk rich people
clothes ybfqyS yzyns foreign things
A qualifier plus a noun with a classifier gives us definite noun-phrases with
endless possibilities:
(d) NOUN (x)

kyTn smsjh gvflh
the difficult problems
khflh klm th
the black pen
13.6 Reversed-order quantifiers
Quantifiers and qualifiers can swap places. This occurs in order to give the
qualifying adjective a more prominent position or sometimes just to create
a different rhythm. It is particularly common when the qualifier is modified
by Kvb very or afnk much.
Not all qualifiers participate in this reversal. Here are two examples:
(c) (x) (d) NOUN

ek th lhl Pvl
a red flower
and
qv th `Cht `Cfl
two small boys
are not remarkable enough to warrant the swap. In the examples below,
on the other hand, the reversal occurs almost automatically due to the
emphatic nature of the qualifiers. 303
13 example (ii) (d) (c) (x) NOUN
Noun phrase ybrht ek th nqY
structure huge one CL river
a huge river
Kvb sv~qr kfwk th ghn
very beautiful few CL song
a few very beautiful songs
BYXN bR qv yt Mhyu
extremely big two CL elephant
two huge elephants
These reversals occur much more often with the unobtrusive ekth than with
other numbers and they do not occur at all with sb all, afnk much or ykCv.
13.7 bR ekth and Kvb ekth not much
Two off-shoots of this reversal are bR ekth and Kvb ekth, used as adjectives
or adverbs, always negated and meaning not much, hardly, hardly at all.
They can have a noun following but often also appear with verbs. Here are
some examples:
as adjectives: ahmhr Kvb ekth asvybfQ Mwyn/
I-GEN Kvb ekth problem not be-3-PR-PERF
I didn’t have much of a problem.
uhfu uhr bR ekth BhbflS `ni/
that-LOC he-GEN Kvb ekth worry [is absent]
She did not feel very worried about this.
as adverbs: uKn Ùfk kUh ahr bR ekth bfl nh/
then from word more bR ekth say-3-PR-S not
Since then he has not said very much.
ahflhcnh bR ekth Mfu `qyKyn/
discussion bR ekth be-IP not see-1-PR-PERF
I did not see much of a discussion going on.
13.8 Numbers with and without classifiers
We have seen the tendency to add th or yt to numerals almost as an

automatic procedure. There are some specific situations which cause the
304 classifier to be dropped:
(a) when the numeral is followed by a measure word, a collective noun ek and ekth
or a type word:
chr mhil qVfr four miles distance ek gz khpR a yard of cloth

qvi `pwhlh kyP two mugs of coffee ek `P£hth Gvm a wink of sleep
ek cvmvk ch a sip of tea ekthnh bYz a row of seeds
ek `zhRh zvuh a pair of shoes ekrkm pvkvr a kind of lake
(b) when the numeral is followed by a stretch of time:
yun mhs three months ekyqn one day

qS ymynt ten minutes p£hc G∂th `qyr five hours late
chr bCr ahfg four years ago ek bCr pfr a year later
(c) when the numerical element is the focus or the number is considered
a total:
uhfqr yun `Cfl/ They have three sons.

ahmhfqr qvi `mfw Bhrfu/ Both our daughters are in India.
(d) at the beginning of stories and for emphasis, when a new subject is
introduced, in titles or headlines:
p£hc `chfrr g¶p the story of the five thieves

yun mvshyPr three travellers
ek yb~qv ys£qvr a drop of vermilion
ek sv~qr skhfl on a beautiful morning
qvi rhzh yCl there were once two kings
13.9 ek and ekth
In addition to the above, ek is used without a classifier when ek means

the same rather than the number one:
uhrh ek ayPfs khz kfr/

they one office-LOC work do-3-PR-S
They work in the same office.
sb `ãtSfn oi ek ynwm/
all station-LOC that one system
There is that same system in all stations.
Bhl blfu skfl ek yzyns `bhfZ nh/
good say-IP everyone one thing understand-3-PR-S not
Goodness is not the same thing to everyone. 305
13 The use of ek on its own adds a note of immediacy, directness and, fre-
Noun phrase quently, an expectation of more to come. Compare the noun phrases in
structure the following two simple sentences by Ketaki Kushari Dyson:
(1 with classifier) BhXhr ylKn ekyt zytl néuj/

language-GEN writing one+CL complex dance
Writing language is a complex dance.
(2 without classifier) eKhfn bhLlhr ek ybrht Sy∆/
here-LOC Bangla-GEN one-NO CL huge strength
Here Bangla has a huge strength.
The difference between these two sentences cannot be easily reflected in
the translation but sentence (2) has a slightly more pronounced emphasis
or edge to it. We can effect a similarly slight difference in English with sen-
tence pairs such as:
(1 with a) We went there on a beautiful winter morning.

(2 with one) We went there one beautiful winter morning.
Here are some more examples without classifiers. Although it is not easy
to judge the impact of these phrases without their contexts, we can perhaps
sense the slight edge and expectation in them.
ek ybrht smsjh a huge problem

ek SYfur rhfu one winter night
ek apr∑p svK an incomparable happiness
ek nhmkrh `lKk a famous writer
ek síjhw kUh MyÉCl . . . One evening we were talking . . .
uhr mhUhr opr ek qhqh above him (older than him) one brother
yk≤ —kéyur \pfro uhr
ek kuòbj ahfC/ But he also had a responsibility towards nature.
ek yBê Qrfnr ãp§uh a different kind of clarity
ek mMhn ybszòn a big sacrifice
ek ybyc« BhXh a colourful language
Here are some contexts:
`s ek aÀvu `mfw/ She is a strange girl.

`s smfw ek aBhbnYw Gtnh Gft `gl/ Then something incredible happened.
`s ek yBê khyMnY/ That’s a different story.
`sthi ek mMh aprhQ Mfw ygfwyCl/ That was a big insult.
306
Chapter 14
Pronouns in use
The following sections bring together some further aspects of pronouns and
their uses in sentences.
14.1 Independent deictics

The distinctions of `s neutral, e near and o far deictic, which are set out
in Chapter 5, become almost irrelevant in actual language use. This means
that the role of deictics as pointers is, in fact, more important than where
they point. We find instead that, when used as free-standing items, e is pre-
dominantly used with inanimate, o with animate referents.
Here are some examples with e and ei as independent pronouns.
ei ùh ahym ùhmhfk bflyC/
this EMP I you-OBJ say-1-PR-PERF
I have told you this.
`Cht Ùfk ùh ei ySfKfC/
small from EMP this learn-3-PR-PERF
They have been learning this since they were small.
ei Ùfk afnk ykCv `bhZh xhw/
this from much something understand-VN go-3-PR-S
One can draw a lot of conclusions from that.
e ahbhr yk ybpq/
this again what danger
What new danger is this?
ahro `x `k\ efu zyRfw xhfb uh Bhfbn yn/
more also someone this-LOC entangle-PP go-3-FUT that not
think-3-H-PR-PERF
You didn’t think that someone else would get entangled in this. 307
14 `s could be used instead of e in some of these examples, but the use of o
Pronouns is less likely.
in use
o on its own is almost invariably used with human referents.
In attributive uses such as ei bi this book, oi SMfr in that town, `si QhrNh
that idea, the near–far dimensions are again restored.
14.2 Indefinites
This section deals with uses of indefinite pronouns, adjectives and adverbs.
The dividing line between pronouns on the one hand and adverbs and
adjectives on the other is not helpful in the consideration of these structures.
We will therefore call all the items listed below indefinites from now on.
As we are dealing with relatively simple sentence structures, no glosses are
given in this section.
Indefinites are formed, as we have seen, by adding o (or o-kar) to question

words.
interrogative indefinite
`k who `k\ someone
khr whose khro someone’s
khfk to whom kh\fk to someone
yk what ykCv some, something
`khUh where `khUho somewhere
kKn when kKno sometimes, ever
`khn which `khno any
Examples of indefinite pronouns were given in Ch. 5.2.5. The remaining
indefinites are `khUho somewhere, kKno ever, `khno any. ykCv counts as a quan-
tifier and is given in Ch 7.6.6.
Bangla has no negative nouns, pronouns or adverbs such as nobody, noth-

ing, never or nowhere. Negation in Bangla happens on the sentence level
instead. Indefinites in connection with a sentence negator such as nh, yn, n-
or `ni result in these negative items. Indefinites are also essential in inter-
rogative contexts.
Here are some examples:
308
Indefinites
14.2.1 `khUho somewhere, anywhere – `khUho plus negative
nowhere
affirmative:
ahym uhfk ahfg `khUho `qfKyC/ I have seen him somewhere before.
eKhfn `khUho ekth bjhLk ahfC, uhi nh?
There is a bank somewhere here, isn’t there?
interrogative:
chybth `khUho phowh `gfC? Has the key been found anywhere?
uvym `khUho `brßÉC, nhyk? Are you going out somewhere?
negative:
`khUho xhb nh/ We won’t go anywhere.
ycyTth `khUho phiyn/ I didn’t find the letter anywhere.
14.2.2 kKno sometimes – kKno nh never
`khno yqn any day is used as well as kKno in questions. As well as kKno nh
the phrase `khno yqno nh is used for never.
affirmative:
ahmrh kKno mhC Khi/ We eat fish sometimes.
`s kKno ahsu/ He used to come occasionally.
interrogative:
uvym kKno ycLyR mhC `KfwfC? Have you ever eaten shrimp?
uhrh yk `khno yqn ei kUh bflfC? Did they ever say that?
negative:
ahmrh kKno pjhyrfs xhiyn/ We have never been to Paris.
eth kKno Mfb nh/ That will never happen.
o uh `khno yqno ybSáhs krfb nh/ He will never believe that.
14.2.3 `khno any – `khno plus negator not any, none
affirmative: the use of `khno in affirmative sentences is rare, unless it is

modified by ahr, anj or `x (see below) or if `khno precedes ykCv (Ch. 7.6.6).
`s `khno `Cht SMfr Uhfk/ He lives in some small town.
`lhkth `khno ykCv bflfC `bhQ Mw/ The man said something, perhaps. 309
14 interrogative:
Pronouns
uvym yk `khno \≠r `qfb nh? Will you not make some reply?
in use
`khno ykCv Khfb? Will you have something to eat?
negative:
`khno Kbr `ni? Isn’t there any news?

uhr `khno ahkhóKh `ni/ He has no ambition.
14.2.4 Indefinites with ahr and anj
When ahr more precedes indefinites it implies in addition to and is best

translated as else. It contrasts with anj other which in connection with
indefinites implies instead of and is often best translated as different.
with ahr more
ahr `k\ ahsfb nh/ No-one else will come.

ahr ykCv blfb? Do you want to say something more?
ahr `khUho `K£hzyn? Did you not look anywhere else?
ahr kKno ei kUh blfb nh/ Don’t ever say this again.
with anj other, different
anj `k\ ei kUh bflfC/ Someone else said that.

anj khro sfÃ ahym `xuhm nh/ I wouldn’t have gone with anyone else.
anj kh\fk xyq Bhlbhs . . . If you love someone else . . .
anj `khUho ygfw Uhkfb/ He will have gone somewhere different.
anj does not link up with kKno. Instead anj `khno smw (lit: other any time
= any other time) is used.
14.2.5 Indefinites with `x and xh
`x and xh preceding an indefinite increase the indefiniteness. More precisely,

they change an indefinite some to an indefinite any.
`x `k\ ùhmhfk eki kUh blfb/

what-R someone you-OBJ same word say-3-FUT
Anybody will tell you the same thing.
bjhphrth `x khro sfÃ ahflhcnh krfb nh yk≤/
matter-CL what-R someone-GEN with discuss-do-2-FUT-IMP not but
310 But don’t discuss this business with just anyone.
ahym `x `khno smw ahsfu phrb/ Indefinites
I what any time come-IP-be able to-FUT
I will be able to come at any time.
uhrh `x `khno `rfãthr£hfu xhw nh/
they what-R any restaurant-LOC go-3-PR-S not
They don’t just go to any restaurant.
xh precedes ykCv
o xh ykCv blvk, ahym ahr Svnfu rhyz ni/
she what-R something say-3-IMP I more hear-IP agreed [am not]
Whatever she may say, I am not willing to listen any more.
`s xh ykCv Khw/
he what-R something eat-3-PR-S
He eats anything.
14.2.6 Double indefinites
Double indefinites have a plural meaning.
`k\ `k\ some people, kKno kKno once in a while, `khUho `khUho in various
places, `khno `khno some
`k\ `k\ mhUh Ùfk ghmCh Kvfl `khmfr `p£chw/
someone (×2) head from gamcha open-PP waist-LOC wrap-3-PR-S
Some took their gamchas1 from their heads and wrapped them around
their waists.
kKfnh kKfnh ahpn mfn kUh bfl \Tfu Mfb/
ever (×2) own mind-LOC word speak-PP rise-IP be-3-FUT
Once in a while one has to talk to oneself.
bhghfn `khUho `khUho rhfur mfQj nuvn Pvl PvftfC/
garden-LOC somewhere (×2) night-GEN within new flower
blossom-3-PR-PERF
In some places in the garden new flowers have come up overnight.
`khno `khno Ch« ySÇfkr `cfw `byS `bhfZ/
any (×2) student teacher-GEN than much understand-3-PR-S
Some students understand more than their teachers.
1 A gamcha is a thin colourful cotton cloth which is used predominantly as a towel

but also has lots of other uses 311
14
14.2.7 Double indefinites linked by nh
Pronouns
in use Literally these structures mean if not one then the other and have an
accumulative effect one or the other.
uhr bjbMhr kKno nh kKno `kmn zhyn Mfw xhw `bhZh kyTn/
his behaviour sometimes not sometimes how know-1-PR-S be-PP
go-3-PR-S understand-VN difficult
His behaviour is at times difficult to understand.
xh-i krfu xhfbn, `k\ nh `k\ uhr `khfnh nh `khfnh mhfn krfb/
what-R EMP do-IP go-3-H-FUT someone not someone it-GEN any
not any meaning-do-3-FUT
Whatever you do, someone or other will interpret it in one way or another.
14.2.8 Indefinites with ek
This structure can either increase the indefiniteness or imply a certain.

`k\ ekzn `Phn kfrfC/
someone one-CL phone-do-3-PR-PERF
Someone has phoned.
ùhmhfk ykCv ekth blb/
you-OBJ something one-CL say-1-FUT
I will tell you (a certain) something.
or mfn `khno ek Qrfnr ùhlphR clyCl/
his mind-LOC any one kind agitation move-3-P-C
Some kind of agitation was going on in his mind.
14.2.9 Multiple indefinites
Indefinites readily occur together. In negative sentences the sentence-final

negation covers them all.
`k\ `khno \≠r `qw yn/
someone any answer not give-3-PR-PERF
No-one gave any reply.
`k\ kKno eKhfn efsfCn?
someone ever here come-3-H PR-PERF
312 Has anyone ever come here?
These two sentences show, incidentally, that `k, much like mhnvX human being Personal
and `lhk person can combine with either ordinary or honorific verb endings. and relative
pronouns
kh\fk `khUho phiyn/
someone somewhere not find-1-PR-PERF
I didn’t find anyone anywhere.
`k\ khro sfÃ kUh blfC nh/
someone someone-GEN with word say-3-PR-C not
No-one is talking to anyone else.
14.3 Personal and relative pronouns
Both relative and indefinite pronouns occur in conjunction with personal

pronouns as they do in English (those who, none of us) but their distribu-
tions differ. In English, relative pronouns are the same as interrogative
pronouns, so in order to make a relative clause in English we need a head
noun or pronoun The man who or he who. As we have seen, relative pro-
nouns can stand on their own in Bangla:
xhr kUh bflC the person you were talking about

xhfk `qfKyC the person I saw
Here are the ways pronouns can combine with one another.
14.3.1 Personal pronoun plus
Nominative personal pronoun plus relative, interrogative, indefinite pro-

nouns, sbhi everyone and skfl everyone.
The verb ending agrees with the nominative personal pronoun.
ùhmrh `k rhyz ahC? Which one of you agrees?

ahmrh xhrh efsyC . . . We who have come . . .
ùmrh xhrh ahfg efsC . . . Those of you who came first . . .
ùhmrh `k\ bhzhfr xhÉC? Are any of you going to the market?
ahmrh xhrh bi ylyK . . . We who write books . . .
uhrh sbhi ahsfb/ They will all come.
When the personal pronoun is changed to the genitive it becomes essentially
a modifier of the relative, interrogative or indefinite pronoun: ùhmhfqr `k
which one of you, ahmhfqr `k\ or ahmhfqr ekzn one of us. This is important 313
14 for first and second person pronouns. The verb endings can stay with the
Pronouns genitive personal pronoun or change to third person.
in use
ùhmhfqr `k rhyz ahC? or ùhmhfqr `k rhyz ahfC? Which one of you agrees?
ahmhfqr `k\ zhyn nh/ or ahmhfqr `k\ zhfn nh/ None of us knows.
ùhmrh xyq `k\ `s smfw yblhu xho . . .
you-PL if someone that time-LOC abroad go-2-PR-S
if any of you go abroad at that time . . .
ahmrh sbhi uhfk ei kUh blfu SvfnyC/
we all he-OBJ this word say-IP hear-1-PR-PERF
We all heard him say this.
ahmhfqr `k\ Cybth `qyKyn/
we-GEN somone film not see-1-PR-PERF
None of us have seen the film.
Here is an example with a double pronoun and a noun:
ùhmrh `k\ ekzn ahmhr sfÃ cl/

you-PL someone-one-CL I-OBJ with go-2-PR-IMP
Any one of you come with me.
On the basis of these combinations we also get the occasional sentence with
the personal pronoun dropped and only the verb ending giving a clue:
sbhi Bfw Bfw q£hyRfw ahyC/

everbody fear-LOC (×2) stand-PP [is present]-1
We were all standing by in fear.
`k\ kh\fk ycnfu phryC nh/
someone someone-OBJ recognise-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
(We) didn’t recognise one another.
The place of the personal pronoun can be taken by a noun:
kvylrh `k\ ahr khz krfu chwyn/

kuli-PL someone more work do-IP not-want-3-PR-PERF
None of the kulis want to work any more.
14.3.2 `k `xn someone or other
`xn is a conjunction and an adverb. As an adverb it can create an impression

of vagueness. In connection with `k who it produces a structure very similar
314 to the English what’s his name in place of the sentence subject.
yBur Ùfk `k `xn `c£ycfw \Tl/ Personal
inside from who like shout-PP rise-3-P-S and relative
From inside someone started shouting. pronouns
14.3.3 Relative pairs
When a relative is directly followed by its correlative we get a whatever

element:
`s `xmn ùmn khz kfr/

he how-R so-CR work do-3-PR-S
He is unreliable in his work.
P†jhtth ùh `xmn ùmn nw/
flat EMP how-R so-CR [is not]
The flat is not just any old place.
`xn-ùn is less common but identical in meaning to `xmn-ùmn
orh `xn-ùn kfr P†jhftr BhRh `qw/
they how-R so-R-do-PP flat-GEN rent give-3-PR-S
They pay the rent for the flat on and off.
xKn uKn Mhsfu `ni/
when then laugh-IP [is absent]
You can’t just laugh whenever you feel like it.
xhfk uhfk xh uh `Shnhfu xhowh ùhmhr \ycu Mw nh/
who-OBJ-R he-OBJ-CR what-R that-CR tell-IP go-VN you-GEN
proper be-3-PR-S not
You ought not to tell just anybody anything.
14.3.4 Double relatives
Relative pronouns can combine with other relatives to create each to his
own structures.
`x xhr khfz bjÄ/

who-R who-R-GEN work-LOC busy
Each one is busy with his own work.
MyrNgvflh Cvtl `x `xyqfk phfr/
deer-CL-PL run-3-P-S who what direction-LOC be able to-3-PR-S
The deer ran in whichever direction they could. 315
14 `s xhr xh iÉCh
Pronouns that who-R-GEN what-R wish
in use each to his own
sbhi `x xhr bhyRfu cfl `gl/
everyone who-R who-CR-GEN home move-PP go-3-P-S
Everybody returned to their own home.
`x and xh can be doubled for a whatever or whoever effect:
`s xh xh chw uh uvym uhfk `qfb/
he what-R (×2) want-3-PR-S that-CR you he-OBJ give-2-FUT
You will give him whatever he wants.
`s xhr xhr khpR prßk/ Qvfw ùh `Pru `qowh \ycu/
he who-R-GEN (×2) clothes wear-3-IMP. wash-PP return-give-VN ought
She can wear whose clothes she likes. They ought to be washed when she
returns them.
14.3.5 Pronouns and number
It is quite acceptable in Bangla for a singular pronoun to have a plural

referent, with inanimate as well as with animate referents. This again con-
firms the need-to-know principle in Bangla. Once the plural referent has
been stated, subsequent references do not necessarily repeat it. The singular
pronouns are underlined.
esb ghfnr aUò Kvb pyr©khr nw/ eki sfÃ er ekth bhifrr aUò ebL ekth
a™ynòyMu aUò ahfC/
this all song-GEN meaning very clear [is not] same with this-GEN
one-CL outside-GEN meaning and one-CL internal meaning [is present]
The meaning of all these songs is not very clear. Also, they have an outer as
well as an internal meaning.
yk≤ `xsb my~qr rÇh `pfwfC, uhr mfQj Kvb pvfrhfnh `qhchlh `ni/
but that-R all temple protection get-3-PR-PERF that-CR within very
old double-roof [is absent]
But among all the temples that were saved there were none of the very old
double-roofed ones.
emn afnk g¶p blu, xhr `khno ayÄ¥ kKno yCl nh/
such much story tell-3-P-HABIT that-GEN any existence ever [was]-3 not
316 He told many such stories which did not contain any truth whatsoever.
When we look at these sentences a bit more closely we see that the plural nouns Reflexivity –
in questions are, in fact, all made plural by a preceding quantifier or by the me, myself, on
absence of any modifiers, not by plural endings. From a formal point of view my own
it therefore makes good sense that the pronouns should be singular.
14.4 Reflexivity – me, myself, on my own
The pronoun ynfz and its case variations ynfzr (genitive) and ynfzfk (objec-
tive) are used for reflexive structures. The genitive ynfzr as well as its more
formal alternative ynz… mean own rather than self and will be given as own
in the gloss (see Ch. 5.2.6 for further examples).
Unlike in English, Bangla reflexive pronouns can stand on their own with-
out a preceding noun or pronoun. Reflexive pronouns can either describe
interactions with oneself or they can reinforce personal pronouns.
Here is an example for each:
interactive:
ynfzfk shmfl `nw —ym/
self-OBJ control-PP take-3-PR-S Promi
Promi took hold of herself.
reinforced:
ahym ynfzi xhb/
I self EMP go-1-FUT
I will go myself.
In both cases the accompanying pronoun can be left out and ynfz can stand
on its own.
interactive:
ahym ynfzr \pfr rhg kryC/
I own on anger do-1-PR-C or, with an impersonal structure:
ynfzr \pfr rhg MfÉC/
self-GEN on anger be-3-PR-C
I am angry with myself.
reinforced:
ynfz nh krfl `khno khz Mw nh/
self not go-CP any work be-3-PR-S not
If you don’t do it yourself, no work gets done. 317
14 Where a pronoun does occur, the following principles apply. Plural pronouns
Pronouns can be followed by singular reflexives, though plural – plural combinations
in use also occur. This is the same phenomenon we find with relative pronouns.
plural – singular
ahmrh ynfz sb khz kyr/

we self all work do-1-PR-S
We do all the work ourselves.
uhrh ynfzr zfnj afnk `byS yc™h krl/
they self-GEN for much too much worry-do-3-P-S
They worry far too much about themselves.
plural – plural
`Cflrh Gfrr bhifr `kthyrL bjbsh xh krßk, ynfzfqr bhyRfu rhêhGfrr khz kfr nh
bh krfu chw nh/
boy-PL home-GEN outside catering business what-REL do-3-PR-IMP
own-PL home-LOC kitchen-GEN work do-3-PR-S not or do-IP
want-3-PR-S not
Whatever catering business men carry on outside the home, in their own
home they don’t do or don’t want to do any work in the kitchen.
ahmrh ynfzfqr ynfzrh ku `x Bhlbhys/
we self-PL-OBJ self-PL- how much love-1-PR-S
How much we love ourselves!
Case use: in genitive uses, ynfzr can stand by itself or combine with a geni-
tive noun or pronoun.
`s uhr ynfzr rhêh kfr/

he his ynfz-GEN cooking do-3-PR-S
He does his own cooking.
uhrh uhfqr ynfzr gîhfm ygfwfC/
they their ynfz-GEN village-LOC go-3-PR-PERF
They went to their own village.
In object case uses, ynfzfk ( ynfzfqr) can stand by itself. When an object
case noun or pronoun is present, ynfz tends to revert to the nominative.
object case, ynfz alone:
ynfzfk `byS chlhk Bhfbn?

self-OBJ much clever think-2H-PR-S
318 Do you consider yourself very clever?
ynfzr khfCi ynfzfk anjrkm lhgyCl/ Reflexivity –
own near EMP self-OBJ different feel-3-P-PERF me, myself, on
He was feeling unlike himself. my own
The following example would be perfectly complete without the ynfzfk at

the end. Its presence adds the dimension of exposure.
MThJ Kvb asMhw lhgyCl ynfzfk/

suddenly very helpless feel-3-P-PERF self-OBJ
Suddenly she felt very exposed and helpless.
object case with noun or pronoun:
ùhmhfk ynfzi `sth `qKfu Mfb/

you-OBJ ynfz EMP this-CL see-IP be-3-FUT
You will have to see to that yourself.
bhÉchfk `qKfu ùhmhfqr ynfzi ahsfu Mfb/

child-OBJ see-IP you-PL-OBJ ynfz EMP come-IP be-3-FUT
You will have to come yourselves to see the baby.
In the remaining examples ynfzr is used as a genitive attributive adjective

meaning own.
ahmhfk ynfzr Mhfu Mhl Qrfu Mfb/

I-OBJ own hand-LOC control take-IP be-3-FUT
I have to take control myself.
ynfzr `chKfk `xn ybSáhs Ml nh/

own eye-OBJ as if belief be-3-P-S not
It was as if she didn’t believe her own eyes.
ynfzr `chfK kfn `qKhr bhsnh `ni/

own eye-LOC bride see-VN-GEN wish [is absent]
He had no wish to see the bride himself.
Here is an example with the reflexive use of ahpn:
bnj—kéyu eKhfn ahuÖMhrh, lYlhmwY, ahpnhr `sH~qxò o ynybR —hcvfxò ahpyn mvgÜ/
forest nature here self-possessed playful own beauty and dense
abundance-LOC self-fascinated
The nature of the forest here is self-absorbed, playful, engrossed in its own
beauty and dense abundance.
319
14
14.5 Reciprocality (mutuality) – one another
Pronouns
in use
There are three useful lexical items for expressing mutual activities:
anj the other, apr the other, prãpr mutual

Here is how to say (a) ahmrh efk aprfk shMhxj kyr/ or
We help one another: (b) ahmrh ekzn anjznfk shMhxj kyr/ or
(c) ahmrh prãprfk shMhxj kyr/
Here are some examples with efk apr- or efk anj-:
rhÄhGhft efk aprfk `TlhfTyl kfr clhfPrh kfr/

road wharf-LOC one-LOC other-OBJ pushing-do-PP move-do-3-PR-S
lit: outdoors they move around pushing one another
When they are out they go about pushing and bumping into one another.
ahr ei chp xKn crfm `p£HfC uKni `p†tgvflh efk anjfk ahGhu kfr/
and this EMP pressure when-REL maximum reach-3-PR-S then EMP
plate-PL-CL one-LOC other-OBJ push-do-3-PR-S
And when this pressure reaches its maximum the plates push against one
another.
SrYr C£vfw `xn mn C£vfw ynfwfC efk apfrr/
body touch-PP as if mind touch-PP take-3-PR-PERF one-LOC
other-GEN
It was as if by physical touch they touched one another’s minds.
The sentence becomes clearer when it is restored to a more conventional
word order:
SrYr C£vfw `xn efk apfrr mn C£vfw ynfwfC/

body touch-PP as if one-LOC other-GEN mind touch-PP take-3-PR-PERF
Here are some uses of prãpr:
uhrh prãpr prãprfk xuth Bhlbhfs uuthi smhflhcnh kfr/

they mutual mutual-OBJ how much-REL-CL love-3-PR-S so much-CL
EMP criticise-do-3-PR-S
They criticise one another as much as they love each other.
ek-ekzn o kUh blfu ek-ek yzyns `bhfZ, ahr —hwi `sgvflh prãpfrr
efkbhfr \f¶th/
one one person that word say-IP one one thing understand-3-PR-S
and often this-PL-CL mutual-GEN completely opposite
320 People’s interpretations of this are often diametrically opposed to one another.
ei pyrbhfrr qvi zh ké”BhymnY ahr svMhysnYr mfQj —khSj `khno ybfrhQ `ni, Reciprocality
brL glhgyl Bhbi ahfC, ufb ahRhfl prãpfrr nhfm `Ts yqfw kUh blhbyl, (mutuality) –
`s ùh Uhkfbi/ one another
this family-GEN two wife Krishnabhamini and Suhasini-GEN-between
openly any enmity [is absent] rather close relationship [is present] but
privately one another name-LOC insinuate-give-PP word speaking that
EMP stay-3-FUT
The two wives of the family Krishnabhamini and Suhasini did not publicly
display any enmity, on the contrary they were very close, but some private
gossiping about one another was of course going on.
The following sentences use repetition to convey mutuality. The noun qvzfn
the two people is commonly used.
ahmrh qvzfn qvzfnr khfC `mhfti bhÄb ni/

we two people two people-GEN to at all real [is not]
We are not at all real to one another.
ek zhwgh Ùfk ahr ek zhwghfk péUk kfr ycfn `nbhr `khno yc– `ni/
one place from and one place-OBJ separate-do-PP know-PP
take-baVN-GEN any sign [is absent]
There are no clues to distinguish one place from another.
ahmrh qvzn mvfKhmvyK bfsyClhm/
we two-CL face-to-face sit-1-P-PERF
The two of us sat facing one another.
skfl skflr yqfk uhkhl/
everyone everyone-GEN direction-LOC look-3-P-S
They were all looking at one another.
Two locative animate nouns make for a reciprocal structure. This structure
is no longer very common.
Bhifw Bhifw ykCv nh ykCv yml Uhfk/

brother-LOC brother-LOC some not some similarity stay-3-PR-S
There are some similarities between the brothers.
ùhmhfu ahmhfu yk kUh blhr ynfXQ ahfC?
you-LOC I-LOC what word speak-VN-GEN prohibition [is present]
Are you and I not allowed to talk to one another?
321
Chapter 15
Verbs of being
The following chapters look at the different types of verbs in Bangla as

well as the uses of non-finite verb forms.
The concepts of being and having employ four basic Bangla verbs, each
of which has its own semantic and syntactic domain. The types of sentences
these verbs produce will be dealt with in detail in Part 4. This section gives
an overview of the verbs themselves.
15.1 Zero verb
The zero verb is the copula in equational sentences such as He is my friend?

Who are you? Today is Wednesday.
`s ahmhr Bhi/
he my brother
He is my brother.
bhuhs …ÉC ebL ybSvº/

wind transparent and pure
The wind is pure and clean.
The negation of the zero verb is formed with the incomplete verb n-. Here
is the pattern:
affirmative negative:
1st ps ahym asvñ/ I am ill. ahym asvñ ni/ I am not ill.
2nd ps fam uvym mhlY/ You are a gardener. uvym mhlY no/ You are not
a gardener.
2nd ps int uvi als/ You are lazy. uvi als ns/ You are not lazy.
322 2nd ps pol ahpyn `qhXY/ You are guilty. ahpyn `qhXY nn/ You are not guilty.
3rd ps ord ahmth ymy§/ The mango ahmth ymy§ nw/ The mango is ahC- exist, be
is sweet. not sweet. present
3rd ps hon yuyn \ykl/ He is a lawyer. yuyn \ykl nn/ He is not
a lawyer.
In the past tense the zero verb changes to the forms of yCl-, which is also
the past tense of ahC-.
1st ps ahym asvñ yClhm/ I was ill. ahym asvñ yClhm nh/ I was not ill.
2nd ps fam uvym mhlY yCfl/ You were a uvym mhlY yCfl nh/ You were not
gardener. a gardener.
2nd ps int uvi als yCyl/ You were lazy. uvi als yCyl nh/ You were
not lazy.
2nd ps pol ahpyn `qhXY yCfln/ You were ahpyn `qhXY yCfln nh/ You were
guilty. not guilty.
3rd ps ord ahmth ymy§ yCl/ The mango ahmth ymy§ yCl nh/ The mango
was sweet. was not sweet.
3rd ps hon yuyn \ykl yCfln/ He was yuyn \ykl yCfln nh/ He was
a lawyer. not a lawyer.
Future tense equational sentences can be formed with Mowh be, become.
\yn ahmhr ShSvyR Mfbn/ She will be my mother-in-law.

But in many cases the semantic aspect of becoming, which is inherent in
Mowh takes over. More details are given in Ch. 32.3.
15.2 ahC- exist, be present
This is an incomplete verb with only simple present and simple past tense
forms. The forms for ahC- are given at the end of the verb charts on p. 157.
ahC- in the simple present is negated with the invariable verb `ni.. ahC- com-
bines existential, locative and possessive uses.
Bangla has no separate verb to express the concept of having. Instead of

I have a brother in Bangla we say Of me a brother exists.
ahmhr Bhi ahfC/

of me a brother exists
I have a brother.
In English, the concept of possession on the one hand and of location or
existence on the other, are quite separate. In Bangla, due to the existence of
the verb ahC- , they merge together. 323
15 The above sentence ahmhr Bhi ahfC/ can, according to the context mean:
Verbs of being
I have a brother.
My brother exists. or
My brother is here.
Here is an overview of the forms.
pos = affirmative (positive), neg = negative
simple present simple past
pos neg pos neg

ahym ahyC `ni yClhm yClhm nh I am (not), I was (not)
uvym ahC `ni yCfl yCfl nh you are (not), you were (not)
uvi ahyCs `ni yCyl yCyl nh you are (not), you were (not)
`s ahfC `ni yCflh yCflh nh he is (not), he was (not)
ahpyn, yuyn ahfCn `ni yCfln yCfln nh you are (not), you were (not),
he is (not), he was (not)
These are purely existential sentences: I am, you are and so on. When we
add a genitive noun or pronoun at the beginning, the sentences become
‘possessive’ in the sense that we can translate them with possessive sentences
in English. In the Bangla structures the thing or person being possessed is
the grammatical subject of the sentence. The possessor is always in the
genitive. The only difference in Bangla between possessive and locative/
existential sentences is, therefore, the presence or absence of a genitive pos-
sessor. Here are some more sentences.
uhr `Cflfmfw ahfC? M£jh, ahfC/

he-GEN boy-girl [exist]3-PR-S yes [exist]3-PR-S
Does she have children? Yes, she does.
ahpnhrh lhf~dfn ahr ku yqn ahfCn?

you-H-PL London-LOC how much day [exist]3-H-PR-S
For how much longer are you going to be in London?
ahpnhr ekth ycyT ahfC/

you-H-GEN one-CL letter [exist]-3-PR-S
There is a letter for you.
mhnvfXr yk dhnh ahfC? nh, mhnvfXr dhnh `ni/

human being-GEN what wing [exist]-3-PR-S no human being-GEN
wing [is absent]
324 Do human beings have wings? No, they don’t.
uhrh gukhl eKhfn yCl/ Uhkh stay
they yesterday here [exist]-3-PR-S
They were here yesterday.
15.3 Uhkh stay
Uhkh steps in for all the forms ahC- does not have. For each form a sentence
with ahC- is given first to show the connection.
ahmhfqr bhghn ahfC/ We have a garden.

future tense: ahmhfqr bhghn Uhkfb/ We will have a garden.
`s eKhfn ahfC/ He is here.

verbal noun: uhr eKhfn Uhkhr \fØSj yk? What is the purpose
of him being here?
chybth uhr khfC ahfC/ He has the key.
imperfective participle: chybth uhr khfC Uhkfu He can’t have the key.
phfr nh/
`s eKhfn ahfC/ He is here.
perfective participle: `s eKhfn Ùfk ybfw kfrfC/ lit: He, having been
here, got married.
He got married while
he was here.
ùhmhr shMs ahfC/ You are brave.
conditional participle: ùhmhr shMs Uhkfl . . . If you are brave . . .
uhr ghyR ahfC/ He has a car.

conditional with xyq : uhr ghyR xyq Uhfk . . . If he has a car . . .
15.4 Mowh be, become, happen, occur
Mowh is the most common and the most versatile verb in Bangla. For the
concept of being, Mowh provides a dynamic quality which none of the other
verbs have. Translations into English do not always contain the verb be,
but the example sentences show the wide range of Mowh. Many Mowh sentences
have a genitive experiencer. Mowh is a full verb with all tenses and non-
finite verb forms.
325
15 Here is the contrast with ahC-:
Verbs of being
uhr asvK ahfC/ He has an illness.
uhr asvK MfwfC/ He has become ill.
uhr bhÉch ahfC/ She has a child.
uhr bhÉch MfwfC/ lit: of her a child has become → She has had a baby.
ahym Kvb KvyS MfwyC/
I very happy Mowh-1-PR-PERF
lit: I have become very happy
I am very happy.
asvybQh Mfb nh ùh?
problem Mowh-3-FUT EMP
There won’t be any problems, will there?
qvQ n§ MfwfC/
milk spoilt Mowh-3-PR-PERF
The milk has gone off.
`sth ykCvfui pVNò MfÉC nh/
this-CL at all EMP fulfilled Mowh-3-P-C not
This is not at all coming true.
eKhfn gm Mw/
here wheat Mowh-3-PR-S
Wheat grows here.
ùhmhr yk MfwfC?
you-GEN what Mowh-3-PR-PERF
What has happened to you?
ahpnhr zfnj ahmhr qvAK MfÉC/
you-H-GEN for I-GEN sadness Mowh-3-PR-C
lit: for you of me sadness occurs
I feel sad for you.
326
Chapter 16
Extended verbs
Extended verbs differ from simple verbs only in their stem form, which
has two syllables ending in h a and a verbal noun ending in `nh no. Here is
a list of common extended verbs. There seem to be only two verbs Tkhfnh
cheat and `p£HChfnh arrive which have an alternative simple verb with the same
meaning.
`s ùhmhfk Tkfb nh/ `s ùhmhfk Tkhfb nh/ He will not cheat you.
ahmrh skhfl `p£HfCyC/ ahmrh skhfl `p£HyCfwyC/ We arrived this morning.
Many, but not all, extended verbs are derived from nouns. A more complete
list of extended verbs with these derivations is given in Appendix 4.
The verbs are given in alphabetical order. No glosses are given.
ah£cRhfnh comb, scratch

ùhmhr cvl ah£cyRfw nho/ Comb your hair.
ahtkhfnh confine, obstruct, take hold of, block
yuyn rhÄhw ahtykfw ygfwfCn/ He got stuck in traffic.
\lthfnh turn upside down
bifwr phuh \lthfÉC/ She is turning the pages of the book.
egfnh advance
ei yqfk ahr egfnh xhw nh/ There is no way forward in this direction.
eRhfnh avoid
—Sä eyRfw bll . . . He avoided the question and said . . .
khmRhfnh bite
mSh ahmhfk Kvb khmRhl rhf«/ I got many mosquito bites in the night. 327
16 khmhfnh earn (money)
Extended verbs
`s `byS thkh khmhw nh/ He does not earn very much.
kvlhfnh be sufficient, be adequate
efu ahmhfqr kvlhfu Mfb/ That will have to be sufficient for us.
GhbRhfnh be taken aback, lose one’s balance
kUhth Svfn ynmh GhbyRfw `gl/ When she heard this Mina was taken
aback.
Gvmhfnh sleep
uvym ahr kuÇN Gvmhfb? How much longer will you sleep?
cvlkhfnh scratch, itch
mhUh ektv cvlkhfÉC/ My head is a bit itchy.
`c£chfnh shout, scream, yell
`lhkzn `c£ycfw kUh blfC/ People are shouting and talking.
CRhfnh scatter, spread out
uhr sb khgz `tybflr \pfr CRhfnh/ All his papers are strewn over the table.
zRhfnh embrace, hug
mh uhfk zyRfw Qrl/ Mother embraced him.
yzrhfnh relax, take a rest
uvym ektv yzrho/ Take a little rest.
zvRhfnh cool, soothe, calm
ùhmhr ch zvyRfw xhfÉC/ Your tea is getting cold.
Tkhfnh (Tkh) cheat, deceive
mhnvXfk Tkhfnh uhr ek rkm `Klh/ Cheating people is a kind of game for
him.
uhkhfnh look at, see, stare, gaze
nqYr yqfk uhykfw ril/ He stood looking towards the river.
uhRhfnh chase away, drive out
kvkvrthfk uhyRfw qho/ Chase the dog away.
q£hRhfnh stand, wait
328 `s eKhfn q£hyRfw ahfC/ He is standing here.
`qHRhfnh run, rush, dash Extended verbs
`qHyRfw ahsfu MfwfC yk ùhmhr? Did you have to run?

Qmkhfnh rebuff, scold, threaten
ahmhfk ahr Qmkhfb nh/ Don’t scold me any more.
ynbhfnh, ynBhfnh extinguish, put out (fire)
`mhmbhyugvflh ynyBfw yqyÉC/ I am putting out the candles.
phkhfnh cook
yk phkhfb? What will you cook?
phThfnh send
ycyTth ahzfk phThfu Mfb/ The letter has to be sent today.
ph¶thfnh overturn
ekysfd~t kfr ghyRth phy¶tfwfC/ He overturned the car in the accident.
phlhfnh flee
uvym phlhfb `kn? Why would you run away?
`p£chfnh twist, involve, entangle
khpRth yrkShr chkhr mfQj The cloth got twisted in the wheel of
`p£ycfw `gfC/ the rickshaw.
`p£HChfnh (`p£HCh) arrive, reach, come
`khn smw `p£HChb? What time will we get there?
Pvrhfnh terminate, conclude
ùl —hw Pvyrfw `gfC/ The oil has almost run out.
bqlhfnh change
ghyRr chkh bqlhfu Mfb/ The tyre needs to be changed.
bhnhfnh prepare
ch bhnhoyn `kn? Why didn’t you prepare tea?
bvlhfnh, `bhlhfnh caress, pass (hand) lightly over
uhr mhUhw Mhu bvylfw yqlhm/ I stroked his head.
`bRhfnh walk, go out, visit
Synbhfr `bRhfu xhb/ We will go out on Saturday. 329
16 `brfnh go out
Extended verbs
uhr nuvn bi `brßfÉC/ His new book is coming out.
mckhfnh sprain, twist (ankle, etc.)
Mhuth mcykfw `PflfC/ She has sprained her wrist.
ymthfnh, `mthfnh accomplish, finish, settle, compromise
uhfqr ZgRh `mthfnh MfwfC/ They have settled their argument.
lhPhfnh jump, spring
`Cflyt KvySfu lhyPfw xhfÉC/ The boy is jumping for joy.
lvkhfnh hide, put out of sight
ycyTgvflh sb lvykfw `rfKyC/ I have hidden all the letters.
Svkhfnh dry, extract moisture
bYz Svkhwyn/ The seeds are not yet dry.
SvQrhfnh, `ShQrhfnh rectify, correct
xh Bvl MfwfC SvQyrfw `qb/ We will correct the mistakes that were made.
shmlhfnh manage, check, guard
`s uhr Krc shmlhfu phfr nh/ He can’t manage his expenses.
330
Chapter 17
Causative verbs
Causative verbs are a systematic morphological phenomenon in Bangla.

English has only a few simple – causative verb pairs of this kind:
lie → lay (cause to lie), rise → raise (cause to rise),

sit → set or seat (cause to sit)
Morphologically speaking, causative verbs are a subgroup of extended
verbs. Unlike other extended verbs they are not derived from nouns but
from simple verbs. By extending simple verbs zhnh know → zhnhfnh cause to
know, causative verbs give us a convenient tool for making others do the
work for us. An overview of causative verbs within the extended verb class
is given in Appendix 5.
Here is how it works:
simple: ahym khzth krb/ I will do the work.

causative: ahym khzth krhb/ I will get the work done.
We can extend the sentence by giving the agent, i.e. the person who is
doing the work for us with the postposition yqfw:
ahym uhfk yqfw khzth krhb/ I will get him to do the work.
A more specific example:
simple: ahym chth ahnb/ I will bring the tea.

causative: ahym chth ahnhb/ I will arrange for the tea to be brought.
with agent: ahym uhfk yqfw chth ahnhb/ I will make him bring the tea.
Alongside the standard list given below, there are a great number of
causative formations for just the purpose of making someone do something.
These are commonly used in spoken language.
Here are some examples. The translations aim to reflect the colloquial style. 331
17 'uvym `xfu cho nh? ahym ùhmhfk chowhb/"
Causative verbs you go-IP want-2-PR-S not? I you-OBJ cause to go-1-FUT
‘You don’t want to go? I will make you want to.’
'mh, or xh Bhl lhfg nh, `kn uvym ofk uh krhÉC?" 'Bhl nh lhgfl clfb `kn?
Bhl lhghfu Mfb/"
mother he-GEN what-REL good feel-3-PR-S not why you he-OBJ that
cause to do-2-PR-C? good not feel-CP move-3-FUT why? good cause
to feel-IP be-3-FUT
‘Mother, why are you making him do something he doesn’t like?’
‘What’s liking got to do with it? He’s got to be made to like it.’
ahym ùh `xfu chi nh/ yk≤ mhbhbh ahmhfk xhowhfbn/

I EMP go-IP want-1-PR-S not but mother father I-OBJ cause to go-3H-FUT
I don’t want to go. But my parents are making me go.
'e ahym Bvlb nh/" 'ahzfkr yqni ùhmhfk `Bhlhfb!"

this I forget-1FUT not. today day EMP you-OBJ make forget-3-FUT
‘I will not forget this.’ ‘Today will make you forget it.’
But causative verbs are not just about making other people work. Below is
a list of common causative verbs with their simple counterparts and a simple
example sentence for each verb. No glosses are given.
17.1 Causative verbs – one-by-one
simple verb causative verb
oTh rise, get up oThfnh raise, lift

ahym Kvb skhfl \yT/ mh ahmhfk Gvm Ùfk oThw/
I get up very early. Mother wakes me up.
kmh decrease kmhfnh decrease, reduce

uhr zár kmfC nh/ oXvQth uhr zár kmhfb/
Her fever is not going down. The medicine will bring her fever down.
krh do krhfnh make do

'yk kr?" 'ykCv kyr nh/" 'uhMfl ahym yk ùhmhfk yqfw ekth khz krhb?"
‘What are you doing?’ ‘I’m not doing anything.’ ‘Well then, shall I give you
something to do?’
k£hqh cry, weep k£hqhfnh cause to weep

332 bhÉchth k£hqfC/ The baby is crying. ghnth ahmhfk k£hqhw/ The song makes me cry.
k£hph tremble, shiver k£hphfnh cause to shiver Causative
ghfCr phuhgvflh bhuhfs k£hpfC/ bhuhs phuhgvflh k£hphfC/ verbs –
The leaves of the tree are The wind is making the leaves quiver. one-by-one
quivering in the wind.
khth cut, (with time) pass khthfnh spend
ahro qvi yqn `kft `gfC/ ahmrh sv~qr ekth yqn khytfwyC/
Two more days went by. We spent a beautiful day.
Khowh eat Khowhfnh feed
ahmrh yk Khb? xh Khowhfnh Mfb uh Khb/
What will we eat? We will eat what we are being fed.
Khth labour, toil Khthfnh set up, pitch
`s Kvb Khtfu phfr/ u£hbvth KhytfwyC/
He can do very hard work. We pitched the tent.
glh melted glhfnh cause to melt
brP gfl `gfC/ sVxò brP gylfw yqfwfC/
The ice has melted. The sun has melted the ice.
Gth happen Gthfnh cause to happen
ykCv `bhQ Mw GftfC/ `k\ iÉCh kfr ekysfd~t Gthw nh/
Perhaps something has No one causes an accident on purpose.
happened.
cRh ascend, ride cRhfnh step up, increase
ahym `GhRh cRfu phyr bft/ orh Khyl qhm cRhfÉC/
Of course I can ride a horse. They are just putting the prices up.
clh move, go chlhfnh drive
eKhfn ghyR cfl/ ghyR chlhfb `k?
Cars move along here. Who will drive the car?
chph press, suppress chphfnh place upon, impose
Kbrth chph pfRfC/ `nHkhw mhnvX chypfwfC/
The news has been They have crammed the boat with people.
suppressed.
`cnh know `cnhfnh introduce
uvym yk uhfk `cn nh? ahym uhr sfÃ ycynfw `qb/
Don’t you know him? I will introduce you to him.
Chph print Chphfnh print
ahmhr ynfzr Chph bi uhr g¶pth Chphfnh MfwfC/
my own printed book His story has come out in print. 333
17 ChRh leave, let go, quit ChRhfnh cause to quit, set free
Causative verbs ahym ùhmhfk ChRb nh/ mhUhQrhth ektv ChyRfw `nb/
I won’t leave you. I will get rid of this headache.
zmh gather, settle, congeal zmhfnh collect, gather, accumulate
rhÄhw phuh zfm `gfC/ ahym afnk thkh zymfwyC/
Leaves have piled up I have saved a lot of money.
in the street.
zhgh awake, wake up zhghfnh cause to wake up, rouse
rhu qvithw ahym `zfg `gyC/ ahym uhfk zhghfu chi nh/
I woke up at 2 o’clock. I don’t want to wake him up.
zhnh know zhnhfnh inform
uvym sb zhn/ ahmhfk sfÃ sfÃ zhnhfb/
You know everything. Let me know immediately.
zálh be lit záhlhfnh set alight, irritate
\nvfn ahgvn zálfC/ bhyugvflh záhlho/
The fire is burning in the oven. Light the lamps.
Z£hkh be shaken Z£hkhfnh shake
uvPhfn Grth Z£hkfC/ ghfCr dhl Z£hkhfb nh/
The boy is shaking from Don’t shake the tree branches.
the cold.
`Tkh touch, stop and start `Tkhfnh stave off, hold up
ghyRth `Tfk `Tfk xhfÉC/ eth `Tykfw rhK/
The car is stopping and Hold this up.
starting.
dvbh, `dhbh sink, dive dvbhfnh cause to sink, immerse
`nHkh dvfb `gl/ béy§ anj `khno Sûq `x dvybfw yqfwfC/
The boat sank. The rain drowned out all other sounds.
`qKh see `qKhfnh show
ùhmrh yk `qfKC? `s ahmhfk gîhmth `qyKfw yql/
What did you see? He showed me the village.
`qhlh swing, rock `qhlhfnh cause to swing or rock
`mfwyt `qhlnhfu qvlfC/ bhÉChfk ektv `qhlhfu phr?
The girl is swinging in the Can you rock the baby for a bit?
cradle.
`Qhwh wash `Qhwhfnh cause to wash
ùhmrh Mhu QvfwC? bhÉchfqr mvK `Qhwhfu phr?
Have you washed your Can you get the children to wash their
334 hands? faces?
nhch dance nhchfnh make dance, excite Causative
o nhfc nh/ ghnth ahmhfqr nhchw/ verbs –
He doesn’t dance. The song excites us. one-by-one
nhmh get down, descend nhmhfnh drop off

eKhfn nhmb/ ahmhfk eKhfn nhmhfu phfrn/
I will get off here. You can drop me off here.
1
pRh fall pRhfnh cause to fall
ghfCr phuh pfR xhfÉC/ `s GyRr yqfk `chK pRhw/
The leaves are falling from He lets his eyes fall on the clock.
the trees.
pRh 2 read pRhfnh teach
ahym eth pRfu phyr nh/ uvym ahmhfk pRhfb?
I can’t read this. Can you teach me?
prh wear prhfnh make wear
uvym yk ShyR prfb? ahym ShyRth pyrfw `qb/
Will you wear a saree? I will put the saree on you.
phkh ripen phkhfnh complicate, finalise
uhr cvl `pfk `gfC/ `s uhr zYbnthfk afnk zt phkhw/
His hair has turned grey. He makes his life very complicated.
pvRh, `phRh burn pvRhfnh, `phRhfnh cause to burn
Bhu pvfR `gfC/ uhr `thãto pvyRfw `qowh Kvb s®b/
The rice has burnt. He is quite likely to burn even the toast.
Phth burst Phthfnh cause to explode
abfSfX Phnvsthfk `Pft `xfu Mfb/ orh `bhmh Phthw/
In the end the balloon They explode bombs.
has to burst.
Pvth, `Phth boil, bloom Pvthfnh, `Phthfnh cause to bloom, boil, pierce
ahkhfS uhrh PvftfC/ phynth Pvytfw `qb/
The stars have come out I will boil the water.
in the sky.
`Prh return `Prhfnh cause to return
ahmrh khlfk yPrb/ dhk Svfn `mfwyt mvK `Prhl/
We will return tomorrow. The girl heard the call and turned
her face.
bsh sit bshfnh set, put on
`khUhw bsfl? uvym uhfk ybpfq bshÉC/
Where did you sit down? You are putting him in danger. 335
17 b£hkh get bent b£hkhfnh bend
Causative verbs rhÄhth `bS `b£fk xhfÉC/ uvym g¶pth b£hykfw bflC/
This is a winding road. You have twisted the story.
b£hQh bind, tie b£hQhfnh bind
\Thfn ekth b£hQh grß yCl/ biyt b£hyQfw `qowh Mfb/
There was a cow tied up The book will be bound.
in the courtyard.
bhzh ring, strike bhzhfnh play (instrument)
`Phnth `bfz \Tl/ `s ypwhfnh bhzhw/
The phone rang. He plays the piano.
bhRh increase bhRhfnh cause to increase
qhm afnk `bfR `gfC/ yuyn ahbhr BhRh bhRhfÉC/
The price has gone up a lot. He is increasing the rent again.
bvzh, `bhzh close bvzhfnh, `bhzhfnh cause to close
`chK uhr bvfz xhfÉC/ `chK `bhzhfnh as®b yCl/
His eyes are falling shut. He was unable to close his eyes.
`bhZh understand `bhZhfnh explain
ahym ykCv bvyZ nh/ `sth ùhmhfk `bhZhfu phrb nh/
I don’t understand anything. I can’t explain this to you.
Brh be filled Brhfnh fill up
pvkvr phynr Brh/ ahym ySySth Byrfw yqfwyC/
The pond is full of water. I have filled up the bottle.
BhWh get broken BhWhfnh break, destroy
chybth BhWh/ uvym eibhr ahbhr yk BhyWfw `qfb?
The key is broken. What will you break this time?
Bhbh think Bhbhfnh cause to think
yk ynfw BhbC? uhr kUh ahmhfk Kvb Bhbhl/
What are you thinking about? What he said made me think a lot.
mhnh obey, honour, admit mhnhfnh suit, befit
uhr kUh `mfn ynfu Mfb/ rLth ùhmhfk mhnhw nh/
He has to be obeyed. The colour doesn’t suit you.
lhgh be attached lhghfnh plant, employ
ph khqhr mfQj `lfg xhw/ ahmrh skhfl ghC lhygfwyC/
Our feet get stuck in the mud. We planted trees this morning.
`SKh learn `SKhfnh teach
uvym bhLlh ySKfu phrfb? \yn ahmhfk `SKhfÉCn/
336 Can you learn Bengali? He is teaching me.
`Shnh hear `Shnhfnh cause to hear Causative
ekth g¶p Svnfb? uvym yk ekth `Shnhfb? verbs in
Do you want to hear a story? Will you tell (me) one? context
`Shwh lie down `Shwhfnh cause to lie down

uvym Svfu xho/ ahym uhfk ybChnhw Svifw yqlhm/
Go to bed. I put her to bed.
srh move srhfnh cause to move, shift
ektv srfu phfrn? ahmhr bigvflh syrfw yqfwyC/
Can you move a bit? I have moved my books.
shzh get dressed up shzhfnh dress up, clean up
eu `sfzC `kn? smÄ Grth sv~qr kfr shyzfwfC/
Why are you so dressed up? She cleaned up the whole house beautifully.
shrh be finished, be corrected shrhfnh finish, correct, repair
khz `sfr `gfC/ eKhfn ahr shrhfnhr mu ykCv `ni/
The work is done. There is nothing to be salvaged here.
Mhrh be defeated in a game Mhrhfnh be displaced, lose
The relationship between Mhrh and Mhrhfnh is not a causative one.
Mhrh be defeated Mhrhfnh lose

eibhr ynŸcw `Mfr xhb/ ahym ektv Mhyrfw ygfwyC/
This time for sure I will be I got a bit lost.
defeated. ahym ahmhr Chyu MhyrfwyC/
I have lost my umbrella.
Mhsh laugh, smile Mhshfnh amuse
`s sb smw Mhfs/ `mfwyt sbhifk Mhshw/
She is always smiling. The girl makes everyone smile.
17.2 Causative verbs in context
`k\ xyq ahbhr `qKhfu bfln, `P£fs xhfb/

someone if again show-IP say-3H-PR-S hang-PP go-3-PR-S
If anyone else tells me to show (it), they are going to hang!
ektv pfri Mjhyrfkn záhfl agymnh/ uhrpr \nvn záhlhw, Bhu bshw/
a bit later EMP lamp light-3-PR-S Agamina then oven light-3-PR-S rice
put on-3-PR-S
A bit later Agamina lights the hurricane lamp. Then she stokes the oven and
puts the rice on. 337
17 ofk ynfw ygfw ahmhr ybChnhw Svifw yqlhm/
Causative verbs her-OBJ take-PP go-PP my bed-LOC lay down-PP give-1-P-S
I took her with me and put her in my bed.
mhfk `s mhfZ mhfZ rhghfu chiflo syuj yk ahr qvAK yqfu chw/
mother-OBJ he sometimes annoy-IP want-CP EMP true what more
sadness give-IP want-3-PR-S
Even though he wants to annoy mother at times, he really does not want to
upset her.
aylfk ekth ghCulhw q£hR kyrfw auYn `qKfu `gl anj `khno rßft #Ypth `p£HChfnh
xhw yknh/
Ali-OBJ one-CL tree base-LOC stand-do-PP Atin see-IP go-3-P-S other
any route-LOC island reach-VN go-3-PR-S or not
Atin left Ali standing under a tree and went to see whether the island could
be reached by another route.
note: q£hR krhfnh is a causative verb, `p£HChfnh is an extended verb.
338
Chapter 18
Compound verbs
Compound verbs are a very common and idiomatic type of verb formation
in Bangla. They consist of a main verb in the perfective participle and a
compound maker. Only a limited number of verbs can act as compound
makers. They are:
monovalent compound makers:
xhowh go ahsh come
clh move oTh rise, get up
pRh fall bsh sit
q£hRhfnh stand
bivalent or trivalent compound makers:
`qowh give `nowh take
`Plh throw ùhlh lift
rhKh keep
Compare: single verb `s ghC Ùfk pfRfC/
he tree from fall-3-PR-PERF with
compound verb `s ghC Ùfk pfR `gfC/
he tree from fall-PP go-3-PR-PERF
Both sentences mean He/she fell from the tree, but the second sentence
sounds more natural, more idiomatic, more complete, and adds, if anything,
the bump of the landing.
In many compound verbs the link between the two verbs is so close that
they form one semantic unit:
`tînth Ùfm `gfC/

train-CL stop-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The train has stopped. 339
18 The effect of the compound maker on the main verb (the perfective par-
Compound ticiple) varies considerably. Sometimes the compound maker loses its own
verbs meanings altogether, sometimes it adds an aspectual or intensifying element
and sometimes it changes the meaning of the main verb. The impact of
the compound maker on the main verb varies not just from verb to verb
but also from instance to instance. This makes it particularly important
to know what distinguishes compound verbs from verbal sequences (see
Ch. 22.5) such as ahym bhÉchthfk `qfK efsyC/ I’ve been to see the baby.
Compound verbs have at least one of the following features:
(a) The compound maker loses its own meaning.
ahym Bvfl ygfwyC/ I have forgotten.

(b) The compound maker adds an aspective or intensifying component to
the main verb.
ahym ùhmhfk `qfK `PflyC/ I have (already) seen you.

ahmrh `Chtfblh Ùfk `sth `zfn ahsyC/ We have known this since our childhood.
(c) The connection between main verb and compound maker is so strong
that in negative structures the negation applies to the main verb only.1
`s ùhmhfk ynfw xhfb nh/ He will not take you with him (when he goes).
(d) The compound verb has a meaning which is quite different from that
of the main verb.2
`s uhr Bhifk `mfr `PflfC/ He killed his brother.

Compound verbs are distinct from verbal sequences (see Ch. 22.5) but in some
cases the same verb combination can be either a compound verb or a verbal
sequence. A comparison of these structures is given in Ch. 23 from p. 422ff.
The connection between the two verbs that make up a compound verb
does not change when the compound maker is in non-finite form: If we
1 This is discussed in Ch. 33.8, negation.

2 The following traditional assumptions for compound verbs have been rejected:
(a) that the compound maker has to be in finite verb form. Counter-example:
sbyzgvfl `Pfl yqfu Mfl . . . If the vegetables have to be thrown away . . .
(b) that the two verb forms cannot be separated. Counter-example:
`Pft `s ekyqn pRfbi/ One day he will explode.
(c) that the compound maker has to follow the main verb. Counter-example:
340 mhZKhfn qvfth bCr `gfC `kft/ In the meantime two years passed.
compare ahym cfl xhb I will go away with ahmhfk cfl `xfu Mfb I will have to xhowh go
go away or ahym cfl `gfl when I go away we see that the connection between
the two verbs is very stable.
An overview of common compound verbs is given in Appendix 5.
Here are the compound makers one-by-one. Only a few examples can be
given for each one.
18.1 xhowh go
xhowh is the most common and the most versatile compound maker in
Bangla. Its semantic impact on the perfective participle ranges from adding
direction, finality, completion to no impact at all. The combinations with
xhowh given below are examples, not a complete list.
xhowh combines with:
1 verbs of motion. xhowh retains its own meaning and directs the movement
away from the speaker.
cfl xhowh go away, leave
eKhn Ùfk cfl xhn/
here from cfl xhowh (CV)-2H-PR-IMP
Go away from here.
bvl v smwfk cfl `xfu `qfK/
Bulu time-OBJ cfl xhowh (CV)-IP see-3-PR-S
Bulu watches the time go by.
Occasionally we find cfl xhowh with the meaning work out, go well, run
its course
uvym ahmhr phfS Uhkfl ahmhr `khno qvAK `ni/ mfn Mw zYbnth cfli xhfb/
you I-GEN side-LOC stay-CP I-GEN any regret [is absent].
mind-LOC be-3-PR-S life-CL cfl xhowh (CV)-3-FUT
I have no regrets when you are by my side. I think that life will go well.
oiKhnhfui ahmhr cfl xhfb/
that-CL-LOC-EMP I-GEN cfl xhowh (CV)-3-FUT
That one will do for me.
Gvfr xhowh wander about, travel
orh shrh péyUbYfu Gvfr xhfÉC/
they whole world-LOC Gvfr xhowh (CV)-3-PR-C
They are travelling around the whole world. 341
18 yPfr xhowh go back, return
Compound
verbs
ybkhflr ahfg bhyR yPfr `xfu phrb nh/
afternoon-GEN before home yPfr xhowh (CV)-IP be able
to-1-FUT not
I won’t be able to return home before this afternoon.
phylfw xhowh flee, run away

orh `Bhrfblhw phylfw ygfwfC/
they dawn hour-LOC phylfw xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
They fled at dawn.
`M£ft xhowh go walking, walk

o —yuyqn yun mhil `M£ft xhw/
he every day three mile `M£ft xhowh (CV)-3-PR-S
He walks for three miles every day.
`byRfw xhowh go visiting
mhysmh ybkhfl `byRfw xhn/
Aunt afternoon-LOC `byRfw xhowh (CV)-3H-PR-S
Aunt goes out visiting in the afternoon.
`qHyRfw xhowh run

mhfT `Cflrh uhfqr GvyR ynfw `qHyRfw xhfÉC/
field-LOC boy-PL-CL their kite with `qHyRfw xhowh (CV)-3-PR-C
The boys are running around the field with their kites.
\fR xhowh fly away

phyKth \fR `xfu phfr nh ahr/
bird-CL \fR xhowh (CV)-IP be able to-3-PR-S not
The bird can’t fly any more.
`Bfs xhowh float

`nHkhyt nqYr mhZKhfn `Bfs xhfÉC/
boat-CL river-GEN middle-LOC `Bfs xhowh (CV)-3-PR-C
The boat is floating in the middle of the river.
`nfm xhowh get down, descend (also change of state)
shmfnr `ãtSfn `nfm `xfu Mfb/
in front of-GEN station-LOC `nfm xhowh (CV)-IP be-3-FUT
342 We have to get off in front of the station.
\fT xhowh rise, come up (also change of state) xhowh go
`s ekulh Ùfk p£hculh pxò™ \fT `gfC/
he first floor from fifth floor until \fT xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
He has come up from the first floor to the fifth floor.
2 verbs which describe a change of state. In these compounds xhowh can
add a note of completion but often it does nothing more than improve
the rhythmical flow of the sentence.
Mfw xhowh finish, happen, occur

run abhk Mfw `gl/
Roton astonishment Mfw xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
Roton was astonished.
sûbhi BVu Mfw `gfC/
everyone ghost Mfw xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
Everyone has turned into a ghost.
uh Mfl sb `SX Mfw xhwyn/
that be-CP all end Mfw xhowh (CV)-not-3-PR-PERF
In that case it wasn’t all over yet.
efs xhowh arrive
o `khn smw efs `gfC?
he which time efs xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
What time did he arrive?
There is an idiomatic structure efs xhw denoting indifference. This is
discussed in Ch. 37.1.
mfr xhowh die

mfr `gflo ahym bhLlh Cyb `qKb nh/
mfr xhowh (CV)-CP CONC EMP I Bangla film see-1-FUT not
lit: Even if I die, I won’t see a Bangla film.
Under no circumstances will I go to see a Bangla film.
\fT xhowh come off, get up, be dissolved, be closed down, fade
phynfu yBzhfl qhgth \fT xhfb/
water-LOC soak-CP stain-CL \fT xhowh (CV)-FUT
If you soak it in water the stain will come off.
343
18 Ùfm xhowh come to a stop
Compound
MThJ uhr kUhr Qhrh Ùfm `gl/
verbs
suddenly his word-GEN flow Ùfm xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
Suddenly, in mid flow, he stopped talking.
`pyrfw xhowh pass, go by
ahro p£hc bCr `pyrfw `gl/
more five year `pyrfw xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
Another five years passed.
bfs xhowh go down, subside
nqYr phyn bfs `gfC/
river-GEN water bfs xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
The water in the river has subsided.
\fb xhowh evaporate, vanish
mhfCr gí eKno \fb xhwyn/
fish-GEN smell yet \fb xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF not
The smell of fish still hasn’t gone.
Gft xhowh happen, occur
`s mvMVfuò Gtnhth Gft `gl/
that moment incident Gft xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
The incident happened at that moment.
\lft xhowh be turned upside down
MThJ uhr sb ahShgvflh \lft xhfÉC/
suddenly she-GEN all hope-PL-CL \lft xhowh (CV)-3-PR-C
Suddenly all her hopes were being turned upside down.
kfm xhowh decrease, come down

uhr Sy∆ ahro kfm `gfl uhr sfÃ ekznfk Uhkfu Mfb/
he-GEN strength more kfm xhowh (CV)-CP he-GEN with one
person-OBJ stay-IP be-3-FUT
If his strength decreases any more, someone will have to stay with him.
pfR xhowh fall down, decrease, descend

`Cht bhÉchrh ùh sb smw pfR xhw/
small child-NOM-PL EMP always pfr xhowh (CV)-3-PR-S
344 Small children fall over all the time.
shrh `ãtSfn Mici pfR `gl/ xhowh go
whole station-LOC chaos pfR xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
The whole station erupted into chaos.
`bfR xhowh increase, go up
chl-dhflr qhm ykCvth `bfR xhfb/

rice-lentil-GEN price some-CL `bfR xhowh (CV)-3-FUT
The price of rice and lentils will go up a bit.
`BfÃ xhowh get broken
Uhlhth `BfÃ `gfC/

plate-CL `BfÃ xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
The plate got broken.
`kft xhowh be cut, be cut off
kUh blhr mhZKhfn lhinth `kft `gl/

word say-GEN middle-LOC line-CL `kft xhowh (CV)-3-P-S
In the middle of talking the line was cut.
Svykfw xhowh dry, wither, age
mhfwr `cMhrh afnkth Svykfw `gfC/

mother-GEN appearance much-CL Svykfw xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
Mother has aged a lot.
Kfs xhowh come off, become detached

`qowhl Ùfk cvnbhyl Kfs xhfÉC/
wall from plaster Kfs xhowh (CV)-3-PR-C
The plaster is coming off the wall.
yC£fR xhowh get torn
ùhmhr sv~qr nuvn shtòth yk kfr yC£fR `gfC?

you-GEN beautiful new shirt what do-PP yC£fR xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
How did your beautiful new shirt get torn?
Kvfl xhowh open
qrzhth emyn Kvfl xhw nh/

door-CL by itself Kvfl xhowh (CV)-3-PR-S not
The door does not open by itself.
345
18 Mhyrfw xhowh get lost
Compound
ùhmhr Mhyrfw xhowh ybSáhs ahbhr Mwfuh K£vfz phowh xhfb/
verbs
you-GEN Mhyrfw xhowh (CV) faith again perhaps search-PP get-VN
go-3-FUT
Perhaps your lost faith can be found again.
`Mfr xhowh lose (a game, a competition, a war)
uhr sfÃ ahym sb smw `Mfr xhi/
he-GEN with I always `Mfr xhowh (CV)-1-PR-S
I always lose against him.
ymfS xhowh mix
Bhlbhsh, qvAK, `MlhfPlh sb ymfS `gfC/
love sorrow contempt all ymfS xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
Love, sorrow and contempt have all become mixed up.
pvfR xhowh get burnt
Bhuth pvfR `gfC - `kmyn?
rice-CL pvfR xhowh (CV)-3-PR-PERF how
How did the rice get burnt?
`rfg xhowh become angry
bhbh ahzkhl Kvb uhRhuhyR `rfg xhn/
father nowadays very quickly `rfg xhowh (CV)-3H-PR-S
These days father gets angry very quickly.
dvfb xhowh sink, drown
ahym khgfzr mfQj dvfb xhyÉC/
I paper-GEN within dvfb xhowh (CV)-1-PR-C
I am drowning in paper.
3 bivalent verbs. In these structures xhowh tends to provide nothing more
than an end point.
chylfw xhowh continue
eirkm kfr chylfw `gfl . . .
this way do-PP continue-PP go-CP
If you carry on this way . . .
ynfw xhowh take
péyUbY `CfR ahmrh ykCv ynfw `xfu phrb nh/
earth leave-PP something ynfw xhowh-IP be able to-1-FUT not
346 When we leave this earth we won’t be able to take anything with us.
`pfw xhowh get, receive, find ahsh come
`qKfbn khlprSv ycyT `pfw xhfbn/
see-2H-FUT tomorrow, day after tomorrow letter `pfw
xhowh-2H-FUT
You will see, tomorrow or the day after you will get a letter.
`Pfl xhowh abandon, throw away
erpr u£hr ã«Yfk `Pfl `xfu ysºh™ ynfln/
this-GEN after he-H-GEN wife-OBJ `Pfl xhowh-IP decision
take-3-P-S
After that he decided to leave his wife.
eyRfw xhowh avoid
`shmnhU —Säth eyRfw xhw/
Somnath question-CL avoid-PP go-3-PR-S
Somnath avoids the question.
Bvfl xhowh forget
qS bCr klkhuhw khytfw uvym ahmhfqr `Phn nhôbhr Bvfl xhoyn/
ten year Kolkata-LOC spend-IP you our phone number Bvfl
xhowh-2-PR-PERF not
Even after spending ten years in Kolkata you haven’t forgotten our
phone number.
bvfZ xhowh understand
`s bvfZ `gfC klkhuh SMfr uhr ñhn `ni/
he bvfZ xhowh-3-PR-PERF Kolkata town-LOC his place [is absent]
He came to understand that there was no place for him in Kolkata.
An outline of Ùfk xhowh remain is given in Ch. 23.10.
18.2 ahsh come
Like xhowh, ahsh can indicate direction, this time towards the speaker. ahsh often
implies a continuous process or state from the distant past to the present.
1 with verbs of motion and changes of state:

yPfr ahsh return
sbhi yPfr efsfC/
everyone yPfr ahsh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
Everyone has returned. 347
18 cfl ahsh arrive
Compound
verbs
uhrh eimh« cfl efsfC/
they this only cfl ahsh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
They have only just arrived.
Mfw ahsh become, turn

uhr SrYr eKn `rhgh Mfw ahsfC/
he-GEN body now thin Mfw ahsh (CV)-3-PR-C
His body is becoming emaciated now.
euÇN smw —hw `pHfn p£hcth Mfw el/

by now time almost quarter to five Mfw ahsh (CV)-3-P-S
By now it was almost quarter to five.
kfm ahsh reduce, Svykfw ahsh dry up, age mfr ahsh die down, ahtfk ahsh stop,
`nfm ahsh drop
ahmhr `xn qm ahtfk eflh
I-GEN as if breath ahtfk ahsh- (CV)-3-P-S
as if my breath had stopped
uhr `cMhrhth afnkKhyn Svykfw efsfC/

appearance-CL much-CL Svykfw ahsh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
His face has aged a lot.
uhfqr sfÃ `xhghfxhg sô—yu kfm efsfC/

they-GEN with contact recently kfm ahsh (CV)-3-PR-PERF
Recently the contact with them has become less.
ybfkflr ahflh mfr ahsfC/

afternoon-GEN light mfr ahsh-3-PR-C
The afternoon light is dying down.
ghflr ynfc khfnr qvphS Ùfk ycbvk pxò™ `shzh `nfm ahsh `khnhkvyn lôbh `x
MhR qvfth rfwfC/
cheek-GEN underneath ear-GEN two side from chin until straight
`nfm ahsh (CV)-VA diagonal long that bone two-CL stay-3-PR-PERF
Those two long bones below the cheeks run from both sides of the ears
to the chin in a straight diagonal drop.
2 with bivalent verbs, indicating a process or action which has been going
on for some time. ahsh is often in the present continuous tense and has
a continuous or habitual impact on the main verb. There is no particularly
348 close connection between the verbs themselves and it is likely that most
bivalent verbs can be combined with ahsh in this way. This is reflected clh move
in the gloss.
ei bhghngvflh ahym `Chtfblh Ùfk Bhlfbfs ahsyC/
this garden-CL-PL I childhood from love-PP come-1-PR-C
I have loved these gardens since my childhood.
afnk bCr Qfr \yn ei eki Kbfrr khgz pfR ahsfCn/
many year during he-H this same newspaper read-PP come-3-H-PR-C
He has been reading the same newspaper for years.
Here is a present perfect example:
`s BhXhfk ahym ynuh™ ahmhr ynfzr `mHylk BhXh bfl afnkyqn `Bfb efsyC/
that language-OBJ I thoroughly my own original language say-PP
many day think-PP come-1-PR-PERF
For a long time I have considered this language my very own, original
language.
18.3 clh move
clh as a compound maker can combine, much like xhowh and ahsh, with
verbs of motion. When it is combined with bivalent verbs it adds a con-
tinuous, on-going aspect to the main verb.
1 with verbs of motion or change.
yPfr clh return, Gvfr clh walk around, `M£ft clh walk, `qHyRfw clh run, eygfw
clh advance
ahmrh nqYr yqfk `M£ft cllhm/
we river-GEN direction-LOC walk-PP clh-1-P-S
We walked towards the river.
ùhmhr BybXfujr yqfk eygfw clfu Ùfkh/
you-GEN future-GEN towards advance-PP clh-IP stay-2-FUT-IMP
Keep moving towards your future.
`Cflrh mhfTr mfQj `qHyRfw clfC/
boy-PL field-GEN in run-PP clh-3-PR-C
The boys are running around in the field.
bws xu Mk, ektv Gvfr clfu Mw —yuyqn/
age so much be-3-IMP some walk around-PP clh-IP be-3-PR-S
every day
Whatever one’s age, one needs to walk around a bit every day. 349
18 2 with bivalent verbs clh retains its own meaning and adds a note of
Compound continuity to the main verb.
verbs
`s sb smw ei eki kUh bfl cfl/
he always this same word say-PP clh-3-PR-S
He is always saying the same thing.
uhr ahfqS `mfn clfu Mfb/
he-GEN order obey-PP clh-IP be-3-FUT
His order needs to be obeyed.
uhfqr sfÃ ùhmhr ektv bvfZ clh \ycu/
they-GEN with you-GEN a bit understand-PP clh-VN ought
lit: with them you ought to move having understood a bit
You ought to tread a bit carefully with them.
18.4 oTh rise, get up
oTh combines with verbs of sound and with verbs describing change.
1 with verbs that describe sounds oTh adds a slight component of sudden-
ness. oTh is often in the simple past.
kylL `bl `bfz \Tl/

calling bell ring-PP oTh-3-P-S
The bell rang.
`Cflyt `Mfs \Tl/
boy-CL laugh-PP oTh-3-P-S
The boy burst out laughing,
uhMfl kUhth bfl \Tfu phrfC nh `kn?
so word-CL say-PP oTh-IP be able to-3-PR-C not why
So why is he unable to say this?
2 With verbs denoting a gradual change oTh provides an endpoint and
sometimes implies a positive result or upward movement. Mfw oTh with a
preceding adjective means become, with a preceding noun occur, happen,
arise. Mfw oTh is the most common compound with oTh/
with adjectives:
ahfÄ ahfÄ `SX pxò™ sbi ãp§ Mfw \Tl/

slowly (×2) end until all EMP clear Mfw oTh-3P-S
350 Slowly, in the end, everything became clear.
`shmnhU \JshyMu Mfw \Tl/ oTh rise, get up
Somnath encouraged Mfw oTh-3-P-S
Somnath was encouraged.
qv-chr yqfnr mfQj Bhl Mfw \Tfb/

two four day-GEN within good Mfw oTh-3-FUT
He will get better within a few days.
ã«Yflhk sv~qr Mfw ofT `kbl ek khrfN/

woman beautiful Mfw oTh-3-PR-S only one reason-LOC
Women become beautiful for one reason only.
with nouns:
ãkvfl `bSY pRh Mfw ofTyn ghw«Yr/

school-LOC much learn-VN Mfw oTh-3-PR-PERF not Gaytri-GEN
Gaytri didn’t get much learning done at school.
ybfqyS BhXh ahmrh ekyt qviyt ySKfu phyr, yk≤ uh ahmhfqr —Bv Mfw \Tfb nh/
foreign language we one-CL two-CL learn-IP be able to-1-PR-S but
that our god Mfw oTh-3-FUT not
We can learn one or two foreign languages but they won’t become
our gods.
with verbs other than Mowh
`si gNkbr yGfr ahpn mfn `bfR \fTyCl kfwkth `Kzvfrr ghC/
that EMP grave surround-PP own mind-LOC grow-PP oTh-3-P-PERF
few-CL date-GEN tree
Around that grave a few date-palms grew up all by themselves.
uhr bvfkr `Burth `k£fp \Tl Zh\phuhr mu/

he-GEN breast-GEN inside-CL shiver-PP oTh-3-P-S tamarisk
leaf-GEN like
His heart trembled like the leaf of a tamarisk tree.
egvflh sb MThJ kfr ahzi yk eksfÃ Pvft \Tl?

this-PL-CL all suddenly do-PP today EMP what together bloom
oTh-3-P-S
Did all of these together suddenly burst into bloom today?
eKn `xn `s uhr Mubvyº Bhb khytfw \Tfu phrfC/

now as if he he-GEN confounded way cut-PP oTh-IP be able
to-3-PR-C
At least now he could get over his shock. 351
18
18.5 pRh fall
Compound
verbs
pRh as a compound maker is the downward counterpart of oTh. It can add
suddenness, downward motion, negative effect or just an endpoint. It com-
bines with verbs of motion or with verbs of change. pRh does not combine
with bivalent verbs.
with verbs of motion:
khfzi `byrfw pRfln py´kh `qfK/

so EMP go out-PP pRh-3H-P-S calendar see-PP
So, having looked at the calendar, he set off.
`byRfw pfRfCn nhyk?

go out-PP pRh-3H-PR-PERF not what
She has gone out, I assume?
mhnvX xyq nh Uhfk ùh `x `khfnh mvMVfuò efs pRfu phfr/

person if not stay-3-PR-S EMP that any moment-LOC come-PP pRh-IP
be able to-3-PR-S
Even if no-one is there, someone can turn up at any minute.
with verbs of change:
Khowh `SX kfr \fT pfR bfl, eKn ùhmhr smw ahfC?
Food end do-3-PP get up PP pRh-PP say-3-PR-S now your time
[is present]
Finishing his meal he got up and said, ‘Do you have time now?’
uhr shyMujkmò ynfw ahflhcnh krh rYyumu kyTn Mfw pfR/

she-GEN literature work about discussion do-VN downright difficult
be-PP pRh-3-PR-S
To discuss her literary work becomes downright difficult.
`s khêhw `BfW pRl/

he weeping-LOC break-PP pRh-3-P-S
He broke down weeping.
ZfR ghCgvflh `BfW pfRfC/

storm-LOC tree-PL-CL break-PP pRh-3-PR-PERF
The trees got broken in the storm.
`bS `bshmhl Mfw pfRyCl alkh/

quite uncontrolled be-PP pRh-3-P-PERF Olka
352 Olka became quite erratic.
mfnr Bhbfk `cfp rhKfb `k? Mhsfu `Mhk, khêhw `Mhk, `Pft `s ekyqn pRfbi/ pRh fall
mind-GEN mood-OBJ suppress-PP keep-3-FUT who? laugh-IP
be-3-IMP, weeping-LOC be-3-IMP burst-PP he one day pRh-3-FUT
EMP
Who can suppress what is in their heart? We may laugh, we may cry,
but one day we are sure to explode.
18.6 bsh sit
bsh as a compound maker is not as frequent as either pRh or oTh. It shares

with them the semantic component of an endpoint and combines mainly
with bivalent verbs. Compounds with bsh usually have a negative now look
what you have done! component.
uvym xh kfr bfsC uh sMfz `ShQrhfnh xhfb nh/

you what-REL do-PP bsh-2-PR-PERF that easily rectify go-3-FUT not
What you have done cannot easily be rectified.
`s `kn MThJ eiBhfb `zTmhylynr ybrßfº ybfqîhM kfr bsl uh `s `Bfb \Tfu phrfC
nh/
he why suddenly this way-LOC Jethomalini-GEN against rebellion
do-PP bsh-3-P-S that he think-PP rise-IP be able to-3-PR-C not
He couldn’t understand why he would suddenly rebel against Jethomalini
in this way.
`k zhfn `s ahro yk BwhbM kfr bfsfC?

who know-3-PR-S more EMP what dreadful do-PP bsh-3-PR-PERF
Who knows what other dreadful things she has done?
18.7 q£hRhfnh stand
q£hRhfnh combines with Mowh and with oTh only. It provides an end-point or a
result. The two compound makers oTh and q£hRhfnh in the following sentence
express the same nuance.
mhnvfXr M∑qw mhfZ mhfZ `kmn ynÄbÜ Mfw ofT - bR yngvƒ Mfw q£hRhw/
man-GEN heart sometimes how still Mfw oTh-3-PR-S big secret be-PP
q£hRhfnh-3-PR-S
The human heart sometimes grows so still – becomes very mysterious. 353
18 ahfrkyt ybXfwr yqfk qéy§ nh yqfl mhMmvqvl Mkfk `bhZh kyTn Mfw q£hRhfb/
Compound more one-CL subject-GEN towards view not give-CP Mahomudul
verbs Haq-OBJ understand-VN difficult be-PP q£hRhfnh-3-FUT
There is another matter that needs looking at. Otherwise it will be difficult
to understand Mahomudul Haq.
ynfzo kKno \fT q£hRhfu phrl nh/
self EMP ever rise-PP q£hRhfnh-IP be able to-3-P-S
He was never able to stand up for himself.
cplh \fT q£hRhl/
Chapla rise-PP q£hRhflh-3-P-S
Chapla got up.
18.8 `qowh give
`qowh has either an intensifying effect or it directs the action away from the
speaker. As a bivalent verb, it is particularly suited to acting as a compound
maker with causative verbs.
ofk qVr kfr qho/ ofk bhyR Ùfk ybqhw kfr qho/
he-OBJ distance do-PP `qowh-2-PR-IMP he-OBJ home from farewell
do-PP `qowh-2-PR-IMP
Send him away! Get rid of him from our house.
uhr bhbh Kbrth `cfp yqfwfCn/
he-GEN father news-CL suppress-PP `qowh-3H-PR-PERF
Her father had kept the news from her.
ahmhr `chfKr shmfn Kvfl yqfln/
I-GEN eye-GEN in front of open-PP `qowh-3H-P-S
He opened it in front of me.
uvym ahmhfk ekth ShyR ykfn `qfb?
you I-OBJ one-CL saree buy-PP `qowh-2FUT
Will you buy me a saree?
`s uhfk bhyR Ùfk qVr kfr `qw nh/
she she-OBJ home from distance do-PP `qowh-3-PR-S not
She didn’t kick her out of the house.
bhlyur phyn `Dfl `qw mnyzlhr mhUhw/
bucket-GEN water pour-PP `qowh-3-PR-S Manjila-GEN head-LOC
354 She poured the bucket of water over Manjila’s head.
with causative verbs: `nowh take
bhbh bhÉchthfk ghfCr dhfl \yTfw yqfwfCn/
father child-CL-OBJ tree-GEN branch-LOC lift-PP `qowh-3H-PR-PERF
Father lifted the child up onto the tree branch.
ùhmhfk yk sb ykCv ahlhqh kfr bvyZfw yqfu Mfb?
you-OBJ what all something separate do-PP explain-PP `qowh-IP
be-3-FUT
Does everything have to be explained to you separately?
uh yuyn rbY~qînhUfk zhynfw yqfwfCn/
that he-H Rabindranath-OBJ inform `qowh-3H-PR-PERF
He informed Rabindranath of this.
kUhth uhr phfwr ync Ùfk mhyt syrfw yqfwfC/
word-CL his foot-GEN below from ground move-PP `qowh-3-PR-PERF
That pulled the rug out from under him.
ei béy§fu khpR-`chpR Svykfw qho yk kfr?
this rain-LOC clothes dry-PP `qowh-P-S what do-PP
How do you dry the clothes in this rain?
18.9 `nowh take
Like `qowh give `nowh combines predominantly with bivalent verbs. It indicates
the completion of an action and directs it towards the speaker.
Compare: with `qowh: ahym ch bhynfw yqfwyC/ I have made the tea
(for someone else)
with `nowh: ahym ch bhynfw ynfwyC/ I have made the tea
(for myself)
with `qowh: ahym uh bvyZfw yqlhm/ I explained this.

with `nowh: ahym uh bvfZ ynlhm/ I understood this.
with `qowh: ahym uhfk ySyKfw `qb/ I will teach him.

with `nowh: ahym ySfK `nb/ I will learn.
Qfr `nowh xhk . . . Let us assume . . .

sb bvfZ ynfu Mfb/ Everything needs to be understood.
∏uyr Mfw `n! Get ready!
`ghsl kfr nho/ Have a wash!
Bhu `Kfw nho/ Eat first! 355
18 afcnhfk ycfn `nowhr mfQjo ùh ahyb©khfrr ahn~q ahfC/
Compound unknown-OBJ know-PP `nowh-VN-GEN within EMP discovery-GEN joy
verbs [is present]
To get to know the unknown surely has the joy of discovery in it, doesn’t it?
inhfmr kUh Svfni yqbhkr ahsl bjhphrth bvfZ ynfwfC/
Inam-GEN word hear-PP Dibakor true matter-CL understand-PP
`nowh-3-PR-PERF
Listening to Inam, Dibakor got to understand the real situation.
18.10 `Plh throw
`Plh is, in many ways, the most developed of all the compound makers.
As the examples below show, compound verbs with `Plh can be used in
the future tense and in imperatives; the semantic scope of `Plh ranges from
changing the meaning of the main verb entirely to adding a completive
aspect or having no impact at all. `Plh combines predominantly with bivalent
verbs but there are also the idiomatic `k£fq `Plh burst into tears and `Mfs
`Plh burst out laughing.
uhrh ùhfk `qKfl ycfn `Plfu phfr/
they you-I-OBJ see-CP know-PP `Plh-IP be able to-3-PR-S
If they see you they may recognise you.
ahbhr ahshm uhfk ygfl `Pll/
again Assam he-OBJ swallow-PP `Plh-3-P-S
Assam swallowed him up again.
q£hRho mhmyN ahmhfqr khzgvflh ahfg `sfr `Pyl/
stand-2-PR-IMP Mamoni our work-PL-CL before finish-PP `Plh-PR-S
Wait, Mamoni, let us finish our work first.
uhr ahuÖhr ekth aLS `s Mhyrfw `PflfC/
his soul-GEN one-CL part he lose-PP `Plh-3-PR-PERF
He has lost a part of his soul.
ch `Kfw sähn kfr `Plvn/
tea drink-PP bath do-PP `Plh-2H-PR-IMP
When you’ve had your tea, take a shower.
uhr Bw MyÉCl …huYflKh emn ykCv bfl `Plfb xh uhr `Shnh \ycu nw/
he-GEN fear be-3-P-C Swatilekha such something say-PP `Plh-3-FUT
what-REL hear-VN ought [is not]
He was afraid that Swatilekha might blurt out something that he ought not
356 to hear.
ghCth yk `kft `Plh Mfb? ùhlh lift, raise
tree-CL what cut-PP throw-VN be-3-FUT
Will the tree be cut?
ahym ùh syuj ùhmhfk Bhlfbfs `PflyC/

I EMP true you-OBJ love-PP `Plh-1-PR-PERF
But I have really come to love you.
Zt kfr yuyn xh kfr `Plfu nh phfrn, uh u£hr krhi Mu nh/

quickly do-PP he-H that-REL do-PP `Plh-IP not be able to-3-PR-S that
he-H-GEN do-VN EMP be-3-P-HABIT not
What he couldn’t get done quickly wouldn’t get done at all.
18.11 ùhlh lift, raise
ùhlh is the bivalent counterpart of oTh. Like oTh it often implies an upward
motion or improvement. ùhlh only combines with bivalent verbs.
bhLlh shyMujfk rYyumu ahQvynk kfr uvflyCln by¬mc~qî/

Bangla literature-OBJ properly modern do-PP ùhlh-3-P-PERF
Bankimchandra
Bankimchandra made Bangla literature properly modern.
orh kéy«m gqj bhynfw uvflfCn/

they artificial prose make-PP ùhlh-3H-PR-PERF
They produced an artificial prose.
esb pRhr mfQj `s ynfz ekth ycnfu phrhr Çmuh zhygfw uvflfC/
this all read-VN-GEN within he self one-CL recognise-IP be able
to-VN-GEN power wake-PP ùhlh-3-PR-PERF
Through all this reading he awakened his own powers of recognition.
smsjhgvflhfk bhyRfw ùhlhr uhr `Z£hk ahfC/

problem-PL-CL-OBJ increase-PP ùhlh-VN-GEN inclination [is present]
He has a tendency to exaggerate the problems.
18.12 rhKh keep
rhKh can only marginally be considered a compound maker as it often retains

at least some of its own meaning. It is for combinations like `zfn rhKh
remember, take note of that it is included here. 357
18 bjhphrth `cfp rhKh s®b Mwyn/
Compound matter-CL suppress-PP rhKh-VN possible not be-3-PR-PERF
verbs It was not possible to keep the matter under wraps.
`xn `shnhyl `bu yqfw mhqvr `k bvfn `rfKfC/
as if golden cane with mat who weave-PP rhKh-3-PR-PERF
As if someone had woven a mat with golden cane.
eth `zfn `rfKh/
this-CL know-PP rhKh-2-FUT-IMP
Remember this!
u£hr g¶pgvflh ylfK rhKh \ycu yCl/
he-GEN story-PL-CL write-PP rhKh-VN ought [was]
His stories ought to have been written down.
`s uhr mfnr kUh lvykfw rhfK/
he he-GEN mind-GEN word hide-PP rhKh-3-PR-S
He hides his feelings.
bhifr xhowhr rhÄhw `s ahmhfk ahtykfw rhKl/
outside go-VN-GEN road-LOC he I-OBJ stop-PP rhKh-3-P-S
He stopped me as I was on my way out.
`bS ùh! kUhth bfl rhKh MfwfC/
quite EMP word-CL say-PP rhKh-VN be-3-PR-PERF
Good! That’s been said.
18.13 Same sense compounds
Apart from these regular compound makers, some verbs form compound-
like combinations with semantically related verbs. Here are some examples:
`cfw `qKh, uhykfw `qKh, `cfw uhkhfnh to look at
chowh look at, `qKh see and uhkhfnh look at combine with one another.
There is no fixed order but `qKh see is less likely than the other two to
appear as the first (perfective participle) verb.
run uhykfw `qKl ahkhfS ahz afnk uhrh PvftfC/

Roton look-PP see-3-P-S sky-GEN today many star appear-3-PR-PERF
Roton looked and saw that many stars had appeared today.
uhr `chfKr yqfk uhykfw `qKlhm . . .
he-GEN eye-GEN towards look-PP see-1-P-S
358 I looked into his eyes and saw . . .
Gvfr `bRhfnh wander around aimlessly Shortened
participles
from `Ghrh move around and `bRhfnh visit, go out in this order
uvym shrhyqn `khn zhwghw Gvfr `bRho?
you all day which place-LOC
Where do you wander around all day?
zyRfw Qrh embrace
from zRhfnh hug, embrace and Qrh hold in this order
`s ynShfk zyRfw Qfr bll . . .
he Nisha-OBJ zyRfw Qrh-PP say-3-P-S
He took Nisha into his arms and said . . .
K£vfz phowh find
from `K£hzh search and phowh get, receive in this order
In many ways this is by rights a verbal sequence having searched, find but
the combination is so common that it deserves at least a mention.
kéu“uhr BhXh K£vfz phw nh/

gratitude-GEN language K£vfz phowh-3-PR-S not
He couldn’t find the words to express his gratitude.
bith K£vfz phiyn/
book-CL not K£vfz phowh-1-PR-PERF
I haven’t found the book.
18.14 Shortened participles
The perfective participles of some extended verbs (causative or non-

causative) can be shortened in compound verbs. This is not an automatic
process but occurs when there is no scope for confusion.
uhi afnk kf§ ynfzfk shmfl ynlhm/

so much effort-LOC self-OBJ restrain-PP `nowh-1-P-S
So with a lot of effort I got a grip on myself.
uhfk `qfK ahym Umfk `glhm/
he-OBJ see-PP I startle-PP go-1-P-S
I was startled to see him.
mhUh cvlfk bll . . .
Scratching his head, he said . . . 359
18 ahym zflr ySySth Bfr yqfwyC/
Compound I water-GEN bottle-CL fill-PP give-1-PR-PERF
verbs I filled up the water bottle.
mvfK Mhu chph yqfw dvkfr `k£fq \Tl/
face hand cover-give-PP wail-PP cry-PP rise-3-P-S
She covered her face with her hands and burst out crying.
shifklth uvymi `BfW `PflC/
bicycle-CL you EMP break-PP throw-2-PR-PERF
You have broken the bicycle.
`Cflyt `qHfR efsfC/
boy run-PP come-3-PR-PERF
The boy came running.
`s ahmhfk —hw `qR G∂th ahtfk `rfKfC/
he I-ObJ almost one and a half hour block-PP keep-3-PR-PERF
He held me up by almost one and a half hours.
MThJ ymnh `Phn-lhinth `kft yql/
suddenly Mina phoneline-CL cut-PP gove-3-P-S
Suddenly Mina put the phone down.
`k\ MThJ Zlfs ofT ahmhfqr qéy§r shmfn/
someone suddenly dazzle-PP rise-3-PR-S our view-GEN before
Suddenly someone rises up dazzlingly in front of our eyes.
Combinations of perfective participles with Uhkh stay and ahC- be, be present
will be dealt with in the chapter on aspect (Ch. 32).
360
Chapter 19
Conjunct verbs
Conjunct verbs are an open-ended group of noun–verb or adjective–verb

combinations. A limited number of common, high-frequency verbs particip-
ate in these combinations, above all the verb krh do. We restrict the term
conjunct verb to combinations where the link between noun/adjective
and verb is very close and results in one semantic concept. The combination
\pMhr and `qowh give a present, for instance, is not considered a conjunct
verb because there is an actual process of giving involved whereas prYÇh
`qowh take an exam is considered to be a conjunct verb. The dividing line
between conjunct verbs and verbs with direct objects is not very clearly
drawn. There is, however, one feature which distinguishes conjunct verbs
grammatically as well as semantically from verbs with direct objects.
The conjunct verbs in the following few examples are preceded by genitive
modifiers where we may have expected to see object case or postpositional
structures. If we look at the first example:
apNòh bR MfwfC, uhr ybfw yqfu Mfb/

Aparna big be-3-PR-PERF she-GEN wedding-give-IP be-3-FUT
Aparna has grown up. Her wedding has to be arranged.
we understand that this is not about giving the girl, not `mfwytfk yqfu Mfb
but that ybfw `qowh means arrange a wedding and the preceding genitive is
quite logical. Here are some more examples.
o afnk yqn Qfr chkyrr `c§h krfC/

he many day during job-GEN attempt-do-3-PR-S
He has been trying for a job for a long time.
ahmrh ùhmhr `K£hz kryC/

we you-GEN search-do-1-PR-C
We have been looking for you. 361
19 afnk ycyTr \≠r yqfu Mfb/
Conjunct verbs much letter-GEN reply-give-IP be-3-FUT
Many letters have to be answered.
ahpnhrh ahmhr afnk \pkhr krfln/

you-H-PL I-GEN much favour-do-2H-P-S
You did me a big favour.
We call this type of verb open-ended because all new verbal creations in
Bangla are likely to be conjunct verbs. People who pepper their Bangla with
English words use this structure: ymt krh meet, ydskhs krh discuss, ydylt krh
delete, yPl krh feel, p†jhn krh plan, etc.
The conjugation of these verbs is exactly the same as that of the simple
verbs. In the glosses conjunct verbs are marked with a hyphen between the
noun/adjective and the verb, e.g.
`mfwyt ycJkhr krfu lhgl/

girl-CL shout-do-IP start-3-P-S
The girl started shouting.
\yn nuvn ekrkm `pnysl ahyb©khr kfrfCn/

he-H new one kind pencil invent-do-3H-PR-PERF
He has invented a new kind of pencil.
orh ahmhfqr ynmìN krl/

they we-GEN invitation-do-3-P-S
They invited us.
The following are simple examples with very common conjunct verbs in
addition to those mentioned above. An extensive list is given in Appendix 6.
No glosses are given.
19.1 Conjunct verbs examples
with krh do
anjhw krh do wrong

`s `khno anjhw kfryn/ He didn’t do anything wrong.
anvfrhQ krh request, entreat

362 ahym uhfk ahsfu anvfrhQ krlhm/ I entreated him to come.
apmhn krh offend Conjunct verbs
examples
yk bfl uhfk apmhn krfl? What did you say to offend him?
a…Ykhr krh deny
`s `x Bhl mhnvX ahym a…Ykhr I don’t deny that he is a good man.
kyr nh/
ahœmN krh attack
o ahmhfk akhrfN ahœmN kfrfC/ He attacked me for no reason.
ahqr krh love
mh ahqr kfr uhr bhÉchr yqfk The mother was looking at her child
uhkhyÉCl/ lovingly.
ahpy≠ krh object
`s ykfsr ahpy≠ kfrfC? What is he objecting to?
ahr® krh start, begin
anv©Thnth `khn smw ahr® kfr `qfb/ When will you start the ceremony?
ahlhp krh introduce, talk
uhr sfÃ ahmhr ahlhp krh Mwyn/ I have not been introduced to him.
ahflhcnh krh discuss
eth ahflhcnh kfr `qKb/ We will discuss this first.
iuÄu krh hesitate
`lhkth iuÄu kfr kUh bll/ The man talked haltingly.
\ÉchrN pronounce
ei Sûqgvflh \ÉchrN krfu phyr nh/ I can’t pronounce these words.
k¶pnh krh imagine
`s afnk ykCv k¶pnh kfr/ He imagines all sorts of things.
Çyu krh harm
ei smfw béy§ afnk Çyu Rain at this time can do a lot of
krfu phfr/ harm.
Çmh krh forgive
emn bR aprhQ `k Çmh krfb? Who will forgive such a big
transgression? 363
19 `Kwhl krh notice, take notice
Conjunct verbs
`blh ku MfwfC ahmrh `Kwhl kyryn/ We didn’t notice how late it was.
g¶p krh chat

uhrh shrhyqn g¶p kfryCl/ They chatted all day long.
gî∞MN krh accept

ahym kKno uhr khC Ùfk `khno I have never accepted a present from
\pMhr gîMN kyryn/ him.
ycykJsh krh treat

emyn Bhl Mfw xhfb/ ycykJsh krfu It will get better by itself and does not
Mfb nh/ need to be treated.
yc™h krh think, worry

uvym yk yc™h krC? What are you thinking about?
uvym yk ynfw yc™h krC? What are you worrying about?
cvyr krh steal

`k\ ahmhr thkh cvyr kfrfC/ Someone has stolen my money.
yz“hsh krh ask

uhfk yz“hsh krfb nh/ Don’t ask him.
`zhr krh force

\yn ahmhfk `zhr kfr ynfw He brought me by force.
efsfCn/
yTk krh decide
ahym xhb nh yTk kfryC/ I have decided not to go.
ukò krh argue
uvym uhfqr bhfz ukò krfu Don’t teach them to have pointless
ySyKo nh/ arguments.
qvAK krh be sad, be upset

`si khrfN ùh mh qvAK krfCn/ That’s why mother is upset.
n§ krh spoil, ruin

364 `s ahmhr ahn~qth n§ kfrfC/ He ruined my pleasure.
nh krh forbid, deny, reject Conjunct verbs
examples
uhfk ahym yk kfr nh krb? How can I reject him?
nhc krh dance
ahmrh rhÄhw nhc krb/ We will dance in the streets.
ynfXQ krh forbid
uvym ahmhfk `bfrhfu ynfXQ krfu You can’t forbid me to go out.
phrfb nh/
pyr©khr krh clean
klth zl pyr©khr kfr/ The machine cleans the water.
—khS krh reveal, publish
bith —khS krh xhfb nh/ The book can’t be published.
—SLsh krh praise
anjfqr —SLsh krh uhr aBjhs nw/ He is not in the habit of praising
others.
—Sä krh ask
`s ùhmhfk yk —Sä krl? What did he ask you?
bql krh change
ùhmhr shtò bql kfr nho/ Change your shirt.
bí krh close
qrzhth bí kfr rhKfu Mfb/ The door has to be kept closed.
bjbMhr krh use, behave
`s ùhmhr sfÃ `kmn bjbMhr kfr? How does he behave with you?
uhrh Cvyr bjbMhr kfr nh, They don’t use knives, they use a boti.1
b£yt bjbMhr kfr/
Bvl kfr mistake
ahmrh sbhi Bvl kyr/ We all make mistakes.
1 Large curved knife fixed onto a small wooden stool on which one sits to cut vegetables
or fish 365
19 mYmhLsh krh reconcile
Conjunct verbs
ùhmhr sfÃ mYmhLsh krfu efsyC/ We have come to make peace with
you.
xuä krh take care of
`s uhr bhbhr xuä kfr/ She looks after her father.
rÇh krh protect
bhÉchfqr rÇh krfu Mfb/ The children have to be protected.
rhg krh be angry
ahym ùh rhg kyryn/ I am not angry.
rhêh krh cook
ùhmhr bhshw `k rhêh kfr? Who cooks at your house?
lÇj krh notice, observe
uvym `x yCfl nh uh orh lÇjo kfryn/ They did not even notice that you were
not there.
Svrß krh start, begin
orh `Bht gvnfu Svrß kfrfC/ They have started counting the votes.
`SX krh finish
uvym khzth eKno `SX kryn? Haven’t you finished the work yet?
`ShQ krh repay
åNth ahym kKno `ShQ krfu I will never be able to repay this debt.
phrb nh/
sf~qM krh doubt
ùhmhr kUh sf~qM kryC nh/ I am not doubting your word.
shMhxj krh help
uhrh ahmhfk afnk shMhxj kfrfC/ They have helped me a great deal.
ysºh™ krh decide
ahmrh qvfwk yqfnr mfQj ysºh™ krb/ We will make the decision within a day
or two.
`sbh krh nurse, look after
366 `mfwyt uhr bhbhr `sbh kfr/ The girl looks after her father.
séy§ krh create Conjunct verbs
examples
eKhfn yk ekth kh’ séy§ kfrC? What disaster have you created now?
sähn krh bathe, wash

ahmhr síjhfblhw sähn krh Bhl lhfg/ I like having a shower in the evening.
yMLsh krh be envious, be jealous
uhfk yMLsh krhr `khno khrN `ni You have no reason to be jealous of
ùhmhr/ him.
with khth cut and khthfnh cause to cut
ytykt khth buy a ticket

kwth ytykt khtfu Mfb? How many tickets need to be bought?
smw khthfnh spend time

Synbhfr yk kfr smw khtho? How do you spend your time on
Saturdays?
s£huhr khth swim
`s s£huhr khtfu zhfn nh/ He can’t swim.
with `qowh give
kUh `qowh promise

ahym ùhmhfk ykCvfu kUh `qiyn/ I didn’t promise you anything at all.
`qhX `qowh blame

khro `qhX yqyÉC nh/ I am not blaming anyone.
`qHR `qowh run

`Cflyt `qHR yqfw ahmhr khfC ahsl/ The boy came running towards me.
Qhr `qowh lend

ahym uhfk afnk thkh Qhr yqyÉC/ I am lending him lots of money.
ybqhw `qowh say goodbye

kh\fk ybqhw yqfu Bhl lhfg nh uhr/ She doesn’t like saying goodbye to people.
mn `qowh concentrate
mn nh yqfl khz Bhl Mw nh/ If you don’t concentrate the work will
not turn out well. 367
19 ShyÄ `qowh punish
Conjunct verbs
`x aprhQ kfrfC uhfk yk ShyÄ Don’t people who have done something
yqfu Mfb nh? wrong need to be punished?
with `nowh take
Qhr `nowh borrow

ùhmhr khC Ùfk ykCv thkh Qhr Can I borrow some money from you?
ynfu phyr?
ynASáhs `nowh breathe
uhr ynASáhs ynfu k§ MfÉC/ He is having trouble breathing.
with phowh get, receive
`tr phowh feel, notice

orh ykCv `tr phwyn/ They did not notice anything.
bjUh phowh feel pain

bjUh `pfwC? Did it hurt?
Bw phowh get scared

uhr M£htfu M£htfu ahro Bw phyÉCl/ He was getting more scared as he
walked.
with mhrh hit
ahöh mhrh have a discussion

uhrh ybkhfl rYyumu ahöh mhfr/ They have a regular discussion in the
afternoons.
dvb mhrh dive
eKhn Ùfk dvb mhrhr svybQh/ This is a good place to dive from.
\£yk mhrh peep

`Cflyt qrzhr ypCn Ùfk \£yk mhrl/ The boy was peeping from behind the
door.
with rhKh keep
kUh rhKh keep a promise

368 `s sb smw uhr kUh rhfK/ He always keeps his promises.
nzr rhKh keep an eye on Beyond
conjunct verbs
bhÉchfqr yqfk nzr `rK qwh kfr/ Will you keep an eye on the children,
please?
Despite the neutral appearance of the verbs involved in these structures,
the combinations are very precise. If a foreigner, wanting to offer some
assistance, politely asks someone:
ahym yk ahpnhfk shMhxj yqfu phyr?

I what you-OBJ help-give-IP be able to-1-PR-S
he may be appalled at the reaction he gets. The sentence means Can I give
you some money (alms)? whereas the correct phrase for help is sjMhxj krh.
Similarly, ybqhw `qowh means to say goodbye to someone, ybqhw krh means to
dismiss or sack them.
19.2 Beyond conjunct verbs
All the nouns and adjectives which are used in conjunct verbs are also in
common use (with one exception)2 outside of these structures. Here is an
example with the noun iÉCh wish. In the following three examples with krh,
Mowh and ahC-, respectively, the English translations cannot adequately
convey the different nuances.
conjunct verb ahmhr ykCv krfu iÉCh krfC nh/

with krh I-GEN something do-IP wish do-3-PR-C not
I don’t feel like doing anything.
with Mowh cfl xhowhr iÉCh MfwfC uhr/

He felt a desire to leave.
with ahfC bith pRhr ahmhr `khno iÉCho `ni/

I have no wish to read the book.
as an adverb with kfr deliberately
`s Uhlhth iÉCh kfr `BfW `PflfC/

He broke the plate on purpose.
2 The word `tr is used only in the conjunct verb `tr phowh notice, feel 369
19 The structure with Mowh implies a gradual growing of, in this case, the wish
Conjunct verbs to leave. The sentence with ahC-, on the other hand, contains determination
or resolve: I have no intention of reading the book.
Many of the abstract nouns used in conjunct verbs with krh do or

`qowh give also combine with Mowh be, become. Here are just a few
examples:
k§ effort, trouble uhr k§ MfÉC/ He is having difficulties.

Çyu harm ahmhfqr Çyu Mwyn/ We came to no harm.
`c§h attempt thkh phowhr `c§h MfwfC/ There has been an attempt to
get the money.
qvAK sadness, regret uhfk `qfK ahmhr qvAK MfÉC/ I feel sad when I see him.
`qyr delay uhfqr ahshr `qyr Mfb/ Their arrival will be delayed.
n§ spoilt, rotten ghCth n§ MfwfC/ The tree has rotted.
pC~q choice, liking `mfwytfk uhr pC~q Mw nh/ He doesn’t like the girl.
—mhN proof eth —mhN MfwfC/ This has been proved.
bí closed `qhkhnth bí Mfw `gfC/ The shop has been closed.
ybSáhs belief eth ahmhr ybSáhs Mw nh/ I don’t believe this.
Bw fear uhr Kvb Bw MfÉC/ He is very scared.
Bvl mistake ahmhr Bvl MfwfC/ I have made a mistake.
lhB profit uhr ektvo lhB Mwyn/ He made no profit at all.
19.3 Locative verbal conjuncts
There are a few noun–verb combinations where the noun is in the locative.
The meaning of these verbs differs from the equivalent nominative noun–
verb conjuncts. I am hesitant to call these combinations conjunct verbs,
so they are listed here.
For a start, here are some combinations with mn mind which do not have
any nominative counterparts. They are all to do with more or less active
thinking. Bangla makes a distinction between deliberate thought and what
comes into one’s mind unbidden.
mfn pRh fall into the mind and mfn ahsh come into the mind: recall, remem-
ber, recollect
uhr yTkhnh? mfn pRfC nh/

he-GEN address? mind-LOC fall-3-PR-C not
370 His address? I can’t remember.
uhr kUh —hwi mfn ahfs/ Locative verbal
he-GEN often mind-LOC come-3-PR-S conjuncts
He is often on my mind.
mfn ahC- recall, remember
ahmhr ãp§ mfn ahfC uhr kUh/
I-GEN clear mind-LOC [is present] his word
I remember him very well.
mfn Mowh think
full structure: ahmhr mfn Mw `s ahr ahsfb nh/
my mind-LOC be-3-PR-S he more come-3-FUT not
usual structure: `s mfn Mw ahr ahsfb nh/
he mind-LOC be-3-PR-S more come-3-FUT not
I don’t think he will come any more.
mfn Mowh is a very common idiomatic phrase and is often used without its
human experiencer.
Svfn ahluh KvyS MfwfC mfn Ml/

hear-PP Alta happy be-3-PR-PERF mind-LOC be-3-P-S
He thought that Alta was happy to hear (this).
mfn krh think
uhrh yk mfn kfr ùh ahfg Svnfu Mfb/
they what mind-LOC do-3-PR-S EMP before
hear-IP-be-3-FUT
First we must hear what they think.
mfn Uhkh remember
kUhth mfn Uhkfb ùh?
word-CL mind-LOC stay-3-FUT EMP
You will remember this, won’t you?
mfn rhKh keep in mind, remember
ahym esb mfn rhKfu phrb nh/
I this all mind-LOC keep-IP be able to-1-FUT not
I won’t be able to remember all this.
Both mfn krh and mfn rhKh are active structures:
ahym mfn kyr I think

ahym mfn rhKb I will keep it in mind 371
19 while mfn Mowh and mfn Uhkh are the equivalent impersonal structures:
Conjunct verbs
ahmhr mfn Mw It comes into my mind.
ahmhr mfn Uhkfb It will stay in my mind.
And now for the contrasting pairs. Very often the locative versions have
the lexically expected meanings.
mfn `qowh or mfn kyrfw `qowh remind – mn `qowh concentrate

locative uvym skhfl chybr bjhphrth uhfk mfn kyrfw `qfb?
you morning-LOC key-GEN matter-CL he-OBJ
mind-LOC cause to do-PP give-2-FUT
Will you remind him about the key in the morning?
nominative ahym ahzfk khfz mn yqfu phryC nh/
I today work-LOC mind give-IP be able to-1-PR C not
I can’t concentrate on work today.
`chfK `qKh see with one’s eyes – `chK `qKh examine eyes
locative ahym `sth ynfzr `chfK `qfKyC/
I that-CL own-GEN eye-LOC see-1-PR-PERF
I have seen it with my own eyes.
nominative dh∆hr yk uhr `chK `qfKfCn?
doctor what he-GEN eye see-3H-PR-PERF
Has the doctor examined his eyes?
ghfw `qowh wear, put on – gh `qowh concentrate, make an effort
locative ùhmhr nuvn shtòth ghfw `qfb nh?
you-GEN new shirt-CL body-LOC give-2-FUT not
Won’t you wear your new shirt?
nominative gh yqfw khz kfrh/
body give-PP work do-2-PR-IMP
Put some effort into the work.
mvfK rhKh keep something in one’s mouth – mvK rhKh save face
locative `mfwyt bvfRh ahWvlth mvfK rhfK/
girl-CL thumb mouth-LOC keep-3-PR-S
The girl sucks her thumb.
nominative `s uhr pyrbhfrr mvK `rfKfC/
he he-GEN family face keep
372 He has saved his family’s reputation.
mvfK mhrh offend – mvK mhrh stop at the outset Locative verbal
conjuncts
locative `s khro ybrßfº Mhu uvlfb nh yk≤ mvfK mhfr Kvb/
he someone-GEN against hand lift-3-FUT not but
mouth-LOC hit-3-PR-S very
He doesn’t lift a finger against anyone but he has a vicious
tongue.
nominative ei `bhkhymthr sfÃ sfÃ mvK mhrlhm/
this foolishness-CL-GEN immediately mouth beat-1-P-S
I stopped this foolishness immediately.
Mhfu pRh fall into someone’s hand – Mhu pRh touch
locative `qK khgzth `xn uhr Mhfu nh pfR/
see paper-CL so that he-GEN hand-LOC not
fall-3-PR-S
See that the paper doesn’t fall into his hands.
nominative e Khbhfr khro Mhu pfRyn/
this food-LOC someone-GEN hand not fall-3-PR-PERF
No one has touched this food.
Mhfu ahsh receive (unexpectedly) – Mhu ahsh become adept
locative bhbhr méuvjr pfr uhr Mhfu afnk zym ahsfb/
father-GEN death-GEN after he-GEN hand-LOC much
land come-3-FUT
After his father’s death he will inherit a great deal of land.
nominative ei khfz ahmhr Mhu ahsfC nh/
this work-LOC I-GEN hand come-3-PR-C not
I can’t get my hand around this work.
373
Chapter 20
Verbal noun
The following four sections deal with the non-finite forms of Bangla verbs.
Non-finite verb forms are the parts of the verb which are not subject to
tense and person. Here is how it works.
If we take the two English sentences
He likes running around in the park. and He wants to come home again.
we will quickly see that tense (simple present) and person (3rd person) are
expressed only in the two verb forms likes and wants. Change the sentence
into the past tense:
He liked running around in the park. and He wanted to come home again.
or to a 1st person statement
I like running around in the park. and I want to come home again.
and the rest of the sentences, including the two verbs running and to come,
remain the same. They are not dependent on tense or person but on the
finite verbs (like and want) to convey their meaning. In a nutshell: non-
finite verb forms depend on other verbs and they are detached from tense
and person.
All English verbs, except for the ones we call auxiliary verbs like can and
must, have two non-finite verb forms, the to- infinitive and the -ing form.
They link up with other verbs to expand sentences. She is scared of going
to the doctor, he finished reading the paper, they were mad to sell the
house, I pretended to be asleep – all these types of sentences contain (the
underlined) non-finite verb forms.
Bangla has four of these forms, a verbal noun, an imperfective participle,

374 a perfective participle and a conditional participle. These four verb forms,
as we will see below, do a lot more than embellish sentences a bit. They Nominative
set the pace, they illuminate the meaning and they play a crucial role in verbal noun
the way Bangla sentences operate.
The verbal noun is the form of verbs given in dictionaries and can therefore
be considered the most basic of the non-finite verb forms. The verbal noun
can be used liked any other inanimate non-count noun. It can function
as the subject of sentences. It declines for case and takes modifiers and
classifiers but due to its inanimate status the objective case ending is rare.
Verbal nouns have no plural forms. The verbal noun also has a variety of
special uses.
20.1 Nominative verbal noun
20.1.1 As subject
Nominative verbal nouns can act as subject of sentences. This occurrence

is particularly common in equational (copulative) sentences but is not
restricted to them.
péyUbYfu khr `x yk Bhflh lhfg, `bhZh mvSykl/

world who-GEN that what like-3-PR-S understand-VN difficult
It is difficult to understand who in the world likes what.
efk `mfn `nowh k§kr/

this-OBJ accept-PP take-VN difficult
It is hard to accept this.
Kvb `shzh kfr blfu `gfl khro shfU g¶p krhth rYyumfuh ybry∆kr ahmhr
khfC/
very simple do-PP say-IP-go-CP someone-GEN with chat-do-CL-VN
regular annoying I-GEN close to
To put it very simply, I find chatting to anyone downright annoying.
pvrvXmhnvfXr pfÇ `khno `mfwfk au `byS Bhflhbhsh anjhw/

man person-GEN for any girl-OBJ so much too much love wrong
It is wrong for a man to love any woman so much.
xyq bvZfu nh phrhthi ThÑhr khrN Mw . . .

if understand-IP not be able to-VN-CL mockery-GEN reason
be-3-PR-S
If not being able to understand is a reason for mockery . . . 375
20 —Sä zhghfnh abSji shyMfujr —Qhn \fØfSjr mfQj pfR/
Verbal noun question raise-VN of course EMP literature-GEN main purpose-GEN
among fall-3-PR-S
Raising questions is one of the main purposes in literature.
khro sôbfí o kUh blfu phrh yk ahŸcxò/
someone-GEN about that word say-IP be able to-VN what amazing
How amazing to be able to say this about someone.
20.1.2 With postpositions
Nominative verbal nouns can appear in postpositional phrases:
`s mq Khowh `CfR nh `qowh pxò™

he alcohol drink-VN leave-PP not give-VN until
until he gives up drinking alcohol
`qowhlgvflhfu rL `qowh ChRh `khno \phw `ni/
wall-PL-CL-LOC colour give-VN except any way [is absent]
There is no other way but to paint the walls.
afnk kUh blh sfµo khzth Ml nh/
much word say-VN in spite of work-CL become-3-P-S not.
Despite a lot of talk there was no action.
More examples can be found in Ch. 9.3ff postpositions.
20.1.3 With Mowh and xhowh
Nominative verbal nouns are used in impersonal passive structures with

Mowh be, become or xhowh go
ahmhr uhr sfÃ kUh blh Ml nh/
I-GEN he-GEN with word say-VN happen-3-P-S not
lit: my speaking with him didn’t occur
I didn’t get to talk to him.
eKhfn ghC lhghfnh Mfb/
here tree plant-VN happen-3-FUT
Trees will be planted here.
eKhn Ùfk ykCv `qKh xhfÉC nh/
here from something see-VN go-3-PR-C not
376 Nothing can be seen from here.
ysºh™th `nowh Ml/ Nominative
decision take-VN be-3-P-S verbal noun
The decision was made.
rhf« myrwm Bhybr khfC `gfl ynyŸcu Mowh xhfb/

night-LOC Mariam sister-in-law-GEN near go-CP certain be-VN
go-3-FUT
If he went to his sister-in law Mariam in the evening he would know for sure.
These structures are discussed in Ch. 28.3 on.
20.1.4 With \ycu, qrkhr and —fwhzn
Nominative verbal nouns are used in equational sentences with \ycu ought
to, should, with qrkhr need, and with —fwhzn necessity. More on these struc-
tures in Ch. 34.4 on modals.
e kUhgvyl ahz ùhmhr ybfSXBhfb zhnh —fwhzn/

this word-PL-CL today you-GEN especially know-VN necessity
It is particularly necessary for you to know about this today.
ykCv ùh blh qrkhr/

something EMP say-VN need
But something needs to be said.
ofk a™u ùhr Qnjbhq `qowh \ycu yCl/

he-OBJ at least you-I-GEN thanks give-VN ought [was]
You should have at least thanked him.
béy§r Mhu Ùfk rÇh krh qrkhr/
rain-GEN hand from protect-do-VN need
(They) need to be protected from the rain.
uhr sfÃ ùhmhr kUh blh \ycu nw/

he-GEN with you-GEN word speak-VN ought [is not]
You should not speak with him.
20.1.5 With mh«
Nominative verbal nouns are used with mh« only meaning as soon as. The
subject of the verbal noun can be different from that of the main verb.
This is the only structure where the nominative ba-verbal noun is still in use. 377
20 ahr `s cfl xhowhmh« `xn M£hp `CfR b£hcl/
Verbal noun and she move-PP-go-VN mh« like breath leave-PP survive-3-P-S
And as soon as she had gone he expelled a breath of relief.
uhr mvK `qKbhmh« bvZfu phrlhm ykCv MfwfC/

she-GEN see-VN mh« understand-IP be able to-1-P-S something
happen-PR-PERF
As soon as I saw her face I understood that something had happened.
\≠rth uhr mvK Ùfk `Shnbhmh« mnth `kmn `xn krfC/
answer-CL his mouth from hear-baVN mh« mind-CL doubtful
do-3-PR-C
As soon as (I) heard the answer from him I became doubtful.
`xn `chK bvflhbhmh« `bhZh xhw

as if eye glance-baVN mh« understand-VN go-3-PR-S
as if it could be grasped from just a glance
20.2 Verbal noun genitive
20.2.1 With postpositions
The genitive verbal noun can be followed by postpositions.
eu `rfg xhowhr pyrbfuò

so much angry go-VN-GEN instead
instead of getting so angry
uhfk Qnjbhq zhnhfnhr zfnj

he-OBJ thanks inform-VN-GEN for
in order to give him thanks
mfnr Bhb —khS krbhr zfnj sbhi chfÉC uhr mfnr mhnvX/
mind-GEN mood expression-do-VN-GEN for everyone want-3-PR-C
he-GEN mind-GEN person
(We) all want a soul-mate to whom to reveal our secrets.
The verbal noun can take a nominative subject in these uses:
yuyn ykCv blhr ahfg `mfwyt ahbhr kUh blfu lhgl/

he something say-VN-GEN before girl-CL again word say-IP
start-3-P-S
378 Before he had said anything, the girl started talking again.
béy§ ahr® Mowhr pr ahmhr SrYr Bhl MfwfC/ Verbal noun
rain start-be-VN-GEN after my health good be-3-PR-PERF genitive
I got better when the rains started.
20.2.1 With mu
The postposition mu like following genitive verbal nouns takes on the

meaning suitable for, appropriate for.
More examples can be found in Chapter 9.
pRhr mu bi
a book worth reading
euznfk bshfnhr mu zhwgh
space to seat so many people
ahmhr uKn —yubhq krbhr mu Sy∆ yCl nh/
I-GEN then protest do-VN-GEN like strength [was not]
I didn’t have the strength to protest then.
20.2.2 Modifying other nouns
Genitive verbal nouns modify other nouns. A list of these functions is given
here.
20.2.2 (a) Attributively
(comparable to adjectives) to specify or describe nouns – this sometimes

implies purpose.
The final two examples in the list below show that this structure is very
productive.
bshr Gr sitting room

Khbhr zl / phyn drinking water
`lKhr khgz writing paper
Bhlbhshr mhnvXgvflh loved ones
Mhyrfw xhbhr smw time of getting lost
`Qhwhr khpR clothes for washing
lhghfnhr chrh seeds for planting 379
20 rhKbhr zhwgh storage space
Verbal noun qvQ ahnhr `lhk milkman
Ghs khthr `mysn lawnmower
20.2.2 (b) In equational sentences
Genitive verbal nouns are used with sentence subjects in equational and
extended equational sentences. The subjects are often abstract nouns.
emn azsî∞Bhfb KvyS Mfu phrhr mhfn yk?

such immeasurably happy be-IP be able to-VN-GEN meaning what
What is the meaning of being so immeasurably happy?
ùhmhr eKhfn ahshr \fØSj yk?

you-GEN here come-VN-GEN purpose what
What have you come here for?
uhr `lfg Uhkhr Sy∆ afnk `byS/

his apply-PP stay-VN-GEN strength much much
He had great staying power.
ahym ChRbhr ph« ni/

I give-up-baVN-GEN candidate [am not]
I am not one to give up.
`mhthmvyt mhnvXfk zhnbhr `sthi `Sî∞©T \phw/
roughly person-OBJ know-baVN that-CL EMP best way
This is roughly the best way to get to know someone.
emn aÀvu mfn Mbhr khrNth zhnfu chn?

such strange mind-LOC be-baVN-GEN reason-CL know-IP want-2H-PR-S
Do you want to know the reason for finding this so strange?
20.2.2 (c) In existential sentences
The same modifying function of the genitive verbal noun is common in

existential sentences with ahC- exist, be present and its negative `ni be
absent as the main verb.
uhfk `rhQ krhr Çmuh khro `ni/

that resistance-do-VN-GEN power someone-GEN [is absent]
380 No one has the power to stop that.
ahpnhr mn Khrhp krhr `khno khrNi Uhkfu phfr nh/ Verbal noun
you-H-GEN mind bad do-VN-GEN any reason EMP stay-IP be able genitive
to-3-PR-S not
There can be no reason for you to feel depressed.
uhr ei bhyR Ùfk cfl xhowhro `khno lÇN `ni/

he-GEN this EMP house from move-PP go-VN-GEN even any sign
[is absent]
There is no indication that he is leaving this house.
esb ahmhr nh `bhZbhr bfws yCl nh uKn/

this all I-GEN not understand-baVN-GEN age [was not] then
I should have been old enough then to understand all this.
The noun can precede its verbal noun modifier:
Bhfgjr ybrßfº khr shQj ahfC lRhi krbhr?

fate-GEN against who-GEN ability [is present] fight-do-baVN-GEN
Who has the ability to fight against fate?
brhbr kmlhr mfn e-iÉCh yCl, ahr ekbhr Dhkhw ahsbhr, ekbhr a™u/
always Komla-GEN mind-LOC this wish [was] more once Dhaka-LOC
come-baVN-GEN once at least
There was always this wish in Komla’s mind to come back to Dhaka once
more, at least once more.
20.2.2 (d) Modifying objects
Genitive verbal nouns are used to modify direct objects, which, again, are
often abstract nouns. Translations can be done with infinitives in English:
the attempt to flee, the way to learn, the courage to sing.
ahpyn qwh kfr ahmhfk khz krhr svfxhg `qn/

you-H mercy do-PP I-OBJ work do-VN-GEN chance give-2H-PR-IMP
Please give me a chance to work.
`s afnk bhr ahfmyrkh xhowhr `c§h kfrfC/

he much time America go-VN-GEN attempt do-3-PR-PERF
He has tried many times to go to America.
ahmrh ycyTth nh phowhr khrN bvZfu phyr nh/

we letter not get-VN-GEN reason understand-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
We can’t understand why we didn’t get the letter. 381
20
20.2.2 (e) With kUh
Verbal noun
When the genitive verbal noun is followed by kUh word the structure often
implies either supposed to, previously arranged or the fact that. Negation
in present tense sentences is done with nw. This structure is discussed in
Ch. 34.4.3. Here are just a few examples.
ahghymkhl uhr ahshr kUh/

tomorrow he-GEN come-VN-GEN kUh
He is supposed to come tomorrow.
gukhl ùhmhr khzth `SX krhr kUh yCl/
yesterday you-GEN work finish-do-baVN-GEN kUh [was]
You were meant to finish the work yesterday.
ahmhr blbhr kUhytfk séy§ krfu Mfb M∑qw Ùfk/
I-GEN say-baVN-GEN word-CL-OBJ creation-do-IP be-3-FUT heart from
What I have to say has to be created from the heart.
20.2.2 (f) With nw
The genitive verbal noun used independently in conjunction with the zero
verb and its negative nw creates a modal structure implying what must or
must not happen.
Structures with ahC- and `ni were given in (2 c). Compare the following
two sentences:
(i) blhr ykCv `ni/ There is nothing to say.

(ii) ykCv blhr nw/ Nothing must be said.
While sentence (i) merely states an absence, sentence (ii) contains a strong
imperative element.
xh Mbhr Mfb/
what-REL be-baVN-GEN be-3-FUT
What has to happen will happen.
uh Mowhr nw - Mfbo nh/
that be-VN-GEN [is not] be-3-FUT not
That must not happen and will not happen.
e klkhuhr gÃhr yk ek thn ahfC uh `Bhlbhr nw/
this Kolkata-GEN Ganges-GEN what one pull [is present] that
382 forget-baVN-GEN [is not]
The Ganges in Kolkata has such a fascination that it can’t be forgotten.
nh, zYbn n§ krbhr nw/ Object verbal
no life waste do-baVN-GEN [is not] noun
No, life must not be wasted.
20.3 Object verbal noun
The verbal noun can be the object of a sentence. As with other inanimate
nouns, the objective case ending is usually not attached, but in sentences
giving definitions or paraphrases the ending can be used.
ahmhr bi `lKhth eKno `SX krfu phyr yn/

I-GEN book write-CL-VN yet end-do-IP not be able
to-1-PR-PERF
I have not yet been able to finish writing my book.
ùhmhr eu `qyrfu bhyR ahsh ahmhr Bhl lhfg nh/

you-GEN so late-LOC home come-VN I-GEN good feel not
I don’t like you coming home so late.
Here are three examples with the objective ending added:
SrYfrr `chfKr `qKhfk xyq bjy∆k bh mVuò bfl ahKjhywu krh Mw, uhMfl mfnr
shMhfxj `qKhfk blh xhw ∏nbòjy∆k bh ybmVuò/
body-GEN eye-GEN see-VN-OBJ if personal or material say-PP called
be-3-PR-S then mind-GEN help-GEN see-VN-OBJ say-VN go-3-PR-S
impersonal or formless.
If seeing through physical eyes is described as personal or material, then
seeing with the mind can be called impersonal or formless.
ahmhfqr `b£fc Uhkhfk khkuhlYw `sHBhgj blfu ùh phrb/

we-GEN survive-PP stay-VN-OBJ coincidental good luck say-IP EMP be
able to-1-FUT
We can surely call our survival a lucky coincidence.
uhr sbhifk `rfK cfl xhowhthfk yk kvJysu khz blfu Mfb nh?
he-GEN everyone-OBJ move-PP go-CL-VN-OBJ what abominable
work say-IP be-3-FUT not
Doesn’t the way he went away, leaving everyone behind, constitute an
abominable deed?
383
20
20.4 Locative verbal noun
Verbal noun
Locative verbal nouns very often express cause. In order to understand the
logic behind this, we compare them to ordinary locative nouns:
loc noun: gîhfm ZgRh MfÉC/

Quarrels are occurring in the village.
loc VN: ùhmhr ahshw ZgRh MfÉC/

lit: Quarrels are occurring in your coming.
Quarrels are occurring because of your coming.
loc noun: p£hcv uhfqr záhlhw ybr∆ Mfw `gl/

Pacu got angry at their pestering.
loc VN: p£hcv ybr∆ Mfw `gl uhfqr eu —Sä krhw/

lit: Pacu got angry at their asking so many questions.
Pacu got angry because they were asking so many questions.
These examples show that it is only a small step from the original locative
reading to a causal interpretation. The subject of the locative verbal noun
can be different from that of the main verb. The locative verbal noun
phrase often precedes the main clause.
afnfkr tvyp nh Uhkhw mhUhw zRhfnh ghmChgvflhi UrUr kfr/

many-GEN hat not stay-VN-LOC head-LOC wrap-VA gamcha-PL-CL
EMP layer do-3-PR-S
Because many didn’t have a hat they wrapped their gamchas around their
heads.
ghfCr phuh nh Uhkhw ophfSr bhyRGrgvflh ãp§ `qKh xhw/

tree-GEN leaf not be-VN-LOC that side-GEN house (×2)-PL-CL clear
see-VN go-3-PR-S
Because there were no leaves on the trees the houses on the other side
could be clearly seen.
khz `x `pfwyCs, uh ùhr thkh phThfnhfu `zfnyC/

work that find-2I-PR-PERF that you-I-GEN money send-VN-LOC
know-1-PR-PERF
I knew that you had found a job from the money you sent.
`tîn yms krhw bhyR `p£HCvfu `p£HCvfu `Bhr Mfw ygfwyCl/

train miss do-VN-LOC home reach-IP (×2) dawn be-PP-go-3-P-PERF
Because of missing the train it was dawn by the time (I) reached home.
384
Verbal
20.5 Verbal adjectives
adjectives
Many verbal nouns can act as adjectives. In this use they take neither
classifiers nor case endings and can therefore be considered verbal adjectives.
Verbal adjectives are often passive in meaning (bhghfn ùhlh Cyb a photo taken
in the garden) but active meanings also occur:
`khno ek eklh `zfg-Uhkh mhnvX

any one alone wake-PP stay-VA person
anyone who stays awake alone
The occurrence of verbal adjectives ranges from single items to complex

phrases. In many cases the translations require relative clauses in English. If
the human agent is given in passive structures this agent is in the genitive case
(uhr `lKh bi the book he wrote, mhfwr `qowh Mhrth the necklace mother gave).
The passive potential of verbal adjectives adds an interesting dimension to

verbal nouns and means that active verbs like ChRh leave, abandon can
equally mean being left, abandoned. This explains, for instance, the some-
what unexpected use of ChRh as a postposition: uh ChRh that being left behind.
It also explains convincingly the composition of mhrh xhowh die. mhrh is a
verbal adjective here, meaning having been hit.
20.5.1 Verbal adjectives used attributively
ahmhr Bhl lhgh ghn

my good feel song
songs I like
CRhfnh-yCthfnh —yufbSY ahfC/

scatter-VA sprinkle-VA neighbour [is present]
There are neighbours scattered about.
s£huhr-nh-zhnh mhnvfXr mu ahym akVl zfl dvfb xhyÉC/
swim not know-VA person-GEN like I endless water-LOC sink-PP
go-1-PR-C
I am drowning in an endless sea like someone who cannot swim.
k£hph glhw o bflyCl . . .
tremble-VA voice-LOC he say-3-P-PERF
He said in a trembling voice . . .
385
20 `si uhfr Zvlfu Uhkh Mlvq rfWr ShyR
Verbal noun that EMP line-LOC hang-IP stay-VA yellow colour-GEN saree
that yellow saree on the washing-line
ahmhr ekh-zhgh `si rhy«
I-GEN alone wake-VA that EMP night-LOC
on that night when I stayed awake alone
20.5.2 Verbal adjectives used predicatively
These structures occur a lot less frequently than attributive verbal adjectives
and seem to be restricted to relatively simple sentences.
Gfrr zhnhlhgvflh `Khlh/

room-GEN window-PL-CL open-VA
The windows in the room are open.
ycbvfkr qvQhfr eki zhwghw eki rkm ei Zvfl pRh/
chin-GEN two side-LOC same place-LOC same kind this hang-PP fall-VA
In the same place on both sides of the chin there was this same drooping.
b†h\sth ShyRr phfRr sfÃ mjhc krh/
blouse saree-GEN border-GEN with match do-VA
The blouse matched the border of the saree.
pvrh bhyR sv~qrBhfb shzhfnh/
whole house beautifully decorate-VA
The whole house was beautifully decorated.
smvqî kvwhShw Dhkh/
sea fog-LOC cover-VA
The sea is shrouded in fog.
20.5.3 Verbal adjective compounds
Some verb combinations, which fall somewhere between conjunct and com-
pound verbs, are formed with verbal adjectives. These structures are not as
common as perfective participle compounds and in many of them the verbal
adjective takes on a passive meaning.
386
with pRh fall Verbal
adjectives
Qrh pRh get caught, be detected, be noticed
uvym Qrh pRfb/

you Qrh pRh-2-FUT
You will get caught.
eKhfn uhr mfnr knyP\Sni sb Ùfk `bSY Qrh pfR/

here he-GEN mind confusion EMP all than much Qrh pRh-3-PR-S
Here the confusion in his mind is particularly noticeable.
mhrh pRh die an accidental death

afnk `lhk `bfGhfr pfR bfnr mfQj mhrh pfR/
many person senseless-LOC fall-PP forest-GEN within mhrh
pRh-3-PR-S
Many people become disoriented and die in the forest.
khth pRh be run over

`lhkth `tîfn khth pfRfC/
person-CL train-LOC khth pRh-3-PR-PERF
The man was run over by a train.
Dhkh pRh be covered, be hidden
sVxò `mfGr ypCfn Dhkh pfRfC/
sun cloud-GEN behind Dhkh pRh-3-PR-PERF
The sun is hidden behind the clouds.
chph pRh be suppressed, get squashed
Kbrth chph pfRfC/
news-CL chph pRh-3-PR-PERF
The news was suppressed.
uKn `s mhyt chph pfR mfr `gfC/
then he earth chph pRh-PP die-PP go-3-PR-PERF
Then he got squashed by the rubble and died.
with `qowh give
`qKh `qowh appear, occur

rhyn bCfr ekbhr `qKh `qn/
queen year-LOC once `qKh `qowh-3H-PR-S
The queen appears once a year. 387
20 sVxò `sKhfn ekthnh C"mhs `qKh yqfw bhyk C"mhs efkbhfri `qKh `qw nh/
Verbal noun sun there one pull six month `qKh `qowh-PP remaining six month
completely EMP `qKh `qowh-3-PR-S
There the sun appears for six months and the remaining six months it
can’t be seen at all.
chph `qowh suppress, keep hidden, get squashed
esb uvym euyqfn chph yqfwC?

this all you so much day-LOC chph `qowh-2-PR-PERF
You have kept all this hidden for so long?
mvfK Mhu chph yqfw dvkfr `k£fq \Tl/

face hand cover-give-PP wail-PP cry-PP rise-3-P-S
She covered her face with her hands and burst out crying.
Dhkh `qowh cover

ynfcr \pujkhfu Chi, ahgvn o zál™ phUr CyRfw pfR abyS§ zÃlthfko Dhkh
yqfl/
below-GEN valley-LOC ash fire and burning stone scatter-PP fall-PP
remaining jungle-CL-OBJ Dhkh `qowh-3-P-S
Ash, fire and burning stones were spreading around and covering the
remaining jungle.
khth `qowh cross out (of writing, by way of correction)
ySÇk ahmhr afQòk bhkjgvflh khth yqfln/

teacher I-GEN half sentence-CL-PL khth `qowh-3H-P-S
The teacher crossed out half my sentences.
`Tlh `qowh push
`s ahmhfk `Tlh yqfw `Zhfpr mfQj `Pfl yqfwfC/

he I-OBJ `Tlh `qowh-PP bush-GEN in throw-PP give-3-PR-PERF
He pushed me into the bush.
with krh do
`qKh krh see, meet (the use of this structure is restricted to intended
‘seeings’)
ahym uhr sfÃ `qKh krfu xhyÉC/

I he-GEN with `qKh krh-IP go-1-PR-C
388 I am on my way to meet him.
with xhowh go Verbal
adjectives
mhrh xhowh die (for humans)
uhr bhp qv bCr ahfg mhrh `gfln/
his father two year ago mhrh xhowh-3H-P-S
His father died two years ago
uvym mhrh `gfl ahym `khUhw `xuhm/

you mhrh xhowh-CP I where go-1-P-HABIT
Where would I go if you died?
`qKh xhowh become apparent
uKn uhr ahsl r∑p `qKh `gl/
then his real form `qKh xhowh-3-P-S
Then his real purpose become apparent.
Note that this structure differs from the impersonal passive with xhowh.
In the sentences above we have a subject and the verbal adjective has a pas-
sive meaning.
`qKh phowh manage to see

It is noticeable that in these sentences the object to be seen is in the genitive
case and so syntactically the verbal noun is the subject of the sentences:
‘receiving the seeing of X’. This suggests that we are dealing with a conjunct
verb.
afnk `c§h kfro uhr `qKh `plhm nh/

much attempt do-PP even he-GEN `qKh phowh-1-P-S not
I tried very hard but I didn’t get to see him.
`s `qfS Cw mhs sVfxòr `qKh phowh xhw/
that country-LOC six month sun-GEN `qKh phowh-VN go-3-PR-S
In that country the sun can be seen for six months.
389
Chapter 21
Imperfective participle
The imperfective participle has the general feature of something that has not
yet happened, is anticipated or in the process of unfolding. In some cases the
imperfective participle is equivalent to the English infinitive with to, e.g.
ahym `xfu chi/

I go-IP want-1-PR-S
I want to go.
The imperfective participle is used in the following constructions:
21.1 With verbs
21.1 (a) As a direct object
The imperfective participle can function as a direct object with a great

variety of verbs, for instance Svrß krh, ahr® krh start, begin, zhnh know, `SKh
learn, `bhZh understand, Bhl lhgh like, Bhl nh lhgh dislike, blh say, `Bhlh, Bvfl
xhowh forget, `qKh see, `Shnh hear, phowh get
ahfÄ ahfÄ `myr ahbhr Gfrr bhifr `brßfu Svrß kfrfC/
slowly (×2) Mary again house-GEN outside go out-IP start
make-3-PR-PERF
Gradually Mary started leaving the house again.
ahym ysºh™ krfu zhyn nh/
I decision do-IP know-1-PR-S not
I don’t know how to make a decision.
`s Bhn krfu `bhfZ nh/
he pretend- do-IP understand-3-PR-S not
390 He doesn’t know how to pretend.
orh yMy~q kUh blfu ySKfC/ With other
they hindi word say-IP learn-3-PR-C verbs
They are learning to speak Hindi.
uhfk ei abñhw `qKfu Bhl lhfg nh/

he-OBJ this situation-LOC see-IP good feel-3-PR-S not
(I) don’t like seeing him like this.
ahym uhfk g¶pth `SX krfu bflyC/

I he-OBJ story-CL end do-IP say-1PR-PERF
I told him to finish the story.
`s yk ùhmhfk ycyTth phThfu bflyn?

he QU you-OBJ-SG letter-CL send-IP say-3 not-PR-PERF
Didn’t he tell you to send the letter?
ekth qrzh bí Mfu Svnl/

one-CL door closed be-IP hear-3-P-S
He heard a door being closed.
uhfqr bhyRfu ykCv `Kfu `plhm nh/

their home-LOC something eat-IP get-1-P-S not
(We) didn’t get anything to eat at their house.
ahym `lhkthfk ynfzr `chfK eKhn Ùfk `byrfw `xfu `qfKyC/

I person-CL-OBJ own-GEN eye-LOC here from go out-PP go-IP
see-1-PR-PERF
The man came out and left. I saw him with my own eyes.
`Mmf™ Svkfnh phuh gvyCfw bjhfg Brfuo `qfKyC uhfk/

autumn-LOC dry leaf collect-PP bag-LOC fill-IP see-1-PR-PERF
she-OBJ
In the autumn I also saw her collecting the dry leaves and put them in a
bag.
Structures (b) and (c) have a temporal or aspective element in them.
21.1 (b) With lhgh
lhgh attach, stick, in combination with an imperfective participle, takes on

the meaning of start, begin. Structurally, the imperfective participle clause
is the direct object of lhgh. If this clause is an impersonal structure, a geni-
tive experience subject is needed, as in the first sentence. 391
21 Kvb mhwh Mfu lhgl ahmhr/
Imperfective very pity be-IP lhgh-3-P-S I-GEN
participle I started feeling pity.
uKn Ùfk `s yc™h krfu lhgl/
then from he worry do-IP lhgh-3-P-S
From then on he started worrying.
`s zny—w Mfu lhgl/
she popular be-IP lhgh-3-P-S
She was beginning to become popular.
uhrpr ahbhr Bqî∞myMlhr mvfKr `rKhgvyl nrm ahr `khml Mfu lhgl/
then again lady-GEN face-GEN line-CL-PL soft and smooth be-IP
lhgh-3-P-S
Then the lines on the lady’s face became soft and smooth again.
21.1 (c) With Uhkh
Uhkh stay adds a continuous or an iterative aspect to the imperfective par-

ticiple (see also 32.2.3)
Mwfuh bh ahfÄ ahfÄ Bvlfuo Uhkfb/

perhaps INT slowly slowly forget-IP stay-2F-FUT
Perhaps you will slowly come to forget.
`s sb smw ei bhfz ghn krfu Uhfk/

he always this EMP stupid song do-IP stay-3-PR-S
She keeps singing that stupid song all the time.
ahmrh ghC lhghfu Uhyk/

we tree plant-IP stay-1-PR-S
We keep on planting trees.
All the following verbal combinations have a modal element in them. In

structures (d) to (g) the imperfective participle functions as a direct object.
21.1 (d) With phrh
The imperfective participle with phrh be able to can, just as in English,

imply ability, permission or possibility, the negatives inability, impossibility
392 or prohibition.
béy§ Mfu phfr/ With other
rain be-IP can-3-PR-S verbs
It may rain.
ahym yk ahsfu phyr?

I QU come-IP can-1-PR-S
Can (may) I come in?
uvym yk thkh yqfu phr?

you-2F QU money give-IP can-2F-PR-S
Can you pay? = Are you able to pay?
ahmrh ykCv krfu phyr nh/

we something do-IP can-1-PR-S not
We can’t do anything.
uhr asvK Mfu phfr/

he-GEN illness be-IP can-3-PR-S
He may be ill.
ahym ykCv bvZfu phryC nh/

I something understand-IP can-1-PR-C not
I can’t understand anything.
a negated phrh with `qKh see expresses negative emotion:
ahym uhfk `qKfu phryC nh/

I he-OBJ see-IP can-1-PR-C not
I can’t stand him.
For the negation of these structures see Ch. 37.10.
21.1 (e) With phowh, get, receive
Verbs of perception are combined with phowh get, receive to express ability.
The forms of phowh are often in the present continuous.
ahym ykCv `qKfu phyÉC nh ùh/

I something see-IP get-1-PR-C not EMP
But I can’t see anything.
eKhfn yk yk `qKfu phowh xhw?

here what what see-IP get-VN go-3-PR-S
What is there to see here? 393
21 Svnfu phfÉCn?
Imperfective hear-IP get-2H-PR-C
participle Can you hear?
21.1 (f) With chowh want
This use is very similar to the English want to do
ahym ahr ektv Uhkfu `cfwyClhm/

I more bit stay-IP want-1-P-PERF
I wanted to stay a bit longer.
ahr ykCv blfu chifl, bl/

more something say-IP want-CP say-PR-IMP
If you want to say something more, say it.
ahym chiyC efqr \êyu krfu/

I want-1PR-C they-OBJ improvement do-IP
I wanted to improve them.
ahym `kbl blfu chyÉC . . .

I just say-IP want-1-PR-C
I just wanted to say . . .
21.1 (g) With `qowh give
In combination with an imperfective participle `qowh takes on the meaning

of let, allow.
Cybgvflh ahmhfk `qKfu `qfb?

picture -CL-PL I-OBJ see-IP give-2F-FUT
Will you allow me to see the pictures?
ahmhfk `xfu qho/

I-OBJ go-IP give-2F-PR-IMP
Let me go!
yk≤ anvrhQh `mfwr sfÃ `khno rkm sôpkò rhKfu `qnyn/

but Onuradha daughter-Gen with any kind relationship keep-IP
give-3H not-PR-PERF
But Onuradha didn’t allow (him) to maintain any kind of relationship with
394 (his) daughter.
mv∆ ahflh bhuhfs ghCfk bhRfu yqfu Mw/ With other
free light wind-LOC tree-OBJ grow-IP give-IP be-3-PR-S verbs
The tree has to be allowed to grow in the free light and wind.
21.1 (h) With verbs of motion
With verbs of motion the imperfective participle can express purpose.
ahz `kn ymyCymyC ahmhfk záhlhfu efsC?

today why vainly I-OBJ annoy-IP com-2-PR-PERF
Why have you come to wind me up today for no good reason?
`s g¶p ùh blfu bfsyC/

that story EMP say-IP sit-1-PR-PERF
That is the story I have come to tell.
`so uhfk Bvlfu bfsfC/

she also he-OBJ forget-IP sit-3-PR-PERF
She had also intended to forget him.
orh eKhfn khz krfu efsfC/

they here work do-IP come-3-PR-PERF
They have come here to work.
svñ sbl Uhkfu phuhfqr —fwhzn phyn/

healthy strong stay-IP leaf-PL-GEN necessity water
In order to stay healthy and strong leaves need water.
ahmrh myrc uvlfu xhb/

we chili pick-IP go-1-FUT
We will go to pick chili.
21.1 (i) With Mowh be
The imperfective participle with a third person form of Mowh be, become and
the sentence subject in the objective or genitive case expresses obligation
(see also Ch. 34.3.3).
bhbhfk ayPfs `xhu Mfb/

father-OBJ office-LOC o-IP be-3-FUT
Father has to go to the office. 395
21 ùhmhfk uhRhuhyR yPrfu Mfb/
Imperfective you-OBJ quickly return-IP be-3-FUT
participle You will have to return quickly.
xh blfu MfwfC uh blh MfwfC/
what-REL say-IP be-3-PR-PERF that say-VN be-3-PR-PERF
What had to be said has been said.
21.1 (j) With xhowh go
The imperfective participle with xhowh go in continuous tenses creates a struc-

ture somewhere in between an imminent event and, with animate subjects,
an intention. It can often be translated with about to. Note that this is a
different use from (h) above.
uvym yk blfu xhyÉCfl?

you-SG what say-IP go-2F-P-C
What were you going to say?
uvym xh krfu xhÉC uh nh krfl Bhl Mu/
you-SG that -REL do-IP go-2F-PR-C that not do-CP good
be-3-P-HABIT
What you are about to do had better be left undone.
ahmhr `lKhpRh `Pfl yqfu xhyÉC nh/
my education throw-PP give-IP go-1-PR-C not
I am not about to throw away my education.
21.1 (k) With `ni be absent or ahfC be present , exist
This is another modal structure implying unacceptability or not the done

thing. The positive form with ahfC to express acceptability is rare, probably
because it is likely to be confused with (c). Unlike (c) this structure is only
used in the simple present.
e ynfw mn Khrhp krfu `ni/

this take-PP mind bad do-IP [is absent]
(You) shouldn’t feel depressed about this.
SvQv ynfzr zfnj bvyZ shzfu `ni?
only self-GEN understand-1-PR-S dress up-IP [is absent]
396 Can’t one dress up for oneself ?
cvyr yk krfu ahfC? With nouns
stealing QU do-IP [is present] and adjectives
Is stealing acceptable?
emn ynmìN yk ChRfu ahfC?
such invitation QU leave-IP [is present]
Can one ignore such an invitation?
21.2 With nouns and adjectives
Most of these structures are essentially equational in nature, with the

imperfective participle functioning as the subject of the sentence.
21.2a With abstract nouns
ei `cwhfr bsfu ahrhm ahfC/

this chair-LOC sit comfort [is present]
Sitting in this chair is comfortable.
`ssb yqfnr kUh Bhbfu eKfnh ahmhr k§ Mw/
all that day-GEN word think-IP still my trouble be-3-PR-S
Thinking about that time is still painful for me.
ahpnhr l°h kfr nh ahmhr thkh `Kfu?
you-GEN embarrassment do-3-PR-S not my money eat-IP
Doesn’t it embarrass you to feed off my money?
. . . Bhbfu abhk lhgl/
think-IP amazement feel-3P-S
I felt amazed to think . . .
ahSh krfu, a™u, `qhX `ni/
hope do-IP at least fault is absent
There is, at least, nothing wrong with hoping.
21.2b With nouns and adjectives containing a time

component
bvZfu `qyr Ml nh/

understand-IP delay is-3-P-S not
It didn’t take (him) long to understand. 397
21 khz `SX krfu ahr kuyqn Mfb?
Imperfective work end do-IP more how many days be-3-FUT
participle How much longer will it take to finish the work?
ekUh uhr bvZfu bhyk Uhfk nh/
this word she-GEN understand-IP rest stay-3-PR-S not
She understands completely.
mn yTk kfr `Plfu `mhfti smw lhfg nh/
mind right do-PP throw-IP at all time take-3-PR-S not
It doesn’t take (him) any time to make up his mind.
yPrfu ybkhl Mfb/
return-IP afternoon be-3-FUT
By the time I return it will be afternoon.
21.2c With qualitative adjectives or question words
`mfwytfk `qKfu Kvb sv~qr/

girl-OBJ see-IP very beautiful
The girl looks very beautiful.
The fact that Bangla keeps the objective ending with animate nouns shows
that, again, this is an equational structure and the whole imperfective
participle structure is the subject of the sentence:
`mfwytfk `qKfu — Kvb sv~qr/
to see the girl is very beautiful.
phThfu `k\ `ni/
send-IP someone is absent
There is no one to send.
eu ybpfq ahmhfqr `Plfu yuyn rhyz nn/
such danger we-OBJ- throw-IP he-HON agreed [is not]
He is not willing to put us into such danger.
mh-bhp qvzfni ùh `mfwr `qhX Dhkfu oÄhq/
mother father both EMP daughter-GEN fault cover-IP expert
Both the parents were expert at covering up their daughter’s faults.
21.3 Expressing simultaneous events

The imperfective participle can form a syntactically independent clause
398 indicating an event that occurs at the same time as the main clause. It can
often be translated with while. In some studies this use of the imperfective Expressing
participle is treated separately as a present participle. simultaneous
events
21.3.1 With Uhkh stay, remain
The imperfective participle provides a time frame.
ahmhr mhmh Uhkfu e-rkm kKno bflnyn/

my uncle stay-IP this-kind ever say-HON not-PR-PERF
While my uncle was around he never said such a thing.
`bH `b£fc Uhkfu ekth kUh blhr `lhk yCl/

wife live-PP stay-IP one-CLA word say-VN-GEN person was there
While the wife was alive there was someone to talk to.
`rhq Uhkfu BVu `bfrhw nh/

sunshine stay-IP ghost go out-3-PR-S not
Ghosts don’t come out while the sun shines.
21.3.2 With other verbs
The imperfective participle gives a time reference. There are usually two
different subjects in the two clauses. An emphatic i added to the imper-
fective participle often results in an as soon as structure.
qhqvr mhUhw Mhu rhKfui `chK Kvlfln/

grandfather-GEN head-LOC hand put-IP EMP eye
open-3-HON-P-S
When I put my hand on grandfather’s head, he opened his eyes.
`tîn `CfR `xfu Mhu `nfR ybqhw zhnhl `Cflyt/
train leave-PP go-IP hand-move-PP farewell inform-3-P-S boy-CL
When the train set off, the boy waved good-bye.
ahym chph glhw syllfk `s kUh zhnhfui syll bll . . .

I press-VA voice-LOC Solil -OBJ that word inform-IP Solil say-3-P-S
When I told Solil about this in a suppressed tone, he said . . .
gîhfmr khChkhyC ahsfu `Cht bR sbhi Cvft el/
village-GEN khChkhyC-POSTP come-IP small big everyone run-PP
come-3-P-S
As he came close to the village everyone, young and old, came running. 399
21
21.3.3 Doubled
Imperfective
participle The imperfective participle can, but does not have to, be doubled to express
simultaneous events or repeated actions. The two clauses can have different
subjects.
(a) with one subject:
phuh \lft \lft `qKfu lhgflh . . .

page turn-IP (×2) see-IP start -3-P-S
While turning the pages he started to look . . .
`g£hfPr qvyqfk uh yqfu yqfu yuyn blfln . . .
moustache two direction-LOC twirl give-IP (×2) say-3H-P-S
He twirled his moustache both ways and said . . .
rhÄhr oyqk Ùfk ekth mÄ `nhLrh kvkvr M£hphfu-M£hphfu Cvft eflh/
road-GEN that direction from one-CLA big ugly dog pant-IP (×2)
run-PP come-3-P-S
A big, ugly dog came running along the road from that direction,
panting as it came.
(b) with different grammatical subjects but the same experiencer:
These sentences are a mixture of personal and impersonal structures. In

the following sentence kUh is the grammatical subject while the experiencer,
i.e. the person who is doing the thinking, remains unnamed.
Svfw Uhkfu Uhkfu Bhifwr kUh mfn pRflh/

lie down-PP stay-IP (×2) brother-Gen word mind-Loc fall-3-P-S
While lying down he thought about his brother.
g¶p MyÉCl ydnhr `Kfu `Kfu/
story be-3-P-C dinner eat-IP (×2)
Chatting was going on while they ate.
In the following two sentences the experiencer is named but is not the
grammatical subject of the sentence.
`xfu `xfu yPfrhfzr kphfl yc™hr `rKh Pvfl \Tl/

go-IP (×2) Firoz-GEN forehead-LOC worry-GEN line swell-PP
rise-3-P-S
As he was walking, a worry-line appeared on Firoz’s brow.
Bhbfu Bhbfu BYXN ekth rhg efs `gl kvSflr/
think-IP (×2) terrible one-CLA fury come-PP go-3-P-S Kushol-GEN
400 As Kushol was thinking, a terrible fury arose in him.
Here we have an example of a named subject-experiencer plhS, but in Expressing
the second part of the sentence r∆ is the grammatical subject. simultaneous
events
plhS Svnl, Svnfu Svnfu uhr r∆ Th’h Mfw el/
Polash listen-3-P-S listen-IP (×2) his blood cold become-PP
come-3-P-S
Polash listened and as he was listening his blood ran cold.
(c) with different subjects
There are not many occurrences of a doubled imperfective participle

in sentences with two different subjects.
`qKfu `qKfu zl `bfR `gl/

see -IP (×2) water increase -PP go-3-P-S
As we were watching the water rose.
`qKfu `qKfu is, in fact, an idiomatic expression meaning immediately.
\nvn, `mfz mvfC `ryPîzfrtr gvyCfw, ghrfbzkjhn pyr©khr kfr `cMhrh yPyrfw
yql/ `qKfu `qKfu mhUh Th’h Mfw `gl/
oven floor wipe-PP refrigerator tidy-PP garbage can clean-do-PP
face turn-PP give-3-P-S. `qKfu `qKfu head cool become-PP go-3-P-S
She wiped the oven and the floor, tidied the fridge, cleaned the garbage
can and restored appearances. Immediately her head cleared.
bhyR `p£HCvfu `p£HCvfu `Bhrrhu Mfw ygfwyCflh/

home reach-IP (×2) dawn be-pp go-3-P-PERF
It was dawn by the time he got home.
(d) doubled with nh
A doubled imperfective participle with nh in the middle is used for

events or processes which were imminent but did not quite happen,
or they can imply as soon as. The second imperfective participle usually
has an emphatic i following.
uhr kUh `SX Mfu nh Mfui Bqî∞flhk blfln/

his word end be-IP not be-IP EMP gentleman say-3H-PR-PERF
Before she finished speaking, the gentleman said.
ghyR Ùfk nhmfu nh nhmfui uYUòñhfnr ph’hfqr mun ofqr yGfr Qrl mhyZrh/
car from get down-IP not get down-IP EMP holy place-GEN guide-
GEN like they-OBJ surround-PP hold-3-P-S fisherman-PL-NOM
As soon as they got out of the car they were surrounded by fishermen
as if they were guides on a pilgrimage. 401
21 ahfrk Bhi —Ufm ph´hbY `mfw ybfw kfryCl ; ek bCr `xfu nh `xfui ydfBhsò/
Imperfective more one brother at first Punjabi girl marriage do-3-P-PERF;
participle one year go-IP not go-IP-EMP divorce
Another brother had at first married a Punjabi girl; divorced barely
a year later.
(e) mixed structures
The following sentence has an interesting overlap of structures. Although

the doubled imperfective participle at the beginning of the sentence
suggests a parallel event structure, it is actually the subject of the
sentence: getting letters has become such a habit . . . comparable to the
sentences in 21.2(a). This kind of structural mix is very common in
Bangla.
ycyT `pfu `pfu emni afBjs Mfw `gfC `x ycyT nh `pfl mfn Mw yqnth béUh `gl/
letter get-IP (×2) such EMP habit become-PP -go-3-PR-PERF that
letter not get-CP mind-LOC is-3-PR-S day-CL futile go-3-P-S
I have got so used to getting letters that when I don’t get a letter the
day seems wasted.
21.4 Idiomatic use: blfu
blfu, the imperfective participle of blh say is used independently in definitions

and explanations of words or concepts:
Bhl blfu skfl ek yzyns `bhfZ nh/

good say-IP everyone one thing understand-3-PR-S not
Not everyone means the same thing by ‘goodness’.
sLshr blfu uhr ykCv `ni/
family say-IP he-GEN something [is absent]
He has no such thing as a family.
402
Chapter 22
Conditional participle
The conditional participle provides us with, among other things, a concise

and convenient way of formimg conditional or temporal sentences. The
perfective participle (see Ch. 23) can also be used in temporal structures
but only when the subject is the same in both parts of the sentence.
o Kvlnhw efs bith `Pru `qfb/
he Khulna-LOC come-PP book-CL return give-3-FUT
He will return the book when he comes to Khulna.
The conditional participle has no such restrictions. We can say:
o Kvlnhw efl ahym bith uhfk `Pru `qb/

he Khulna-LOC come-CP I book-CL he-OBJ return give-1-FUT
I will return the book to him when he comes to Khulna.
The conditional participle, as a non-finite, tenseless form can be used in
place of xyq-structures in all types of conditional sentences (see Ch. 29.7).
The tense and translation of the conditional participle is determined by
the finite verb form in the main clause. Conditional participles usually
precede the finite verb form. For sentences with ahC- exist, be present the
conditional participle of Uhkh stay is used. Uhkh is also used for perfective
conditionals when the conditional participle Uhkfl is preceded by a perfec-
tive participle.
present conditional for ahC-:
ahchr Uhkfl ahmhfk ektv qho/
pickle [exist]-CP I-OBJ some give-2F-PR-IMP
If there is any pickle give me some.
ùhmhr `khno sf~qM Uhkfl `cfp rhKfb nh/
you-SG-GEN any doubt [exist]-CP suppress-CP keep-2-FUT not
If you have any doubts, don’t keep them concealed. 403
22 perfective conditional:
Conditional
`s yblhfu ygfw Uhkfl Kbrth zhnhfu phrb nh/
participle
he abroad go-PP-stay-CP news-CL inform-IP be able to-1-FUT not
If he has gone abroad, we won’t be able to tell him the news.
`lKhth `SX kfr Uhkfl ahr `khno m™bj krb nh/
writing-CL end do-pp stay-CP more comment do-1-FUT not
If the writing is finished I won’t comment any more.
past conditional:
uhr `Cflfmfw Uhkfl `s Kvb Bhl ekzn bhbh Mu/

he-GEN children stay-CL he very good one-CL father be-3-P-HABIT
He would have been a very good father if he had had children.
Mowh be, become supplies the conditional participle for equational
sentences:
eth `byS `shzh Mfl ahr ekth yqfu phyr/

this-CL much easy be-CP more one-CL give-IP be able to-1-PR-S
If this is too easy, I can give you another one.
Conditional participles are negated with a preceding nh.
uvym `sth nh bvZfl ahym ahr yk blb?

you this-CL not understand-CP I more what say-1-FUT
If you don’t understand this, what else can I say?
asvybQh nh Mfl Ùfk `xuhm/
inconvenience not be-CP stay-PP go-1-P-HABIT
If it were not an inconvenience I would stay.
22.1 If-Conditionals
or sfÃ pyrcw nh Mfl yk Gtu Bhbfli gh ySrySr krfC/

he-GEN with introduction not be-CP what happen-3-P-HABIT
think-CP body shudder-ONOM do-3-PR-C
I shudder to think what would have happened if we hadn’t met him.
ahmhfk xKn Dhkh ynfw `xfu anvfrhQ kyr uKn ynfw `gfl e smsjh Mu nh/
I when Dhaka take-PP go-IP request-do-1-PR-S then take-PP go-CP
this problem be-3-P-HABIT not
If you had taken me to Dhaka when I asked you to take me, this problem
404 wouldn’t have occurred.
nh Gvfmhfl shrhrhu au …pä `qKlhm yk kfr? Temporal
not sleep-CP all night so much dream see-1-P-S what do-PP when-
If I didn’t sleep all night how did I have so many dreams? conditionals
ahr ektv zhwgh Uhkfl `bS Mu/

more a bit space exist-CP good be-3-P-HABIT
It would be good if there was a bit more space.
uvym nh Uhkfl i\gh~dhr uéNBVymfu ahmhr MhRgvflh Shqh Mfw ahsu euyqfn/
you not be-CP Uganda-GEN wasteland-LOC my bone-PL-CL
white be-PP come-3-P-HABIT by now
If you hadn’t been there my bones would be turning white in the
Ugandan wasteland by now.
22.2 Temporal when-conditionals
`xsb mhnvX emynfu km kUh bfl uhrh Bw `pfl —cvr kUh bfl/
that all person as such-LOC few word say-3-PR-S they fear get-CP
much word say-3-PR-S
All those people who normally don’t say much get very talkative when they
are afraid.
ghfnr kUh blfl uhr Gvm phw/
song-GEN word say-CP he-GEN sleep get-3-PR-S
When you talk (to him) about music he gets sleepy.
ahmhr Bhbfl eKno gbò Mw ahmhr nhnY ahmhr ãkvflri ySyÇkh yCfln/
I-GEN think-CP still pride be-3-PR-S I-GEN grandmother I-GEN
school-GEN EMP teacher [was]-3H-P-S
I still feel proud to think that my grandmother was a teacher at my school.
uhr mvfKr yqfk uhkhfl ahym afnk ykCv bvZfu phyr/
he-GEN face-GEN towards look-CP I much some understand-IP be
able to-1-PR-S
Just from looking at his face I understand a lot.
Occasionally, when a speaker or writer wants to emphasise the temporal
properties of the structure, the conditional participle is followed by pr
after:
orh iLljhf~d efl pr abñhth pfR `gl/

they England-LOC come-CP pr situation-CL fall-PP-go-3-P-S
After they came to England their situation got worse. 405
22 The same effect can, more commonly, be achieved with a verbal noun in the
Conditional genitive plus pr after.
participle
iLljhf~d ahshr pr uhfqr abñhth pfR `gl/
England-LOC come-VN-GEN they-GEN situation-CL fall-PP-go-3-P-S
After they came to England their situation got worse.
22.3 Conditional participle with Mowh and clh
Both Mowh be, become and clh move, when they follow a conditional participle
clause, put a seal of acceptability on the clause. Often Mowh and clh, always in
the 3rd person, are negated to say This won’t do! This is a modal structure.
SvQv `phShk bhChi krfl Mfb nh, uhr sfÃ yTk krfu Mfb mhnhnsi zvuh/
only clothes choose-VN EMP do-CP Mowh-3-FUT not that-GEN with
decide on-IP be-3-FUT suitable shoe
It is not enough to choose the clothes. On top of that you have to decide
on matching shoes.
ahr ektv pfr `gfl Mu nh?
more a bit after go-CP Mowh-3-P-HABIT not
Wouldn’t it do to go a bit later?
yMLsh krfl Mfb?
jealousy do-CP Mowh-3-FUT
Will it do any good to be jealous?
ahpyn blfli Mfb/
you-H say-CP EMP Mowh-3-FUT
It will work out on your say-so.
uhr pC~q apC~q ynfw ùhmhr mhUh nh Ghmhflo clfb/
he-GEN like dislike about you-GEN head not make sweat-CP EMP
clh-3-FUT
lit: it is acceptable for you not to make your head sweat about his
likes and dislikes
There is no need for you to worry about his likes and dislikes.
Here are two examples with blh and an emphatic i following the condi-
tional participle:
SYukhfl béy§ Mw nh blfli cfl/

winter-LOC rain be-3-PR-S not say-CP EMP clh-3-PR-S
406 It is true that it does not rain in winter.
—hw `cnh xhw nh blfli clfb/ Negated
almost know-IP go-3-PR-S not say-CP i move-3-FUT conditional
lit: if one says that (you) were almost unrecognisable that would be participle
accurate followed by
I must say I hardly recognised you. nw is not
In the following sentences both the conditional participle and the final verb
are negated, resulting in a strong suggestive overtone.
`Cflytfk Kbr nh yqfl Mfb nh/

boy-OBJ news not give-CP Mowh-3-FUT not
lit: It won’t do not to give the boy the news.
The boy will have to be told the news.
esb kUh nh blfli yk Mu nh?
all this word not say-CP EMP what be-3-P-HABIT not
Wouldn’t it be better not to talk about all this?
uhfk ynmìN nh krfl clfb nh/
he-OBJ invitation not do-CP clh-3-FUT not
It won’t do not to invite him.
ei —sfÃ ahro qvzfnr nhm nh blfl cfl nh/
this context-LOC more EMP two people-GEN name not say-CP
clh-3-PR-S not
In this context, the names of two other people must be mentioned.
22.4 Negated conditional participle followed by nw is not
This is another modal This won’t do! structure but its impact is much
more imperative. A conditional participle followed by nw means nothing
less than Absolutely not! Although there is no reason to assume that the
conditional participle always has to be negated in this structure, the occur-
rences found are all negatives, giving us some examples of double negatives
in Bangla.
eth nh `qKfl nw/

this-CL not see-CP nw
This just has to be seen.
eibhr ykCv nh `Kfl nw/
this time something not eat-CP nw
This time he simply had to have something to eat. 407
22 Gtnhthr pr `mfwytfk ybfw nh krfl nw/
Conditional event-GEN after girl-CL-OBJ marriage not do-CP nw
participle After that event he couldn’t not marry the girl.
ahpnhfk ei —Sä nh krfl nw/

you-H-OBJ this question not do-CP nw
I simply have to ask you this question.
22.5 Conditional participle followed by phrh be able to
This is another modal structure. When phrh be able to follows the condi-
tional participle, it can result either in a relatively straightforward if you
do this then you can do that structure (examples (a), (b) and (c)). Or the
conditional participle can act like an imperfective participle and result in
a can do structure (examples (d), (e), (f)) but implying possibility rather
than ability. The forms of phrh are restricted to simple present, future tense
and past habitual.
(a) ahpyn sfÃ Uhkfl phrb/

you with stay-CP phrh-1-FUT
I will be able to do it if you are with me.
(b) ektv mfnhfxhg yqfl phrfu/

some concentration give-CP phrh-2-P-HABIT
With a little bit of concentration you could do it.
(c) gwnhgvflh ybyœ krfu `gfl phrh xhfb/

jewellery-PL-CL sell-do-IP go-CP phrh-VN go-3-FUT
(We) will be able to do it if we sell the jewellery.
(d) uh uvym o£fk \pMhr `knbhr zfnj ykCv thkh Qhr yqfl phrfu/
you he-H-OBJ present buy-VN-GEN for some money lend-give-CP
phrh-2-P-HABIT
You could have lent him some money to buy a present.
(e) uvym ahfg blfli phrfu/

you before say-CP EMP phrh-2-P-HABIT
You could have said so earlier.
(f) o ùhmhfk ybpfq `Plfl phru/

he you-OBJ danger-LOC throw-CP phrh-3-P-HABIT
408 He could have put you in danger.
Conditional
22.6 Conditional participle followed by o also, even
participle
followed by
When the conditional participle is followed by the concessive o it takes on
o also, even
the meaning of even though, even if.
ahr ykCv nh Mflo clfb ahmhr/

more something not be-CP o go-3-FUT I-GEN
Even if nothing else happens, this is enough for me.
`Xhflh Mhzhr `ghypnYr sfÃ lYlhfKlh krflo `s Bgbhn/
sixteen thousand cowgirl-GEN with dalliance-do-CP o he god
Even though he dallied with sixteen thousand cowgirls he is (still) a god.
uvym mvfK uu ykCv blflo mfnr kUh ahmhr khC Ùfk lvykfw rhKfu phr nh/
you mouth-LOC so much something say-CP o mind-GEN word I-GEN
from hide-PP-keep-IP be able to-2-PR-S not
However much you say with your words, you can’t hide your feelings from
me.
`s-sb yqfnr kUh ahr sbhi Bvlflo nYylmh yk Bvlfu phfr?
that all day-GEN word else everyone forget-CP o Nilima what
forget-IP be able to-3-P-S
Even if everybody else has forgotten about those days, how can
Nilima forget?
22.7 Conditional participle followed by emphatic i
i following a conditional participle can express simple emphasis but it

often adds the meaning just, immediately, as soon as.
zhnhlhth yTk uhr mhUhr \pfr, `s Mhu bhRhfli prqhth C£vfu phfr/
window-CL direct his head-GEN above he hand stretch out-CP i
curtain-CL touch-IP be able to-3-PR-S
The window is directly above his head, just by stretching out his hand he
can touch the curtain.
ahym kUhth blfli orh ahmhfk Uhkfu bll/
I word-CL say-CP i they I-OBJ stay-IP say-3-P-S
As soon as I said this they asked me to stay.
svfxhg `pfli kvkvryt phylfw xhw/
chance get-CP i he flee-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The dog runs off whenever it gets the chance. 409
22
22.8 Conditional participle followed by an imperative
Conditional
participle
This structure is characterised by two forms of the same verb being used
together and often expresses an impatient go ahead!
cfl `gfl xho/

move-PP go-CP go-2-PR-IMP
Go on, go!
thkh yqfl qho ùh/
money give-CP give-2-PR-IMP EMP
Go on, give (me) the money!
ykCv blfl bflh/
something say-CP say-2-PR-IMP
lit: if saying something say it
Go on, say it!
22.9 Idiomatic use blfu `gfl so to speak
This structure, literally if going to speak is used as a comment in speech

and writing. It often has an emphatic effect.
eth uhr bi/ uhri zfnj `lKh, blfu `gfl/

this-CL she-GEN book she-GEN EMP for write-VB bflu `gfl
This is her book. Written for her, so to speak.
ahr Dhkh bhrh~qhthw Uhfk ahmhr pyrchlk p£hcv/ blfu `gfl p£hcv ahmhr sb/
and covered verandah-LOC live-3-PR-S my director Panchu blfu `gfl
Panchu my everything
And on the covered verandah lives Panchu. He is, as it were, my everything.
e ChRh sqfr ahr `khno rhÄho `ni, blfu `gfl/
this except main-LOC more any road also [is absent] blfu `gfl
Apart from this there is, in fact, no other main road.
410
Chapter 23
Perfective participle
The perfective participle (also called PAP = past active participle) is by far
the most frequent non-finite verb form in Bangla. It is an active verb form
and English equivalents to kfr, bfl, ygfw are having done, having said,
having gone.
Its general task is to give a previously completed verbal action. Unlike
other non-finite verb forms, perfective participles can follow one another
to describe strings of actions and events. In narrative or spoken sequences,
where one event follows another, all but the last verb form can be in the
perfective participle form. Any Bengali verb can be used in such sequences.
The finite verb, which refers to the last event in the sequence, can be in
any tense. The subject for both (or all) verbal actions is usually the same
although there are some exceptions to this (see under 5). For temporal
sequences with different subjects, the conditional participle can be used.
The perfective participle is used for the formation of compound verbs.
They are discussed separately in Ch. 18.
A row of perfective participles in one sentence often creates an atmosphere
of breathlessness and urgency. The subject in these types of sentences is
sometimes deferred and comes between the perfective participles and the
main verb.
Here is a beautiful sentence by Profullo Ray (anj Bvbn, p. 7)
mhT `pyrfw, —h™r ydyWfw, yqgf™r pr yqg™ `pCfn `Pfl ahshm `ml qvzòw gyufu
Cvft cflfC/
field cross-PP margin leap-PP horizon-GEN after horizon back
throw-PP Assam mail inhospitable passage-LOC run-PP move-3-PR-P
Having passed the fields and crossed the wasteland, leaving behind horizon
after horizon, the Assam mail train was speeding through the inhospitable
landscape. 411
23 This sentence from Kasem Bin Abubakar’s yblyôbu bhsr (p. 49) is about an
Perfective upset mother:
participle
ahfmnh `bgm `Cflr abñh `qfK rhêhr khz `Pfl `rfK Mh\mh\ kfr `k£fq uhfk
`zhyRfw Qfr blfln . . .
Amena Begum son-GEN state see-PP cooking-GEN work throw-PP
put-PP fuss make-PP cry-PP he-OBJ embrace-PP hold-PP say-3H-P-S
When Amena Begum saw the state her son was in, she abandoned her
cooking and, wailing loudly, she embraced him and said . . .
The quick succession of a row of perfective participles creates a tense and
worried atmosphere in this sentence.
The main uses of the perfective participle are as follows.
23.1 Sequence of events
It will be immediately apparent from the following few sentences that the use
of the perfective participle is so varied and so common that, except in very
short or stylised sentences, compound verb occurrences of the perfective par-
ticiple are bound to appear. For the present purpose these should be ignored.
ahmrh Mhu Qvfw Bhu Khi/

we hand wash-PP rice eat-1-PR-S
We wash our hands before we eat.
`Kfwfqfw Gvfmhfu `gl yulkh/
eat-PP sleep-IP go-3P-S Tilka
Tilka went off to bed after her meal.
\yn ybqhw yqfw efsfCn/
he farewell give-PP come-3H-PR-S
He said his goodbyes before he came.
eirkm thnhthynr mfQj pfR ek-ekth `mfGr ek-ekrkm `cMhrh Mfw ofT/
such pulling-GEN within fall-PP one one-CL cloud-GEN one one kind
appearance be-PP rise-3-PR-S
lit: having fallen amongst all this pulling, of each cloud a particular
appearance arises
Amidst all this pulling and shoving each cloud takes on its own appearance.
apNòhyq kUh nh bfl anj yqfk uhykfw rifln/
Oporna-di word not say-PP other direction look-PP stay-3H-P-S
412 Oporna-di said nothing and looked away.
ei bfl uhrh xhr xhr khfz cfl `gl/ Sequence of
this say-PP they who-REL-GEN (×2) work-LOC move-PP events
go-3-P-S
Having said this, they each returned to their work.
23.1 With verbs of motion
In a special subcategory are sequences with verbs of motion such as xhowh

go or ahsh come as the second element. In many, though not all, of these
sequences the meaning of xhowh and ahsh is reduced to adding an endpoint
to the preceding perfective participle without, however, forming a compound
verb. More on this at the end of this chapter (23.10).
kUhth Svfn ygfw \yn `BfÃ pRfbn/

word-CL Svfn xhowh-PP he-H break down-H-FUT
He will have a breakdown if he hears this.
xvº ek BwhbM yc– `rfK `gfC uhfqr pyrbhfr, xhr ySkhr bvlv/
war one frightening stigma `rfK xhowh-3-PR-PERF they-GEN
family-LOC that-REL-GEN victim Bulu
The war had left behind a frightening stigma whose victim was Bulu.
ei kUhth bfl ygfwfCn/
this word-CL say-PP go-3H-PR-PERF
He said this before he left.
MThJ ekth `zhr Zhpth efs yByzfw yqfw `gl rymuhfk/
suddenly one-CL strong gust come-PP make wet-PP give-PP
go-3-P-S Romita-OBJ
lit: suddenly a strong gust came, made Romita wet, left
Suddenly Romita was drenched by a strong shower of rain.
uhr nhyufk `qfK efsfC/
his grandson see-PP come-3-PR-PERF
He has returned from seeing his grandson.
mvyc zvfuhgvflh `slhi kfr `gfC/

cobbler shoe-PL-CL sew-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The cobbler mended the shoes and left.
ahym ahro qvyqn Ùfk `xfu phrb/

I more two day stay-PP go-IP be able to-1-FUT
I will be able to stay for another two days (before I leave). 413
23 23.2 Simultaneous events
Perfective
participle The perfective participle can express a simultaneous action or event or an
ongoing state.
ahmrh bhrh~qhw bfs g¶p kyr/

we verandah sit-PP story do-1-PR-S
We sit on the verandah and chat.
`mfwyt bhfs bfs pvrh \pnjhsth pfRfC/
girl-CL bus-LOC sit-PP whole novel-CL read-3-PR-PERF
The girl read the whole novel while sitting on the bus.
ahym Ùfk ahr yk krb?
I stay-PP more what do-1-FUT
lit: I having stayed what more will do
What more can I do by staying? or What more can I do while I am here?
23.3 Manner
The perfective participle can describe the manner of the main action:
ahmrh Mhu Qfr xhyÉClhm/

we hand hold-PP go-1-P-CONT
We were walking hand-in-hand.
brL ymy§ kfr blfu lhgfln/
instead sweet do-PP talk start-3-P-S
Instead he started talking sweetly.
kvkvrth cmfk `chK `mlflh/
dog-CL startle-PP eye open-3-P-S
The dog opened its eyes in fright.
The perfective participle in this sentence could also be interpreted as causal:
The dog opened its eyes because it was startled.

`s yrkShw \fT xhfb nh/
she rickshaw-LOC get up-PP go-3 FUT
He won’t go by rickshaw.
orh afMuvk l°h —khS kfr smw n§ kfr/
they groundless embarrassment reveal-do-PP time waste-do-3-PR-S
414 They waste time by displaying exaggerated modesty.
Implied
23.4 Implied meanings
meanings
Although the perfective participle is in itself a temporal structure, it can

have various shades of implied meanings. These often have to be deduced
from the context in order to find appropriate translations. The following
example sentence can be interpreted in two ways:
`s ykCv nh bfl uhr ahfbg —khS kfryCl/

he something not say-PP his feeling reveal-3-P-PERF
lit: He, not having said anything, revealed his feelings.
(a) His demeanour, facial expression, etc. were so eloquent that his feelings
were clear even without words.
→ Although he didn’t say anything his feelings were clear.

(b) From the fact that he didn’t say anything it was obvious what he felt.
→ He revealed his feelings by not saying anything.

In translating perfective participles we often have to commit ourselves to
one or another interpretation while the Bangla structure retains a dignified
neutrality.
23.4.1 Implying cause
uvym yzynsth bvfZ esb kUh ahr \f^K krfb nh/

you thing-CL understand-PP all this word more mention do-2-FUT
not
Because you understand this matter, you won’t mention all this again.
mhfZ mhfZ `s ynShfk ycnfu nh `pfr blu, 'uvym `k"?
sometimes he Nisha-OBJ recognise-IP not be able to-PP
say-3-P-HABIT you who
Sometimes when he wasn’t able to recognise Nisha he would say,
‘Who are you?’
23.4.2 Describing circumstances
uhr ybmhfn ygfw asvK Mw/

he-GEN plane-LOC go-PP illness be-3-PR-S
He gets ill when he goes on a plane. 415
23 mfn mfn …yÄr ynA…hs `Pfl rhêhGfrr yqfk cfl xhyÉCl/
Perfective mind-LOC (×2) comfort-GEN breath throw-PP kitchen-GEN towards
participle move-PP go-3-P-C
Breathing a sigh of relief she set off towards the kitchen.
abhk Mfw uhykfw ahfC ahkhfSr yqfk/

amazement be-PP look-PP [is] sky-GEN towards
Without the context we cannot be sure whether the cause of amazement

is related to the sky:
She was staring at the sky in amazement, or to a different preceding

incident: In her amazement she was staring at the sky.
23.4.3 Negated perfective participle
When the perfective participle is negated it expresses the condition or

cause of the main verb. It is often appropriately preceded by without in
the translation:
mhnvX nh `Kfw Uhkfu phfr nh/

man not eat-PP stay-IP-be able to-3-PR-S not
Man cannot survive without eating.
bhyRfu nh Ùfk Uhfk klkhuhw ek i\U Mfãtfl/

home-LOC not stay-PP stay-3-PR-S Kolkata-LOC one youth
hostel-LOC
(He) does not live at home but in a youth hostel in Kolkata.
Cybgvflh nh `qfK ahym uhfk ycnuhm nh/

picture-PL-CL not see-PP I he-obj recognise-1-p-HABIT not
I wouldn’t have recognised him without seeing the pictures.
bith nh pfR yk ahflhcnh krfu phrb?

book-CL not read-PP what discussion do-IP be able to-1-FUT
What can we discuss without having read the book?
And here is our ahfbg example sentence (from page 415) again:
`s ykCv nh bfl uhr ahfbg —khS kfryCl/

he something not say-PP his feeling reveal-3-P-PERF
416 He revealed his feelings without saying anything.
Sentences with the negated perfective participle of Mowh create an alternative: Perfective
participles
bhbh nh Mfw yuyn xyq Uhkfun . . .
with different
father not be-PP he-H if stay-3-P-HABIT
subjects
If he had been there instead of father . . .
23.4.4 With o
When the perfective participle is followed by the concessive o it corresponds

to even though, although
klkhuh ygfwo `lhkthfk K£vfz phiyn/
Kolkata go-PP o man-OBJ search-PP not get-1-PR-PERF
Even though I went to Kolkata I couldn’t find the man.
e `qfS efso yuyn mvy∆xvfºr zfnj khz krfu `cfwyCfln/
this country-LOC come-PP o he-H liberation war-GEN for work
do-IP want-3-P-PERF
Even though he came to this country he wanted to work for the liberation war.
esb ghn ySfKo `s ektho Bhl ghifu phfr nh/
this all song learn-PP o she one-CL well sing-IP be able to-3-PR-S
Even though she learnt all these songs she can’t sing one of them well.
ahSh `ni bvfZo ahmrh ahSh kyr/
hope [is absent] understand-PP o we hope do-1-PR-S
We hope even though we understand that there is no hope.
23.5 Perfective participles with different subjects
In the majority of sentences containing a perfective participle the subject

for all the verb forms in the sentence is the same. There are however some
situations when this rule can be waived.
23.5.1 Mixed structures
When we have a mixture of personal and impersonal structures with the

same referent. We have already had one such example:
uhr ybmhfn ygfw asvK Mw/
he-GEN plane-LOC go-PP illness be-3-PR-S
He gets ill when he goes on a plane. 417
23 This structure consists of two underlying sentences with different subjects:
Perfective
participle `s ybmhfn xhw/ He goes on a plane.
uhr asvK Mw/ His illness occurs.
but in the combination of the two sentences the case difference ceases to
matter.
u£hfk `qfK eXhr bhbhr Kvb k§ Mw/

she-OBJ see-PP Esha-GEB father-GEN much trouble be-3-PR-S
To see her causes Esha’s father much heart-ache.
uhfk ei abñhw `qfK Kvb Khrhp lhfg/

he-OBJ this situation-LOC very bad feel-3-PR-S
I feel very bad seeing him in this state.
zhnfu `pfr uhr rhg Mu, qvAK Mu/

know-IP be able to-PP he-GEN much anger be-3-P-HABIT sadness
be-3-P-HABIT
If he knew he would be very angry and upset.
In this sentence the perfective participle takes on a hypothetical

dimension.
23.5.2 With abstract nouns like \phw. lhB, Pl, or with yk where the
reference is clear from the context:
`k£fq `khno lhB `ni/

cry-PP any profit [is absent]
There is no point in crying.
uhr sôpfkò ahr ykCv `zfn yk Mfb?

he-GEN about more something know-PP what be-3-FUT
What good will knowing anything more about him do?
yk≤ ygfw ykCvi Pl Ml nh/

but go-PP something result be-3-P-S not
But going didn’t achieve anything.
and here is a typically concise and forceful structure:
nh `mfn \phw `ni/

not acknowledge-PP way [is not]
418 They had to acknowledge that.
23.5.3 With the result or effect of non-human forces or events Word order
tjh⁄s `bfR ygfw afnfkr k§ MfwfC/

tax increase-PP-go-PP many-PL-GEN trouble be-3-PR-PERF
The tax increase caused many people problems.
Gfr béy§ —fbS kfr khfTr `mfZ n§ Mflh/

house rain entry do-PP wood floor ruined be-3-P-S
The wooden floor was destroyed when the rain entered the house.
`kn emn bhyR kfrC `x `qowhl `BfÃ `lhk mhrh xhw?

why such house do-2F-PR-PERF that wall break-PP person die-3-PR-S
Why did you build a house in such a way that the wall crumbles and
someone dies?
23.6 Word order
Unlike other non-finite verb forms, perfective participles often precede the
subject, as we saw in the mail-train sentence by Prophullo Ray at the start
of this section. Here are some more examples:
e sbgvflh sLKjh ylfK yqfw uvym yk krfb?

this all-CL all write-PP give-PP you what do-2F-FUT
What will you do, having written down all these numbers?
nuvn ShyR ghfw yqfw svrmhr MThJ Kvb KvyS lhgl/

new saree body-LOC give-PP Surma-GEN suddenly very happy feel-3-P-S
Having put her new saree on Surma suddenly felt very happy.
23.7 Doubled perfective participles
Doubled perfective partciples create a continuous or an iterative effect.
q£hyRfw q£hyRfw zbhb `qowh xhfb nh/

stand-PP (×2) answer give-VN go-3-FUT not
One can’t reply standing up.
uhfk `qfK `qfK afnk ykCv bvZfu `pfryC/

he-OBJ see-PP (×2) much something understand-IP be able
to-1-PR-PERF
I have taken in a lot by observing him. 419
23 ymy§ chtyn Mfl Uhlh `cft `cft Khw/
Perfective sweet chutney be-CP plate lick-PP (×2) eat-3-PR-S
participle If there is sweet chutney he licks his plate clean.
ynyKlr´fnr mfnr `chfKr shmfn Chwh `Pfl `Pfl cflfC u£hr `qfSr bhyRr “hyugvy©T/
Nikhilronjon-GEN mind-GEN eye-GEN before shadow throw-PP (×2)
move-3-PR-PERF his country-GEN home-GEN relative
The thought of his family in the village was casting a shadow on
Nikhilronjon’s mind.
23.8 Negation
As we have seen in the examples above, the negative particle nh precedes

the perfective participle as is the general rule with non-finite verb forms.
The scope of the negative in connection with perfective participles is one
of the deciding factors in distinguishing verbal sequences from compound
verbs. This will be discussed further in Ch. 33.8 but here is just one example:
In verbal sequences the negation appears before the perfective participle

and negates only the perfective participle:
ahym nh `Kfw xhyÉC/ I am leaving without having eaten.

In compound verbs the negation can come at the end of the sentence and
still negate only the perfective participle, so we say:
ahym uhfk ynfw xhyÉC nh/ I am leaving without taking him.
23.9 Individual verbs
23.9.1 kfr
The perfective participle of krh do when added to some adjectives or nouns

is used to form adverbs of manner:
khpRgvflh Bhl kfr B£hz krfu Mfb/

clothes-PL-CL good kfr-PP fold do-IP be-3-FUT
The clothes have to be folded properly.
`mfwyt Kvb sv~qr kfr ghn ghw/
girl-CL very beautiful kfr-PP song sing-3-PR-S
420 The girl sings very beautifully.
\yn kUhth rhg kfr bflfCn/ Individual
he word-CL anger kfr-PP say-3H-PR-PERF verbs
He said this in anger.
`s ahmuh ahmuh kfr kUh bfl/

she stutter kfr-PP word say-3-PR-S
She speaks with a stutter.
uhfk shbQhn kfr yqfw bll . . .

he-OBJ caution kfr-PP give-PP say-3-P-S
She warned him by saying . . .
More examples are given in Ch. 8.1.
23.9.2 Mfw
The perfective participle of Mowh be, become can give the manner, underlying
reason or accompanying circumstance of the main verbal action and can
often be translated with an adverbial phrase in English.
ubv uhfk Sh™ Mfw Uhkfu Mfb/

but she-OBJ calm Mfw-PP stay-IP be-3-FUT
But she had to remain calm.
`s phUr Mfw q£hRhl/

he stone Mfw-PP stand-3-P-S
He stood still like a stone.
ekUh `Shnhr pr aymuhB `bS g®Yr Mfw bll . . .

this word hear-VN-GEN after Amitav quite serious Mfw-PP
say-3-P-S
After hearing this Amitav said in quite a serious manner . . .
23.9.3 bfl
The perfective participle of blh speak, say can follow directly after a finite
verb form and ranges in meaning from cause to considering to on account
of the fact = having said. The finite verb can be in any tense. Because of
its syntactic capacity bfl has to be considered an independent conjunction
(see Ch. 29.1, 29.3.2) but here are some examples in which it retains its
verbal connections. 421
23 yk bfl `x ahpnhfk Qnjbhq `qb?
Perfective what bfl that you-H-OBJ thanks give-1-FUT
participle How can I thank you?
ei elhkhfk `lhkzn bhyrQhrh bfl `cfn/
this area-OBJ people Baridhara bfl know-3-PR-S
People know this area as Baridhara.
ahym uhfk ùhmhr bív bfl zhnuhm/
I he-OBJ you-GEN friend bfl know-1-P-HABIT
I had considered him your friend.
23.9.4 Perfective participles as postpositions
The following perfective participles have taken on an independent existence

as postpositions without losing their verbal functions. More examples can
be found in Ch. 9.3.
yqfw having given → with, through ahmrh Mhu yqfw Khi/ We eat with our
hands.
Ùfk having stayed → from, since skhl Ùfk béy§ MfÉC/ It has been raining
since morning.
ynfw having taken → with, about ahym uhfk ynfw yc™h kyr/ I worry about him.
Qfr having held → via, along orh ei rhÄh Qfr ahsfb/ They will come along
this road.
Mfw [1] having become → as, on behalf of ahym uhr Mfw kUh blfu phyr/ I can
speak for him.
Mfw [2] having become → via ahym bhzhr Mfw efsyC/ I came via the market.
23.10 From verbal sequence to compound verb
[1] When xhowh go follows perfective participles of active verbs, we can get
verbal sequences with one action following another but in the stress pat-
terns of these structures the meaning of xhowh often falls by the wayside.
Imperative sentences such as Svfn xho Listen! `qfK xho Look! ch `Kfw xho Have
a cup of tea! are used to delay someone’s imminent departure, but the same
phrases are also used to atttract someone’s attention without any expecta-
tion of him/her leaving.
Here are some examples which show these fluctuations and the very fine
422 line between verbal sequences and compound verbs.
with going factor: From verbal
sequence to
ahym bfl yqfw `glhm/
compound
I say-PP give-PP go-1-P-S
verb
I told (them) and left.
ahmrh nuvn b\fk `qfK xhb/
we new wife-OBJ see-PP go-1-FUT
We will meet the new wife (before we leave).
yk Ml, `Khkh, Bhu yqfw `gfl nh?
what be-3-P-S boy rice give-PP go-3-P-S not
What happened, boy, you didn’t give me any rice?
without going factor:
ghfnr mmò `s ahz `Bhrfblh `zfn ygfwfC/

song-GEN significance he today dawn time know-go-3-PR-PERF
Today at dawn he came to understand the significance of the song.
abfSfX phsfphtòth khgfzr mfQj `pfw `gyC/
finally passport-CL paper-GEN among find-PP go-1-PR-PERF
Finally I found the passport among my papers.
[2] Ùfk xhowh
The combination Ùfk xhowh having stayed, go has two distinct uses, one as
a verbal sequence meaning stay and then go and one as a compound verb
meaning remain. Even in the verbal sequence, however, the going element
can be played down. The phrase:
ahr ektv Ùfk xhn/

more a bit Ùfk xhowh-2H-PR-IMP
is generally used to invite someone to stay rather than to remind them of
their departure. The sentence is best translated with Stay a bit longer. In
the following sentence:
ahpyn —fujk bCr klkhuhw efs qvmhs kfr Ùfk xhn/

you-H-SG each year Kolkata-LOC come-PP two month do-PP Ùfk
xhowh-2H-PR-S
You come to Kolkata for two months every year.
again we have a sequence of events: coming, staying and going but the
information conveyed in this sentence is about the coming to Kolkata and
staying for two months. The sentence could just as well be
ahpyn —fujk bCr klkhuhw efs qvmhs kfr Uhfkn/ 423

23 The limited time of his stay in Kolkata is already given, so the addition
Perfective of xhowh is not strictly necessary. This is the way Bangla moves from verbal
participle sequences to compound verbs. The speaker of this sentence:
mh, ùhmhr Bhb `qfK mfn MfÉC eKhfni Ùfk xhfb/ yPrfu Mfb nh?
mother you-GEN mood see-PP mind-LOC be-3-PR-C here EMP Ùfk
xhowh-2-FUT. return-IP be-3-FUT not
Mother, to look at you one gets the impression that you are staying here.
Don’t we have to return?
is worried that his mother is settling in for the night at a relative’s house.
In his statement the going part of Ùfk xhowh has lost its impact and Ùfk
xhowh has become a compound verb.
The merging process is complete in the following modal structure. The
obligation which is expressed here refers to the perfective participle Ùfk,
not the syntactically required `xfu. That is why it is possible to have the
time adverbial ahro qvi yqn in this sentence.
a™u ahro qvi yqn Ùfk `xfu Mfb/

at least more two day Ùfk xhowh -IP be-3-FUT
(You) will have to stay for at least another two days (before you leave).
Here are some more compound verb examples of Ùfk xhowh:
qv-ekyt —Sä Ùfk xhw/

two one-CL question Ùfk xhowh-3-PR-S
One or two questions remain.
nhmth yk≤ Ùfk `gl/
name-CL but Ùfk xhowh-3-P-S
But the name remained.
ufb anvrhQhfqr bhyRth —hw eki rkm Ùfk `gfC/
but Onuradha-PL-GEN house-CL almost one-EMP kind Ùfk
xhowh-3-PR-PERF
But Onuradha’s family’s house has remained almost the same.
pvrßXfqr sfÃ nh ymSfl `bhkh Ùfk xhw `mfwrh/
man-PL-GEN with not mix-CP stupid Ùfk xhowh-3-PR-S girl-PL
Girls remain stupid if they don’t mix with men.
`s aBjhs eKfnh mfr yn - anj sbi mfr, aBjhs Ùfk xhw/
that habit now-EMP not die-3-PR-PERF other all EMP die-PP habit Ùfk
xhowh-3-PR-S
424 This habit has not gone – everything else has gone but this habit remains.
yk≤ u£hr ahkyãmk zYbnhbshfn `s-—≥yu asôpVNò Ùfk `gl/ From verbal
but he-GEN unexpected death-LOC that preparation incomplete sequence to
Ùfk xhowh-3-P-S compound
But due to his unexpected death these preparations remained verb
incomplete.
425
Chapter 24
Verb valency
valency is a feature of verbs which plays an important role in the forma-

tion of sentences. Valency distinguishes verbs on the basis of their travel
requirements. Verbs with only one noun phrase (the subject) travel light.
Others need a bit more luggage. Here are some English sentence examples
stripped to their bare essentials.
(i) The balloon burst. The man drowned. They have arrived. We laughed.
(ii)He is a genius. They were late. She grew tired. You seemed upset.
(iii)
I went home. She will come tomorrow. He has arrived at the airport.
(iv)I saw the house. We did the job. We ate an ice-cream. They love
swimming.
(v) He sent me a letter. She gave me the book. He told you the truth. He
promised her the moon.
The verbs under (i) require just a subject, which gives them a verb valency of
one. We call them monovalent. Traditionally these are classed as intransi-
tive verbs.
The verbs in groups (ii), (iii) and (iv) all have one other noun phrase in addition
to the subject. In (ii) we have complements, in (iii) locatives and in (iv) direct
objects. All these verbs have a verb valency of two and are called bivalent.
The verbs in (v) have both a direct and an indirect object, which gives them
a valency of three (trivalent).1
1 This type of classification differs from traditional transitive–intransitive distinctions

in that it allows for locative and postpositional noun phrases to be requirements of a
verb. There does not seem to me to be sufficient difference between ahym uhfk `qKyC I see
him and ahym uhr yqfk uhkhyC I am looking at him to warrant a different classification of
these verbs. Even more significant is the traditional severance of verbs of motion from
their destination. The noun bhyR home in ahym bhyR xhyÉC I am going home is as much a
426 part of the verb xhowh go as any direct object is of a transitive verb.
We have already seen that sentences can contain more than three noun Verb valency
phrases, but a classification of sentence types has to be based on the essential
parts of sentences and leave out non-essential parts.
1 mhnb shrhrhu ghfCr ulhw GvymfwyCl/

Manob all night tree-GEN bottom-LOC sleep-3-P-PERF
Manob slept under the tree for the whole night.
2 mhnb khl skhfl klkhuhw xhfb/
Manob tomorrow morning-LOC Kolkata-LOC go-3-FUT
Manob will go to Kolkata tomorrow morning.
3 mhnb klkhuhw ygfw yzynsth ùhmhfk `bhZhfb/
Manob Kolkata-LOC go-PP thing-CL you-OBJ explain
Manob will explain this to you when he goes to Kolkata.
All of these sentences carry some extra luggage, i.e. more elements than
the verb requires. They can be reduced in the following ways:
1 mhnb GvymfwyCl/ Manob slept. (verb valency: one)
2 mhnb klkhuhw xhfb/ Manob will go to Kolkata. (verb valency: two)
3 mhnb yzynsth Manob will explain this (verb valency: three)
ùhmhfk `bhZhfb/ to you.
This gives us a basic outline of verb valency, but real sentences in Bangla
as well as in English often drop one or two of their essentials. He will
explain. `s bvyZfw `qfb/ These occurrences do not invalidate the underlying
useful concept but they show that linguistic analysis generally fails to do
justice to real language in all its variety and colour.
For a verb like `qowh give we assign a valency of three on the basis of:
1 subject 2 indirect object 3 direct object verb

ahym ùhmhfk ekth \pMhr yqyÉC/
I you-OBJ one-CL present give-1-PR-C
I am giving you a present.
If we then come across a perfectly valid sentence like ahym yqyÉC/ I am giving
(it) our only option is to bring in the concept of elision which allows for
the omission of some parts of sentences.
Before we move on to individual Bangla verbs, here is a quick overview

of the direct object–indirect object issue, which will be discussed in more
detail in Ch. 30.3 case use.
The overt case marking in Bangla does not distinguish beween direct and
indirect objects. In ahym uhfk `qyK I see him uhfk is the direct object of `qKh 427
24 see, i.e. he is the object of my seeing. In ahym uhfk shMhxj kyr I help him uhfk
Verb valency is the indirect object of `qKh see, i.e. he is the recipient of my help. This may
seem a bit confusing at first, but in actual language use there is rarely any
ambivalence.
These are the possibilities:
(a) There is only a direct object (these are the great majority of cases) and
this object is inanimate. The object case ending is usually dropped:
ahym Cybth `qfKyC/ I have seen the picture.

`s bith pRfC/ He is reading the book.
`s uh zhfn/ He knows that.
ahmrh `kk bhnhi/ We are baking a cake.
(b) With an animate direct object the object case is marked:
uhrh `chrfk QfrfC/ They have caught the thief.

ahym ùhmhfk Bhlbhys/ I love you.
`s bhbhfk dhkfC/ She is calling father.
ahmrh ùhmhfqr ynfw xhb/ We will take you with us.
(c) Indirect objects mark the recipient of the verbal action and are almost
invariably animate. When an indirect object appears without a direct
object there is no scope for confusion. The object is marked:
`s bhÉchfqr bflfC/ He told the children.

`s grßgvflhfk Khowhw/ He feeds the cows.
ahym ùhmhfk `bhZhb/ I will explain to you.
(d) With both a direct and an indirect object in a sentence, the likelihood
is that the direct object is inanimate, the indirect object animate. The
indirect object gets the case marking:
ahym ùhmhfk ekth ycyT ylKb/ I will write you a letter.

`s ahmhfk syuj kUh bflfC/ He told me the truth.
\yn Ch«fqr bhLlh `SKhn/ He teaches the students Bangla.
`s ahmhfk nuvn ynwmth `qKhfb/ He will show me the new system.
(e) Difficulties could arise in the unlikely case that the direct object as
well as the indirect object are animate as in for instance:
I am giving you the baby. ahym bhÉchfk ùhmhfk yqyÉC/

These situations are side-stepped very easily by changing the indirect
object to a postpositional phrase:
428 ahym bhÉchfk ùhmhr khfC yqyÉC/ I am giving the baby to you.
Here are some common Bangla verbs grouped according to valency with Monovalent
simple example sentences. Some verbs have more than one use. Only a few verbs
examples can be given.
24.1 Monovalent verbs (subject only)
oTh rise kvwhSh \fTfC/ Fog has risen.

k£hqh cry bhÉchyt k£hqfC/ The baby is crying.
k£hph shiver `mfwyt k£hpfC/ The girl is shivering.
GTh happen, occur ykCv Gft `gfC/ Something has happened.
Gvmhfnh sleep `s Gvmhwyn/ He didn’t sleep.
zmh accumulate —Sä zfmfC/ Questions have accumulated.
zálh burn ahgvn zálfC/ The fire is burning.
ytkh last eth ytkfb nh/ That won’t last.
`dhbh sink `nHkhth dvfb xhfÉC/ The boat is sinking.
Uhkh stay ykCv Uhkfb nh/ Nothing will stay.
Uhmh stop béy§ Ùfm `gfC/ The rain has stopped.
`qHRhfnh run `Cflrh `qHRhfÉC/ The boys are running.
nRh stir, move o nRfC nh/ He is not moving.
nhmh descend zl `nfm xhfÉC/ The water is going down.
pRh fall mVyuòth pfR `gfC/ The statue has fallen down.
phkh ripen ahmgvflh phkfC/ The mangoes are ripening.
Phth burst Phnvs `Pft `gl/ The balloon burst.
bsh sit `Cflyt bfs ahfC/ The boy is sitting down.
bhRh increase qhm bhRfC/ Prices are rising.
BhWh break `tyblth `BfW `gfC/ The table broke.
`Shwh lie down ahym Svb/ I will lie down.
Mhsh laugh mhnb Mhsl/ Manob laughed.
24.2 Mowh, ahC-, zero verb
Both Mowh be, become and ahC- be present, exist can be either monovalent
or bivalent verbs.
monovalent Mowh and ahC-
Mowh occur yk MfwfC? What has happened?

ahC- exist qrkhr ahfC/ There is a need.
429
24 Bivalent occurrences of Mowh and ahC- include either a genitive experiencer
Verb valency or a location in addition to the subject.
Mowh- occur uhr asvK MfwfC/ lit: of him an illness has

occurred He is ill.
ahC- (locative) is `s Dhkhw ahfC/ He is in Dhaka. and
ahC- (possessive) have uhr ghyR `ni/ He does not have a car.
The zero verb is bivalent.
eth 0 Bvl/ This is a mistake.

\yn 0 ahmhr chch/ He is my uncle.
24.3 Bivalent verbs
(a) verbs of motion which add a location, a mode of transport or a time

to the subject
xhowh go ahmrh `tîfn xhyÉC/ We are going on the train.

o yblhfu xhfb/ He will go abroad.
uhrh skhfl `gfC/ They went this morning.
ahsh come mhnb ybkhfl ahsfb/ Manob will come this afternoon.
clh go, move `s nqYr khfC cll/ He went towards the river.
`bRhfnh go out uhrh ybkhfl `bRhw/ They go out in the afternoon.
M£hth walk `s rhÄhw M£htfC/ He is walking along the road.
(b) active (transitive) verbs which take a direct object
ahnh bring uvym bith ahn yn? Didn’t you bring the book?
krh do `s ykCv kfr nh/ He doesn’t do anything.
Khowh eat, drink ahmrh ch Khb/ We will drink tea.
`Klh play uhrh uhs `KlfC/ They are playing cards.
`Khlh open ahym qrzhth Kvlb/ I will open the door.
ChRh leave `s ahmhfk `CfR `gfC/ He has left me.
`C£hwh touch orh mhLs `C£hw nh/ They don’t touch meat.
zhnh know uvym uh zhn nh? Don’t you know that?
thnh pull o yrkSh thfn/ He pulls a rickshaw.
dhkh call ahym uhfk `dfkyC/ I have called him.
uhkhfnh look at `s ahkhfSr yqfk uhkhl/ He was looking at the sky.
ùhlh lift, pick uhrh myrc uvlfC/ They are picking chillies.
`qKh see ahym kh\fk `qyKyn/ I didn’t see anyone.
Qrh hold, catch `s mhC Qrfb/ He will catch some fish.
430 `nowh take ahym thkhth ynfwyC/ I have taken the money.
pRh read `s bi pfR nh/ He does not read books. Trivalent verbs
phrh be able to ahym khzth phyr/ I can do the work.
blh speak \yn yk bflfCn? What did he say?
`bhZh understand ahym uhr kUh bvyZ nh/ I don’t understand him.
Bhbh think uvym yk BhbC? What are you thinking?
Bhlbhsh love `s kh\fk Bhlbhfs nh/ He does not love anyone.
`Bhlh forget ahym uh Bvlb nh/ I will not forget that.
mhnh respect `s ahmhr kUh mhfn/ He respects what I say.
`lKh write o ycyT `lfK nh/ He doesn’t write letters.
`SKh learn ahmrh bhLlh ySKyC/ We are learning Bangla.
(c) causatives of monovalent verbs
oThfnh lift ahym qhgth oThfu phyr nh/ I can’t get rid of the stain.
kmhfnh decrease \yn ahmhfqr `bun kmhfb/ He will decrease our salary.
zmhfnh collect `s afnk bi zymfwfC/ He has collected many
books.
zhghfnh wake up mh bhbhfk zhghl/ Mother woke up father.
záhlhfnh light, ahym bhyu záhlhb/ I will light the lamps.
ignite
nhchfnh excite ghnth ahmhfqr nhchw/ The song excites us.
bshfnh set up, ahym Bhu bysfwyC/ I have put on the rice.
put on
bhzhfnh play `s ublh bhzhw/ He plays the tabla.
Bhbhfnh cause bjhphrth ahmhfk Bhbhw/ The matter intrigues me.
to think
lhghfnh plant ahmrh ghC lhghyÉC/ We are planting trees.
and so on
24.4 Trivalent verbs
Trivalent verbs are those that can take both a direct and an indirect object.
Many of these verbs can drop one of their objects in actual sentences,
e.g. in ahym bhÉchfk KhowhyÉC/ I am feeding the baby the direct object, e.g. klh
banana is omitted. All causative verbs of bivalent verbs are trivalent.
non-causative trivalent verbs
`qowh give uvym uhfk Bhu `qfb? Will you give him some rice?
phThfnh send ahym ycyTth uhr khfC phThlhm/ I sent the letter to him.
blh tell ahym ùhmhfk ekth g¶p blb/ I will tell you a story.
431
24 causative trivalent verbs
Verb valency
Khowhfnh feed ahym uhfqr pvlho Khowhlhm/ I gave them pulao to eat.
zhnhfnh inform `s ahmhfk Kbr zhnhfb/ He will let me know the
news.
`qKhfnh show uvym uhfk ybpqth `qKhÉC/ You are showing him the
dangers.
pRhfnh teach \yn `Cflfqr a¬ pRhn/ He teaches the boys maths.
`bhZhfnh explain ahpyn ahmhfk kUhth `bhZhfbn? Will you explain this to me?
`SKhfnh teach o ahmhfk uhs `Klfu `SKhw/ He teaches me to play
cards.
An awareness of these verbal features helps us to understand their behaviour
in sentences.
432
Part 4
Sentences
Chapter 25
Sentences and their

components
We are now moving from individual word classes to the way these word
classes interact with one another to form sentences. Before we look at
different types of sentence in detail, here is an overview of what goes
into sentences, i.e. the components of Bangla sentences and the order they
occur in.
Sentences have a subject and a predicate as their main components.

The subject is very often a noun or pronoun. The predicate can be:
1 a verb plus any objects or locatives the verb requires, or

2 a complement.
For the purpose of this overview we distinguish two main types of simple
sentences according to their shapes:
(a) active, existential and impersonal structures on the one hand, and
(b) copulative (equational) structures on the other. A detailed description
of these sentence types is given in Ch. 26, sentence classification.
25.1 Verbal predicates
In active, existential and impersonal sentences the predicate is a verb, with

or without one or more objects. Active sentences have a nominative subject
and there is agreement between the subject and the verb.
Existential and impersonal sentences often have a genitive subject but the
case of the subject does not affect the basic sentence components.
The basic word order in Bangla is SOV: subject – object – verb. The subject
at the beginning of the sentence and the verb at the end provide a frame
for all the other parts of the sentences. A direct object is an extension of 435
25 the verb and stays close to it in sentences. The space straight after the noun
Sentences is therefore the most likely space for any extras in the sentence.
and their
subject object verb
components
ahym Bhu Khi/
I rice eat-1-PR-S = I eat rice.
In existential sentences there is a location in place of the object. The two
adjectives Bhl good and yTk correct can also appear in this position.
subject location/adj verb

uhrh Kvlnhw ahfC/
they Khulna-LOC [exist]-3 = They are in Khulna.
uvym Bhl ahC/
you good [exist]-2 = You are well.
sb yTk ahfC/
all correct [exist]-3 = Everything is fine.
In existential possessive and in impersonal structures the subject is not in
the nominative.
subject object verb

uhr Bhifbhn ahfC/
he-GEN siblings [exist]-3 = He has brothers and sisters.
ahmhr uhfk Bhl lhfg/
I-GEN he-OBJ like-3-PR-S = I like him.
ahmhr Bw phfÉC/
I-GEN fear get-3-PR-C = I am scared.
Negation is a sentence function and comes after the verb at the end of the
sentence.
subject object verb negation

uhrh Bhu Khw nh/
they rice eat-3-PR-S not = They don’t eat rice.
ahmhr `Cflthfk pC~q Mw yn/
I-GEN boy-CL-OBJ like-be-3-PR-S not = I didn’t like the boy.
In existential sentences the verb and the negation come together.
subject location/adj negative verb

uhrh bhyRfu `ni/
they home-LOC [not exist] = They are not at home.
In sentences without an object the verb can come straight after the
436 subject.
subject verb Verbal
`mfwyt k£hqfC/ predicates
girl-CL cry-3-PR-C = The girl is crying.
béy§ pRfC/
rain fall-3-PR-C = Rain is falling.
ahm ahfC/
mango [exist] = There are mangoes.
In sentences with both an indirect and a direct object, the indirect object
usually comes before the direct object.
subj ind obj dir obj verb

ahym uhfk Bhu yqyÉC/
I he-OBJ rice give-1-PR-C = I am giving him rice.
If adverbs appear in a sentence they usually come straight after the

subject.
subj adv obj verb

`s —yuyqn uhr bhÉchfk ynfw ahfs/
he every day her baby-OBJ bring = She brings her baby every day.
ahmhr Kvb yKqh `pfwfC/
I-GEN very hunger get-3-PR-PERF = I am very hungry.
With more than one adverbial, the time adverbial comes first.
subj adv (time) adv (place) verb

`s rhf« uhr ybChnhw Gvmhw/
he night-LOC his bed-LOC sleep = He sleeps in his bed
at night.
subj adv (time) adv (manner) verb

uhr bhbh gukhl MThJ kfr efs pfRfCn/
his father yesterday suddenly arrive = His father suddenly
arrived yesterday.
Postpositional phrases can come straight after the subject or follow

adverbials.
subj adv (time) postpos adv (duration) obj verb

ahym gukhl uhr sfÃ afnkÇN kUh bflyC/
I yesterday he-GEN with many moment word speak-1-PR PERF
I had a long talk with him yesterday. 437
25 ahmhr gukhl uhr \pfr shrhyqn rhg Ml/
Sentences I yesterday he-GEN on all day anger be-3-P-S
and their I was angry with him all day yesterday.
components
Interrogatives can come straight after the subject or follow adverbials.
subj adv interrogative verb

uvym ahz `kmn ahC?
you today how [is present]-2F
How are you today?
ùhmhr gukhl yk MfwfC?
you-GEN yesterday what happen-3-PR-PERF
What happened to you yesterday?
uhrh klkhuhw `khUhw Uhfk?
they Kolkata-LOC where stay-3-PR-S
Where in Kolkata do they live?
subj interrogative postpos obj verb negation
uvym `kn uhr sfÃ kUh blfb nh
you why he-GEN with word speak-1-FUT not
Why won’t you talk to him?
subj adv postpos ind obj dir obj verb
ghCth eKhfn ycryqn Ùfk ahmhfqr Chwh yqfwyCl/
tree here forever from we-OBJ shade give-3-P-PERF
The tree had given us shade here since forever.
uhfqr MThJ ùhmhr khC Ùfk esb thkh lhgfb/
they-GEN suddenly you-GEN from this all money need-3-FUT
They suddenly need all this money from you.
This gives us the basic outline with simplified sentences. We saw earlier
that noun phrases, which can act as sentence subjects or objects, can be a
lot more complex than the one-word items we have seen in these examples.
Before moving on to word order variations, here is the basic pattern for
equational sentences.
25.2 Complements
Equational sentences consist of a subject and a complement. The simplest

type of equational sentence is of the eth yk? what is this? o `k? Who is he?
438 type. Equational sentences in the simple present have a zero verb. In the
following examples the zero verb is marked with 0 between the subject Complements
and the complement.
eth 0 sbvz/ This is green.

o 0 ahmhr bív/ He is my friend.
oth 0 pch/ That is rotten.
eth 0 khr? Whose is this?
`sth 0 Kvb ybp°nk/ That is very dangerous.
eth 0 uhr/ That is his.
`s 0 `k? Who is she?
`sth 0 syuj/ That is true.
oth 0 Bhl/ That is good.
`khnth 0 ahmhr? Which one is mine?
Both the subject and the complement in equational sentences can range from
single pronouns (as above) to complex noun phrases, but the underlying
equational structure and the word order remain the same. Here are some
more examples:
ynrÇruh 0 mhnb zYbfnr sbfcfw bR ayBShp/

illiteracy human life-GEN all than big curse
Illiteracy is the biggest curse in human life.
mhC Qfr bhyR efs Kvb Bhl Mhu-ph `Qhwh 0 ynwm/

fish catch-PP home come-PP very good hand foot wash-VN custom
When returning home after fishing it was the custom to wash one’s hands
and feet particularly well.
`si aíkhfr ek ph agîsr Mowh 0 as®b/

that-EMP darkness-LOC one foot progress-be-VN impossible
In this darkness it was impossible to move forward even one step.
The examples show that subject and complement can be very uneven, i.e. the
subject can be complex and the complement simple or vice versa, but, more
importantly, that subject and complement are often interchangeable, e.g.
mhnb zYbfnr sbfcfw bR ayBShp 0 ynrÇruh/

The biggest curse in human life is illiteracy.
When equational sentences are negated the negative verb comes at the end
of the sentence.
uvym ahmhr bív no/

you my friend [is not]-2
You are not my friend. 439
25 When equational sentences are in the past tense the verb comes at the end
Sentences of the sentence.
and their
\yn mhnfbr ã«Y yCfln/
components
she-H Manob-GEN wife [was]3-H
She was Manob’s wife.
And here is a past tense negative:
ghCth Kvb bR yCl nh/
tree very big [was not]-3
The tree was not very big.
Equational sentences can contain a procopula in place of the zero verb.
These uses are given in Ch. 28.4.5.
In terms of sentence components and word order, therefore, equational
sentences are quite straightforward.
Equational sentences are discussed in Ch. 28.4.
25.3 Word order flexibility
When we talk about word order and flexible word order, we are actually
referring to the mobility of sentence components such as subjects, verbs,
adverbial phrases and objects within a sentence.
In grammar books we can give sentences like
S adv V
ahym khlfk xhb I will go tomorrow.
and show that we can also say
khlfk ahym xhb
adv S V
or ahym xhb khlfk
S V adv
or khlfk xhb ahym
adv V S
This does not tell us very much about the arrangement of sentence com-
ponents in real sentences.
If sentence structure is about the particular flowers that go into a bunch,
then word order is about the arrangement of these flowers. In actual lan-
guage use there is flexibility in these arrangements. Due to case marking
440 and unambiguous verb endings in Bangla, word order is not an essential
factor in determining the meaning of sentences. Add to this the fact that Word order
Bangla verbs with their same-sounding endings (`gl went, Ml happened, flexibility
yql gave, yCl was, ygfwfC has gone, MfwfC has happened, pfRfC has fallen,
efsfC has come) as the final element in sentences can result in a monotonous
style. A common device for getting around this situation is variation in
arrangements. While in some cases the deviation from the norm is deter-
mined by balance within a sentence, there are a variety of other factors
at work.
25.3.1 Subject at the end
Subjects occur at the end in many descriptive contexts. Here are some
examples from a popular introduction to nature for children.1
ei sb ymylfw ∏uyr Mw ycyn bh Skòrh/
this all mix-PP ready be-3-PR-S sugar or gravel.
From the mixture of all these sugar or gravel are prepared.
uKn phuhr yBufr Gft ahro afnk ykCv/
then leaf-GEN inside-LOC happen-3-PR-S more much something
Then a lot more happens inside the leaf.
egvflhr yBufr ahfC phyn ahr zYb™ `zlY/
this-CL-PL-GEN inside-LOC [is present] water and living jelly
Inside these are water and living jelly.
Placing these subjects at the end gives them focus.
Weighty subjects (i.e. those containing multiple modifiers or extended verbal
adjectives) can move to the end of the sentence:
Pvflr mfuh Pvft \Tfb afnk, afnkyqn Qfr lvfkhfnh `si sVxò/
flower-GEN like bloom-PP rise-3-FUT much much day during hide-VA
that EMP sun
The sun which had been hidden for many, many days, would unfold like a flower.
Single word subjects can move to the end of a sentence when they are
already the topic of discussion.
`khnorkfm dhn Mhu yqfwi q£hu bîhS kfr mvK Qvl `sHmn/
any way-LOC right hand with EMP tooth brush do-PP face wash-3-P-S
Soumen
Somehow Soumen cleaned his teeth and washed his face with his right hand.
1 Siddika Sultana et al. ahmhfqr nYl gîM, pyrfbS o —kéyu Dhaka, 2002 441
25 yk `x záhlhw nh ahmhfk `Cflth!
Sentences what that bother-3-PR-S not I-OBJ boy-CL
and their How that boy bothers me!
components
bhyRr ypCfn yqkkhr b£hQhfnh pvkvrGhft ynfw `gl `s/
house-GEN behind direction-GEN pave-VA lake wharf take-PP
go-3-P-S he
He took me to the paved landing place on the lake which was behind
the house.
qîßufbfg Cvft xhw zYbn/ `kft `gl bCfrr pr bCr/
quick speed-LOC run-PP go-3-PR-S life. cut-PP go-3-P-S year-GEN
after year
Life was just flying past.Year after year went by.
The subject can move to the end for suspense:
`qowhl o uhr ybChnhr mhZhmhyZ zhwghw mhUh \£cv kfr uvflo tfcòr ahflh pRhr
qrßn shmywkBhfb ahflh-ah£Qhyr `lfg U-`Kfw ahfC ahyPî∞khr œVr o yMLsî∞um
shp - khflh mhôbh/
wall and his bed-GEN between place-LOC head high do-PP lift-PP
EMP torch-GEN light fall-VN-GEN due to momentary light darkness
attach-PP stupefied [is present] Africa-GEN vicious and deadly snake
black mamba
In the space between the wall and the bed, head held high, momentarily
blinded by the light and shadow of the torch, was Africa’s most vicious,
most deadly snake, a Black Mamba.
Here is a sequence of short, regular sentences, followed by an emphatic
statement with the subject at the end:2
`bHyq 3 ahmhfk afnkbhr ycyT ylfKyCfln, ynmìN kfryCfln/ ahym xhiyn/ ahym `xfu phyr
yn/ yqyqr khfC `bRhfu ahsh `mfwytr mvfKhmvyK q£hRhbhr Sy∆ azòn krfu phyryn ahym/
sister-in-law I-OBJ much time letter write-3-P-PERF invitation do-3-P-
PERF I not go-1-PR-PERF I go-IP not be able to-1-PR-PERF sister to
visit-IP come-VN girl-CL-GEN face-to-face stand-baVN-GEN strength
gather-do-IP not be able to-1-PR-PERF I
Boudi wrote to me many times to invite me. I didn’t go. I couldn’t go.
I could not muster the strength to come face-to-face with the girl who had
come to visit Boudi.
2 From Protibha Bosu, aygä uvXhr, p. 136

3 `bHyq older brother’s wife or a respectful address for a female relative or friend, also
442 spelt b\yq
Word order
25.3.2 Objects at the end
flexibility
Objects can shift to the end of the sentence.
The following sentence starts with an emphatic imperative and has a fairly
heavy direct object.
`br kfrh ebhfrr bhyk mhlkyR sb?

our do-2-PR-IMP this time-GEN rest treasure all
Will you now come up with all the rest of the treasure?
Objects can move to the end when they are already part of the scenario.
kUhth yb£Ql péUáYSfk/

word-CL sting-3-P-S Pritish-OBJ
Pritish was stung by the remark.
`s smw `CfR yqfwfC b\thfk/
that time leave-PP give-3-PR-PERF wife-CL-OBJ
At that time he left his wife.
ggnbhbv kKno `qfKnyn esb/
Gaganbabu ever not see-3H-PR-PERF this all
Gaganbabu had never seen all this.
`khUhw lvkhfbn ynfzfk?
where hide-3H-FUT self-OBJ
Where could he hide?
Here are two examples for emphatic objects at the end:
ahmhr ahfC Mhzhr Mhzhr —Sä/

I-GEN [is present] thousand thousand question
I have countless questions.
u£hr sfÃ ahlhp aflhcnh xuth kfryC uhr `cfw `byS ahym mfn Mw kfryC
ZgRh/
he-H-GEN with talk discussion how much-CL-R do-1-PR-PERF
that-GEN than much I mind-LOC be-3-PR-S do-1-PR-PERF fight
As many talks and discussions as I have had with him, I think I have
had more fights.
The following two sentences start with a locative phrase and end with the
object.
443
25 ek `bhkh bjhphfr, bhfz ekth bifwr znj Phluv Khtvyn `Kft `s khytfw yql ahz
Sentences shrhth qvpvr/
and their one stupid matter-LOC pointless one-CL book-GEN for unnecessary
components effort labour-PP he spend-PP give-3-P-S today whole afternoon
He had wasted the whole afternoon on a stupid business, spent
unnecessary effort on a pointless book.
yk≤ ek aÀvu khrfN `s ynfz `BfW yqfwyCl ei sôpkò/
but one strange reason-LOC he self break-PP give-3-P-PERF this EMP
relationship
But for some strange reason he himself had destroyed this relationship.
25.3.3 Objects at the beginning
Objects can occur at the beginning of sentences for emphasis.
syuj kUh? syuj kUh ahym ùh blyC!

truth word truth word I EMP say-1-PR-C
The truth? I am telling the truth!
eirkm ekth klm ahym chi/
this kind one-CL pen I want-1-PR-S
This is the kind of pen I want.
emn bqfmzhyz mhnvX ahym kKno `qyKyn/
such angry temper-GEN person I ever not see-1-PR-PERF
I have never seen such a bad-tempered person.
The following two sentences have an emphatic object at the beginning and
a previously mentioned subject at the end.
ektvo l°h lhfg nh ùhmhr?

a bit shame feel-3-PR-S not you-GEN
Aren’t you at least a little bit ashamed?
svym«hfk phThfu `cfwyC ahym/
Sumitra-OBJ send-IP want-1-PR-PERF I
I wanted to send Sumitra.
25.3.4 Participles, locatives, adverbials and postpositional phrases
As we have already seen, perfective and imperfective participles often

444 precede the subject.
`khno kUh nh bfl qvzfn eksfÃ ku smw khytfwfC/ Word order
any word not say-PP two-CL together how much time spend-3-PR-PERF flexibility
The two of them have spent a lot of time together without speaking.
yk Bhbfu Bhbfu yuyn `mhfMr mu `khn yqfk ph bhRhfln/

what think-IP (×2) he-H fascination-GEN like which direction-LOC
foot stretch-3H-P-S
He walked in a daze, thinking who knows what.
`mfwr mhUhw Mhu bvylfw bvylfw mh ahfÄ ahfÄ ghn ghifu lhgl/
girl-GEN head-LOC hand stroke-PP (×2) mother softly softly song
sing-IP start-3-P-S
The mother stroked the girl’s head and started singing softly.
phlhbhr ahSh `CfR yqfw péUáYS `Bufr el/
flee-baVN-GEN hope leave-PP give-PP Pritish inside-LOC come-3-P-S
Pritish gave up the hope of escape and went inside.
Locative at the beginning for emphasis:
Mhsphuhfl ahym ykCvfui xhb nh/

hospital-LOC I something-LOC EMP go-1-FUT not
I will certainly not go to the hospital.
In the following sentence the long postpositional phrase preceding the

subject nk knock acts as a modifier of the subject:
ykfcfnr yqfkr qrzhr ophS Ùfk nk `Shnh xhw/

kitchen-GEN direction-GEN door-GEN that side from knock hear-VN
go-3-PR-S
A knock could be heard from the other side of the door leading to the
kitchen.
Adverbials or locatives can move to the end of the sentence:
`s ofT Kvb `Bhfr/

He get up-3-PR-S very dawn-LOC
He gets up very early.
`s b£hQh pfR `gl eKhnkhr yqn-rhy«r ayu Sh™ ahbuòfn/

he bind-VA fall-PP go-3-P-S here-GEN day night-GEN very calm routine
He got caught up in the exceptionally calm routine of this place.
uvym xhfb Bhi - xhfb ahmhr shfU ahmhfqr `Cht g£hfw/

you go-2-FUT brother go I-GEN with our small village-LOC
You will go, brother – go with me to our small village. 445
25 ykCvyqn ahfg pxò™ `s yCl klkhuhw/
Sentences some day before until he [was] Kolkata-LOC
and their He was in Kolkata until a few days ago.
components
25.3.5 Equational sentences
In past tense equational sentences the verb normally comes at the end.
Here we have a long complement following the verb:
ahr eKhfn yuyn yCfln bvyºzYbY `Sî∞NY Ùfk ahlhqh, shQhrN mhnvfXr khChkhyC bh
uhfqr ekzn/
and here he-H [was] intellectual class from separate ordinary
person-GEN close or they-GEN one-CL
And in this he was different from the intellectual elite, close to ordinary
people, one of them.
25.3.6 Context
Individual sentences can only give an inadequate impression of these shifts

in sentence components and what they can achieve. Here is a short lyrical
passage from Anurupa Devi, quoted in Buddhadeva Guha’s novel Bhl lhfg
nh, p. 47. Note the way sentence (2) takes up the verb from sentence (1),
the long sentence-final subject in sentence (2), the inversion of finite verb
and perfective participle in sentence (4), and the assertive verb at the start
of sentence (6).
1 `s sb yqn ahz Mhyrfw `gfC/

2 Mhyrfw `gfC rhfm~qî `qSmvKjr `chfK `Ghr lhgh ySlcfrr pfUr qvphfS azsî bkvl Zrhfnh,
khÅfnr bNòsvXmh, svryB mhuhl kybuhr yqngvylo/
3 yk≤ kybuh Mhyrfw xhw yn/
4 kybrho xhnyn Mhyrfw/
5 yqn bqflr phlhw u£hrh bqfl ynfln ynfzfqr ahr bqfl `gl kybuho/
6 efln nuvn kybql/
7 ySlcrfk 'kybr SMr" krfln u£hrh/
1 this all day today lose-PP go-3-PR-PERF
2 lose-PP go-3-PR-PERF Ramendra Deshmukhya-GEN eye-LOC intoxica-
tion attach-VA Silchar-GEN road-GEN two side-LOC innumerable Bakul
scatter-VA Kanchan-GEN colour beauty sweet smell intoxicated poem-GEN
446 day-CL-PL also
3 but poem lose-PP not-go-3-PR-PERF Pro-drop
4 poet-PL also not-go-3-PR-PERF lose-PP
5 day change-GEN turn-LOC they-H change-PP take-H-P-S self-PL-GEN
and change-PP go-3-P-S poem also
6 come-3H-P-S new poet group
7 Silchar-OBJ poet-GEN town make-3H-P-S they-H
All these days are now gone. Gone the days when Ramendra Deshmukhya was
intoxicated with the innumerable Bakul fowers strewn along both sides of the
roads in Silchar and the beauty of Kanchan’s colours. Gone are the days of
aromatic, mad poetry. But the poems are not lost and neither are the poets. In
the turning of the changing times they changed themselves and the poems also
changed. A new group of poets arrived. They made Silchar the town of poets.
25.4 Pro-drop
Pro-drop (short for pronoun drop) is a phenomenon which occurs in lan-

guages whose conjugated verb forms give a clear reference to the sentence
subject. Bangla is such a language. When we hear kfryCl we know that the
subject of the sentence is in the third person. In situations and contexts
where the reference is clear, nominative pronouns can be dropped at the
beginning of sentences. There are three main occurrences of this.
25.4.1 Subject pronouns
The subject of a sentence is mentioned once. In subsequent sentences with

the same subject the pronoun is usually dropped.
In the following example about a young woman recovering from childbirth,

the subject is mentioned by name in sentence (i); by pronoun in sentence
(ii); sentence (iii) and (iv) have no explicit subject – they are examples for
pro-drop in Bangla.
(i) rßKshnh `bS ykCvyqn pr ynfzr yqfk `cfw `qKl/

Rukhsana quite few day after self-GEN towards look-PP
see-3-P-S
After quite some time Rukhsana turned her attention towards herself.
(ii) `Mlhlfk Gvmhfu `qfK `s ynASûq pqfÇfp anj Gfr `gl/
Helal-OBJ sleep-IP see-PP she silent footfall-LOC other
room-LOC go-3-P-S
Seeing Helal asleep she crept noiselessly into another room. 447
25 (iii) svbhysu shbhn ynfw afnkÇN `ghsl krl/
Sentences fragrant soap take-PP many moment bath do-3-P-S
and their (She) had a long wash with a fragrant soap.
components
(iv) ekKhnh `ghlhpY rfWr ShyR `bfC ynl prfb bfl/ (Khflqh Mhnvm, kUh ahr kUh,
p. 37)
one-CL pink colour-GEN saree choose-PP take-3P-S wear-3-FUT
say-PP
(She) chose a pink-coloured saree to wear.
Here are some more examples with the same pattern:
ahghmYkhl Shnv bhyR xhfb, bll uhr thkhgvflh yqfw yqfl Bhl Mu/
tomorrow Shanu home go-3-FUT say-3-P-S his money-CL-PL give-PP
give-CP good be-3-P-HABIT
Tomorrow Shanu is going home – (he) said it would be good if (he) could
have his money back.
Here the subject is mentioned by name once and in the consecutive
sentences the pronoun is dropped:
bhbv bR anjmnãk Mfw `gl/ c£hqvr kUh BhbyCl/ gu bfCfrr Gtnhth MThJ mfn pRl/
Babu big thoughtful be-PP go-3-P-S Cadu-GEN word think-3-P-C last
year-GEN event-CL suddenly mind-LOC fall-3-P-S
Babu became very worried. (He) was thinking about Cadu. Suddenly (he)
remembered the incident from the year before.
In the following sentence sequence there are just two occurrences of the
subject pronoun (underlined). The first sentence contains six finite verb
forms.
anjyqn yuyno \fT pfRn, xh phfrn Gvfr Gvfr shMhxj kfrn `mfwfk, zl `qn bhghfn,
ch ahr rßyt `Kfu `Kfu ã«Yr khfC efs bfsn, svfsäfM yzf“s kfrn, 'ahz `kmn
ahC?" yk≤ ahz yuyn ykCvi krfln nh anjyqfnr mu/ `zfg `zfg Gvfmr Bhn kfr
pfR rifln ybChnhw/
other day he-H rise-PP fall-3H-PR-S what-R be able to-3H-PR-S
turn-PP (×2) help do-3H-PR-S girl-OBJ water give-3H-PR-S garden-
LOC tea and bread eat-IP (×2) wife-GEN close to come-PP sit-3H-
PR-S sympathy-LOC question do-3H-PR-S today how [is present] but
today he something EMP do-3-P-S not other day-GEN like wake-PP
(×2) sleep-GEN pretence hold-PP-fall-PP remain-3H-P-S bed-LOC
On other days he gets up, helps his daughter where he can, waters the
garden, sits down next to his wife while he is eating bread and drinking tea,
asks her sympathetically how she is. But today he did not do anything the
448 same as on other days. He stayed in bed awake, pretending to be asleep.
Pro-drop
25.4.2 First and second person subject pronouns
In sentences with first or second person subjects the pronouns ahym, uvym, etc.
can be dropped:
example 1:
efu ykCv thkh ahfC, ùhmhr `ShQ krhr shmfUòjr yMfsb kfri yqfwyC/ yqyÉC `lhn
yMfsfb/ yk, ykCv blfb nh?
this-LOC some money [is present], you-GEN repay-do-VN-GEN
ability-GEN account do-PP EMP give-1-PR-PERF. give-1-PR-C loan
account-LOC. what, something say-2F-FUT not.
There is some money here. (I) have calculated it according to your ability to
pay it back. (I) am giving it to you as a loan. Won’t (you) say something?
The sentence:
yqyÉC `lhn yMfsfb/ is short for ahym ùhmhfk thkh `lhn yMshfb yqyÉC/
give-1-PR-C loan I you-OBJ money loan
account-LOC account-LOC give-1-PR-C
and can be considered to contain two cases of pro-drop, namely the sub-
ject and the object of the sentence. This is not uncommon and shows the
vital importance of context.
example 2:
uvym `qfKyC ahmhfk `khn bjhphfr ahr ybSáhs krfu phrC nh/
you see-1-PR-PERF any matter-LOC more belief-do-IP be able
to-2-PR-C not
(I) see that you can no longer trust me in anything.
We see here the neat way in which Bangla can intertwine clauses without
recourse to conjunctions.
25.4.3 Dialogue
In spoken exchanges pronouns are regularly dropped when the reference

is unambiguous. The following exchange has only one explicit pronoun
where the reference changes.
(a) ch Khfbn?
tea drink-HON-FUT
Will (you) have some tea? 449
25 (b) M£jh, Khfbh/
Sentences Yes, drink-1-FUT
and their Yes, (I) will have some tea.
components
(a) o yk Khfb nh?
he what drink-3-FUT not
Will he not have some?
(b) M£jh, Khfb?
Yes, drink-3-FUT
Yes, (he) will.
In the second sentence of the following example the subject pronoun `s
is dropped.
yk≤ `s yk ybfw krfu rhyz Mfb? ahSh ùh kryC Mfb/

but she marriage do-IP agreed be-3-FUT hope EMP do-1-PR-C
be-3-FUT
But will she agree to getting married? I hope she will.
25.4.4 Inanimate nouns and pronouns
Sentences like the following are so common that we hardly notice that
something has been left out. That is precisely the purpose of conditional
participles and to some extent Mowh – they greatly reduce the need for
personal structures. uh is effortlessly dropped.
eiBhfb krfl Mfb/ afnk `Çf« yk≤ Mw nh/

this way do-CP be-3-FUT. many field-LOC but be-3-PR-S not
If one does it this way it works. But in many areas it wouldn’t work.
'eu uhRhMvRhr mfQj e yk krh xhfb?" 'xhfb nh `kn?"
such rush-GEN in this what do-VN go-3-FUT go-3-FUT not why
‘Will it be possible to do this in such a rush?’ ‘Why not?’
These examples show that the concept of what a complete sentence is needs
to be adjusted. We need to take into account that many sentences, which
would look incomplete when taken out of context, are perfectly compre-
hensible and sufficient in their appropriate place.
450
Chapter 26
Sentence classifcation
Before we turn our attention to particular types of sentences, here is an

outline of what sentences are and what criteria are available to us for dis-
tinguishing them.
A sentence is a structured linguistic unit which is usually defined as a group

of words communicating a complete thought. Sentences range from one
word statements ‘No!’ to complex syntactic constructions.
We can classify sentences according to three different criteria: (A) – their inter-
nal structure or complexity, (B) – their intention or direction (mode) and
(C) – the relationship between subject and predicate.
(A) internal structure (B) sentence mode (C) verbal pattern
1. simple 1. declarative 1. active

2. complex 2. interrogative 2. equational
3. compound 3. imperative 3. existential
4. exclamative 4. impersonal/passive
26.1 Internal structure (A)
Sentences classified according to their internal structure.
1 A simple sentence consists of one or more subjects but only one predicate.
2 A complex sentence consists of at least one main clause and one subordinate
clause. The two clauses are usually, but not always, linked by a conjunc-
tion. A complex sentence contains two or more finite verb forms.
3 A compound sentence consists of two or more independent sentences
which can be linked by a coordinating conjunction. Complex sentences
can occur within compound sentences. 451
26 This is the traditional way of classifying sentences in Bengali grammar
Sentence books. Here are some examples:
classification
26.1.1 Simple sentence srl bhkj
ekzn nhmkrh zhqvkr zhqv `qKhfbn/

one-CL famous magician magic show-3H-FUT
A famous magician will show his magic.
uvym `khn anv©Thfnr kUh blyCfl?
you which ceremony-GEN word speak-2F-P-C
Which ceremony were you talking about?
ahmrh uhr sfÃ `qKh krfu efsyC/
we he-GEN with see-do-IP come-1-PR-PERF
We have come to see him.
26.1.2 Complex sentence zytl bhkj
ahym zhyn `x uvym ahsfb/

I know that you-SG-F come-2F-FUT
I know that you will come.
The same sentence can occur without the conjunction:
ahym zhyn uvym ahsfb/
I know you come-2-FUT
I know that you will come.
QhrNhth `qKh xhfÉC yTk nw/
idea-CL see-VN go-3-PR-C correct [is not]
lit: it is possible to see the idea is not right
The idea is clearly wrong.
And here are two correlative sentences:
yxyn pfrr \pkhr kfrn, u£hfk sbhi Sîºh kfr/
who-H-R other-GEN favour do-3H-PR-S he-H-OBJ everyone respect
do-3-PR-S
Everyone respects someone who helps others.
ubv `syqn ahmrh xh bflyClhm, ahz ahbhr uhr pvnrhbéy≠ kryC/
but that day we what say-1-P-PERF today again that-GEN repeat
do-1-PR-C
452 We are repeating today what we said then.
26.1.3 Compound sentences `xHygk bhkj Sentence
mode (B)
The first two sentences below are without conjunctions.
cvp kfr Uhkb, nRhcRh krb nh, ùhmhfk k§ `qb nh/

quiet do-PP stay-1-FUT move-do-FUT not you-OBJ trouble
give-3-FUT not
I will be quiet. I won’t move. I won’t cause you any trouble.
bs ahmhr sfÃ ch Kho/
sit-PR-IMP I-GEN with tea drink-PR-IMP
Sit and have a cup of tea with me.
`s sJ yk≤ uhr Bhi asJ/
he honest but his brother dishonest
He is honest but his brother is dishonest.
mhfk uvym emn bR kUh blfu phr ahr bhbhr shmfn ygfw ùhmhr Bw phw?
mother-OBJ you such big word say-IP be able to-2-PR-S and
father-GEN in front of go-PP you-GEN fear get-3-PR-S
You speak so boldly to mother, yet are afraid to face father?
26.2 Sentence mode (B)
Sentences may be classified according to their mode, i.e. their use in speech
or texts. We recognise four main sentence types.
1 Declarative sentences make a statement.

2 Interrogative sentences ask a question.
3 Imperative sentences give a command or express a wish.
4 Exclamative sentences express feelings and usually end with an exclamation
mark.
The four sentence types exhibit different syntactic forms, which will be
dealt with in a later section (Ch. 27). For now, it is worth pointing out that
there is not necessarily a one-to-one relationship between the form of a
sentence and its function. For instance, the following sentence has declar-
ative form: You need some help, but when it is spoken with a rising
intonation, it becomes a question: You need some help?
453
26
26.2.1 Declarative sentences
Sentence
classification
Declarative sentences are more common than all of the other kinds of
sentences taken together.
They can be simple, complex or compound.
simple:
`s ahmhr Bhifwr mu/

he I-GEN brother-GEN like.
He is like a brother to me.
dh∆hrrh kKno pvfrh nhfm pyrycu Mn nh/

doctor-PL ever full name-LOC known be-3H-PR-S not
Doctors are never known by their full name.
complex:
ekth `Cfl xhr nhm imrßl, `s rhu qv"th ahRhithr yqfk `tylfPhn kfr/
one-CL boy he-GEN name Imrul he night two-CL half past
two-GEN toward telephone do-3-PR-S
A boy, whose name is Imrul, phones at night at around two, half past two.
compound:
ahym ayPfs xhb ahr uvym bhshw Uhkfb/

I office-LOC go-1-FUT and you-F-SG house-LOC stay-2F-FUT
I will go to the office and you will stay at home.
26.2.2 Interrogative sentences
Interrogative sentences, like declarative sentences, can be simple, complex

or compound.
simple:
yk Ml?
what be-3-P-S
What happened?
uvi yk phgl Mfw `gyl?

you-I what crazy become-PP go-2I-P-S
454 Have you gone crazy?
complex: Sentence
mode (B)
\yn ùhmhfk xh bflfCn uh yk uvym ybSáhs kr nh?
he-H-SG you-OBJ that say-3H-PR-PERF that you belief do-2-PR-S not
Don’t you believe what he told you?
ùhmrh yk mfn kr xh mvfK ahfs uhi bfl `Plh Kvb bhMhqvyr?
you what mind-LOC do-2-PR-S what mouth-LOC come-3-PR-S that
EMP say-PP throw-VN very praiseworthy
Do you think that blurting out whatever comes into your head is very
praiseworthy?
compound:
`s kUh khr khfC blh MfwfC ahr kuzn kUhth SvfnfC?
that word who-GEN near say-VN be-3-PR-PERF and how many
people word-CL hear-3-PR-PERF
To whom was this told and how many people heard it?
26.2.3 Imperative sentences
These tend to be relatively short, but there are plenty of complex sentences
containing imperative clauses, especially with 3rd person imperatives.
simple:
ei kUh bhq qho/

this word omission give-2F-PR-IMP
Give it up!
yuyn ùhmhr mÃl krßn/

he-H-SG you-GEN good do-3H-PR-IMP
May he have mercy on you.
complex:
bjhphrth `x eKhfni iyu `Mhk `sthi yCl uhr khmj/

matter-CL that here-EMP end be-3-PR-IMP that-CL-EMP his wish
It was his wish that the matter should end here.
compound:
ahr Svnvn eu k£hqfbn nh/

and listen-2H-PR-IMP so much cry-2H-PR-IMP not
And listen, don’t cry so much. 455
26
26.2.4 Exclamative sentences
Sentence
classification These, like imperatives, tend to be short and heartfelt, so we are not likely
to encounter many complex or compound sentences. Exclamative sentences
typically start with interrogatives like yk what, `khn which, ku how much,
relatives like xh what or adjectives like eu so much, emn such or they contain
interjections to distinguish them from declarative sentences.
yk asvybQh!
What an inconvenience!
`s ku bhfz kUh bfl!

How much nonsense she talks!
Mhwfr, yk grm ahz!

Oh dear, how hot it is today!
xh sb yMyzybyz `lKh!
All that illegible writing!
26.3 Verbal patterns (C)
Sentences can be classified according to their predicates.
26.3.1 Active
Active sentences have nominative agent subjects and verbs which agree
with the subject.
The verb in an active sentence can be monovalent, bivalent or trivalent

(see Ch. 28.1).
ahmrh Cvytfu xhyÉC/

we holiday-LOC go-1-PR-C
We are going on holiday.
ahym uhfk `qfK Kvb KvyS MfwyC/
I he-OBJ see-PP very happy be-1-PR-PERF
I was very happy to see him.
béy§ ei bCfr afnk Psl n§ kfr yqfwfC/
rain this year much crop spoilt do-PP give-3-PR-PERF
456 The rain has spoilt many crops this year.
`s yqn o ahmhfk uhr ahuÖhr `sH~qxò `qyKfwyCl/ Verbal
that day he I-OBJ his soul-GEN beauty show-2-P-PERF patterns (C)
That day he showed me the beauty of his soul.
26.3.2 Existential (ahC-)
Existential sentences express existence, location or possession. In the present

and past tenses they are formed with the incomplete verb ahC- (negated with
`ni), in other tenses and non-finite uses, with the verb Uhkh. For sentences
expressing possession there is a genitive experiencer subject (see Ch. 28.2).
uvym `khUhw ahC?

Where are you?
ahmhr mhbhbh klkhuhw ahfCn/

of me parents Kolkata-LOC [be present-3H]
My parents are in Kolkata.
…gò o nrk e qvyt ñhn péyUbYr mfQji ahfC/

heaven and hell this two-CL place earth-GEN within [exists]
Both heaven and hell are situated on earth.
uhfqr afnk sôpy≠ ahfC/

they-GEN much property [exists]
They have a lot of property.
uhfqr `chfK mvfK `khno k†hy™r yc– `ni/

they-GEN eye-LOC face-LOC any-EMP tiredness-GEN sign
[is absent]
There is no sign of tiredness in their eyes and faces.
26.3.3 Impersonal
Impersonal and impersonal-passive structures are characterised by non-

nominative or absent human subjects and by a 3rd person finite verb form.
Only a small number of verbs operate in these structures (see Ch. 28.3).
uhfqr eu qVfr `M£ft xhowh Bhl lhfg nh/

they-GEN so much distance-LOC walk-PP go-VN good feel-3-PR-S
not
They don’t like walking such a distance. 457
26 dh∆hrfk ykCv blfu Ml nh/
Sentence doctor-OBJ something say-IP be-3-P-S not
classification The doctor didn’t have to say anything.
uhr Kvb sMfz Bw phw/
he-GEN very easily fear get-3-PR-C
He gets scared very easily.
`mfwytfk k†h™ `qKhfÉC/
girl-CL-OBJ tired show-3-PR-C
The girl is looking tired.
ei rhÄh yqfw xhowh xhfÉC nh ahr/
this EMP road along go-VN go-3-PR-C not more
It is no longer possible to go along this road.
26.3.4 Equational
Equational sentences consist of a subject and a complement. The complement

is usually a noun or an adjective. Equational sentences in the simple present
are constructed with the bivalent zero verb.
ahz bvQbhr/
Today is Wednesday.
mhnvXyt ahmhr apyrycu/
person-CL of me unknown
That person is unknown to me.
esb `Mhftl yk afnk bR yCl nh?
this all hotel what much big [was not]
Weren’t all these hotels very big?
ekth bi `lKhr sbfcfw bR ahn~q nhyk `sth `SX krfu phrh/
one-CL book write-VN-GEN all than big joy not what that-CL
finish-do-IP be able to-VN
The biggest joy in writing a book is to be able to finish it, isn’t it?
26.4 Mixed examples
These three subsets A, B and C coexist and together provide a way of

sentence classification. Although these combinations would give us 3 × 4
458 × 4 = 48 sentence types there are some more or less likely candidates.
We are not likely to find many complex, imperative, equational sentences Mixed
although, for demonstration purposes, a somewhat contrived example is examples
given in (c) below. In any but simple sentences we can of course also have
a mixture of sentence modes or verbal patterns, so in order to analyse
sentences accurately, individual clauses and their connections need to be
taken into account.
Here are just ten examples:
(a) A complex, B interrogative, C active – active
uvym yk zhnfu nh `x `s gukhl cfl `gfC?

you what know-2-P-HABIT not that he yesterday
move-PP-go-3-PR-PERF
Didn’t you know that he left yesterday?
(b) A compound, B declarative, C existential – existential
uhfqr Kvb a¶p smw yCl, uhChRh thkho yCl nh/

they-GEN very little time [was] that apart from money-EMP [was not]
They had very little time and apart from that there was no money either.
(c) A complex, B imperative, C equational – equational
uvym, xu k§ `Mhk, `khno ayBfxhg nh kfr, s™v§ Mo/

you how much trouble be-3IMP any complaint not do-PP satisfied
be-2F-PR-IMP
However hard it is, don’t complain and be satisfied.
(d) A compound, B declarative, C active – active
ahmrh ahzfk xhb nh yk≤ uvym eÇyn `xfu phr/

we today go-1-FUT not but you now go-IP be able to-2PR-S
We won’t go today but you can go right now.
(e) A complex, B interrogative, C existential – active
ùhmhr yk ghyR `ni `x ahmhfqr nhymfw yqfu phrfb?

you-GEN what car [is absent] that we-OBJ drop-PP give-IP be
able to-2F-FUT
Don’t you have a car so you can drop us off ?
(f) A simple, B declarative, C impersonal
`si mhnvfXr shmfn ygfw q£hRhfu ahr kUh blfu phrh xhfb?
that-EMP man-GEN in front of go-PP stand-IP and word speak-IP
be able to-VN go-3-FUT
Would it be possible to stand in front of that man and speak? 459
26 (g) A simple, B interrogative, C equational – impersonal
Sentence
ahuÖMujhr syTk khrN yk kKno zhnh xhw?
classification
suicide-GEN real reason what ever know-VN go-3-PR-S
Is it ever possible to know the real reason for a suicide?
(h) A complex, B declarative, C equational – active
ahym xyq BhrubfXòr rhzh Muhm, —yu mhfs ytykftr rL bqlhuhm/

I if India-GEN king be-1-P-HABIT each month-LOC stamp-GEN
colour change-1-P-HABIT
If I were the king of India I would change the colour of stamps
every month.
(i) A complex, B declarative, C active – equational – active
ahr ùhmhr mhys `x ahmhro sôpfkò mhys Mn uho uvym u£hfk yzf“s krfli
zhnfu phrfb/
and your aunt that-R my also relationship-LOC aunt be-3-H-PR-S
that-CR also you she-H-OBJ question-do-CP know-IP be able
to-2-FUT
And you can ask your aunt to find out that if she is your aunt she is
also my aunt.
(j) A complex, B declarative, C active – active – active
euyqfn bvfZyC `x ahym xyq smÄ zYbn Pvlkypr chX kfr khytfw yquvm,
uhMflo péyUbYth `xyqn QáLs Mbhr, `syqni Mu/
by now understand-1-PR-PERF that I if all life cauliflower
grow-do-PP spend-PP give-1-P-HABIT that be-CP world-CL that
day-R destroy-be-ba-VN-GEN that day-CR be-3-P-HABIT
By now I have understood that if I spent my whole life growing
cauliflowers, the world would still end on the day it was meant to end.
26.5 Sentence structure issues
The following paragraph offers some additional thoughts and questions

on sentence classification.
Non-finite verb forms do not count as sentence-structure-determining

elements in traditional analysis. This analysis is based solely on the number
of finite verb forms and seems to be clear and straightforward in principle.
In practice, however, four problems (there may be more) are immediately
460 apparent.
(a) verbal insets: Sentence
structure
uvym bvyZ Cvytfu xhÉC/ issues
you understand-1-PR-S holiday go-2-PR-C
I gather you are going on holiday.
`mfwth ùh `qyK bfs Uhkfu chw nh/

girl-CL EMP see-PR-S sit-PP stay-IP want-3-PR-S not
I can see the girl does not want to sit and wait.
Both these sentences contain two finite verb forms each.
(b) imperatives
Do imperatives count as finite verb forms? Since they are often the only
verbs in a sentence, they should surely have the same status as other
finite verbs. And if they do, how do we rate the following sentences?
ahym bflyC `xBhfb `Mhk uhfk Qfr ahnh chi/

I say-1-PR-PERF what way-LOC be-3-IMP he-OBJ hold-PP
bring-VN need
I said that, never mind how, he needed to be brought here.
ekUh Bhbfu ahmhfqr xu Khrhp lhgvk a…Ykhfrr `khno \phw `ni/

this word think-IP we-GEN how much bad feel-3-IMP denial-GEN
any way [is absent]
However much we dislike this, we can’t deny it.
(c) embedded (content) clauses and indirect speech
ahz ybkhfl ùhmhfqr dhkb `BfbyClhm/

today afternoon you-PL-OBJ call-1-FUT think-1-P-PERF
I thought I would call you this afternoon.
mn yñr kfryClhm cfl xhb/

mind-firm do-1-P-PERF move-PP go-1-FUT
I decided to leave.
Are these simple or complex sentences?
(d) non-finite verb forms
Consider the following three sentences:
ahym `SX krh nh pxò™ uhfqr afpÇh krfu Mfb/

I finish-do-VN not until they-OBJ wait-do-IP be-3-FUT
They will have to wait until I am finished. 461
26 zhnhlh Kvlfu aíkhr ykCvth Mhlkh Mfw ahfs/
Sentence window open-IP dark something-CLA light become-PP
classification come-3-PR-S
When (I) open the window the darkness becomes a bit lighter.
`k\ u£hr iÉChr ybfrhyQuh krfl sMj krfu phfrn nh/

someone his-H wish-GEN opposition-do-CP endurance-do-IP be
able to-3-PR-S not
He cannot tolerate someone going against his wish.
Is the internal structuring in these sentences insignificant?
In adding sentence modes and predicate structures for sentence classification,

the basic simple-complex-compound division loses some of its monopoly, and
the overt disregard of non-finite verb forms, embedded imperatives, verbal
insets and embedded clauses, becomes less significant. To demonstrate the
limits of the simple-compound-complex analysis, here are two sentences
which are constructed without conjunctions and which would count as
simple sentences in the traditional method of analysis. The complexity of
these sentences lies entirely in the non-finite verb forms.
qrzhr `Khlhr Sûq Mfui ahyqnhU mvK Gvyrfw qrzhr yqfk uhkhfui nYlhfk q£hyRfw
Uhkfu `qfK yz“hsh krfln . . .
door-GEN open-VN-GEN noise be-IP EMP Adinath face turn-PP
door-GEN direction-LOC look-IP EMP Nila-OBJ stand-PP see-PP
question-do-3H-P-S . . .
When he heard the sound of the door opening Adinath turned his face
towards the door and, seeing Nila standing there, said . . .
ùhmhfk ahz K£vfz bhr krfu nh phrfl uvym gBYr Ùfk gBYrur mrß—h™frr mfQj
ygfw pfR khl qvpvr nhghq ué”hw —hN Mhrhfu/
you-OBJ today search find-IP not be able to-CP you deep from
deeper desert edge-GEN in go-PP fall-PP tomorrow midday until life
lose-2-P-HABIT
If I had been unable to find you today, you would have gone deeper
and deeper into the desert and would have been dead by midday
tomorrow.
The following discussion of different types of sentences will focus on B

(mode) and C (predicate structure) and then move on to compound and
complex sentences. I will, for the purpose of this interpretation, consider
non-finites which have their own subjects as capable of creating subordinate
462 clauses. They are:
1 the conditional participle. It seems to me that uvym xKn xhfb when you go, Sentence
uvym xyq xho if you go and uvym `gfl when you go or if you go should all structure
have the same syntactical weight. uhMfl if this is so and nifl otherwise issues
have established themselves as independent conjunctions.
2 temporal independent imperfective participles (Ch. 21.3.1–2)
bhbh `b£fc Uhkfu `k\ `Cflthfk `khno Çyu kru nh/

father live-PP stay-IP someone boy-CL-OBJ any harm
do-3-P-HABIT not
While his father was alive no one would have harmed the boy.
3 genitive verbal nouns with a preceding nominative subject and a
following postposition (Ch. 20.2.1)
rßnh yBufr `Dhkhr ahfg ghdò uhfk `qfK `PflfC/

Runa inside-LOC enter-VN-GEN before guard she-OBJ see-PP
throw-3-PR-PERF
Before Runa had got inside, the guard spotted her.
uhrh bsbhr ahfg péUáYS ct kfr \fT q£hRhflh/
they sit-baVN-GEN Pritish quickly rise-PP stand-3-P-S
Before they sat down, Pritish got up quickly.
463
Chapter 27
Modes
A detailed description of predicate patterns, i.e. active, existential, impersonal

and equational structures (C), is given below but first we will briefly look
at the salient features of sentence modes (B), i.e. declarative, interrogative,
imperative and exclamatory sentences.
27.1 Declarative sentences
Declarative sentences in syntax are what the nominative is within the case
system, namely the most common, the least marked and the most impor
tant type of sentence. Declarative sentences make statements.
—yuyqn uhr Kbr phyÉC/

every day his news get-1-PR-C
We hear his news every day.
ahpyn er ahfgr ebL pfrr kybuhgvflhfu phfbn/
you this-GEN early-GEN and late-GEN poem-PL-CL-LOC
find-3-FUT
You will find this in earlier and later poems than this one.
uhfqrfk mhfZ mfQj `s thkho phThw/
they-OBJ sometimes she money also send-3-PR-S
Sometimes she also sends them money.
afnk rhfu ycJkhr-`c£chfmyc o qrzh QhŒhfnhr Sfûq Gvm BhWl/
much night-LOC shouting screaming and door knocking-GEN noise
sleep break-3-P-S
From all the shouting, screaming and door slamming his sleep
464 was ruined.
ahmrh skhfl \fT yqybj ahrhfm ynyŸcf™ bfs Kbfrr khgfz sLbhq pRlhm/ Interrogatives
we morning get up-PP heavenly comfort-LOC unperturbed sit-PP
newspaper-LOC news read-1-P-S
We got up in the morning in heavenly comfort and sat down unperturbed
to read the newspaper.
yk≤ BhygnYytr opr yuyn rhg krfu phfrn nh/
but niece-CL-GEN on he-H anger-do-IP be able to-3H-PR-S not
But he cannot bring himself to be angry with his niece.
Declarative sentences can contain all of the following:
indirect questions:
`s zhnfu chw uvym ch Khfb yk nh/

he know-IP want-3-PR-S you tea drink-2-FUT what not
He wants to know whether you will have some tea or not.
indirect speech:
\yn ahmhfk bflfCn `x u£hr khlfk ahsh s®b Mfb nh/

he I-OBJ say-3-PR-PERF that he-H-GEN tomorrow come-VN possible
be-3-FUT not
He has told me that he will be unable to come tomorrow.
imperatives:
ahym, `xmn kyrfw `Mhk, ùhmhr oKhfn xhb/

I as cause to do-PP be-3-IMP you-GEN there go-1-FUT
I will come to see you, whatever it takes.
modals:
xh krfu Mfb uh `s krfb/

what-R do-IP be-3-FUT that-CR he do-3-FUT
He will do what needs to be done.
The overall shape of these sentences remains declarative despite these
embeddings.
27.2 Interrogatives
Individual question words were discussed in Chapter 11. Here we are

concerned with types of questions. Many questions are asked in order to
elicit some information but we also use questions to make statements, 465
27 express doubt or to show our attitude to someone. There is a difference
Modes between affirmative and negative questions.
27.2.1 Yes–no questions (affirmative)
The simplest type of question is the one that can be answered with yes or
no.
Does he live here? Yes.

Do you know him? No.
Is it Wednesday today? Yes.
While in English questions we have a reversal of subject and verb, in Bangla

the word order does not change but the question marker yk is inserted
straight after the subject:
`s eKhfn Uhfk/ He lives here. `s yk eKhfn Uhfk? Does he live here?

uvym uhfk `cn/ You know him. uvym yk uhfk `cn? Do you know him?
ahz bvQbhr/ Today is Wednesday. ahz yk bvQbhr? Is it Wednesday today?
In spoken language this yk is often omitted and the only difference between
a statement and a question is in the rising intonation of the question.
Occasionally the question marker yk is moved to the end of the sentence

with no effect on the meaning.
uvym uhfk `cn yk? Do you know him?
Answers to these questions can be a straight M£jh yes or nh no, but more
often the reply takes up some part of the question. In English we do the
same but a different part of the question is taken up.
question reply affirmative reply negative
Did you see him? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t.

uvym yk uhfk `qfKC? M£jh, `qfKyC/ nh, `qyKyn/
Is he ill? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t.
uhr yk asvK MfwfC? M£jh, MfwfC/ nh, Mwyn/
Do you like him? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
ùhmhr yk uhfk Bhfl lhfg? M£jh, lhfg/ nh, lhfg nh/
Did it rain? Yes, it did. No, it didn’t.
béy§ MfwfC? M£jh, MfwfC/ nh, Mwyn/
Are they leaving tomorrow? Yes, they are. No, they are not.
466 orh yk khlfk xhfÉC? M£jh, xhfÉC/ nh, xhfÉC nh/
These are rather simple example sentences but they show the pattern. While Interrogatives
English leaves out the main verb and retains the pronoun, Bangla leaves
out the pronouns and retains the verb forms in answers of this kind.
27.2.2 Yes–no questions (negative)
Negative questions have an underlying expectation. nh (no) confirms this

expectation, M£jh (yes) refutes it.
ghnth yk Bhl lhfg nh? nh, Bhl lhfg nh/ M£jh, Bhl lhfg/
Don’t you like the song? No, I don’t. Yes, I do.
b∆éuhth yk Bhl Mwyn? nh, Mwyn/ M£jh, Bhl MfwfC/
Wasn’t the lecture good? No, it wasn’t. Yes, it was.
ùmhr yk `Cfl `ni? nh, `ni/ M£jh, ahfC/
Don’t you have a son? No, I don’t. Yes, I do.
Here are some more examples:
ahpyn ei phglhymth Uhmhfu phrfbn nh?
you this EMP madness-CL stop-IP be able to-2H-FUT not
Can’t you stop this madness?
eth yk ùhmhr ycyT nw?
this-CL what your letter [is not]
Is this not your letter?
uvym yk ahmhr —fSär \≠r `qfb nh?
you what my question-GEN reply give=2-FUT not
Will you not reply to my question?
efqfS yk Qhn Mw nh?
this country-LOC rice be-3-PR-S not
Does rice not grow in this country?
27.2.3 uhi nh Is this not so? nhyk no?
uhi nh? or uhi nhyk? can stand alone in response to something the speaker
has just been told, meaning Is that so? Really? They can, but do not have
to, imply doubt.
implying doubt:
'eth Svfn Kvb KvyS MfwyC/" 'uhi nhyk?"
this-CL hear-PP very happy be-1-PR-PERF that EMP not what
‘I am very happy to hear that.’ ‘Really?’ 467
27 'ahmhr khfC thkh ùh `ni/" 'uhi nh?"
Modes I-GEN with money EMP [is absent] that EMP not
‘I don’t have any money with me.’ ‘Really?’
not implying doubt:
'uhrh bvyZ Cvytfu `gfC/" 'uhi nh?"

they understand-1-PR-S holiday-LOC go-3-PR-PERF that EMP not
‘I think they are away on holiday.’ ‘Is that so?’
uhi nh? and nhyk? are added to or embedded in affirmative or negative state
ments. Their purpose is to seek confirmation or reassurance. They are
equivalent to English tag questions of the type:
It’s a bit expensive, isn’t it?

ethr qhm ektv `byS, uhi nh?
this-CL-GEN price too much that EMP not
eKhfn ahmhr ahsfu `ni nhyk?
here I-GEN come-IP [is absent] not what
I am not allowed to come here, am I?
`shzh bjhphr nhyk?
straight matter not what
It’s quite straightforward, isn’t it?
SvfnyC nhyk Kvb sv~qr/
hear not what very beautiful
I have heard that (it) is very beautiful. Is it?
nh not on its own can be attached to short equational and incomplete
sentences:
ghnth Kvb sv~qr, nh?

song-CL very beautiful no
The song is very beautiful, no?
Kvb qhym, nh?
very expensive no
It is very expensive, no?
27.2.4 `kmn How about it?
`kmn how is often used following a suggestion for confirmation from the
468 hearer:
ahym sfÃ xhb/ `kmn? Interrogatives
I with go-1-FUT how
I’ll go too. OK?
ahym `Prhr pfU bhzhr Ùfk mhLsth ynfw ahys/ `kmn?
I return-VN-GEN way-LOC market from meat-CL take-PP
come-1-PR-S how
On the way back I’ll bring the meat from the market. OK?
27.2.5 xyq if
xyq is a relative conjunction used in conditional sentences. When the main

clause of a conditional sentence is dropped, xyq produces What if? ques
tions. These types of questions often seek reassurance.
xyq béy§ Mw? What if it rains?

o xyq nh b£hfc? What if he does not survive?
zhMhz xyq dvfb xhw? What if the ship sinks?
xyq khzth krfu nh phyr? What if I can’t do the work?
xyq rhg kfr? What if he is angry?
xyq skhfl sVxò nh ofT? What if the sun does not rise tomorrow
morning?
27.2.6 Embedded questions
Questions can be embedded in declarative sentences or in other questions.

Some more examples are given in Ch. 29.6, content clauses.
`s yk khz kfrn ahym uhfk —Sä kyryn/

he what work do-3-H-PR-S I question-do-1-PR-S not
I did not ask him what work he does.
uvym xhfb yk Uhkfb uh SvQv uvymi zhn/
you go-2FUT what stay-2-FUT that only you EMP know-2-PR-S
Only you know whether you are going or staying.
uvym yk yc™h kr nh uhrh ùhmhfk `kmn mfn kfr?
you what worry-do-2-PR-S they you-OBJ how mind-LOC
do-3-PR-S
Are you not worried what they think about you?
469
27
27.2.7 Rhetorical questions
Modes
These are questions with attitude which do not expect a reply. Some of
them contain sarcasm, others imply criticism. Here are just a few examples.
As these sentences depend heavily on context, the translations are often
inadequate.
cvp kfr Uhkfu phr nh?

quiet do-PP stay-IP be able to-2-PR-S not
Can’t you shut up?
xu `qhX sb SvQv ahmhr?
how much fault only I-GEN
Is everything just my fault?
`s yk `r?
that what INT
What on earth is that? or What’s going on?
ahfr QvjJ, ahym yk e kUh blhr znj ahpnhfk `dfkyC?
INT I what you this word say-VN-GEN for you-H-OBJ call-1-PR-PERG
Damn it, did I call you to talk about that?
As we saw earlier (Ch.11) many question words are also used as exclama
tive expressions. More examples can be found below (Ch. 27.4).
27.3 Imperatives
Imperatives are forms of direct address with the intention of making the
hearer act in certain ways. Present tense imperative verb forms are iden
tical to the verb forms in declarative sentences and the only difference
between a declarative and an imperative structure lies in the omission of
the personal pronoun. Imperatives can be formed from active, existential
and equational sentences.
active 2F declarative: uvym bhzhfr xho/ You go to the market.

3F `s bhzhfr xhw/ He goes to the market.
2F imperative: bhzhfr xho/ Go to the market.
3F bhzhfr xhk/ Let him go to the market.
existential 2H declarative: ahpyn bhyRfu ahfCn/ You are at home
3H \yn bhyRfu ahfCn/ She is at home.
2H imperative: bhyRfu Uhkvn/ Stay at home.
470 3H bhyRfu Uhkvn/ Let her stay at home.
equational 2F declarative: uvym Kvb Bhl mhnvX/ You are a very good Imperatives
man.
3F `s Kvb Bhl mhnvX/ He is a very good man.
2F imperative: Bhl mhnvX Mo/ Be a good man!
3F Bhl mhnvX `Mhk/ May he be a good man.
Just as in English, the impact and intention of imperatives ranges from
curt commands to polite requests. Bangla differs from English in its sheer
numbers of imperatives (given in Ch. 6.10), due to the distinction between
persons (intimate, familiar and polite), 2nd and 3rd person and between
present tense and future tense. The actual difference in use between present
and future imperatives is not very pronounced in affirmative sentences as
far as the time element is concerned. In many cases, the future imperative
is less direct and, therefore, more polite.
Two other general points need to be made before we look at the

examples.
27.3.1 Reinforced imperatives with nh and `g /gh
Both the second person present imperative (identical to simple present

verb forms) and the third person ordinary imperative can be reinforced or
made more polite with the particle nh. This is not a way of negating the
imperatives.
xho nh! Do go! ahr ektv Khn nh! Go on, eat a bit more!
si krßn nh! Do sign! Uhk nh! Let it be!
thkh yqk nh! Let him pay! Uhm nh! Please stop!
ahpyn ahlvr chX Svrß krßn nh!

you potato cultivation start do-2H-PR-IMP nh
Start growing potatoes!
This reinforcing nh is kept in the gloss to distinguish it from the negative.
Another particle `g (undoubtedly a short form of ygfw having gone) appears

frequently with third person imperatives and often adds a dismissive
tone.
`Mhkfg! Let it happen, who cares?

krßkfg! He can do what he likes, it’s nothing to me!
mrßkfg! He can die for all I care!
xhkfg! Let it go, it doesn’t matter! 471
27 It can also occur with second person imperatives and is sometimes realised
Modes as gh:
uhRhuhyR kr gh! Hurry up!
ahmhfk ybX efn qho gh, ahmhfk pvyRfw `mfr `Pl `g!
I-OBJ poison bring-PP give-2-PR-IMP gh I-OBJ cause to burn-PP hit-PP
throw-2-PR-IMP `g
Get me some poison, set me on fire and kill me!
27.3.2 Negative imperatives
In order to negate second person imperatives, the future tense imperatives

or, quite often, the future tense indicative forms are used:
ei kUh bflh / blfb nh! Don’t say that!

eu skhfl cfl `xfwh / xhfb nh! Don’t leave so early!
oKhfn ahr Ùfkh / Uhkfb nh! Don’t stay there any more!
rhg kfrh / krfb nh/ Don’t be angry!
q£hyRfw Ùfkh / Uhkfb nh/ Don’t keep standing!
In order to negate third person imperatives the negative is placed before

the verb.
nh ahsvk! Let him not come!

uhfk nh dhkvk! Let him not be called!
thkh nh ynk! Let him not take the money!
kUhth nh blvk! Let him not say this!
`qKfu nh phk, zhnfu nh phrßk, ahym ynfz ùh zhyn/

see-IP not get-3-IMP know-IP not be able to-3-IMP I self EMP
know-1-PR-S
lit: let (them) not get to see, let (them) not be able to know, I myself
know
Even if no one else saw or knew, I know!
ahmhr `Cfl ahfC/ ahr `k\ ahSî∞w nh yqk, `si `qfbi/

my son [is present] more someone shelter not give-3-IMP he give-3-FUT
My son is there. He will offer shelter, even if no one else does.
Third person imperatives often require a different mode in English and do

not come out as imperatives at all. It is not unusual in everyday conversa
472 tions for imperatives to contain:
a direct address: svzn, eiyqfk ahs/ Sujon, come this way! Imperatives
a general
exclamation: oi `x, ektv Svfn xhn! Hey there, listen a moment!
or the pronoun: uvym ykCv blfb nh/ Don’t say anything!
An imperative like uvym cvp kfr Uhk! Keep quiet! differs from a declarative
sentence only in the tone of voice.
27.3.3 Second person imperatives
ahz ahr béy§fu yBfzh nh/ ahz bhyR xho/

today more rain-LOC get wet-2-FUT IMP not today home
go-2F-PR-IMP
Don’t get wet in the rain any more today. Go home!
sYuh, ∏uyr Mfw Uhyks/
Sita ready be-PP stay-2I-FUT IMP
Sita, be ready!
ùhmhr gwnh ynfu Bvfl `xo nh yk≤/
your jewellery take-IP forget-PP go-2-FUT-IMP not but
But don’t forget to take your jewellery.
uhfk ahmhr yTkhnh yqfwh nh/
he-OBJ my address give-2-FUT-IMP not
Don’t give him my address.
Here is a sentence with both a 2nd person and a 3rd person imperative.
es, ùhmrh, eKhfni bsh xhk/

come-2-FUT-IMP here sit-VN go-3-IMP
Come, you, let’s sit down here.
27.3.4 Third person imperatives
Third person imperatives have a wide range of uses, from blessings to

curses, from encouragement to couldn’t care less pronouncements. The
regular Uhkvk for the 3rd person imperative of Uhkh stay is usually shortened
to Uhk when it has an inanimate subject.
o Uhkvk! Let him stay!

bjhphrth Uhk! Let the matter rest! 473
27 In addition to turning active sentences `s xhfb/ He will go into imperatives
Modes xhk! Let him go! there are many instances of impersonal verbal noun plus
xhowh imperatives which really make statements about the speaker rather
than any third person.
A very common phrase in introducing an assumption is:
Qfr `nowh xhk . . .

hold-PP take-VN go-3-IMP
Let us assume . . .
ektv ch Khowh xhk/

some tea drink-VN go-3-IMP
Let us have some tea!
ahz ahr nw, u£hbv `Pl, ybSîhm krh xhk/

today more [is not] tent throw-2-PR-IMP rest do-VN go-3-IMP
No more today, set up the tent, let’s have a rest!
`qKh xhk/
Let’s see.
Here are some blessings:
shrh ybSá `Mhk Shy™mw/

whole world be-3-IMP peaceful
May the whole world be at peace!
yuyn ùhmhr mÃl krßn/

he-H your-GEN good do-3H-IMP
May he bless you!
ùhmhr zYbn sPl `Mhk/

your life successful be-3-IMP
May your life be successful.
Some more worldly examples:
xhkfg, esb bhfz kUh/

go-3-IMP INT this all nonsense word
Forget it, all this nonsense!
xh mfn krfb krßk/

what mind-LOC do-3-FUT do-3-IMP
474 Let them think what they want.
pRvk `BfW! Imperatives
fall-3-IMP break-IP
Let it break!
yBR ektv kmvk nh, Khynkth pfrr bhfs xhb/
crowd a bit reduce-3-IMP some-CL later-GEN bus-LOC go-1-FUT
Let’s wait until there is less of a crowd. I’ll go on a slightly later bus.
ahz smÄ ahkhS uhr smÄ ybqjvJ ynfw yGfr ahsvk nh, qvfl \Tvk aíkhfrr bnjh,
lvú kfr yqk ei pvrhfnh pyrycu zYbfnr `SX sYmh™ `rKh/
today whole sky it-GEN whole lightning with surround-PP come-3-IMP
nh swing-PP rise-3-IMP darkness-GEN flood abolish-do-PP give-3-IMP
this EMP old familiar life-GEN end border line
Let the whole sky surround (us) with all its lightning, let the oscillating
flood of darkness rise up and remove the last borders of this old,
familiar life.
27.3.5 Expanded imperatives
Simple imperative verb forms can be expanded to give specific instructions

or to indicate the desired result. `xn so that is often used in these expan
sions. The imperative clause is the main clause in these structures.
`qK `xn Mhrhw nh/

see-2-PR-IMP so that lose-3-PR-S not
Make sure it doesn’t get lost!
ofqr ylfK qho `xn khl ahfs/
they-OBJ write-PP give-2-PR-IMP so that tomorrow come-3-PR-S
Write to them and ask them to come tomorrow!
xh krhr uhRhuhyR krßn/
what-R do-VN-GEN quickly do-2H-PR-IMP
Do quickly what has to be done!
ofk bflh `xn uhRhuhyR kfr/
he-OBJ say-2-PR-IMP so that quickly do-3-PR-S
Tell him to hurry up!
qrzh `Khflh `xn sbhi yBufr ahsfu phfr/
door open-2-PR-IMP so that everyone inside come-IP be able
to-3-PR-S
Open the door so that everyone can come inside! 475
27
27.3.6 Embedded imperatives
Modes
The following sentences have third person imperatives embedded in them.
This means they are not imperative in their overall structure, but the imper
atives are crucial components in these sentences. These uses go far beyond
the usually expected scope of imperatives. The distinctive structure
relative + imperative + nh `kn not why

xu Bhl `Mhk nh `kn
however good it may be
has a whatever meaning, much like a relative preceding an indefinite pro
noun (`x `k\).
The following five sentences are equational in structure:
ahr `SX pxò™ `c§h chlhfnhi uhr afBjs - PlhPl xh-i `Mhk nh/
and end until attempt-carry on-VN EMP his habit result what-R EMP
be-3-IMP nh
And it was his habit to keep trying until the end, whatever the result.
srkhr xui —ymz krßk nh `kn, `—hdhkSn mhfn Mhzhrth Zhfmlh/
government how much EMP promise do-3-IMP not why production
meaning thousand-CL problem
However many promises the government makes, production is a hazardous
business.
`lKh nh Uhk, uhr mvfKr kUhi xfU§/
write-VN not stay-3-IMP his mouth-GEN word EMP sufficient
Never mind about writing, his spoken word is enough.
iLfryzfu uhfqr “hn `xmni `Mhk nh `kn, uhrh bhLlh BhXhw qvbòl/
English-LOC their knowledge how EMP be-3-IMP not why they
Bangl-LOC weak
However clever they were in English, they were weak in the Bangla language.
bjhphrth eKhfni iyu `Mhk ethi yCl uhr khmj/
matter-CL here EMP end be-3-IMP this-CL EMP [was] his wish
It was his wish that the matter end here.
In the next two sentences the imperatives function as content clauses.
ahym ùh chi, ahpnhr mvK Ùfk urßNrh Svnvk ebL `bhZhr `c§h krßk/
I EMP want-1-PR-S your-H mouth from young-PL hear-3-IMP and
understand-VN-GEN attempt-do-3-IMP
476 But I want the young people to hear it from you and try to understand.
ahmhr Çyu `Mhk emn khz o krfui phfr nh/ Exclamations
I-GEN harm be-3-IMP such work he do-IP EMP be able to not
He would not do anything to harm me.
And here is a correlative structure:
orho Svnvk, ySKvk, xuth bvZfu phfr bvZvk/
they also hear-3-IMP learn-3-IMP how much-CL understand-IP be able
to-3-PR-S understand-3-IMP
Let them also hear, learn and understand what they are able to understand.
chowh want often triggers a third person imperative:
ahmrh chi nh `s ahmhfqr ghyR chlhk/
we want-1-PR-S not he our car drive-3-IMP
We don’t want him to drive our car.
ahsfl uhr mh chifun nh uhr bhbh `qfS thkh phThk/
actually her mother want-3H-P-HABIT not her father country-LOC
money send-3-IMP
Actually her mother did not want her father to send money back home.
27.4 Exclamations
Exclamative sentences are usually short. They can make use of question
words, relative pronouns or deictics:
yk KvyS lhgfC! How happy he felt!
yk sv~qr Pvl! What beautiful flowers!
ku Bhl mhnvX! What a good man!
yk ybSîY! How ugly!
yk l°h! What an embarrassment!
kubhr blfu Mfb! How often do I need to say it!
ahym `khn smw efsyC! I have been here for ages!
`s ku `Kfu phfr! How much he can eat!
`kmn shMs! What courage!
xh grm! How hot!
`s `lhk! That man!
xh `qfKyC! What I have seen!
eu thkh! So much money!
uhfk ku ykCv blfu `cfwfC! How much he had to tell her!
xh `Kwhyl mhnvX `s! What a capricious man he is!
uhr `qS `x xfShfr uh `k zhnu! Who would have thought that she
was from Jessore! 477
27 They can consist simply of short declarative sentences, sometimes with ùh,
Modes sometimes incomplete. Often just a change of tone indicates the change in
mode.
yTk ahfC! OK! cmJkhr qéSj ùh! Fantastic view!

Kvb ahnf~qr Kbr ùh/ Wonderful news! ekmhs Qfr! A whole month!
yBfR yBR! What crowds! Kvb bjUh lhgfC! How it hurt!
ahr nh! No more! mfr `gyC! I am finished!
They can consist of interjections:
Mhwfr! Oh dear! yC yC! Yuk!

Examples of interjections were given in Ch. 12.3.
Both xyq if and `xn as if, if only can produce exclamative phrases. Phrases
with xyq are usually in the past habitual. The verb in `xn clauses is in the
simple present.
ahym xyq uhfk a™u ybqhw yqfu phruhm!

I only he-OBJ at least farewell give-IP be able to-1-P-HABIT
If only I could at least have said goodbye to him!
ekbhro xyq ùhfk `qKuhm bvyºmhfnr mu ekth khz krfu!
one time if you-OBJ see-1-P-HABIT wise person-Like one-CL work
do-IP
If I had once seen you do anything sensible!
ùhmhr BîmN `xn Shy™pVNò Mw/
your travel so that peaceful be-3-PR-S
May your travels be peaceful!
aml `xn `byS `qyr nh kfrn, `qyr nh kfrn!
Amal that much delay not do-3-H-PR-S delay not do-3-H-PR-S
If only Amal comes not too late, not too late!
478
Chapter 28
Patterns
The four sentence patterns we have identified (active, existential, impersonal

and equational) are based on the predicates we find in them. There are sub
groups in each category and there is also some overlap between the groups.
The description of each sentence pattern moves from simple to more
complex structures, using mainly declarative examples.
28.1 Active sentences
All verbs in Bangla are capable of forming active sentences but some verbs
have a preference for impersonal structures. They will be discussed in the
subsequent sections.
(a) with animate subjects
`s GvmhfÉC/ She is sleeping.

ahmrh `Mfs \Tlhm/ We laughed.
`mfwyt k£hqfC/ The girl is crying.
uhrh `nfcfC/ They dance.
`s eKno mrfb nh/ He will not yet die.
ahmrh Bhu Khi/ We eat rice.
uhrh qv§ym krfC/ They are being naughty.
ahym ykCv zhyn nh/ I don’t know anything.
orh rßyt bhnhw/ They make bread.
uvym ghn ghifu phr? Can you sing a song?
o skhfl ahsfb/ He will come in the morning.
ahym uhfk shMhxj kfryC/ I helped him.
ycyTth uvym khr khfC yqfwC? To whom did you give the letter?
ahym rhêhGfr ∏uyr MyÉC/ I am getting ready in the kitchen.
ahym ùhmhr khfC thkh phThb/ I will send you money. 479
28 `s skhfl gh `Qhw/ He has a shower in the morning.
Patterns uhrh ahmhfqr zfnj afpÇh krfC/ They are waiting for us.
(b) with inanimate subjects
béy§ MfÉC/ It is raining.

`mG dhkfC/ It is thundering.
béy§ nhmfu lhgl/ It started raining.
phyn zfm `gfC/ Water has accumulated.
nqYr zl kfm xhfÉC/ The water-level in the river is
going down.
eisb rhÄh SMfrr yqfk `gfC/ All these roads went into town.
c£hq ahmhr qéy§r bhifr cfl `gfC/ The moon has moved out of my
sight.
Kbfrr khgz efs `gfC/ The newspaper has arrived.
uhfqr bhyR `BfW pfR `gfC/ Their house has collapsed.
Cybth ahmhfk Kvb Bhbhl/ The picture made me think a lot.
—Säth \fTo yn/ The question did not even arise.
`zjhJsähw `Bfs xhfÉC Chq/ The roof was bathed in moonlight.
`khUho `khno ahflh záflyn/ There was no light on anywhere.
bjhphrth Gtl yTk uKn/ The incident happened just then.
rybr mnth qfm `gfC/ Robi’s mind became subdued.
We see from these sentences that the English translations do not always
match the Bangla active sentence structures. All types of verbs can be used
in active structures. More examples can be found in Chapters 15 to 19.
28.2 Existential structures
Existential sentences are formed with the incomplete verb ahC- be, be
present. Existential sentences have two main subgroups: (1) locative
existentials and (2) possessive existentials. The difference between the two
types is the presence of a genitive human experiencer (possessor) in
possessiveexistential sentences. Other existential sentence types (3) include
Bhl, yTk, verbal adjectives and stative adjective structures. What all existen
tial sentences have in common is that they are negated with `ni/
A chart for the forms of ahC- is given Ch. 15.2. For more on the relation
ship between Uhkh and ahfC see Ch. 32, Aspect.
480
28.2.1 Locative existentials Existential
structures
Locative existentials have nominative subjects and verb agreement. They usu
ally include a location, which can also be a time, but there are also purely
existential sentences such as:
BVu ahfC? Do ghosts exist?
shgrgvflh ahfC bfl ahmhfqr péyUbY ahr sb gîM Ùfk ahlhqh/

sea-CL-PL [is present]-3 say-PP our earth more all planet from different
Our earth is different from all other planets because of the existence of oceans.
ahym eKhfn ahyC/ I am here.

mh `khUhw ahfCn? Where is mother?
biyt `tybfl ahfC/ The book is on the table.
bhLlhfqfS afnk nqY ahfC/ There are many rivers in Bangladesh.
uhr mfn afnk ahfz bhfz yc™h ahfC/

his mind-LOC much nonsense worry [is present]
There is a lot of nonsense going around in his head.
`khUho `khno Bvl `ni ùh?

somewhere any mistake [is absent] EMP
There are no mistakes anywhere, surely?
myN Bhifqr sfÃ ahyC/

Mani brother-PL-GEN with [is present]-1
I am with my brother Mani and his family.
ahz skhfl ahpyn ek ybyc« `mzhfz ahfCn/

today morning-LOC you-H one different mood-LOC [is present]-H
You are in a funny mood this morning.
ifãtSn `xKhfn yCl, `sKhfn eKn ekth mÄ gvqhm/

station where-R [was] there-CR now one-CL big warehouse.
There is a big warehouse now where the station used to be.
ei gîhfm ybml nhfm ekzn `lhfkr bhyR ahfC/

this EMP village-LOC Bimal name-LOC one-CL person-GEN home
[is present]
In this village is the home of a man called Bimal.
eKhfn zhwghr `khno aBhb `ni/

here place-GEN any lack [is absent]
There is no lack of space here. 481
28 `s or …Bhfb `ni/
Patterns that his nature-LOC [is absent]
That is not in his nature.
ku rkfmr Bhi ùh ahfC zgfu/
how much kind-GEN brother EMP [is present] world-LOC
How many types of brothers there are in the world!
28.2.2 Possessive-existentials
The word ‘possessive’ is used in the widest possible sense in this context. The
minimum requirement for these structures is a genitive nounphrase which
governs the rest of the sentence. Here are four examples for a closer look:
(i) personal–possessive
ahmhr ekth nuvn `cwhr ahfC/
I-GEN one-CL new chair [is present]
I have a new chair.
(ii) personal–relational
ahmhr …hmY ahfCn/
I-GEN husband [is present]-3H
I have a husband.
(iii) personal–characteristic
uhr ∏Qxò `ni/
he-GEN patience [is absent]
He has no patience.
(iv) personal–experiential
uhr esb ufµr zhnh ahfC/
he-GEN this all theory-GEN know-VN [is present]
He knows all these theories.
Further examples:
uhr ekzno bív `ni/
he-GEN one-CL friend [is absent]
He doesn’t have a single friend.
bhbhr yunth GyR yCl/
father three-CL watch [was]
482 Father had three watches.
ahmhfqr Mwfuh ykCv Bvl «ßyt ahfC/ Existential
we-GEN perhaps some mistake fault [is present] structures
Perhaps we have some faults and shortcomings.
zYbfnr `Sxyqn pxò™ khz kfr xhowhr iÉCh ahmhr ahfC/
life-GEN end day until work do-PP go-VN-GEN wish i-GEN [is present]
I have the wish to carry on working until the final day of my life.
ahr ubv ero ekth ahkXòN ahfC/
and but this-GEN also one-CL attraction [is present]
And still, this also has an attraction.
`khno pyrk¶pnhr qîßu sôphqnhr —yuBh yCl u£hr ashmhnj/
any planning-GEN quick accomplishment-GEN genius [was]
he-H-GEN extraordinary
He had an extraordinary gift for carrying out plans.
ahpnhr ygyêr sfÃ phrhr Çmuh ahpnhfqr khro `ni/
your wife-GEN with be able to-VN-GEN power you-PL-GEN
someone-GEN [is absent]
None of you can compete with the competence of your wife.
ahmhr yk≤ esb `SKhr `khno `Z£hk `ni/
I-GEN but this all learn-VN-GEN any inclination [is absent]
But I have no inclination to learn all this.
uhr `s rkm `khno Bw `ni/
he-GEN that kind any fear [is absent]
He has no such fears.
qéSj o aqéSj sb ykCvri ekyt bh ekhyQk r∑p ahfC/
seen and unseen all something-GEN one-CL or a few form [is present]
Seen or unseen, everything has one or more than one form.
kUh blbhr abñh uhr yCl nh/
word speak-VN-GEN state he-GEN [was] not
He was not in a fit state to talk.
uhr ei bjhphfr Çmuh `ni/

he-GEN this matter-LOC power [is absent]
He has no say in this matter.
afnjr ã«Y `kfR `nbhr afBjs u£hr `ni/

other-GEN wife snatch away-PP take-baVN-GEN habit he-H-GEN
[is absent]
He is not in the habit of snatching away other men’s wives. 483
28 ahzkhl péyUbYr sb `qfS khgfzr chyMqh ahfC/
Patterns nowadays world-GEN all country-LOC paper-GEN need [is present]
Nowadays all countries in the world have a need for paper.
28.2.3 Adjectives, verbal adjectives, abstract nouns
The majority of structures with a noun and a predicative adjective are

equational:
ahym KvyS/ I am happy. `s chlhk/ He is clever. khgzth yBzh/ The paper is wet.
The two verbs Bhl good and yTk correct have additional existential uses in
which the adjectives take on a separate meaning.
equational existential
ahym Bhl/ I am good. ahym Bhl ahyC/ I am well.
ahym Bl ni/ I am not good. ahym Bhl `ni/ I am not well.
eth yTk/ That is correct. eth yTk ahfC/ That is fine.
eth yTk nw/ That is not correct. eth yTk `ni/ That is not right.
The phrase yTk `ni is used to mean it is uncertain.
ku yqn bjbMhr krh Mw yn uhr yTk `ni/

how much day use do-VN not be-3-PR-PERF right [is absent]
We don’t know for sure how long it has been out of use.
ahpyn `kmn ahfCn?

you how [is present]-H
How are you?
Other adjectives, verbal nouns and abstract nouns are used in existential
structures. They often correspond to there is structures in English:
bith `tybflr \pfr rhKh ahfC/

book-CL table-GEN on put-VA [is present]
There is a book on the table.
aUòhJ yBufrr bhwvr chp apyrbyuòu ahfC/

namely inside-GEN air-pressure unchanged [is present]
This means that the air pressure inside is constant.
uhr ahshr s®hbnh ahfC/

his come-VN-GEN possibility [is present]
484 It is possible that he will come.
sbhi ahfgr mu yCl/ Impersonal
everyone before-GEN like [was] structures
Everyone was the same as before.
ahr `khno \phw yCl nh/

more any way [was] not
There was no other way.
28.2.4 Omission of ahC-
ahC- can be omitted in simple present tense sentences only if there is no

scope for misunderstanding.
In simple locativeexistential sentences:
ahym eKhfn/ I am here.

uhrh yqy^fu/ They are in Delhi.
`Phnth uhr Mhfu/ The phone is in his hand.
`sKhfn ekth Zrnh/ There is a fountain there.
biyt `tybfl/ The book is on the table.
Mhsphuhl oiyqfk/ The hospital is that way.
In possessive–existential sentences when a numeral or quantifier is

present:
uhfqr yunth `Cfl/ They have three sons.

ahmhr ykCv Gvfmr aBhb/ I lack sleep.
ahmhr ek Bhi/ I have one brother.
uhr afnk åN/ He has big debts.
ahmhr ekyt —Sä/ I have a question.
or qvyt mh« zhmh/ He has only two shirts.
The potential omission of ahC- also depends on the context. It is not

unusual to hear ahpnhr yk `Cfl bh `mfw? Do you have a boy or a girl? or uhr
ahz prYÇh He has an exam today. The deciding factor for the omission of
ahC- is comprehensibility.
28.3 Impersonal structures
The characteristic feature of impersonal structures is that they do not have

agreement between a nominative agent and the verb. Impersonal sentences 485
28 have third person verb forms and often, though not always, genitive
Patterns experiencer subjects.
If we compare (1) ahym uhfk pC~q kyr/

I he-OBJ liking do-1-PR-S and
(2) ahmhr uhfk pC~q MfwfC/
I-GEN he-OBJ liking be-3-PR-S
I like him.
we see the difference between personal and impersonal structures. In
sentence (1) we have agreement between the subject ahym and the verb kyr.
In sentence (2) we have a third person verb form without a correspond
ing subject. There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences
and we will see that impersonal structures are commonly used in Bangla
for very personal statements, such as expressing like and dislike, feelings,
physical sensations, attitudes, permission, prohibition and suchlike. Imper
sonal structures often have a genitive experiencer subject, as in sentence (2)
above.
The verbs involved in producing impersonal structures are ahC- be present,

exist, lhgh come in contact with, Mowh be, become, xhowh go, phowh receive,
krh do, pRh fall.
Structures with ahC- are given separately under existential sentences.
The main reason for separating them is that not all uses of ahC- are
impersonal.
A subcategory of impersonal structures are impersonal passive structures with

Mowh be, become and xhowh go. They will be discussed in Ch. 28.3.5 below.
Before we look at the impersonal uses of individual verbs, here is a different
type of structure:
28.3.1 No subject structures
These sentences are usually short. They always have a third person verb form
and no subject. They can often only be translated with an impersonal one:
bhLlhw yk bfl? What is it called in Bangla?

eth Khw nh/ That is not to be eaten.
bR Bhifk qhqh bfl/ An older brother is called Dada.
ahgvfn Mhu `qw nh/ One does not put one’s hand in the fire.
oKhfn xhw nh/ One doesn’t go there.
486 SYukhfl grm `gy´ ghfw `qw/ One wears a sweater in winter.
Impersonal
28.3.2 lhgh
structures
lhgh has a number of different uses, including an active use with a preceding
imperfective participle. Examples for this structure are given in Ch. 21.1(b).
The impersonal uses of lhgh are given here.
28.3.2.1 Attach, take root
In its original meaning attach it is a monovalent verb whose meaning can

include hurt:
'`khUhw `lfgfC?" 'lhfgyn/" ‘Where does it hurt?’ ‘It doesn’t hurt.’

bhyRfu ahgvn `lfgfC/
house-CL fire lhgh-3-PR-PERF
The house has caught fire.
uhfqr ukò `lfgi Uhfk/
their argument lhgh-PP EMP stay-3-PR-S
They are always arguing.
zhmhw qhg `lfgfC/
shirt-LOC stain lhgh-3-PR-PERF
There is a stain on the shirt.
efu bö qhg `lfgyCl ahmhr mfn/
this-LOC big mark lhgh-3-P-PERF my mind-LOC
That made a deep impression on me.
mvfK Mhysyt `lfgi ahfC/
mouth-LOC smile-CL lhgh-PP EMP [is present]
She always has a smile on her face.
28.3.2.2 Feel, seem
This use of lhgh has a genitive experiencer subject which is not always
expressed. lhgh can also take a direct object. Some more examples with
physical sensations and emotions are given below in Ch. 28.3.3.
ahmhr `kmn abhk lhgl/

I-GEN how amazement lhgh-3-P-S
How amazed I felt! 487
28 —Ufm bR aÀvu `lfgyCl uhr/
Patterns first-LOC big strange lhgh-3-P-PERF he-GEN
At first it felt very strange to him.
oXvQ yuuh lhfg/

medicine bitter lhgh-3-PR-S
The medicine tastes bitter.
mnzvfrr ynfzr \pri rhg lhgfC/

Manjur-GEN own-GEN on EMP anger lhgh-3-PR-C
Manjur was angry with himself.
Bhbfuo bR mzh lhgl/

think-IP big fun lhgh-3-P-S
It was great fun to imagine it.
Here are three examples with animate objects:
BYXN `cnh lhgfC `lhkthfk/

extremely know-VN lhgh-3-PR-C man-CL-OBJ
The man looks very familiar.
ùhmhfk ahz ektv svñ lhgfC/

you-OBJ today a bit well lhgh-3-PR-C
You are looking a bit better today.
—hw apyrycfur mu lhgyCl uhfk/

almost unfamiliar-GEN like lhgh-3-P-C he-OBJ
He seemed almost like a stranger.
28.3.2.3 Like, dislike
In combinations with Bhl good and Khrhp bad lhgh can express like and
dislike. There is always a genitive experiencer subject and usually a direct
object. Note that when an object pronoun is dropped, we can get two
identicallooking structures:
(i) ahmhr Bhl lhgfC/ ahmhr Khrhp lhgfC/

I am feeling well. I am feeling ill.
and (ii) ahmhr (uh) Bhl lhgfC/ ahmhr (uh) Khrhp lhgfC/
I like it. I dislike it.
Sentences (ii) with the dropped uh it are less likely to occur in continu
488 ous tenses. That and the context of these types of utterances make
misunderstandings rare but the similarity of the structures needs to be Impersonal
kept in mind. structures
gîhmth ùhmhr `kmn `lfgfC?

village-CL you-GEN how feel-3-PR-PERF
How did you like the village?
yqfnr pr yqn bhyRr mfQj bí Mfw khthfu Bhl lhfg khro?

day-GEN after day home-GEN in closed be-PP spend-IP good
lhgh-3-PR-S someone
Does anyone like being stuck at home day after day?
xhr xh Bhl lhfg uhfk uh krfu `qowhi MfÉC mhnvXQmò/

who-GEN-R what-R good lhgh-3-PR-S he-OBJ-CR that-CR give-VN
EMP PC human religion
To let people do what they like doing is humane.
ymyMfrr kUhr svr u£hr Bhflh lhgl nh/

Mihir-GEN word-GEN voice she-H-GEN good lhgh-3-P-S not
She did not like the tone of Mihir’s voice.
28.3.2.4 Need, require, take (time), use
This use is very common with money or amounts of time. kuÇN lhgfb?
How long will it take?
ghyR yknfu afnk thkh lhgfb/

car buy-IP much money lhgh-3-FUT
It needs a lot of money to buy a car.
etvkv bvZfu afnk smw `lfgfC/

this-CL understand-IP much time lhgh-3-PR-PERF
It took a long time to understand just this little bit.
Snh∆ krfu ek plko smw lhfgyn/

identity-do-IP one moment even not lhgh-3-PR-PERF
It didn’t take a moment to identify (them).
mfn pRl sähn krfu plhfSr yk as®b smw lhgu/
mind-LOC fall-3-P-S shower do-IP Palash-GEN what impossible
time lhgh-3-P-HABIT
She remembered how incredibly long it took Palash to have a shower. 489
28 The structure also occurs colloquially with nominative verbal nouns:
Patterns
`s kUh blh lhgfb nh/
that word say-VN lhgh-3-FUT not
There is no need to say this.
ahmhfk —Nhm krh lhgfb nh/
I-OBJ obeisance do-VN need-3-FUT not
You don’t have to bow to me.
28.3.3 Genitive experiencer subjects
In the sentences: ahym ysºh™ kfryC/ I have decided. and

uhrh ycyTth `pfwfC/ They received the letter.
we have the two verbs krh do and phowh get, receive in their normal active
environment with a nominative agent and a direct object. In the structures
below, the verb changes to third person, the agent to the genitive and the
objects are a range of physical sensations and feelings. Sentences all follow
the same pattern. The present and past continuous are very common in
these structures but all tenses are possible. Some of the nouns and adjec
tives below can combine with more than one verb.
subject (gen) sensation 3rd person of lhgh
ahmhr grm lhfg/ I feel hot.
uhr Bw lhgfC/ He is scared.
ahmhfqr Kvb KvyS `lfgfC/ We felt very happy.
ahmhr BYXN bjUh lhgfC/ I am in great pain.
ahmhr khyMl `lfgfC/ I felt exhausted.
uhr ahrhm lhfgyn/ He did not feel comfortable.
uhr Th’h `lfgfC/ He has caught a cold.
ahmhr mhwh lhgfC/ I feel sympathetic.
ahmhr k†h™ lhfg/ I feel tired.
uhr ybr∆ lhgfC/ He is feeling annoyed.
with phowh :
uhr Bw `pfw `gfC/
he-GEN fear get-PP go-3-PR-PERF
He got scared.
mYrhr Mhys phfÉC nh/ Mhys phowhr mu `khno g¶p nh/
Mira-GEN laugh phowh-3-PR-C not laugh get-VN-GEN like any story not
490 Mira didn’t feel like laughing. It was not a very funny story.
or mvfK o kUh Svfn ahmhr ektv Mhys `pfwyCl/ Impersonal
his mouth-LOC that word hear-PP I-GEN a bit smile get-3-P-PERF structures
To hear this from him made me smile.
uhr er mfQj bR yKqh `pfwfC/
he-GEN by now big hunger get-PR-PERF
By now he was very hungry.
ahmhr ypphsh phfÉC/
I-GEN thirst get-3-PR-C
I am thirsty.
ùhmhr nhyk khêh phfÉC?
you-GEN not what crying get-3-PR-C
Are you feeling weepy?
ei rkm yqfn bhifr `gfl, uhr M£hyc phw/
this kind day-LOC outside go-CP he-GEN sneezing get-3-PR-S
When he goes outdoors on a day like today he starts sneezing.
subject (gen) sensation 3rd person of krh do
uhr asvK kfrfC/ He is ill.
ahmhr l°h krfC/ I feel embarrassed.
uhr SYu krfC/ He is feeling cold.
ùhmhr yk Bw krfC? Are you afraid?
ahmhr nhcfu iÉCh krl/ I felt like dancing.
uhr Mhfu bjUh krfC/ His hand is hurting.
subject (gen) sensation 3rd person of ahsh come
bhÉchytr Gvm ahsfC/ The baby is falling asleep.
ahmhr zár ahsfC/ I am getting a fever.
uhr khêh ahsfC/ She feels like crying.
subject (gen) sensation 3rd person of oTh rise
uhr zár \fTfC/ He has a fever.
ahmhr rhg \fT `gfC/ I got angry.
28.3.4 Mowh happen, occur
Mowh naturally combines with most of the sensations given above and with a great
number of abstract nouns besides. Additionally Mowh is used for emerging and
changing events. Some examples were given in Ch. 19.2 (conjunct verbs). 491
28 These uses of Mowh are different from the impersonal passive uses given in
Patterns Ch. 28.3.5 below.
subject (gen) sensation 3rd person of Mowh be become
ahmhr iÉCh MfwfC/ I felt like . . .
ahmhr rhg MfÉC/ I am feeling angry.
uhr svfxhg MfwfC/ An opportunity has come his way.
uhr Bvl MfwfC/ He made a mistake.
ahmhr uhr kUh ybSáhs MfÉC/ I believe him.
uhr sf~qM MfÉC/ He is having doubts.
ùhmhr yk yMLsh MfwfC? Were you feeling jealous?
uhr zár MfwfC/ He has a fever.
ahmhr asvK MfwfC/ I am ill.
ahmhfqr ZgRh MfwfC/ We have had an argument.
The expression mfn Mowh think is given in Ch. 19.3. Here is an example with
a direct object:
ahmhr uhfk mfn Ml zYb™, \JshMY/
I-GEN he-OBJ mind-LOC be-3-P-S alive enthusiastic
I thought of him as alive, enthusiastic.
other examples:
or mhr kUh `Bfb ahmhr k§ MfÉC/
her mother-GEN word think-PP I-GEN trouble be-3-PR-C
I feel upset when I think about her mother.
eibhr ùh pyrcw Ml/
this time EMP introduction be-3-P-S
This time introductions were made.
Khbhr `Kfw Mzm Mw nh/
food eat-PP digestion be-3-PR-S not
The food that has been eaten is not digested.
kéy«m \phfw `mG ∏uyr kfr béy§ nhmhfnhr `c§h MfwfC/
artificial way-LOC cloud prepare-do-PP rain cause to descend-VN-GEN
attempt be-3-PR-PERF
An attempt has been made to release rain from artificially produced clouds.
ghfC ghfC nuvn phuhr ahgmfnr shfU phyKr ghfn chryqk mvKyru Mw/
tree-LOC (×2) new leaf-GEN arrival-GEN with bird-GEN song-LOC
four direction resounding be-3-PR-S
The whole place resounds with bird song greeting the arrival of new leaves
492 on the trees.
Impersonal
28.3.5 Impersonal passives
structures
In English only sentences containing a bivalent (transitive) verb with a
direct object can be passivised. An English passive sentence is derived from
an active one by dropping the subject (or adding it in a prepositional phrase
with by), raising the object to the subject position, and changing the active
verb form to the appropriate form of the verb be plus a past participle, e.g.
He sold the car → The car was sold (by him).

The same process of derivation is also possible in Bangla. The verb changes
to a verbal noun and a third person form of Mowh be.
`s ghyRth ybyœ kfrfC/ → ghyRth ybyœ krh MfwfC/

He sold the car. → The car has been sold.
The agent (subject in the active sentence) can be added by using the post
position #hrh by, through, e.g. uhr #hrh by him or by ynfw having taken
preceded by an object case noun or pronoun.
ghyRth uhr #hrh ybyœ krh MfwfC/ or

ghyRth uhfk yqfw ybyœ krh MfwfC/
The car was sold by him.
Passive structures take the attention away from the agent towards the event
itself, so in practice the agent is often left unmentioned. The process from
active to passive can be seen more clearly in an example with an animate
object:
uhrh `chrthfk Qrl/ → `chrthfk Qrh Ml/

They caught the thief. → The thief was caught.
In Bangla, unlike in English, the object of the active sentence remains the
object of the passive sentence and verbs without a direct object can also
appear in passive structures:
active ahym khlfk xhb/ I will go tomorrow, can be rendered as

passive ahmhr khlfk xhowh Mfb/ lit: My going will be (occur) tomorrow.
The verbal noun becomes the grammatical subject. This type of passive is
called an impersonal passive. Two verbs in Bangla can form impersonal pas
sives. They are Mowh be, become and xhowh go. All full verbs in Bangla can
be passivised in this way.
493
28
28.3.5.1 With Mowh happen, occur
Patterns
Impersonal passives with Mowh express actual occurrence. In sentences
containing a direct object the agent is almost invariably suppressed. The
syntactic shape of these sentences is [object + verbal noun + 3rd person
form or nonfinite form of Mowh ]. The verb Mowh does not appear as the
verbal noun in this structure but can form a compound verb with oTh rise
or instead.
`lhkytfk eKno `cnh Mfw ofTyn/

person-OBJ yet know-VN be-PP not rise-3-PR-PERF
The man is not yet well known.
Mowh can be part of a compound verb:
uhr afnk g¶p `lKh Mfw xhfÉC/
he-GEN much story write-VN be-PP-go-3-PR-C
He is getting a lot of stories wriiten.
bhwvm’lfk `mhthmvyt p£hcyt Äfr Bhg krh Mw/
atmosphere more or less five-CL level divide-do-VN be-3-PR-S
The atmosphere is divided roughly into five levels.
`s rhfu `khno mfu Phãtò eid yqfw rhKh Ml/
that night-LOC any way first aid with keep-VN be-3-P-S
That night he was settled with some kind of first aid.
ahmhfqr khfC åN chowh MfÉC/
we-GEN from loan ask-VN be-3-PR-C
We are being asked for a loan.
egvflh Gfrr yBufr ynfw lvykfw rhKh MfÉC/
this-CL-PL house-GEN inside-LOC take-PP hide-PP put-VN
be-3-PR-C
These are taken into the house and stored secretly.
nuvn ghngvyl `Shnhfnh Mwyn uhfk/
new song-CL-PL cause to hear-VN not be-3-PR-PERF she-OBJ
The new songs have not yet been sung to her.
uhr sfÃ ahmhr `qKh MfwfC/
he-GEN with I-GEN see-VN be-3-PR-PERF
lit: with him my seeing has occurred
(I) saw him.
494
oyqfk uhr ahr xhowhi Mwyn/ Impersonal
that way-LOC he-GEN more go-VM EMP not be-3-PR-PERF structures
He did not go there any more.
28.3.5.2 With xhowh
The verbal noun with a third person form of xhowh expresses possibility.
xhowh can be in any tense.
This is a thoroughly impersonal structure in that it never has any kind of
human agent, either nominative or genitive. Semantically this structure is
comparable to the imperfective participle with phrh be able to, be possible.
The phrh structure offers a nonimpersonal alternative.
personal with phrh : ahmrh khlfk `xfu phyr/ We may go tomorrow.

impersonal with xhowh : khlfk xhowh xhfb/ It will be possible to
go tomorrow.
ebhfr ahr cvp kfr Uhkh xhw nh/
this time-LOC quiet stay-VN go-3-PR-S not
This time it was impossible to keep quiet.
`m mhfs yk ybfw krh xhw nh?
May month-LOC what marriage-do-VN go-3-PR-S not
Is it not possible to get married in May?
Mhu-ph
CyRfw bsh xhw nh/
hand foot spread sit-VN go-3-PR-S not
One can’t lounge about.
phynfu ymShfnh xhfb/
water-LOC mix-VN go-3-FUT
It will be possible to mix it with water.
ei ñhnbql `qfK `bhZh xhw uKn smwth ku/
this place change see-PP understand-VN go-3-PR-S then time-CL
how much
Seeing the shifting location we understand what time it is just then.
Kvb sMfz ybqhw krh xhfb bfl mfn Mw nh/
very easily farewell do-VN go-3-FUT say-PP mind-LOC be-3-PR-S not
It will not be very easy to say goodbye.
495
28 ghnth Svfn shrhyqn KvyS Mowh xhw/
Patterns song-CL hear-PP all day happy be-VN go-3-PR-S
Listening to that song can make you happy for the whole day.
The following sentence would be rather awkward without a personal subject
in the English translation:
ekmh« `mf~dflr yUoyrr shMhfxj E-bjhphrthfk `bhZh xhw, `bhZhbhr `c§h krh xhw/
one only Mendel-GEN theory-GEN help-LOC that matter-CL-OBJ
understand-VN go-3-PR-S explain-baVN-GEN attempt do-VN
go-3-PR-S
We can only understand or attempt to explain this with the help of
Mendel’s theory.
Here we have three sentences with a very tangible person behind the
impersonal structures:
rhf« myrwm Bhybr khfC `gfl ynyŸcu Mowh xhfb/

night-LOC Mariam sister-GEN close to go-CP certain be-VN
go-3-FUT
When he went to see his sister-in-law Mariam in the evening he would
know for sure.
ycyTth `pfw ùh ahr cvp kfr bfs Uhkh xhw nh/
letter-CL get-PP MP quiet do-PP sit-PP stay-VN go-3-PR-S not
After receiving the letter (he) couldn’t keep quiet any more.
ektv ahfg blh `xu nh?
a bit early say-VN go-3-P-HABIT not
Couldn’t you have said so a bit earlier?
Although verbal noun structures with xhowh do not take subjects, they are
perfectly capable of taking objects:
nh, uhfk Qrh xhw nh, uhfk phowh xhw nh/

no that-OBJ catch-VN go-3-PR-S not that-OBJ get-VN go-3-PR-S not
No, it can’t be caught, it can’t be had.
yk krh xhfb?
what do-VN go-3-FUT
What can be done?
ei qvbòl SrYfr uhfk bhrbhr klkhuhw ahnh xhw nh/
this EMP weak health-LOC he-OBJ again again Kolkata-LOC bring-VN
go-3-PR-S
496 He can’t be brought to Kolkata again and again in his weak state of health.
nh, emn ekth ãméyu Mhrhfnh xhw nh/ Impersonal
such one-CL memory lose-VN go-3-PR-S not structures
No, it is not possible to forget something like that.
yPfrhzfk `cnhi xhw nh/

Firoz-OBJ know-VN EMP not ggo-3-PR-S
Firoz was unrecognisable.
The following sentence has an impersonal xhowh main clause with an active
subordinate content clause:
blh xhw eksfÃ ek nuvn péyUbY ahmrh gRh Svrß kyr/

say-VN go-3-PR-S together one new world we build-VN
start-do-1-PR-S
One could say that we are building a new world together.
The example below displays the common phenomenon of mixed structures,

namely a passive verbal noun with xhowh plus an active structure with phrh
be able to:
`sgvflhfk ektv Bhl Khbhr yqfw qvQ \Jphqfnr Çmuh bhRhfnh `xfu phfr/
that-CL-PL-OBJ a bit good food give-PP milk production-GEN power
increase-VN go-IP be able to-3-PR-S
Their ability to produce milk can be increased if they are fed well.
More examples of this type are given in Ch. 37.10.
28.3.6 Other verbs
A few other verbs are used idiomatically in impersonal structures. They

are:
clh move, go
In impersonal structures clh takes on the meaning of cope, manage, be
acceptable, be sufficient
uvym ChRh ahmhfqr clfb nh/

you except we-GEN manage-3-FUT not
We can’t manage without you.
eKhfn ghn ghowh cfl nh/

here song sing-VN go-3-PR-S not
Singing is not acceptable here. 497
28 ùhmhr ynrhymX clfb?
Patterns you-GEN vegetarian go-3-FUT
Will vegetarian food be OK for you?
ahzfk nh Uhkh clfb nh/

today not stay-VN go-3-FUT not
lit: today not staying will not go
(You) will have to stay today.
This structure is particularly common with negated conditional participles.
zvfuh nh prfl clfb nh/

shoe not wear-CP go-3-FUT not
One has to wear shoes.
More examples are given in Ch. 22.3.
efs-xhw
An impersonal structure with a combination of ahsh come and xhowh go is
often used in the negative to convey a don’t care attitude.
uhfqr Uhkhr bjbñhw ahmhr ykCv ahfs xhw nh/

they-GEN stay-VN-GEN arrangement-LOC I-GEN something
come-3-PR-S go-3-PR-S not
I don’t care at all about their accommodation arrangements.
The structure also occurs in affirmative sentences. More details are given
in Ch. 37.1(b).
28.3.7 chi
chi is the 1st person simple present form of chowh want. This form is used
as an independent noun meaning need. It is not as common as qrkhr need
but, like qrkhr, it is used in impersonal structures with a genitive subject.
chi often has a more imperative impact than qrkhr.
blfln ahpnhfki ahmhr chi/
say-2H-P-S you-H-OBJ I-GEN chi
You said that I needed you.
rßmh eKn bR MfwfC uhr ahr yk chi?

Ruma now big be-3-PR-PERF she-GEN more what chi
498 Ruma has grown up now. What else does she need?
ekyt sf~qS ahmhr `rhzi chi/ Equational
one-CL Sandesh I-GEN daily chi sentences
I require a Sandesh every day.
Like qrkhr, chi can follow a nominative verbal noun.
eKhfn ekth ghC lhghfnh chi/

here one-CL tree plant-VN chi
A tree needs to be planted here.
ek súhM qv súhM a™r uhr ahsh chi/

one week two week within his come-VN chi
He needs to visit every one or two weeks.
ei qvfwr mfQj ekth gBYr yml Uhkh chi/

this two-GEN one-CL deep empathy stay-VN chi
It requires a deep empathy between the two.
28.3.8 Modal structures
Many modal structures are impersonal. They usually involve nonfinite verb
forms. Examples for these structures are given in Ch. 34.3 and 34.4.
28.4 Equational sentences
The structure of equational sentences is given in Ch. 25.2ff.
28.4.1 Affirmative sentences
Although many equational sentences are ostensibly in the simple present,

i.e. with a zero verb copula, in the translations they are often given in the
simple past as they are part of past tense narratives.
28.4.1.1 Nominal complements
kéShnv q≠ mQjyb≠ pyrbhfrr `Cfl/

Krishanu Datta middle class family-GEN son
Krishanu Datta was the son of a middle class family. 499
28 khkh nh bfl khkv blh afnk ahqvfrr dhk/
Patterns kaka not say-PP kaku say-VN much affection-GEN call
Calling someone Kaku rather than Kaka is a term of affection.
ã«Yflhk uhr khfC SvQv SrYr/
woman person he-GEN near only body
A woman for him is just a body.
`sH~qxòo ybQhuhr ek ybfSX qhn/
beauty also god-GEN one special gift
Beauty is also a special gift from the gods.
mfnhrmhr sb khz kflr mu/
Monoroma-GEN all work machine-GEN like
All of Monoroma’s work is like clockwork.
znfsbh Ch«smhfzr ekyt —Qhn kuòbj/
people serving student society-GEN one-CL main duty
Serving others is one of the main duties of the student community.
28.4.1.2 Adjectival complements
Grgvflh sb bR bR, qhym ahsbhfb shzhfnh/

room-PL-CL all big (×2) expensive furniture decorate-VA
The rooms were all very big and expensively furnished.
sb khfzi `s smhn qÇ/
all work-LOC he equal expert
He is equally adept in all fields of work.
ahkhS uKn QVsr, Mhowhth s£jhus£jhfu/
sky then grey weather-CL damp
The sky was grey then, the atmosphere damp.
Khytfw kéXhN yMfsfb erhi sbchifu qÇ/
toil-PP farm-labourer account-LOC they EMP all than skilled
As hard-working farm-labourers, they were the most skilled.
iLljhf~d erkm abñh ak¶pnYw/
England-LOC this kind situation unthinkable
In England this kind of thing would be unthinkable.
prãpfrr Bhlbhshw eKno uhrh ahuÖMhrh/
one another love-LOC still they self-obsessed
500 They are still wrapped up in their love for one another.
Ey~qîlhr ByÃ Kvb QYr, Kvb ynAsÃ, Sh™/ Equational
Aindrila-GEN manner very slow detached calm sentences
Aindrila’s manner was slow, detached and calm.
28.4.1.3 Genitive noun complements
Just as genitive nouns can be used attributively in place of adjectives, they

can also be used as complements in equational sentences.
g¶pyt `bS mzhr/
story-CL quite fun-GEN
The story is quite entertaining.
uhr zYbn Kvb kf§r/
his life very trouble-GEN
His life is very hard.
kUhth afnk qVfrr/
word-CL much distance-GEN
This is a long way off.
bjhphrth ùh Kvbi qvyŸc™hr/
matter-CL EMP very EMP worry-GEN
The matter is very worrying.
`s kUh yk kKno kh\fk blbhr?
that word what ever someone say-baVN-GEN
Is this something that could ever be said to anyone?
The equational structure below is followed by a content clause.
ahmhr pfÇ ybSáhs krh Kvbi kf§r `x ymãthr my^k euth ynfc nhmfu phfrn/
I-GEN for belief-do-VN very EMP trouble-GEN that Mister Malik so
much-CL low descend-IP be able to-3H-FUT
I find it very hard to believe that Mister Malik could sink so low.
28.4.2 Negated equationals
Negation of equational sentences is done with the forms of the incomplete

verb n- (ahym ni, uvym no, uvi ns, `s (uh) nw, ahpyn (yuyn) nn) am, are, is not
eKn ahmhr pfÇ kUh blh s®b nw/

now I-GEN for word-say-VN possible [is not]
I can’t talk now. 501
28 ahym emn rhyg mhnvX ni/
Patterns I such angry person [is not]
I am not such an angry person.
ykCv nh kfr Uhkhr mu kyTn ahr ykCv nw/
something not do-PP stay-VN-GEN like difficult more something
[is not]
Nothing is as difficult as staying idle.
`mfwmhnvfXr auyqn `b£fc Uhkh Bhl nw/
girl person so much day live-PP stay-VN good [is not]
It is not good for women to live so long.
ei ynŸcw qVfrr khkh nw/
this of course distance-GEN uncle [is not]
This is of course not a distant uncle.
eth `Bhlbhr nw/
this forget-baVN-GEN [is not]
This is unforgettable.
In the sentence below the word order is changed to complement–copula–
subject:
ahŸcxò nw `sth/
surprising [is not] that
That is not surprising.
And here is an expanded equational sentence:
uhr prfnr ShyR qv-yun zhwghw `slhi krh Mflo myln nw/
her wearing-GEN saree two three place-LOC sew-do-VN be-CP even
dirty [is not]
Even though the saree she wears has been sewn in one or two places, it is
not dirty.
28.4.3 Past and future tense, non finite forms
Equational sentences do not occur in the past or the future tense as often
as other sentences do, for two reasons. First, Bangla has much more
flexibility in its tense use than English does and a present tense sentence in
a past tense context is perfectly normal. Second, the past tense of the zero
verb is identical to that of ahC- and, although there is rarely any scope for
502
confusion between the two types of sentences, equational sentences lose Equational
some of their specific impact in the past or future tenses. For future and sentences
nonfinites forms of Mowh be, become are used. n- does not appear in any
but simple present tense contexts.
simple past (with yCl-)
ghCth `byS bR yCl nh/

tree-CL much big [was]-3 not
The tree wasn’t very big.
yuyn ùhmhr y—w nhwk yCfln/

he-H your favourite actor [was]-H
He was your favourite actor.
yuyn yCfln `sfkfl aQjhpk/

he-H [was]-H old-fashioned professor
He was an old-fashioned professor.
Here is a past perfect example with a verbal noun subject:
`s Qfr ynfwyCl `s brhbr eki rkm Uhkfb, ei Qfr `nowhthi MfwyCl crm Bvl/
he hold-PP take-3-P-PERF he forever one EMP kind stay-3-FUT this
hold-PP take-VN-CL EMP be-3-P-PERF big mistake
He had assumed that she would always stay the same. That assumption
had been a huge mistake.
The following sentence contains yCl- in both an equational and a possessive

existential clause:
yuyn SvQv y—w `lKki yCfln nh, u£hr shMs yCl syuj kUh `lKhr/
he only favourite writer EMP [was]-3-H not he-H-GEN courage
[was] truth word write-VN GEN
He was not just a favourite writer, he had the courage to write the truth.
future tense (with Mowh)
`mfwyt uhr ã«Y Mfb/

girl-CL his wife be-3-FUT
The girl will be his wife.
Cybth Kvb sv~qr Mfb/

picture very beautiful be-3-FUT
The picture will be very beautiful.
503
28 e ghn Mfb ahmhr ekhr, ynz…/
Patterns this song be-3-FUT my alone-GEN own
This song will be mine alone, my very own.
We can see from these simple examples alone that the particular zero verb
characteristics no longer exist here but that the becoming sense of Mowh
takes over.
nonfinite equationals (with Mowh)
uvym uhr bhbh Mfu phr nh/

you his father be-IP be able to-2-PR-S not
You can’t be his father.
`sth uhr mu Mfl ahr yk blb?

that-CL his opinion be-CP more what say-1-FUT
If that’s his opinion, what else can I say?
eu `Cht `mfw Mfw ahmhfk ku Bhlbhfs/

such small girl be-PP I-OBJ how much love-3-PR-S
She loves me so much even though she is such a young girl.
chth `byS grm Mfl `s Khfb nh/

tea-CL much hot be-CP he drink-3-FUT not
If the tea is too hot, he won’t drink it.
`mfwyt emn sv~qr Mfwo ybfw kfryn/

girl-CL such beautiful be-PP even not marriage-do-3-PR-PERF
Even though the girl is so beautiful, she is not married.
with xyq if forms of Mowh be, become are used
simple conditional: eth xyq uhr iÉCh Mw . . . if this is his wish . . .

negated: ahpyn xyq uhr bhbh nh Mn if you are not her father . . .
past conditional: uvym xyq ahmhr Mfu . . . if you were mine . . .
negated: uh xyq syuj nh Mu . . . if that were not true . . .
28.4.4 Extended equational sentences
When equational structures are embedded in complex sentences or extended

into active or impersonal structures, the subject of the equational sentence
becomes the object. Sentences of this type are often used for definitions or
explanations of terminology. For each of the example sentences below the
504 basic equational sentence is given first:
(i) yMshb krh yk? What is accounting? Equational
sentences
yMshb krh khfk bfl uh yuyn zhnfun nh/
account-do-VN what-REL-OBJ say-3-PR-S that he-H
know-3-P-HABIT
He didn’t know what was meant by keeping account.
It is noteworthy that khfk (object case interrogative pronoun) is used for
inanimate objects here. This is the only way the object can be clearly
marked, as the inanimate yk can be either nominative or object case. The
object case ending is always used in these structures, for verbal as well as
for other inanimate nouns.
(ii) u£hr khz bjbsh nw/ His work is not a business.

afnfk Mwfuh ybSáhs krfu chifb nh `x u£hr khzfk yuyn bjbsh mfn krfun nh/
many perhaps belief-do-IP want-3-FUT not that his-H work-OBJ
he business mind-LOC do-3H-P-HABIT not
Many will perhaps not believe that he did not consider his work a
business.
(iii) `mfwyt mhnvX/ The girl is a human being.

ei `mfwytfk ahmrh `bS gfR-ypft mhnvX kfr uvlb/
this girl-CL-OBJ we quite give shape-PP human being do-PP
raise-1-FUT
We will shape this girl into a proper human being.
(iv) ybôbbuY uhr ynfzr mh/ Bimboboti is his own mother.
ybôbbuYfk `s ynfzr mh ChRh ahr ykCv Bhbfu phfr nh/
Bimboboti-OBJ he own mother except more something think-IP
be able to-3-PR-S not
He couldn’t think of Bimboboti as anything other than his mother.
(v) Bhlbhshr q® Bhlbhshr `cfw bR/ The vanity of love is higher than love.
Bhlbhshr `cfw Bhlbhshr q®fk bR kfr uvflh nh/
love-GEN than love-GEN vanity-OBJ big do-PP
raise-2-FUT-IMP not
Don’t raise the vanity of love higher than love itself.
(vi) ymUjh kUh blh php/ Lying is a sin.
ahmrh ymUjh kUh blhfk php mfn krfu phyr nh/
we lie word say-VN-OBJ sin mind-LOC do-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
We can’t consider lying a sin. 505
28 (vii) uhr mvK sv~qr/ Her face is beautiful.
Patterns
uhr mvKfk sv~qr blh xhw nh/
her face-OBJ beautiful say-VN go-3-PR-S not
Her face cannot be called beautiful.
(viii) ek-ekth ymynt lôbh/ Each minute is long.
ek-ekth ymyntfk yk lôbh mfn MfÉC!

one one-CL minute-OBJ what long mind-LOC be-3-PR-S
How long each minute seems!
(ix) ahyzz mhãthr Kvb \JPv^/ Master Aziz is very delighted.
ahyzz mhãthrfk Kvb \JPv^ mfn Mw/
Aziz master-OBJ very delighted mind-LOC be-3-PR-S
Master Aziz seemed very delighted.
(x) `mhM `—m/ Infatuation is love.
ahmrh `mhMfk `—m bfl zhnuhm/
we infatuation-OBJ love say-PP know-1-P-HABIT
We used to think of infatuation as love.
(xi) uvym k†h™/ You are tired.
ùhmhfk k†h™ `qKhfÉC ahz/
you-OBJ tired show-3-PR-C today
You are looking tired today.
(xii) emn `mfw pfktmhr/ Such a girl is a thief.
emn `mfwfk pfktmhr Bhbh xhw nh/

such girl-OBJ pickpocket think-VN go-3-PR-S not
It is impossible to think of such a girl as a pickpocket.
(xiii) bhLlh rh§îBhXh/ Bangla is a state language.
bhLlhfk rh§îBhXh krhr qhybfu —Um ahf~qhln kfb Svrß Mw?

Bangla-OBJ state language make-VN-GEN claim-LOC first
movement when start-be-3-PR-S
When did the first movement to make Bangla into a state language
start?
506
Equational
28.4.5 Pro-Copula (PC)
sentences
Equational sentences in the simple present usually have a zero verb. In
order to give these sentences a bit more structure and weight, a procopula
can be inserted between the subject and the complement. This is always a
3rd person form of Mowh be, become and the tenses used are the present
continuous, the simple past and occasionally the simple present. In their
procopulative uses these verb forms lose their tense component and take
on a tenseless quality. This is the one sentence type in Bangla where the verb
is banned from its usual end position, with good reason.
Here is an ordinary equational sentence:
uhr bhbh ei ybSáybqjhlfwr aQjhpk/

her father this university-GEN professor
Here is the same sentence with a procopula:
uhr bhbh MfÉCn ei ybSáybqjhlfwr aQjhpk/

her father PC this university-GEN professor or
uhr bhbh Mfln ei ybSáybqjhlfwr aQjhpk/
Her father is a professor at this university.
If we placed the verb form in its normal position at the end of the sentence,
we would get quite a different kind of sentence:
uhr bhbh ei ybSáybqjhlfwr aQjhpk MfÉCn/

is no longer an equational sentence but means
Her father is becoming a professor at this university.
uhr bhbh ei ybSáybqjhlfwr aQjhpk Mfln/
Her father became a professor at this university.
The procopula has subject verb agreement and there is free variation
between present continuous and simple past verb forms.
Here is a nice sentence from Parasuram’s yun ybQhuh which shows these
uses:
gd blfln, uh Mfui phfr nh/ uvym MÉC ùy«S `khytr ekzn, ahr ahym MyÉC ekmh«
ay#uYw ISár/
God say-3H-P-S that be-IP be possible not you PC thirty-three ten
million one-CL and I PC one only un-seconded god
God said, ‘That can’t be.You are one of 33 million, and I am the only
supreme God.’ 507
28 Here are some more examples from quite simple to a bit more complex.
Patterns There are no explicit rules for when the procopula should or should not
be used. As we see from the examples, even a simple pronoun as a subject
can be followed by a procopula. What the procopula certainly does do
is to add some emphasis and weight.
ei MfÉC zYbfnr C~q/

this EMP PC life-GEN rhythm
That is life’s rhythm.
ahym MyÉC ùhmhr b\/
I PC your wife
I am your wife.
ghn MfÉC Bhlbhshr —khS . . .
song PC love-GEN expression
Song is an expression of love.
`xth ahŸcxò uh MfÉC uhr bws/
what-REL amazing that PC his age
What is amazing is his age.
ei `nfm ahshr nhmi MfÉC BVymQs/
this sink-PP come-VN-GEN name PC landslide
This sinking is called a landslide.
yk≤ ahmhr —Sä MfÉC aS†Yluh yk?
but my question PC obscenity what
But my question is, ‘What is obscenity?’
bhLlhfqfSr mhnvfXr zYbfnr sfÃ `x yzynsyt ynybRBhfb zyRfw ahfC, uh Ml
eKhnkhr kvytryS¶p/
Bangladesh-GEN people-GEN life-GEN with what-REL thing-CL closely
link-PP [is present] that PC here-GEN folk-GEN art
The thing that is closely intertwined in the lives of Bangladeshi people is the
folk art here.
ekmh« ycykJsh MfÉC `rhz skhl-sfíw iwhL `Cflfqr sfÃ ahfzbhfz g¶p krh/
one only treatment PC daily evening-LOC boy-PL-GEN with nonsense
chat do-IP
The only treatment is to have meaningless chats with young boys every
morning and evening.
508
Here is a sentence with a double procopula: Equational
sentences
ahsl bjhphrth Ml oi ynmulhr Bqîflhk Mfln bhyRr mhylk/
actual matter-CL PC that downstairs gentleman PC house-GEN owner
In fact, the gentleman from downstairs is the owner of the house.
The noun mhfn meaning can stand in for the procopula:
—dhkSn mhfn Mhzhrth Zhfmlh/

production meaning thousand-CL trouble
Production brings endless problems.
`mfwfqr sfÃ ahlhp mhfn ahfKfr SvQ v `rfÄhr£hw aUòq’/
girl-PL-GEN with acquaintance meaning eventually only
restaurant-LOC financial loss
Socialising with girls means, after all, nothing but a financial loss in
restaurants.
509
Chapter 29
Compound and complex

sentences
We have now dealt with the different modes and verbal patterns in Bangla
and turn our attention to the question of coordination and subordination.
29.1 Compound sentences
Compound sentences are produced by linking two main clauses with a

coordinating conjunction or simply by placing two main clauses next to
one another. Here are some sentences to consider:
1 `bahiyno bft, khrN uh `qfSr sôpq/

illegal also of course khrN that country-GEN treasure
It is also of course illegal because it is a national treasure.
2 yc™h kryC uhr zfnj, uhi ei kUh bllhm/
worry-do-1-PR-C he-GEN for uhi this word say-1-P-S
I am worried about him. That’s why I said that.
3 ykCvÇN ahfg ahym Dhkhr bhifr Ùfk yPfryC, Kvb k†h™/ Pfl a¶p smw Ùfk
ahym cfl ahys/
some time before I Dhaka-GEN outside from return-1-PR-PERF
very tired Pfl little time stay-PP I move-PP come-1-PR-S
A little while ago I returned from outside Dhaka and was very tired.
Therefore I stayed only a short time and then came home.
4 uhr Kvb mhUh QfrfC/ khfzi ahr bhifr xhowh Mwyn/
he-GEN very head catch-3-PR-PERF so khfzi more outside go-VN
not be-3-PR-PERF
He had a bad headache. So he didn’t go out again.
The connecting elements in these four examples are nouns and pronouns:
510 khrN reason, uhi that + emphasiser, Pfl result + locative and khfzi work +
locative + emphasiser. The fact that they are used as conjunctions shows Compound
the minimal fuss with which Bangla structures its sentences. The sentences sentences
below are a token selection of compound sentences with a variety of
coordinating conjunctions.
no conjunction:
uhr cvl \RfC kphfl, ah£cl Kfs pRfC KvySfu, pyrSîfm, pR™ `rhfq zálzáfl lhlfc
uhr mvK/
her hair fly-3-PR-C, end of saree come off-PP fall-3-PR-C happy-LOC
hard work-LOC sinking sun-LOC bright bright reddish her face
Her hair is flying, the end of her saree is coming loose in her enjoyment,
in her effort. In the waning sunlight her face was bright red.
aUbh or
Mwfuh kvSl ybynmw aUbh erkm ykCv/
perhap expert exchange aUbh this kind something
Perhaps some expert exchange or something like that.
bXòhkhfl béy§ MfÉC nh aUbh ayubéy§ MfÉC/
rainy season-LOC rain be-3-PR-C not aUbh excessive rain be-3-PR-C
In the rainy season either it does not rain or it rains excessively.
aUòhJ namely
bhbho sô—yu `bkhr MfwfCn/ aUòhJ `Cflr esb Krc ahr yqfu phfrnyn/
father also recently unemployed be-3-H-PR-PERF that is son-GEN this
all expense more give-IP nor be able to-3-H-PR-PERF
The father has recently become unemployed, which means that he can’t
afford all his son’s expenses.
ahbhr again, and
\fT q£hRhfln dh∆hr ∏m«, phwchyr krfln, ahbhr bsfln, ahbhr \Tfln, ysghr
Qrhfln, ynybfw yqfln/
get up-PP stand-3H-P-S Doctor Maitra pacing-do-3H-P-S ahbhr
sit-3H-P-S ahbhr get up-3H-P-S cigar light-3H-P-S extinguish-PP
give-3H-P-S
Doctor Maitra got up, walked up and down, sat down, got up again, lit a
cigar and extinguished it.
ykCvth a…y™ lhgfC uhr ahbhr Bhlo lhgfC/
somewhat uncomfortable feel-3-PR-C he-GEN ahbhr good also
feel-3-PR-C
He was feeling a bit uncomfortable but then again he liked it. 511
29 ahr and
Compound
and complex
ahym eKn ybfw krb nh ahr `sth ahpyn bhbhfk bvyZfw blvn/
I now marriage-do-1-FUT not ahr that-CL you-H father-OBJ
sentences
explain-PP say-2H-PR-IMP
I will not get married now. You explain that to father.
ei `qhlnhw `s qvlfC, qvlfC ahr Bw phfÉC ahr `Mfs \TfC `xn zlurfÃr ahowhz/
this swing-LOC she swing-3-PR-C swing-3-PR-C and fear get-3-PR-C
and laugh-PP rise-3-PR-C like wave-GEN sound
On this swing she is swinging, swinging and getting scared and laughing.
Like the sound of waves.
`lhyl KfRr mfQj Svfw M£hphfÉC ahr BhbfC eKn yk krh xhw?
Loli hay-GEN in lie-PP pant-3-PR-C ahr think-3-PR-C now what
do-VN go-3-PR-S
Loli was lying in the straw, panting and thinking, ‘Now what can I do?’
yk or
uhMfl anj `lhfkr zfnj ahpyn `mhfti Bhfbn nh? uhrh pRl yk nh pRl, uhfqr
Bhl lhgl yk lhgl nh?
so other peson-GEN for you-H at all think-2H-PR-S not they
read-3-P-S yk not read-3-P-S they-GEN good feel-3-P-S yk feel not
So you don’t think at all about other people? Whether they read it or not,
whether they liked it or not?
ykLbh or
`kkth ynfz bhnhb ykLbh uvym ekth ykfn ahnfb/
cake-CL self bake-1-FUT ykLbh you one-CL buy-PP bring-2-FUT
I will bake the cake myself or you will buy one.
uhChRh apart from that

esb ùhmhr zhnh \ycu/ uhChRh eo zhn . . .
this all your know-VN ought uhChRh this also know-2-PR-S
You ought to know all this. Apart from that you also know . . .
uhrpr then, afterwards

ch Khowh `SX Mfw `gl/ uhrpr qvzfni ybmhnb~qr ygfw mhfk ahnfu `gl/
tea drink-VN end be-PP go-3-P-S then two-CL-EMP airport
go-PP mother-OBJ fetch-IP go-3-P-S
The tea drinking was finished. Then the two of them went to the airport
512 to fetch mother.
uhMfl if this is so, then Compound
sentences
'`s uh eKno zhfn nh/" 'uhMfl uhfk yk blfu Mfb nh?"
he that yet know-3-PR-S not in that case he-OBJ what say-IP
be-3-FUT no
‘He doesn’t know this yet.’ ‘In that case, shouldn’t he be told?’
'ahmhr mhUh `GhrhfÉC/" 'uhMfl ektv Svfw pfRh/"

I-GEN head spin-3-PR-C then a bit lie-PP fall-2-PR-IMP
‘I am feeling dizzy.’ ‘Then lie down for a bit.’
'ahym ahr `qyr krfu phyr nh/" 'uhMfl cfl xhÉC nh `kn?"
I more delay-do-IP be able to-1-PR-S then move-PP go-2-PR-C
not why
‘I can’t delay any more.’ ‘Then why are you not leaving?’
nh or
ahmrh yk ybkhfl xhb nh khlfk xhb?
we what afternoon-LOC go-1-FUT nh tomorrow go
Shall we go this afternoon or tomorrow?
uvym ghn ghifb nh kybuh ahbéy≠ krfb?

you song sing-2-FUT nh poem recite-do-2-FUT
Will you sing a song or recite a poem?
brL instead
eu \êyu sfμo zYbfnr mVlj bhfRyn ektvo brL ahro asMhw Mfw pfRfC mhnvX/
so much development in spite of life-GEN value not increase-3-PR-
PERF little bit EMP brL more helpless be-3-PP fall-3-PR-PERF person
In spite of all this development people’s quality of life has not increased one
bit. Instead they have become more helpless.
`s ùmn ykCv mfn krl nh/ brL mfn mfn KvyS Ml/
he such something mind-LOC do-3-P-S not brL mind-LOC (×2) happy
be-3-P-S
He did not really mind, but felt happy.
bh or
orh ahzfk bhfs ygfwfC bh anj khro sfÃ ghyRr bjbñh kfrfC ahym zhyn nh/
they today bus-LOC go-3-PR-PERF bh other someone-GEN with
car-GEN arrangement do-3-PR-PERF I know-1-PR-S not.
They went on the bus or arranged a car with someone else,
I don't know. 513
29 svurhL therefore
Compound
yk≤ `s zhfn ahmhr zYbfnr Qhrh yk/ —yu©Th `ni, yb≠ `ni, emn ykCv `ni xhr qhrßN
and complex
`gHrb krh cfl/ svurhL Kvb …hBhybkBhfb ahmhfk zYNò bfã«r mu pyrujhg kfrfC/
sentences
but he know-3-PR-S my life-GEN flow what foundation [is absent]
wealth [is absent] such something [is absent] that-GEN excessive
glory do-VN move-3-PR-S svurhL very natural way-LOC I-OBJ
worn-out cloth-GEN like desertion-do-3-PR-PERF
But he knew what kind of a life I had. No foundation, no wealth, nothing
to be particularly proud of. That’s why he dumped me like a worn-out
piece of clothing.
29.2 Contradicting compound sentences
nifl, nuvbh, nwfuh if not, otherwise

These conjunctions are all more or less synonymous. nifl is formally the
conditional participle of the incomplete verb n- is not but it does not have
the syntactic scope of nh Mfl if this is not so. nifl is used as a simple con
junction giving an alternative scenario.
khgzgvflh eKni ayPfs yqfw es/ nuvbh bhbhr asvybfQ Mfb/

paper-PL-CL now EMP office-LOC give-PP come-2-FUT-IMP nuvbh
father-GEN problem be-3-FUT
Take the papers to the office right now. Otherwise father will have a problem.
uhr mh `bhQ Mw bfl yqfwfCn/ nifl eirkm krfb `kn?
his mother perhaps say-PP give-3-PR-PERF nifl this way do-3-FUT why
Perhaps his mother has told him. Otherwise why would he behave like that?
rhfu Gvfmr mfQj `sth bvyZ bh Ùfk `gfC/ nifl skhfl \fTi uhfk mfn pRfb `kn?
night-LOC sleep-GEN in this-CL understand-1-PR-S or stay-PP
go-3-PR-PERF nifl morning-LOC rise-PP EMP he-OBK mind-LOC
fall-3-FUT why
That must have come to him in his sleep. Otherwise why would it be on his
mind when he got up in the morning?
ahmhr ã«Y or mhfwr khfC `bRhfu `gfC, nifl or sfÃ ahpnhfqr pyrcw kyrfw
yquhm/
my wife her mother-GEN to visit-IP go-3-PR-PERF nifl she-GEN with
you-PL-GEN acquaintance cause to do-PP give-1-P-HABIT
My wife has gone to visit her mother. Otherwise I would have introduced
514 her to you.
yk ynfw ylKfCn? yk ahbhr! E ùh er ekyt ybXw ahfC - `—m/ nwfuh ùhmhr mu Causal
`mfwrh pfR lhPhfb nh/ sentences
what about write-2H-PR-C what again that EMP this-GEN one-CL
subject [is present] love nwfuh you-GEN like girl-PL read-PP make
jump-3-FUT not
‘What are you writing about?’ Well, what do you think? There is only one
subject – love. Otherwise girls like you would not get excited about reading
(the book).
mhnvXi ùh pyrbuònSYl/ nuvbh `s MThJ ùhmhr zfnj phgl Mfw \fTfC `kn?
man EMP EMP changeable nuvbh he suddenly you-GEN for crazy
be-PP rise-3-PR-PERF why
Human beings are changeable. Or why is he suddenly crazy about you?
yuyn esmw klkhuhw ahshw uhfqr pfÇ Bhli MfwfC, nifl ei mhfs bfôb
Cvtfu Mu/
he this time Kolkata come-VN-LOC they-GEN for good EMP
be-3-PR-PERF nifl this month-LOC Bombay run-IP be-3-P-HABIT
It was good for them that he came to Kolkata just then. Otherwise they
would have had to rush to Bombay that month.
aUc mylnh QnY pyrbhfrr `mfw, nwfuh kvyR lÇ thkh `mfwfk yqfw `xfu
phrfun nh/
but Malina rich family-GEN daughter nwfuh twenty lakh Taka girl-OBJ
give-PP go-IP be able to-3-P-HABIT not
But Malina is the daughter of a rich family. Otherwise they would not have
been able to give the girl twenty lakh1 Taka.
The following three sections on causal, result and concessive sentences
contain both coordinating and subordinating structures. Then we will look
at subordination proper, which is done almost entirely with correlative
structures.
29.3 Causal sentences
Sentences expressing cause can be compound or complex. Coordinating

conjunctions are khrN reason and `knnh why not and ezfnj therefore, for that
reason. Subordinating conjunctions are `xfMuv because and bfl having said.
1 Twenty lakh = 20 × 100.000 = two million Taka 515

29
29.3.1 Compound
Compound
and complex uhfk MThJ cfl `xfu MfwfC khrN uhr `Cflr asvK MfwfC/
sentences he-OBJ suddenly move-PP go-IP be-3-PR-PREF khrN his son-GEN
illness happen-3-PR-PERF
He had to leave suddenly because his son had fallen ill.
ahzfk `qyr krfl clfb nh/ khrN orh ybkhfl ahsfb/
today delay not do-CP move-3-FUT not khrN they afternoon-LOC
com-3-FUT
It won’t do to be late today because they are coming this afternoon.
yuyn Mhsfln khrN u£hr Mhlkh lhgfC/
he laugh-3-H-P-S khrN he-GEN light feel-3-H-PR-C
He laughed because he was feeling relieved.
thi prhfu Bhl lhfg ezfnj `x, `kmn ahuÖsmòpfNr ByÃfu shmfn q£hyRfw Uhfk
uhr …hmY/
tie cause to wear-IP good feel-3-PR-S ezfnj that how yielding-GEN
posture in front of stand-PP stay her husband
She likes putting her husband’s tie on for him because of the yielding way
he stands in front of her.
mfn abshq ahfs, `knnh euyqfn `khno \êyu `qKh xhfÉC nh/
mind-LOC exhaustion come-3-PR-S `knnh so much day any
improvement see-VN go-3-PR-C not
One gets exhausted because there is no progress to be seen after all this
time.
`lhkyt ofqr shMhxj krfui chiyCl, ubv ghfw pfR prhmSò yqfÉC bfl ofqr ektv
a…yÄ MyÉCl/
man-CL they-OBJ help do-IP EMP want-3-P-C ubv body-LOC fall-PP
advice give-3-PR-S say-PP they-GEN a bit uncomfortable be-3-P-C
The man wanted to help them but because he gave them officious advice
they felt a bit uncomfortable.
516
Causal
29.3.2 Complex
sentences
with `xfMuv because
ahr uhfki yk `SX pxò™ ybfw krfu Mfb `xfMuv rhêh krbhr zfnj ekzn `lhk
qrkhr? `xfMuv skhfl uhr Gvm BhWbhr ahfg ch ∏uyr krbhr zfnj `k\ nh Uhkfl
cfl nh?
and he-OBJ EMP end until marriage-do-IP be-3-FUT `xfMuv cooking
do-ba-VN-GEN for one-CL person need `xfMuv morning-LOC his sleep
break-ba-VN-GEN before tea ready do-ba-VN-GEN for someone not
stay-CP move-3-PR-S not
And in the end he would have to marry her because he needed someone
to do the cooking? Because there had to be someone to get his tea ready
before he woke up in the morning?
yk≤ `xfMuv `s ayumh«hw sJ, `khno rkm 'svybfQ `nowh"fk GéNh kfr, ahr `xfMuv
ayBBhbk -mMfl svnhmrÇh uhr ybfSX —fwhzn, uhi eki `mfwfk C-mhs Qfr
pyRfwo `s phTj ybXw ChRh ahr `khno —sÃ \»hpn kfryn/
but `xfMuv highly honest any kind ‘take advantage’-OBJ hate-do-3-PR-S
and `xfMuv guardian-residence-LOC good reputation protection his
special need so EMP same girl-OBJ six month during teach-PP even he
lesson subject except more any topic raise-not-do-3-PR-PERF
But he was very honest and hated any kind of ‘taking advantage’, and
it was particularly important to him to preserve his good name in the
residence of a guardian. For that reason, even if he had been teaching
the same girl for six months, he would never raise any subject other than
the topic of the lessons.
with bfl because of, as, on account of
ahfgr rhf« uhr zár yCl bfl Bhl kfr `Kfu phfryn/
before-GEN night-LOC his fever [was] bfl good do-PP eat-IP not be
able to-3-PR-PERF
He couldn’t eat properly because he’d had a fever the night before.
thkh yqfwyC uhfk, uhr —fwhzn yCl bfli/
money give-1-PR-PERF he-OBJ he-GEN need [was] bfl
I gave him the money because he needed it.
xhwyn uhr b\ uhfk bhrN krl bfl/
not go-3-PR-PERF his wife he-OBJ forbid do-3-P-S bfl
He did not go because his wife forbade it.
517
29 kvymr mhrbhr ynwm uhfqr yCl nh bfl kvymfrr sLKjh `bfR `bfR pvkvr efkbhfr Byuò
Compound Mfw ygfwyCl/
and complex crocodile kill-baVN-GEN practice they-GEN [was] not bfl
sentences crocodile-GEN number increase-PP (×2) lake completely filled be-PP
go-3-P-PERF
Because they were not in the habit of killing crocodiles, the number
of crocodiles kept increasing and the lake was full of them.
ahr `Kfu iÉCh krfC nh bfl Mhu mvK Qvfw mhfwr ah£cfl Mhu mvK mvCl/
more eat-IP wish do-3-PR-C not because hand face wash-PP
mother-GEN saree hand face wipe-3-P-S
He didn’t want to eat any more, so he washed his hands and face and
wiped them on mother’s saree.2
chlhk mhnvX bfl ofk `Q£hkh yqfu phryn/
clever man bfl he-OBJ trick-give-IP not be able to-2-PR-PERF
He is a clever man, that’s why you couldn’t trick him.
ahymo ebhr `nMhu elhm e zhwghzymgvflh ybyœ kfr `Plb bfl/
I also this time perforce come-1-P-S this place land-PL-CL sell-do-PP
throw-1-FUT bfl
I also had to come along today because I am selling this land.
ekiBhfb ynfzfqr sôpq sôpfkò sfcun ni bfli ahmrh ybfqyS i\kjhylpths,
ekhySwh lhghyÉC yk≤ ahmhfqr ynmghC lhghyÉC nh/
this way-LOC own-PL-GEN wealth relationship-LOC aware [am not]
bfl EMP we foreign eucalyptus acacia plant-1-PR-C but our neemtree
plant-1-PR-C not
So because we are not aware of our own wealth we plant foreign
eucalyptus and acacia but not our own neem tree.
29.4 Result clauses
Sentences expressing result can be compound or complex. Subordinate

result clauses are formed with `x or with xhfu so that. They differ from
content clauses in that the main clause contains either an interrogative or
a deictic like emn such or eu, ou so much. The subordinate clause gives the
result or consequence of the (usually preceding) main clause.
518 2 The ah£cl is the loose end of a saree which is draped over the shoulder or the head.
29.4.1 Compound Result clauses
Compound structures contain coordinating conjunctions such as uhi so,

khfzi , aueb, svurhL therefore.
Pfl is the locative form of Pl fruit, result.
e `qfS ñhpfujr anvkrNfxhgj `khno ahqSò yCl nh/ Pfl xvfg xvfg ñhpfujr ahql . . .
this country-LOC architecture-GEN worth following any ideal
[was not] Pfl age-LOC (×2) architecture-GEN similarity
There was, in this country, no ideal for architecture to follow. Hence there
is a sameness in the architecture through the ages.
ahr uvym ekh Uhk, uhi ynfzr iÉChr mu clfu phr/
and you alone live-2-PR-S uhi own wish-GEN like move-IP be able
to-2-PR-S
And you live on your own. So you can do what you like.
pfr erShq kfrfC, Khflqh kfrfC, Mhysnho kfrfC/ khfzi esb yqk yqfw efqr
mfQj `khno phUòkj `ni/
afterwards Ershad do-3-PR-PERF Khaleda do-3-PR-PERF Hasina also
do-3-PR-PERF khfzi this all direction through they-GEN among any
difference [is absent]
Afterwards Ershad did it, Khaleda did it and Hasina did it too. Therefore,
in that respect, there is not much to choose between them.
`Cflyt `lKhpRh `SX krfu phrfC nh, eznj u£hrh ahPfshs krfln/
boy studying finish-do-IP be able to-3-PR-C not ezfnj they-H
chagrin-do-3H-P-S
The boy could not finish his studies. That’s why they were upset.
`shmnhfUr `bhn `ni/ svurhL `bhnfqr sfÃ Bhifqr yk rkm `rXhfryXr sôpkò Mw uh
`s zhfn nh/
Somnath-GEN sister [is absent] therefore sister-PL-GEN with
brother-PL-GEN what kind mutual rivalry-GEN relationship be-3-PR-S
that he know-3-PR-S not
Somnath does not have a sister. So he does not know what kinds of
rivalries exist in the relationships between brothers and sisters.
uhr kuòbj `SX/ aueb klkhuhw yPfr `xfu asvybQh `ni/
he-GEN duty end. so Kolkata-LOC return-PP go-IP problem
[is not]
His duties were finished. So there was no problem in returning to
Kolkata. 519
29 uhr MThJ bvfkr bjUh `lfgfC/ khfzi ahym uhfk Mhsphuhfl ynfw `gyClhm/
Compound he-GEN suddenly chest-GEN pain feel-3-PR-PERF khfzi I he-OBJ
and complex hospital take-PP go-1-PR-PERF
sentences He suddenly felt a pain in his chest, so I took him to the hospital.
29.4.2 Complex with `x that and xhfu so that
ahz eu grm pfRfC `x Gvmhfu phryC nh/

today so hot fall-3-PR-PRES `x sleep-IP be able to-1-PR-C not
It is so hot today that I can’t sleep.
ghyR ki, `x xhfbn?
car where that go-2-FUT
Is there a car that could take you?
sb ykCv emnBhfb zt phykfw `gfC `x, eKn ahr yuyn yk krfbn?
all something such way-LOC knot tie-PP go-3-PR-PERF that now more
he-H what do-3-FUT
Everything had become so complicated that he didn’t know what else to do.
syuji yk bhbhr emn `khno aprhQ yCl, xhfu o£r chkyr cfl `xfu phfr?
truth EMP what father-GEN such any crime [was] so that his-H job
move-PP go-IP be possible-3-PR-S
Did father really commit such a crime that he would lose his job?
ahpnhfqr eKhfn ahnhr \fØSj - zgfu xhfu Shy™ ahfs, mhrhmhyr aujchr xhfu qVfr
Mw uhr ekth \phw yñr krh/
you-PL-OBJ here bring-VN-GEN purpose – world-LOC xhfu peace
come-3-PR-S fight oppression xhfu distance-LOC be-3-PR-S that-GEN
one-CL way decide-do-VN
The purpose of bringing you here is for you to decide on a way to bring
peace to the world and to end fighting and oppression.
nuvn nkShth uhr mhUhr emn yPf⁄üSfnr mfuh ahtfk ahfC `x anj `khno yqfk
`sBhfb lÇj yCl nh/
new plan-CL his head-GEN such fixation-GEN like fixed-PP [is
present]-3 `x other any direction-LOV that way-LOC notice [was not]-3
The new plan became such an obsession in his head that he did not take
notice of anything else any more.
ahzkhl Bhl Kbfrr eu aBhb `x erkm `khno s®hbnhr kUh Svnfli mnth chÃh
Mfw ofT/
today time good news-GEN such lack that this kind possibility-GEN
word hear-CP mind-CL invigorated be-PP rise
520 Nowadays good news is such a rarity that even the potential of such a
thing is refreshing.
gBYr Khfqr \pr bR bR ghC emnBhfb ahRhl kfryCl `x uhfqr mfQj yqfnr `blhw Result clauses
ygfw bsfl `bS SYul pyrfbS \pfBhg krh `xu/
deep quarry-GEN on big big tree such way-LOC screen
do-3-3-P-PERF that they-GEN among day-GEN go-PP sit-CP quite
cool environment enjoy-do-VN go-3-P-HABIT
The big trees along the top of the mine formed a screen in such a way
that sitting under them in the daytime one could enjoy a cool environment.
bhyRfu eu aBhb `x k†hs nhifn \fTi ãkvl ChRfu MfwyCl/
home-LOC so much shortage that class nine-LOC rise-PP school
leave-IP be-3-P-PERF
There was such a shortage at home that when she got to class nine she
had to leave school.
emnBhfb uhr `mhfM pfR xhyÉC `x Bhl kfr uhfk `qKfui phi nh/
such way-LOC his fascination-LOC fall-PP go-1-PR-C that good do-PP
see-IP get-1-PR-S not
I am falling under his spell to such an extent that I can’t see him properly.
s´w eu `bhkh nw `x, yml pyrchlnhr esb guhnvgyuk pºyu `s bvZfu phrfb nh/
Sanjay so much stupid [is not] that administration this all routine
procedure he do-IP be able to-3-FUT not
Sanjay is not so stupid that he can’t manage all the routine procedures of
administration.
ei `Mhftlth eui `nhLrh `x sMj krhr `khno —Säi ofT nh/
this hotel-CL so EMP dirty that endurance-do-VN-GEN any question
EMP rise-3-PR-S not
The hotel is so dirty that putting up with it is out of the question.
Here is a result clause within an impersonal structure:
`qKh krfu xhfu nh ahsfu phfr `si bf~qhbÄth aybySj krh `xu/
see-VN do-IP so that not come-IP be able to-3-PR-S that EMP
arrangement of course do-VN go-3-P-HABIT
It would of course be possible to arrange (for her) not to be able to come
for a visit.
And one within a compound causal sentence:
bhyRfu ahr ayPsth rhfKnyn, `knnh eu khz ahsfu Srß kfryCl `x ahro qvzn
lhghfu MfwyCl /
home-LOC more office-CL not keep-3H-PR-PERF `knnh so much
work come-IP start-do-3-P-PERF that more two people employ-IP
be-3-P-PERF
He didn’t keep his office at home any more because so much work had 521
started to come in that he had to employ two more people.
29
29.5 Concessives
Compound
and complex
Concessives express but, even though, in spite of.
sentences
29.5.1 Coordinating concessives
Compound structures are formed with yk≤, aUc, ufb or ubv.
aUc but
ahbhr ahkhfSr afnk \pfr \fT `gfl bhwvpv´ SYul Mfw xhw, aUc ynfckhr bhwvpv´
Uhfk \”/
again sky-GEN much up-LOC rise-PP go-CP air mass cold be-PP
go-3-PR-S aUc below-GEN air mass stay-3-PR-S warm
When the air mass goes up high in the sky it gets cold, but the air mass
below stays warm.
`s bi bCr kfwk ahfg Mici `Pfl yqfwyCl/ aUc eKn ahmrh zhyn . . .
that book year a few before uproar throw-PP give-3-P-PERF. aUc now
we know-1-PR-S
That book caused quite a stir a few years ago. But now we know . . .
euyqn xhowh ahsh krfCn yuyn ei bhyRfu, aUc MYfrmnYr `x ekth `Cfl ahfC, uhi
`tr phnyn/
so long go-VN come-VN do-3H-PR-C he-H this EMP house-LOC
aUc Hiremoni-GEN that one-CL boy [is present] that EMP not
notice-do-3H-PR-PERF
He had been coming and going in her house for so long, but he hadn’t
known that Hiremoni had a son.
yk≤ but
afnkbhr `Phn krh MfwfC yk≤ kh\fk phiyn/

many time phone do-VN be-3-PR-PERF yk≤ someone-OBJ not
get-1-PR-PERF
I phoned many times but did not get through to anyone.
orh qvzfni pVbòbfÃr `lhk/ yk≤ u£hfqr mfQj ahkhS-phuhl bjbQhn/

they both East Bengal-GEN person yk≤ they-GEN between sky hell
difference
They are both from East Bengal. But there is a world of difference between
522 them.
yk≤ ymyMr `bhfZ yk nh `bhfZ, méNhflr uhfu ykCv efs xhw nh/ Concessives
but Mihir understand-3-PR S yk not understand-3-PR-S Mrinal-GEN
this-LOC any come-PP go-3-PR-S not
But whether Mihir understands or not is all the same to Mrinal.
ubv, ufb but

`s ñhnyt aíkhr, ubv `si aíkhfri uhr ynrhpq ahSîw/
that place-CL dark ubv that darkness-LOC EMP her safe shelter
The place is dark, but in that darkness is her safe shelter.
bhbh Kvb skhfl ofTn/ ufb qvpvfrr yqfk ektv Gvm Mw u£hr/
father very morning-LOC get up-PS ufb midday-GEN towards a little
sleep be-3-PR-S he-H-GEN
Father gets up very early. But towards midday he has a little sleep.
`sth ahymo lÇj kfryC/ ufb mfn MyÉCl . . .

that-CL I also notice-do-1-PR-PERF but mind-LOC be-3-P-PERF
I noticed that too. But I thought . . .
`s afnk Khw ubvo `mhth Mw nh/

he much eat-3-PR-S but fat be-3-PR-S not
He eats a lot but he does not get fat.
yuyn Bhl `bun phn ubvo sb smw bfln thkh `ni/

he-H good salary get-3H-PR-S but always say-3H-PR-S money
[is absent]
He has a good salary but he is always saying he doesn’t have
any money.
The following sentence can serve to demonstrate how Bangla moves from
compound (coordinating) to complex (subordinating) structures. The
essential difference between these two types of sentence formation is that
compounding creates a loose connection which can easily revert back to
individual simple sentences. Complex (subordinating) structures, on the
other hand, are firmly interlinked and provide a semantic logic as well as
a syntactic composition.
béy§ MyÉCl ubvo `s efsyCl/ → béy§ Mflo `s efsyCl/

rain be-3-P-C but he rain be-CP he come-3-P-PERF
come-3-P-PERF
It was raining but he came. He came despite the rain.
This is where we move into the area of sentence embedding and
subordination. 523
29
29.5.2 Subordinating concessives
Compound
and complex
Complex concessives are found in correlative structures with xyqo or with
sentences
the conditional participle followed by o. Note that xyqo is quite different
in use from xyq if. xyqo clauses can contain ahC-, the verb in the xyqo clause
can be in any tense and nh follows the verb. xyqo can have the following
correlatives: ubvo, uUhyp nevertheless, uho even so, ufb but, yk≤ but. It can
also occur without a correlative.
xyqo is given as even though in the gloss.

with uUhyp
xyqo `s shrhyqn khz kfr uUhyp uhr pRhfShnh yTkmu chylfw xhfÉC/
even though he all day work do-3-PR-S still his study properly
continue-PP go-3-PR-S
Even though he works all day, he continues with his studies conscientiously.
with ubvo
xyqo urkhyrth Kvb Zhl MfwfC ubvo sb `Kfw `Pllhm/

even though curry very spicy be-3-PR-PERF but all eat-PP throw-1-P-S
Even though the curry was very spicy, I ate it all up.
xyqo `s a¶p bwsY ubvo afnk khz krfu phfr/
even though he small aged but much work do-IP be able to-3-PR-S
Even though he is young, he can work hard.
ahmhr xhyqo sf~qM `ni, ubvo yzynsth prYÇh krh qrkhr/
Even though I have no doubts, this needs to be examined.
with uho
xyqo rhg kfryC uho ùhmhfk nh `Kfw Uhkfu `qb nh/

even though anger do1-PR-PERF that even you-OBJ not eat-PP stay-IP
give-1-FUT not
Even though I was angry, I wouldn’t let you go hungry.
with yk≤
xyqo ek ahQbhr anj yqfk uhkhfÉC yk≤ Gvfr Gvfr prÇfN qéy§th ahmhr mvfK efs
pRfC/
even though one half time other direction-LOC look-3-PR-C but
turn-PP (×2) after moment-LOC look-CL I-GEN face-LOC come-PP
fall-3-PR-PERF
524 Even though she looks away for a bit, her gaze returns to my face constantly.
xyqo yuyn gyrb yk≤ afnk sJkhxòj kfrfCn/ Concessives
even though he-H poor but much charity work do-3H-PR-PERF
Even though he is poor, he has done a lot of charity work.
khqôbrY xyqo sfÃ efsfCn, yk≤ u£hr sfÃ rybr ybfSX `qKh Mw yn/
Kadambari even though with come-3H-PR-PERF but she-H-GEN with
Robi-GEN special see-VN not be-3-PR-PERF
Even though Kadambari came along, she and Robi did not see much of
each other.
no correlative
`s xyqo ykCv blfu phfryn, uhr yBufr Kvb mhwh lhgyCl/

he even though something say-IP not be able to-3-PR-PERF his
heart-LOC very pity feel-3-P-C
Even though he was unable to say anything, he felt great pity.
xyqo ahmhr Qn ahfC uUhyp e smfw ahym ùhmhfk ykCv yqfu phyr nh/
even though I-GEN wealth [is present] still this time-LOC I you-OBJ
something give-IP be able to-1-PR-S
Even though I am wealthy, at the moment I can’t give you anything.
xyqo bhlk uhr ynpvNuh ahfC/
even though boy his skill [is present]
Even though he is just a boy, he has the expertise.
ahmrh xyqo uhfk `byS pC~q kyr nh uhfk ynmìN krfu Mfb/
we even though he-OBJ much like-do not he-OBJ invitation-do-IP
be-3-FUT
He will have to be invited even though we don’t like him much.
with conditional participle
klkhuh `gflo biyt phowh xhwyn/

Kolkata go-CP even book-CL get-VN not go-3-PR-PERF
Even though she went to Kolkata she couldn’t find the book.
Uhkfu chiflo cfl `xfu MfwfC/
stay-IP want-CP even move-PP go-IP be-3-PR-PERF
Even though I wanted to stay, I had to leave.
BhrubfXòr …hQYnuh ahsfb nh - aUbh eflo aqVr BybXjfu ahsfb nh/
India-GEN independence come-3-FUT not but come-CP even near
future-LOC come-3-FUT not
India will not gain independence, but even if it does, it will not be in the
near future. 525
29 Here is a sentence with both xyqo and a conditional participle. xyqo acts
Compound more like an adverb here.
and complex
xyqo `Cflfmfw uhfk phrfl eyRfw clu/
sentences
Even though children he-OBJ be able to-CP avoid-PP go-3-P-HABIT
The children, however, avoided him as much as possible.
29.6 Content clauses
A subordinate clause which tells us something or asks a question and is

commented on or introduced by the main clause is called a content
clause.3 The subordinate usually precedes the main clause but can also
follow it, as in the first two examples.
He told me that there would be o ahmhfk bflfC ZR ahsfC/

a storm.
They thought that perhaps more orh `BfbyCl `x Mwfuh ahro mhnvX ahsfb/
people would come.
We didn’t know why he was angry. \yn ykfsr rhg kfrfCn uh ahmrh
zhnuhm nh/
It is not true that he did not \yn `x bhLlh zhnfun nh uh syuj nw/
know Bangla.
I don’t think he is doing anything ybfSX ykCv krfC bfl mfn MfÉC nh/
special.
Content clauses in English are often preceded by that. In Bangla we have
two conjunctions `x and bfl that. In both languages the conjunctions can
occasionally be left out.
I knew you would come. ahym zhnuhm uvym ahsfb/

`x is the nominative animate relative pronoun he who. In analogy to `s,
which can be used for animates and inanimates, `x has expanded its rep
ertoire to that, which or simply to what. As such we expect to find it in
correlative structures, but it also appears without a correlative partner. In
the first four examples we see that the correlative partner of `x is in fact
3 These types of subordinate clauses are also called complement clauses. The term
content clause was coined by Otto Jespersen and seems more appropriate for Bangla
in view of the fact that the term complement is used in the context of equational
(copulative) structures. I am grateful to W. L. Smith for suggesting this term in his Bengali
526 Reference Grammar, Stockholm 1997
the whole following clause. Verbs of saying or perception followed by `x Content
produce content clauses. The clause following `x is, in fact, the direct object clauses
of the main verb.
Compare: ahym uh zhnuhm nh/

I that know-1-P-HABIT not
I did not know that. uh is the direct object of
zhnh know.
and ahym zhnuhm nh `x uvym ahzfk ahsfb/
I know-1-P-HABIT not that you today come-2-FUT
I didn’t know that you were coming today.
In this sentence `x uvym ahzfk ahsfb that you will come is the direct object
of zhnh know.
bfl, the perfective participle of blh speak comes in a different place in the
sentence when it is used as a conjunction than `x does. `x usually occurs
straight after the sentence subject, bfl after the finite verb of the subord
inate clause.
with `x: uvym `x ahmhr sfÃ xhfb kUh yqfwC/

you `x I-GEN with go-2-FUT word give-2-PR-PERF
with bfl: uvym ahmhr sfÃ xhfb bfl kUh yqfwC/
you I-GEN with go-2-FUT bfl word give-2-PR-PERF
You promised that you would go with me.
One of the significant differences between English and Bangla content
clauses is tense use. In English the tense of the content clause is dependent
on the tense of the main clause. In Bangla the tense of the content clause
is determined by real, languageexternal time. From a formal point of view,
many sentences containing content clauses in Bangla have an underlying
correlative `x - uh structure.
Content clauses are particularly suited for indirect speech, including indir
ect questions.
ahym uhr ycyTr \≠r `qiyn `kn zhnfu chfÉC/

I his letter-GEN reply not give-1-PR-PERF why know-IP want-3-PR-C
He wants to know why I did not reply to his letter.
Main clauses of content clauses contain verbs of reporting, questioning,
cognition or perception. Apart from structures with `x and bfl content
clauses occur with interrogatives, including yknh whether or not and with
uh nw or emn nw it is not so. In these occurrences no conjunction is needed. 527
29
29.6.1 With `x
Compound
and complex
sentences
uvym zhn `x mh khfn ektv km `Shfn/
you know-2-PR-S `x mother ear-LOC a bit less hear-3-PR-S
You know that mother does not hear very well.
ahmhro mfn MfwyCl `x ahpyn Mwfuh ahmhfk ybSáhs krfu phrfCn nh/
I-GEN also mind-LOC be-3-P-PERF `x you-H perhaps I-OBJ
belief-do-IP be able to-2H-PR-C not
I also thought that you could perhaps not quite believe me.
e msyzq `qKfl `cnh xhw `x, eyt svluhnY ahmfl ∏uyr Mwyn/
this mosque see-CP know-VN go-3-PR-S `x this-CL Sultanic rule
built not be-3-PR-PERF
It is clear from looking at this mosque that it was not built under
Sultanic rule.
mhfwr QVmphfn gfBòr ySSvr `x Çyu Mfu phfr, `s kUh u£hrh Bvfl xhn bh yc™h
kfrn nh/
mother-GEN smoking uterus-GEN baby-GEN `x harm be-IP be
possible-3-PR-S that word they-H forget-PP go-3H-PR-S or
think-do-3H-PR S not
They forget or don’t think about the fact that the mother’s smoking can
harm the unborn baby.
ahym mhnvXth `x Bhl ni uh ahmhr `cfw Bhl ahr `k zhfn?

I person-CL `x good [is not]-1 that I-GEN than good more who
know-3-PR-S
I am not a good person. Who knows that better than I do?
ahr `s `x ekth Mhysr g¶p Svfn Mhsfu phrfb eth Mwfuh bR `byS ahSh krh/
and he `x one-CL laugh-GEN story hear-PP laugh-IP be able to-2-FUT
this-CL perhaps big much hope do-VN
It is perhaps too much to hope that he might be able to laugh when he
hears a funny story.
uhfqr mfQj afnkyqn Ùfk yTk Mfw ahfC `x ek rhf« aíkhfr bfs uhrh
kUh kifb/
they-GEN between many day from arranged be-PP [is present] `x one
night-LOC darkness-LOC sit-PP they word speak-3-FUT
It had been agreed between them for a long time that one night they
528 would sit in the dark and talk.
29.6.2 With bfl Content
clauses
Kvb sMfz ybfqw krh xhfb bfl mfn Mw nh/
very easily dismiss-do-VN go-3-FUT bfl mind-LOC be-3-PR-S not
I don’t think it will be very easy to get rid of him.
`s ahmhr sfÃ kUh blfb nh bfl yTk kfrfC/
he I-GEN with word speak-3-FUT not bfl decide-3-PR-PERF
He has decided not to speak with me.
iyn u£hr dhfwyrr mfQj `rhydyswhr ei a“hu zhfnhwhr qVr Ùfk `qfKfCn bfl \f^K
kfr ygfwfCn/
he-H his diary-GEN in Rhodesia-GEN this EMP unknown animal
distance from see-3-H-PR-PERF bfl mention do-PP go-3-H-PR-PERF
He mentioned in his diary that he had seen this unknown Rhodesian
animal from a distance.
`mfwr pfr `mfw Ml bfl ektvo ybr∆ Ml nh `k\/
girl-GEN after girl be-3-P-S bfl a bit even annoyed be-3-P-S not
someone
No one was in the least annoyed that the second child was also a girl.
ayqyu zny—w Mfu `cfwfCn bfl mfn Mw nh/
Aditi popular be-IP want-3-PR-PERF bfl mind-LOC be-3-PR-S not
I don’t think that Aditi was trying to be popular.
ahym ahghymkhl rhzShMYfu xhb bfl kUh yqfwyC/
I tomorrow Rajshahi-LOC go-1-FUT bfl word give-1-PR-PERF
I promised that I would go to Rajshahi tomorrow.
shrhrhu Bhl Gvm MfwfC bfl ùh mfn MfÉC nh/
all night good sleep be-3-PR-PERF bfl EMP mind-LOC be-3-PR-C not
I don’t think that he slept well through the night.
29.6.3 Without conjunction
ahym `BfbyClhm ahpyn ahmhfk ymfUj sh™ánh yqfÉCn/

I think-1-P-PERF you-H I-OBJ lie comfort give-2-H-PR-C
I thought that you were giving me false hope.
yk kfr zhnfl phyr?
what do-PP know-2-P-S be able to-1-PR-S
How do you know I can do it? 529
29 `srkm ahr kKno Mfb nh uh `s zhnu/
Compound this way more ever be-3-FUT that he know-3-P-HABIT
and complex He knew that nothing like this would ever happen again.
sentences
uvym `Chtfblhw Bhl ayBnw krfu zhnuhm/
you childhood good acting do-2-P-HABIT know-1-P-HABIT
I knew that you were good at acting when you were a child.
uvym `qKyC mhLsth KhÉC nh/

you see-1-PR-C meat-CL eat-2-PR-C not
I see that you are not eating the meat.
Svnlhm ahpyn ybfqfS xhfÉCn/

hear-1-P-S you-H abroad-LOC go-3-PR-C
I heard that you are going abroad.
ahym mfn kryClhm uvym esb Bvfl mn Ùfk mvfC yqfwC/

I mind-LOC do-1-P-C you this all forget-PP mind from lift-PP
give-3-PR-PERF
I thought that you had put all this out of your mind.
iyumfQj uhr ekth ynz… muhmu ∏uyr MfwfC, `s ahr anj khro kUh xhchi nh kfr
`mfn `nw nh/
by now he-GEN one-CL own decision form be-3-PR-PERF he
more other someone-GEN word request not do-PP respect-PP
take-3-PR-S not
In the meantime he made up his mind that he would not listen to anyone
else’s opinion unless he had asked for it.
29.6.4 With question words
ahym `khn pyrbhfrr `mfw uvym yk zhn nh?

I which family-GEN daughter you what know-2-PR-S not
Don’t you know what family I come from?
uvym yk cho bh nh cho ahmhr uhfu yk?

you what want-2-PR-S or not want-2-PR-S I-GEN that-LOC what
What should I care what you want or don’t want?
yTk `khnyqk Ùfk ahflh ahsfC `s ykCvfui Qrfu phrl nh/

exactly which direction from light come-3-PR-C he at all catch-IP be
able to-3-P-S not
530 He could not work out at all where exactly the light was coming from.
yk `x krb, yk `x Bhbb ykCvi bvZfu phrlhm nh/ Content
what that do-1-FUT what that think something EMP understand-IP clauses
be able to-1-P-S not
I had no idea what to do, what to think.
`shmnhU yTk uKn `khUhw yCl, blfu phrb nh/

Somnath exactly then where [was] say-IP be able to-1-FUT not
I don’t know where Somnath was at exactly that time.
`k ymUjh kUh blfCn ahr `k blfCn nh uhr —mhN ahym krb/

who lie say-3-H-PR-C and who say-3-H-PR-C not that-GEN proof
I do-1-FUT
I will prove who is lying and who is not.
MThJ `khnyqfk yk Mfw `gl `bhZh xhwyn/

suddenly what be-PP go-3-P-S understand-VN not go-3-PR-PERF
It was impossible to understand what was suddenly going on where.
29.6.5 With uh nw and emn nw
emn nw `x uhfqr mfQj ekzfnr uvlnhw anj zfnr Bhfg ykCv km pfRyCl/
such [is not] that they-GEN beween one-CL-GEN comparison-LOC
other-CL-GEN share-LOC something less fall-3-P-PERF
It was not that between them the share of one was less than that of the other.
`Cflthfk `x Kvb mfn pRu uh nw/

the boy (obj) that much mind (loc) used to fall that is not
She did not think about the boy much.
mfn mfn ektv Pvyuò, ektv \f≠znho `x anvBb nh kryClvm uh nw/

mind-LOC (×2) a bit merriment a bit excitement also that-R feeling
not do-1-P-C that-CR [is not]
lit: It was not that I didn’t secretly feel any merriment or even excitement.
Secretly I felt pleased and excited.
mhnvfXr blbhr kUh sbi `x sMz uh nw/

man-GEN say-baVN-GEN word all EMP that-R easy that-CR [is not]
Not everything that needs to be said is easy (to say).
qYGò ybbhyMu zYbfnr sbthi `x mQvmhKh yCl uh nw/

long married life-GEN all-CL EMP that-R honey smear-VA [was]
that-CR [is not]
Long married life was not entirely a bed of roses. 531
29 emn yk, mhrhmhyr Mu nh, uh nw/
Compound even what fighting occur-3-P-HABIT not that [is not]
and complex Even fighting occurred occasionally.
sentences
29.6.6 With yknh whether or not
uvym `KfwC yknh zhnfu `cfwyCl/

you eat-2-PR-PERF what not know-IP want-1-P-PERF
(She) wanted to know whether you had eaten or not.
zhyn nh `s oKhfn ygfw KvyS MfwfC yknh/

know-1-PR-S not he there go-PP happy be-3-PR-PERF what not
I don’t know whether he liked it there or not.
`k el `gl bh ahsfb yknh uh ynfw ahr mhUh Ghmhfu Mfb nh/

who come-3-P-S go-3-P-S or come-3-FUT what not that about more
head sweat-IP be-3-FUT not
There is no need to worry any more about other people’s comings
and goings.
dhkfb yk nh, bvZfu phrl nh/

call-3-FUT what not understand-IP be able to-3-P-S not
He couldn’t decide whether to call (her) or not.
kUhth ùhmhfk blh \ycu yknh zhyn nh/

word-CL you-OBJ say-VN ought what not know-1-PR-S not
I don’t know whether it is proper to tell you this or not.
—Ufm zhnfu Mfb BVymsVuh ei zYbn chw yknh/

first-LOC know-IP Bhumisuta this life want-3-PR-S what not
First he has to find out whether Bhumisuta wants this life or not.
Here are two existential content clauses:
shMs ahfC yk `ni `sth bR kUh nw/

courage [is present] or [is absent] that-CL big word [is not]
It is not a question of courage or lack of courage.
o-rkm bi ahfC yk `ni uh ynyŸcuBhfb zhnhth `xn bö zrßyr/

that type book [exist] or [not exist] that certain way-LOC
know-VN-CL as if big urgent
It seemed very urgent to know whether this kind of book existed
532 or not.
And here are two examples of compound sentences within a content Conditional
structure: sentences
`s ekbhr Bhbl nh `khUhw xhfÉC ahr `kn bh xhfÉC/

he once think-3-P-S not where go-3-PR-C more why PART go-3-PR-C
He didn’t consider once where he was going and why he was going.
esb `qKfu `qKfu eo Bhfb `x, zhlhflr ã«Y ahsfCn nh `kn aUbh `knibh uhfk
eiBhfb `dfkfCn?
this all see-IP (×2) this also think-3-PR-S that Jalal-GEN wife
come-3H-PR-C not why or why he-OBJ this way-LOC
call-3H-PR-PERF
Seeing all this he also wondered why Jalal’s wife was not coming or why she
had called him like that.
29.7 Conditional sentences
There are two ways of forming conditional sentences: with a conditional

participle (Chapter 22) or with a correlative structure using xyq if in the
subordinate clause and uhMfl then in the main clause. Conditional sentences
with xyq are among the very few structures in Bangla with a strict time
sequence. The choice between the conditional participle and the xyqstructure
is one of emphasis more than of sentence length. We will see some examples
of this below. Here, for a start, are two parallel sentences.
conditional participle:
uvym eKn `gfl smwmu `p£HCfb/

you now go-CP time in time arrive-2F-FUT
correlative structure with xyq:
uvym xyq eKn xho uhMfl smwmu `p£HCfb/

you if now go-2-PR-S then in time arrive-2F-FUT
If you go now you will get there in time.
We distinguish three types of conditional sentences with xyq. Bangla
does not distinguish between degrees of improbability such as if I went
(hypothetical) and if I had gone (irrealis). Both these clauses can be
rendered in Bangla as ahym xyq `xuhm (with xyq and past habitual). The three
types of conditionals are:
1 present conditional (realis) if you go by bus

uvym xyq bhfs xho 533
29 2 perfective conditional if you have (already) decided
Compound uvym xyq ysºh™th kfr Uhk
and complex
sentences 3 past conditional if you could come
(hypothetical and irrealis) uvym xyq ahsfu phrfu
ahC- and `ni are replaced by forms of Uhkh stay, remain in conditional
sentences. Equational conditional sentences are formed with Mowh. Negation
in the xyq half comes before the verb. xyq usually appears straight after the
sentence subject but it can also come at the beginning of the sentence.
Although xyq - uhMfl can be considered the standard correlative pair, the
conjunction ufb but is frequently found in place of uhMfl. Other options are
the emphasiser ùh or no correlative partner at all. Examples of all these
are given below.
29.7.1 Present conditionals
The xyq half of the sentence has a simple present tense verb form, the
second half is in the simple present, the future tense or an imperative.
Here is the sentence structure for simple conditionals:
1 xyq clause: subject + xyq + nh + verb (PRS)

2 main clause: uhMfl + verb (IMP, PRS or FUT) + nh
xyq béy§ Mw, uhMfl ahmrh yPfr ahsb/

if rain be-3-PR-S then we return-PP come-FUT
We will return if it rains.
eth xyq suj Mw ufb ùh Bhl/

this-CL if true be-3-PR-S then EMP good
If this is true then that’s good.
xyq bjhthyr Pvyrfw xhw ufb ynrßphw/

if battery finish-PP go-3-PR-S then helpless
If the battery runs out then we are finished.
xyq `khnoyqn mfnr mun kfr ah£kfu phyr, ufb `si Cybthr nhm `qb 'yS¶pYr
…pä"/
if any day mind-GEN like do-PP paint-IP be able to then that
picture-CL-GEN name give-1-FUT art-GEN dream
If I ever manage to paint (it) to my liking, then I will call that picture
534 ‘Art’s dream’.
ùhmhr xhowhr xyq qrkhr Mw, uhMfl `xfu phr/ Conditional
you-SG-GEN go-VN-GEN if need be-3-PR-S then go-IP be able sentences
to-2-PR-S
You can go if you need to.
eKn xyq u£hfk blh Mw `x ghywkhyt ahsfu rhyz nw, uhMfl yuyn rhfg `Pft pRfbn/
now if he-OBJ say-VN be-3-PR-S that singer-CL come-IP agreed
[is not] then he anger-LOC explode-PP fall-3H-FUT
If he is now told that the singer is not willing to come, he will explode
with fury.
The correlative conjunction can sometimes be omitted.
yk≤ ektv xyq `chK `lfg ahfs amyn `k `xn chbvk `mfr uhfk zhygfw `qw/
but bit if eye attach-PP come just like that who as if whip hit-PP
he-OBJ cause to wake-PP give-3-PR-S
It is as if someone is cracking a whip to keep him awake every time his
eyes start to close even a bit.
xyq xhowh s®b Mw abSj xhb/
if go-VN possible is-3-PR-S of course go-1-FUT
Of course we will go if possible.
xyq emn-ykCv Uhfk, euÇN Qfr ahmhfk xh blfu `cfwfCn, eKn uh blfu phfrn/
if such something stay-3-PR-S so long during I-OBJ what-R say-IP
want-2H-PR-PERF now that-CR say-IP be able to-2H-PR-S
If there is anything that you have been wanting to say to me for a long
time, you can tell me now.
29.7.2 Negated conditionals
ùhmhr sjh~dhl xyq nh pho ùh egvflh nho/

your sandal if not find-2-PR-S then this-PL-CL take-2PR-IMP
If you don’t find your sandals then take these ones.
yPfrhz xyq ekh™ nh ahfs, uhMfl uhr yTkhnh ynfw ahsfb/
Firoz if at all not come-3-PR-S then his address take-PP come-2-FUT
If Firoz is determined not to come, then bring his address with you.
xyq `khno aBhybu khrfN yPrfu nhi phfr, uhMfl svyc«h MhtòfPl kfr bsfb/
if any unthinkable reason-LOC return-IP not EMP be able to-3-PR-S
then Suchitra heart fail-do-PP sit-3-FUT
If for some unthinkable reason she can’t return, then Suchitra will have
a heart attack. 535
29 zYbfn xyq mfnhmu sÃY nh phowh xhw uhMfl ekh ekh bhsi zYbfnr sbfcfw km
Compound qvAfKr khrN Mw/
and complex life-LOC if like-minded partner [na] get-VN go-3-PR-S this be-CP
sentences alone alone abode-EMP life-GEN most less sadness-GEN reason is
If a soulmate can’t be found in life, then staying alone causes the least grief.
ynfzr Çmuhw xyq nh kvflhw, `s ahmhfk Mhu Qfr opfr uvlfu —≥u/
own power-LOC if not suffice-3-PR-S he I-OBJ hand hold-PP up
lift-IP willing
If my own power is not sufficient, then he is willing to take my hand and
pull me up.
xyq ymUjhchfr aBjñ nh Mfw \Tfu Mw ufb uhr mu svKY ahr `k\ Mfb nh/
if lying-LOC used to not be-PP rise-IP be-3-PR-S then he-GEN like
happy more someone be-3-FUT not
No one will be happier than he if he does not have to get used to lying.
The unusual tense sequence (simple present – simple past) in the following
sentence is due to the fact that the xyq clause is equational, the main clause
existential:
xyq ycrkhl `bhkh kfr rhKhi \fØSj Mw ufb mhnvX séy§ krhr yk qrkhr yCl?
if forever stupid do-PP keep-VN EMP purpose be-3-PR-S then human
being creation do-VN-GEN what need [was]
If the purpose was to keep human beings forever stupid, then why create
them?
29.7.3 Perfective conditionals
Treating this structure separately from the simple conditional is purely to

show how it is formed.
The xyq half of the sentence has a simple present verb form of Uhkh stay
preceded by the perfective participle of the main verb. The structure is
essential for talking about events that may already have happened.
subject + xyq (+ nh) + verb PP + Uhkh-PR-S

uhMfl + verb: IMP, PRS or FUT (+ nh)
uvym xyq ei kUh bfl Uhk, uhMfl uhr Çmh chowh \ycu/
you if this word say-PP stay-2-PR-S then he-GEN forgiveness
ask-VN ought
536 If you have said this, you ought to ask his forgiveness.
xyq mfr ygfw Uhfk `s ùh Bhl/ Conditional
if die-PP go-PP stay-3-PR-S that EMP good sentences
If he has died then that’s good.
xyq `bwhqyp kfr Uhyk, uhMfl Çmh krfbn/
if impudence do-PP stay-1-PR-S then forgive-do-2H-FUT
Forgive me if I have been impudent.
Bqîflhk xyq ahmhfqr mu `sfk~d ykLbh Uhdò ydyBsn Mfw chkyr `pfw Uhfkn uhMfl . . .
gentleman if we-GEN like second or third division be-PP job get-PP
stay-3H-PR-S then . . .
If the gentleman, like us, has got the job via a second or third division pass,
then . . .
The following two sentences have additional content clauses following the main
clause but the overall structure and tense sequence remains the same.
ahmhr `khno kUhw xyq ùhmhr mfn k§ yqfw Uhyk ufb ycrufr xhbhr ahfg ahmhw
bfl xho `x uvym ahmhw mhp kfrC/
my any word-LOC if your mind-LOC pain give-PP stay-1-PR-S then
forever-GEN go-baVN-GEN before I-OBJ say-PP go-3-PR-IMP that you
I-OBJ forgiveness do-2-PR-PERF
If anything I have said has hurt you, then tell me, before I die, that you
have forgiven me.
uhrh xyq 31 `S `m 2008-er mfQj —fwhznYw khgzp« zmh nh yqfw Uhfkn, uhMfl
ahfqSœfm uhfqr sLfxhg bí kfr `qowh MfwfC/
they if 13 May 2008-GEN by necessary papers collect not give-PP
stay-2H-PR-S then order according to their connection close-do-PP
give-VN be-3-PR-PERF
If they didn’t hand in their papers by 13 May 2008, they will, in accordance
with the rules, have had their (phone) connections cut off.
Here is a mixed conditional, moving easily from perfective to past:
xyq ekth bvyºMYn `mfw yqfSMhrh Mfw amn kh’“hnMYn khz kfri Uhfk, ebL uhfk
Pflh kfro K£vfz nh `pfwi Uhfkn, pryqn skhfl - uhr bhyRfu efs `K£hz `nowhth
yk …hBhybk `sHznj Mu nh?
if one-CL stupid girl confused be-PP such without common sense
work do-PP stay-3-PR-S and she-OBJ follow do-PP CONC search-PP
not find-PP EMP stay-3H-PR-S after day morning-LOC her home-LOC
come-PP news take-VN-CL what ordinary courtesy be-3-P-HABIT not
If a stupid girl gets confused and does something totally devoid of common
sense and if even following her one can’t find her, then isn’t it common
courtesy to go to her house the next morning to find out what’s happened? 537
29
29.7.4 Past conditionals
Compound
and complex
subject + xyq + (nh) + verb: PHABIT
sentences
uhMfl + verb: P-HABIT + (nh)
Past conditional sentences convey hypothetical and counterfactual or
unfulfillable events. The first four sentences are examples for hypothetical
conditionals, the rest for counterfactual conditionals. Bangla makes no
structural distinction between them.
xyq ahym svñ Uhkuhm, ahym cfl `xuhm `khUho/

if I well be-1-P-HABIT I move-PP go-1-P-HABIT somewhere
If I were well, I would go away somewhere.
uh xyq `CfR yqfu Mu, uhMfl ahym ahr b£hcuhm nh/
that if leave-PP give-IPbe-3-P-HABIT then I survive-P-HABIT not
I wouldn’t survive if I had to give that up.
uvym xyq ektvo kUh Svnfu uhMfl ùhmhr ypCfn `lfg Uhkhr qrkhr Mu nh/
you if a bit even word listen-2-P-HABIT then you-GEN back-LOC
stick-PP stay-VN-GEN need be-3-P-HABIT not
If you listened even a little bit, there would be no need to go on at you.
péyUbYfu dh∆hr nh Uhkfl asvKo Uhku nh/
world-LOC doctor not stay-CP illness also stay-3 P-HABIT not
There would be no illness in the world if there were no doctors.
uvym rhf« xyq Uhkfu uhMfl ynfzr khfn Svnfu `pfu/
you night-LOC if stay-2-P-HABIT then own-GEN ear-LOC hear-IP
get-2-P-HABIT
If you had stayed the night, you would have heard it with your own ears.
xyq uhr ã«Y nh Mfw anj ekyt `mfw Mu, uhMfl Shymm ynŸcw uhr ybpfq `byS
sMhnvBVyu `qKhu/
if his wife not be-PP other one-CL woman be-3-P-HABIT then
Shamim of course her mishap-LOC much sympathy show-3-P-HABIT
If it had been any woman other than his wife, Shamim would have shown
much sympathy for her mishap.
SySBVXN xyq `sKhn Ùfk uhfk uvfl ynfw nh ahsfun, uhMfl `khUhw Uhku Bru?
Shashibhushan if there from he-OBJ lift-PP take-PP not
come-3H-P-HABIT then where stay-3P-HABIT Bharat
If Shashibhushan had not brought him away from there, where would
538 Bharat be?
Occasionally we also find perfective past conditionals: Conditional
sentences
ahmrh `s smfw xyq bhyR ygfw Uhkuhm ufb `chrthfk ùh Qfr ynuhm/
we that time-LOC if home go-PP stay-1-P-HABIT then thief-CL-OBJ
EMP catch-PP take-P-HABIT
If we had already been home at that time, we would have caught
the thief.
`tîn xyq `s mvMVfuò Ùfm ygfw Uhku uhMfl eirkm ahGhu Mu nh/
train if that moment-LOC stop-PP go-PP stay-3-P-HABIT then this
kind impact be-3-P-HABIT not
If the train had already stopped at that moment, there would not have
been such an impact.
29.7.5 Incomplete conditionals
xyq clauses sometimes occur without a correlative clause. They can be

what if? questions, if only! exclamations or simply unfinished state
ments. Examples for what if? and if only! are given in Ch. 27.2.5 and
Ch. 27.4, respectively.
Incomplete xyq statements usually occur as afterthoughts.
`Cht Bhith xyq eKno `zfg Uhfk/

young brother-CL if still wake-PP stay-3-PR-S
If his younger brother is still awake.
`s xyq ahsfu chw/
he if come-IP want-3-PR-S
If he wants to come.
ùhmhr xyq ahpy≠ nh Uhfk/
you-GEN if objection not stay-3-PR-S
If you have no objections.
29.7.6 xyq Clause following
ei eu sb uUj `zfn yk Mfb xyq nh sfcunuh gfR ofT/

this so much data know-PP what be-3-FUT if not consciousness
build-PP rise-3-PR-S
What is the use of knowing all these facts if no awareness has been
built up? 539
29 ahpnhfk ahym ek lhK thkh aPhr kfryClhm xyq ahpyn ahmhr …hmYr síhn efn
Compound yqfu phfrn/
and complex you-H-OBJ I one lakh Taka offer do-1-P-PERF if you-H my
sentences husband-GEN trace bring-PP give-IP be able to-2H-PR-S
I offered you 100,000 Taka on the condition that you could find some
trace of my husband.
29.7.7 xyq With other tenses
Tenses other than the simple present or the past habitual can sometimes
occur in xyq clauses.
`s xyq Bvlfu `pfrfC, `kn Bvlfu phfr nh?

If only she could forget, why can’t she forget?
present perfect:
iLljhf~d xyq ekbhr Cvft `gfCn gfbXNhr zfnj uhMfl zhnfbn . . .

England-LOC if one time run-PP go-3H-PR-PERF research-GEN for
then know-2H-FUT
If you have gone to England once for research, then you will know . . .
ahym euyqn xyq afpÇh kfryC ùh ahro yqn kfwk `xn afpÇh kyr/
I so much day if wait-do-1-PR-PERF then more day a few so that wait
do-1-PS
If I have waited this long, I may as well wait another few days.
ahr uhr zl xyq ekbhr `KfwfCn, uhMfl ahr rfÇ `ni, bhyk zYbn anj `khno zl
ahpnhr mvfK rßcfb nh, ahr `s zflr aBhfb ahfÄ ahfÄ glh Svykfw mhrh xhfbn/
and it-GEN water if once drink-2H-PR-PERF then more protection [is
absent] remaining life other any water your mouth-LOC taste-3-FUT
not and that water-GEN lack-LOC slowly slowly throat dry-PP hit-VN
go-2H-FUT
Once you have tasted its water, there is nothing you can do. For the rest
of your life, no other water will be to your taste and the lack of it will
gradually make your throat go dry and kill you.
future:
ùhmhr b\-`Cfl-`mfwfk xyq `Kfu yqfu nh phrfb ùh ybfw krfli bh `kn?
your wife son daughter-OBJ if eat-IP give-IP not be able to-2-FUT then
marriage do-2-P-S EMP or why
540 If you can’t feed your wife and children then why did you get married?
xyq blfu Mfb, uhr ahu¬ MfÉC khz/ Correlatives
if say-IP-be-3-FUT his fear PC work
To be honest, he is afraid of work.
yk≤ xìNh xyq nh Uhkfb ùh `b£fc Ùfk svK yk?
but pain if not stay-3-FUT then survive-PP stay-PP happiness what
But if there is no pain, then where is the joy in being alive?
simple past:
ahr mhfZ-mhfZ xyq ybChnhw Svfw chfwr afpÇh krfu nh phrl, uhMfl ahr mhnvfXr
`Cht Bhi Uhfk `kn?
and sometimes if bed-LOC lie-PP tea-GEN wait-do-IP not be able
to-3-P-S then more person-GEN young brother stay-3-PR S why
Why have younger brothers if not so that one can sometimes lie in bed
waiting for one’s tea?
29.7.8 Conditionals without xyq
Occasionally conditional sentences occur with neither xyq nor a conditional

participle in them.
uvym ofk b£hchfu cho ùh eÇyN uhRho/

you he-OBJ save-IP want-2-PR-S then right now chase away-2-PR-IMP
If you want to save him, then kick him out right now.
`Bhrfblh shftòr glhw thi Uhfk nh, `kmn `xn Khyl gh mfn Mw u£hr/
dawn hour shirt-GEN throat-LOC tie stay-3-PR-S not how that empty
body mind-LOC be-3-PR-S he-H-GEN
If he does not have a tie round his neck by dawn, he feels somehow naked.
uh `shnhr nh ùh yk `pul k£hshr?
that gold-GEN not then what brass
If it’s not gold then what is it? Brass?
29.8 Correlatives
We have seen the preference Bangla has for doublings and pairings.
Correlative structures demonstrate this preference on the sentence level.
Some correlative pairs are pronouns, others are adjectives or adverbs. The
relative, which always starts with x, governs the subordinate relative clause,
the correlative governs the main clause. 541
29 For purposes of comparison, English also has some correlative pairs of
Compound conjunctions such as either – or, as – as, not only – but, whether – or not but
and complex these structures are not as central to English syntax as Bangla correlatives
sentences are to Bangla. In many ways the organisation of dependent (subordinate)
clauses in Bangla is built entirely around correlative structures.
In this section we will have a look at their use in sentences. Although each
relative has a designated partner, there are plenty of instances of non
matching pairs. Bangla relative clauses often precede the main clause but
they can also be embedded in the main clause or follow the main clause.
Examples are given below.
Here are the main correlatives in Bangla.
xKn uKn when

xu uu as much
xuÇN uuÇN as long as
xuyqn uuyqn for as long as
xuqVr uuqVr as far
xyq uhMfl / ufb if – then
xyqo ubvo although
xh uh what
`x `s who
`x uh what – that
`xmn ùmn such
`xKhfn `sKhfn where
`xyqn `syqn that day
`xBhfb `sBhfb in that way
`xrkm `srkm in that way
xyq - uhMfl as the conjunctions for conditional clauses as well as xyqo - ubvo as
the conjunctions for concessive clauses are dealt with in separate chapters.
Relative and correlatives are marked with R and CR, respectively, in the gloss.
29.8.1 Correlative pairs
29.8.1.1 xKn - uKn when
ekbhr xKn o£r mfn k£hth PvftfC, uKn Mhzhr ∏kyPwfuo uh \pfR `Plh xhfb nh/
one when-R his mind-LOC thorn grow-3-PR-PERF then-CR thousand
explanation-LOC EMP that uproot-PP throw-VN go-3-FUT not
542 But once he gets a bee in his bonnet, a thousand explanations can’t uproot it.
ekyt `Cht Kvykfk xKn ybfw krfui MfÉC, uKn mn Kvfl krhi Bhl/ Correlatives
one-CL small girl-OBJ when-R marriage do-IP EMP be-3-PR-C
then-CR mind open-PP do-VN EMP good
When one has to marry a little girl, it is a good idea to be open-minded
about it.
xKn `lKhr khz Uhfk nh, pRhr khzo ykCv Uhfk nh, xKn SvQv ybSîhm ynfu iÉCh kfr,
uKn rhÄhw-rhÄhw Gvfr `bRhi/
when-R write-VN-GEN work stay-3-PR-S not reading-VN-GEN work
also something stay-3-PR-S not when-R only rest take-IP (×2) wish
do-3-PR-S then-CR road-LOC (×2) wander-PP go-1-PR-S
When I have no work either writing or reading, when I just feel like having
a break, then I go wandering around in the streets.
BybXjfu nbYnkvmhr xKn shbhlk Mfb uKn gÃhnhrhwN sôpVNò sôpy≠ uhr Mhfu
uvfl `qfb/
future-LOC Nabinkumar when-R adult be-3-FUT then-CR
Ganganarayan entire property his hand-LOC lift-PP give-3-FUT
Ganganarayan will pass on his entire fortune to Nabinkumar in the future
when he is an adult.
ahmhr Mhfu xKn or znj ykCv krbhr Sy∆ `ni uKn ahr yk Mfb P£hkh sMhnvBvyu
`qyKfw?
my hand-LOC when-R he-GEN for something do-VN-GEN strength
[is absent] then-CR more what be-3-FUT empty sympathy show-PP
When there is nothing I can do for him, then what is the point in showing
empty sympathy?
29.8.1.2 xu - uu as much
xu \≠fr xho uu `qKfb ghCphlh `xn Kvbi km `chfK pRfC/

how much-R north-LOC go-2-PR-S that much-CR see-2-FUT tree
plant as if very EMP few eye-LOC fall-3-PR-C
The further north you go, the fewer trees and plants you will see.
`qS xu bR Mw, `qfSr mhnvX xu qVfr qVfr CyRfw Uhfk, uui BhXhr ybyBêuh ahfs/
country how much-R big be-3-PR-S country-GEN person how much-R
distance-LOC (×2) scatter-PP stay-3-PR-S so much-CR language-GEN
variety come-3-PR-S
The bigger the country gets and the further away people are scattered, the
greater the variety in the language. 543
29 xubhr as many times, so often
Compound
and complex xubhr u£hr sfÃ `qKh Mw, uubhr yuyn ygyrSfk ektv ektv kfr b£hQfCn/
sentences as many times-R he-GEN with see-VN be-PR-S so many times-CR he
Girish-OBJ a bit a bit do-PP tie-3H-PR-C
He pulls Girish closer bit by bit, however often they meet.
xuyqn for as long as

Sî∞ymkrh xuyqn byÄfu Uhfk uuyqn \êyu Mfb nh/
labourer-PL how long-R slum-LOC stay-3-PR-S so long-CR
development be-3-FUT not
As long as the labourers live in a slum there won’t be any improvement.
xuyqn `b£fc Uhkh xhw uuyqn —Yyu, Çmh, syM”vuh - eigvylri xUhUòBhfb —fwhzn/
how long-R survive-PP stay-VN go-3-PR-S so long-CR love forgiveness
endurance this-PL-GEN EMP truly necessary
Love, forgiveness and endurance are real requirements for as long as we
are able to stay alive.
xuÇN - uuÇN for as long as

`s xuÇN ahmhr khfC ahfs nh uuÇN ahmhr uhr zfnj krhr ykCv `ni/
he how long-R I-GEN to come-3-PR-S not so long-CR I-GEN he-GEN
for do-VN-GEN something [is absent]
As long as he doesn’t come to me, there is nothing I can do for him.
xuÇN nh mfnhmu ekth Sûq ahfs, uuÇN `si xìNh Ùfk yn©kéyu `ni/
as long-R not mind like one-CL word come-3-PR-S so long-CR that
EMP torture from release [is absent]
There is no release from torture until the right word comes along.
xuÇN `s ahmhr CqÖfbfSr kUh ei ayPfs P£hs nh kfr `qw uuÇN `s ahmhr
bív bft/
as long as-R she my disguise-GEN word this EMP office-LOC leak not
do-PP give-3-PR-S so long-CR she my friend of course
As long as she doesn’t expose my disguise in the office, she is, of course, my
friend.
xuÇfN - uuÇfN by that time
xuÇfN E sb ykfn ahnyCl orh uuÇfN ekth ycyTo ylfK `Pll sfrhzhfk/
by then-R that all buy-PP bring-3-P-C they by then-CR one-CL letter
EMP write-PP throw-3-P-S Soroja-OBJ
544 By the time they had bought all that, he had also written a letter to Soroja.
xuqVr - uuqVr as far as Correlatives
zym Kvb asmul Mflo xuqVr `chK xhw uuqVr xhowh xhw/
land very rough be-CP EMP as far-R eye go-3-PR-S so far-CR
go-VN-go-3-PR-S
Even though the land is very rough you can go as far as you can see.
29.8.1.3 xh - uh that which (inanimates)
As pronouns xh and uh are subject to changes in case. Relative and cor

relative pronouns in one sentence do not have to agree in case. Object case
endings for inanimate pronouns are not unusual in correlative contexts.
`sth is a frequent correlative for xh.
xh yCl uh sbi ahfC/
what-R [was]-3 that-CR all EMP [is present]
All that used to be there is still there.
xh KvyS uhi bfl dhkfbn/
what-R happy that-CR say-PP call-2H-FUT-IMP
Call me whatever you like.
zYbfn xh Bhybyn uhi kfryC/
life-LOC what-R not think-1-PR-PERF that EMP do1-PR-PERF
I have done precisely what I never thought I would do.
ahro uhrh xh Bhbl uh mvfK ahnho afShBn/
more also they what-R think-3-P-S that-CR mouth-LOC bring-VN
also impolite
It would be impolite to mention what else they were thinking.
ahmhfqr xh ahfC uh ynfw ahmrh gybòu Mfu phyr/
we-GEN what-R [is present] that-CR with we proud be-IP be able
to-1-PR-S
We can be proud of what we have.
xh ahfC uhfu kvflhfnh xhfb `khno rkfm/
what-R [is present] that-CR-LOC be sufficient-VN go-3-FUT any way-LOC
We will manage somehow with what there is.
xh SvfnyC uhr shfU Mhsh nh Mhshr sôpkò Qrfu phryC nh `x/
what-R hear-1-PR-PERF that-CR with laugh-VN not laugh-VN-GEN
relationship grasp-IP be able to-1-PR-C not PART
I can’t grasp from what I have heard why this should be funny. 545
29 xh - `sth that – which (inanimates)
Compound
uvym `syqn xh bflyCfl `sth yk ùhmhr mfnr kUh yCl?
and complex
you that day what-R say-2-P-PERF that-CR-CL what your mind-GEN
sentences
word [was]
Did what you said that day come from the heart?
`s xh ahyb©khr krfC `sth anj `k\ yc™ho kru nh/
he what-R invent-do-3-PR-C that-CL other someone think EMP
do-3-P-HABIT not
No other person would even think about the things he invents.
29.8.1.4 `x - `s he who (animates)
Examples include other cases and plural uses of `x and `s. yxyn - yuyn are
the honorific equivalents. They are also included here.
`x euÇN g¶p blyCl `s MThJ ahowhz Svfn uRhk kfr lhyPfw \fT `gftr yqfk Cvft `gl/
he-R so long story tell-3-P-C he-CR suddenly noise hear-PP quick-
do-PP jump-PP get up-PP gate-GEN towards run-PP go-3-P-S
The one who had been telling stories all this time suddenly heard a noise,
jumped up quickly and ran towards the gate.
ei `Bht xhrh yqfwyCl uhfqr sfÃ —Ufm `xhghfxhg krfu Mfb/
this vote who-PL-R give-3-P-PERF they-GEN with first contact do-IP
be-3-FUT
The people who cast these votes must be contacted first.
xhfqr Mfw kUh blbhr `k\ `ni, uhrh —yubhq krfu phfr nh/
they-GEN-R in place of speak-baVN GEN someone [is absent]
they-CR protest do-IP be able to-3-PR-S not
People are unable to protest if they don’t have anyone to speak on their behalf.
srkhr xhfk pC~q kfr nh, uhfk `k\ C£vfu shMs kfr nh/
government he-R-OBJ like-do-3-PR-S not he-CR-OBJ someone
touch-IP courage do-3-PR-S not
If the government does not like someone then no one has the courage to
touch him.
x£hfk Bhlbhys, ahr yxyn Bhlbhfsn u£hfk qvAK pRfli mhnvX `K£hfz/ `K£hfz nh?
who-R-H-OBJ love-1-PR-S and who-H love-3-H-PR-S he-CR-H-OBJ
sadness fall-CP person search-3-PR-S search-3-PR-S not
In times of sadness people look for the ones they love and who love them,
546 don’t they?
yk≤ xhr khz rhêh krh, uhr ahbhr ghn zhnhr qrkhr yk? Correlatives
but who-GEN-R work cooking do-VN she-CR again song know-VN-
GEN need what
Why would someone whose work is cooking need to know songs?
uhr bi yxyn pRfbn yuyn `sKhfn —cvr Bhbnhr `Khrhk phfbn/
who-GEN book he-R read-3H-FUT he-CR there much thought-GEN
provision find-3H-FUT
Whoever reads his book will find much food for thought in it.
Note that the deferred subject in the following sentence increases the
tension:
yk≤ xhfk ynfw eu yBR, xhfk `k~qî kfr eu ztlh, `si shpth yk≤ ynybòkhr/
but who-OBJ about such crowd who-OBJ centre do-PP such
confusion that snake-CL but unperturbed
But what had attracted such a crowd, what was at the centre of all that
confusion, namely that snake, was quite unperturbed.
29.8.1.5 `x preceding a noun
`x mhnvX means the person who. In the same way `x can precede any other
noun in correlative structures. `x precedes `khno any before nouns. The
correlative can also contain a noun. In the first example, we have a bare
relative and a `s plus noun correlative:
x£hr bhyRfu ahpyn ygfwfCn, `s Bqîflhfkr nhm yk?

who-H-GEN-R house-LOC you-H go-3-H-PR-PERF that-CR
gentleman-GEN name what
What is the name of the gentleman whose house you went to?
`x ahuÖYwuh ahmhr sfÃ ùhmhr bh anjfqr sfÃ ahmhr, `s ahuÖYwuh azòn krfu
MfwfC qv pÇfki/
that relationship-R I-GEN with you-GEN or other-PL-GEN with I-GEN
that relationship-CR earn-do-IP be-3-PR-PERF two side-OBJ EMP
The relationship I have with you or with others had to be earned from both
sides.
`tîn Ùfk `x zl `qw, uhfu rhêh-Khowh `khno rkm cfl sähn ahr Mw nh/
train from that-R water give-3-PR-S that-CR-LOC cooking food any
way go-3-PR-S wash more be-3-PR-S not
With the water they give on the train, cooking and food can just about be
managed but not a wash. 547
29 ei Grytr `Bufr ahym ynfzr Mhfu `x zgJ rfcyC `sth ahmhr eklhri/
Compound this EMP room-GEN in I own hand-POC that-R world
and complex compose-1-PR-PERF that-CL I-GEN alone-GEN EMP
sentences The world I created all by myself in this room was mine alone.
—Ufm `x —Säytr mvfKhmvyK Mfu Mw `syt Mflh . . .
first-LOC what-R question-CL-GEN face be-IP be-3-PR-S that-CL-CR
be-3-P-S
At first the question that needs to be faced is this . . .
ahym `x `phShk pyr uh ahmhr pyrchyrkhfqr —hpj/
I that dress-R wear-1-PR-S that-CR my maid-servant-PL-GEN
passed-on
The dresses I wear were passed on by my maid-servants.
ahr `x-tvkv mfn ahfC uh bRi aãp§ o BhWh-BhWh/
and that-R mind-LOC [is present] that-CR also big EMP unclear and
broken-broken-VA
And the little bit I remember is very hazy and patchy.
`x `mfwyt eklh Uhkfu chw `s phŸchuj smhfz abSj afnk `byS svybQh `pfu phfr/
that-R girl-CL alone stay-IP want-3-PR-S she-CR Western society-LOC
of course much much advantage get-IP be able to-3-PR-S
A girl who wants to live alone will of course have many more advantages in
a Western society.
yuyn `x pU `bfC ynfln `syt `khno pU yCl nh/
he-H what-R way choose-PP take-3H-P-S that-CL-CR any way [was
not]
The way he had chosen was no way at all.
`x Bî∞mNbé≠hf™ ybpq xfU§ BYXN nw uh pRfu uu Bhl lhfg nh/
what-R travelogue danger sufficient horrible [is not] that-CR read-IP
such good feel-3-PR-S not
A travelogue which does not contain sufficiently horrible dangers is not very
interesting to read.
29.8.1.6 xh precedes ykC something
xh ykCv auYfur uh-i sv~qr, uhi Bhl mfn Mw/

what something-R past-GEN that-R EMP beautiful that-R EMP good
mind-LOC be-3-PR-S
548 Whatever is of the past is beautiful and appears good.
xh ykCv `s ahmhfk bflfC uh sb ùh khro khfC `khno yqno bluhm nh/ Correlatives
what something-R he I-OBJ say-3-PR-PERF that-CR EMP someone-
GEN to any day EMP say-1-P-HABIT not
I would never tell anyone all that he told me.
29.8.1.7 `x -uh that
This combination produces content clauses which are given in Ch. 29.6.
erkmth `x Gtfu phfr uh ahym bvfZyClhm . . .

this kind that-R happen-IP be possible-3-PR-S that-CR I
understand-1-P-PERF
I have understood that something like this can happen.
sLshr Krfcr thkh Ùfk lvykfw b\yq `x thkhth yqfÉCn `shmnhU uh bvZfu phrl/
family expense-GEN money from secretly sister-in-law that-R
money-CL give-3H-PR-C Somnath that-CR understand-IP be able
to-3-P-S
Somnath was aware that his sister-in-law was giving the money secretly
from the family fund.
29.8.1.8 `xmn -ùmn such - such, as - as
More complex sentences of this type are often best translated as two par
allel sentences in English.
`xmn yClhm ùmni ahyC/

as [was] so [is present]-1
I am still the same as I was.
uvym `xmn zhwghth bNònh kfryCfl, yTk ùmni `qfK efsyC/
you as place-CL description-do-2-PR-PERF exactly so EMP see-PP
come-1-PR-PERF
I found the place exactly as you described it.
bhfkjr mfQj ayuyr∆ Sûq bshfnh `xmn ekth kv-aBjhs, ùmni, Sfûqr mfQj bhRyu
ek-ahQth bNò ahmqhyn krho ekth kv-aBjhs/
sentence-GEN in excess word put-VN as-R one-Cl bad habit so-CR
EMP word-GEN in extra one half-CL letter import-do-VN also
one-CL bad habit
Putting too many words in a sentence is a bad habit, and importing the
odd extra letter into words is also a bad habit. 549
29 yuyn Ch«fqr opr `xmn gBYr ebL qYGòñhwY —Bhb ybÄhr kfryCfln anj `khno
Compound ySÇk ùmnth phfrnyn/
and complex he-H student-PL-GEN on how-R deep and lasting influence
sentences spread-do-3-H-P-PERF other any teacher such-CL-CR not be able
to-3-H-P-PERF
He had a profound and long-lasting influence on his students which none
of the other teachers could match.
ahmhfk `xmn `phShfkr opr Chrfphkhr mu rßmhr qhrßN bhRyu `lfgyCl, ùmyn
`syqn rßmhfk ahmhr eu ayuyr∆ mfn Ml/
I-OBJ as-R cloth-GEN on bedbug-GEN like Ruma-GEN supremely
extra feel-3-P-PERF so-CR that day Ruma-OBJ so superfluous
mind-LOC be-3-P-S
I was as redundant to Ruma as a bedbug on a piece of clothing. And that
day she seemed just as superfluous to me.
síjhfblh zÃflr mfQj yqfw `gfl `xmn Z£hfk-Z£hfk mSh efs `C£fk Qfr, u£hr yc™ho
u£hfk ùmni `C£fk Qfr qLShfu lhgl/
evening hour jungle-GEN in through go-CP as-R swarm-LOC (×2)
mosquito come-PP encircle-PP catch-3-PR-S his-H thought also
he-H-OBJ so-CR EMP encircle-PP hold-PP sting-PP start-3-P-S
His thoughts crowded in on him and stung him in the same way in which,
on his evening walk through the jungle, the mosquitoes would surround and
sting him.
29.8.1.9 `x plus
`x combines with common nouns of time, place, direction, manner, cause,

etc.
`xKhfn - `sKhfn there

`xKhfn `xfu `cfwyC `sKhfn eKn ahr `k\ `ni/
where-R go-IP want-PR-PERF there-CR now more someone [is absent]
There is no one now in the place I wanted to visit.
550
`xKhfn Zrnh gyRfw cfl phMhfRr bvfkr \pr yqfw \ÉcMhysr Sûq CyRfw, bfnr Correlatives
sbvfzr P£hfk ycuhbhG Zlml kfr ofT, `sKhfn mvy∆, `sKhfn qYyú, `sKhfn rf∆r
mfQj svfxòr ãp~qn/
where-R fountain roll-PP move-3-PR-S mountain-GEN breast-GEN top
along loud laughter-GEN sound scatter-PP forest green-GEN gap-LOC
cheetah glimmer do-PP rise-3-PR-S there-CR freedom there-CR
splendour there-CR blood-GEN sun-GEN touch
Where waterfalls cascade, where the sound of laughter rings out over
the mountains, where the cheetah flickers through the gaps in the green
of the forest, there is freedom, there is splendour, there the blood is touched
by the sun.
`x znj - `s znj for that reason
ahmrh `x znj efsyC, orho `si znj ahfs/
we what-R for come-1-P-S they also that for-CR come-3-PR-S
They come for the same reason that we come.
`xyqk - `syqk that way
`xyqk yqfw DvfkyClhm `syqk yqfw bhifr cfl elhm/
what direction-R through enter-1-P-PERF that direction-CR through
outside move-PP go-1-P-S
I came back outside the way I had entered.
`xyqn - `syqn that day
`xyqn ybfw MfwfC `syqn Ùfk uhr asvK/
what day-R marriage be-3-PR-PERF that day-CR from her illness
She has been ill from the day she got married.
`xBhfb - `sBhfb in that way
`x-Bhfb ahym chi ahmhr ei `lKhpRh `Mhk, `s-Bhfb yk yunzn `lhk
pRfb?
what way-LO-R I want-1-PR-S my this study be-3-IMP that
way-LOC-CR what three-CL person study-3-FUT
Will there be three people who study in the way I want to organise
my studies?
`xrkm - `srkm in that way
ahym `xrkm Bhyb, ykCvi `srkm kKfnh Mw nh, Mfu phfr nh/
I what way-R think-1-PR-S something EMP that way-CR ever
be-3-PR-S not be-IP be possible-3-PR-S not
Nothing is ever, or can ever be, the way I imagine it. 551
29
29.8.2 Mixed pairs
Compound
and complex xKn - yTk `si smfw
sentences
eiBhfb xKn zYbnthfk Bhbfu Svrß kfr pvrhfnh CtPthyn Ùfk `rMhi phyÉC yTk `si
smfw alkhr sfÃ ahmhr uéuYwbhr `qKh Mfw ygfwyCl/
this way-LOC when-R life-CL-OBJ think-IP begin-do-PP old
restlessness from exemption get-1-PR-S exact that time-CR Olka-GEN
with I-GEN third time see-VN be-PP go-3-P-PERF
Similarly, just at the time when I was beginning to think of my life as having
escaped from my old restlessness, I met Olka again for the third time.
`x - emn mhnvX
afnk qVfr `xfu phfr `x emn ekth mhnvX chi/
much distance-LOC go-IP be able to-3-PR-S who-R such one-CL
person need
(We) need someone who can go far.
`xkhfl - uKn
`xkhfl ei cxòhgvflh rycu MfwfC, uKno bhLlh BhXh bfl `khno BhXh ∏uyr Mwyn/
that-R time-LOC Carya-CL-PL composed be-3-PR-S then-CR even
Bangla language say-PP any language ready not be-3-PR-PERF
At the time when the Caryas were composed, no such thing as a Bangla
language was in existence.
`xsb (noun) - uh
esb py«khw `xsb rcnh —khySu Mu uhr `bySr Bhg iLfryzfu `lKh Mu/
this all journal-LOC what-R all writing published be-3-P-HABIT
that-CR-GEN most-GEN part English-LOC write-VN be-3-P-HABIT
Most of the essays that were published in all these journals were written
in English.
`xsb (animate noun) - uhrh
`xsb mhnvfXr ahuÖ—ujw Uhfk `shmnhU uhfqr qfl nw/
what-R all person-GEN self-confidence stay-3-PR-S Somnath they-GEN
group-LOC [is not]
Somnath is not someone with self-confidence.
xu - uh
ynfzfk uvym xuth apyrMhxò mfn kr uh uvym no/
self-OBJ you how much-CL-R indispensable mind-LOC do-2-PR-S
that-CR you [is not]-2
552 You are not as indispensable as you think you are.
xh xh - sb Correlatives
uhrpr xh xh Gft `gl, sbi `xn aÀvu, `cnhzhnhr bhifr/

that-GEN after what what-R happen-PP go-3-P-S all-CR EMP as if
strange recognise-VN know-VN-GEN outside
All that happened afterwards was strange and unfamiliar, beyond what
he knew.
`xmn - yTk uh
ahym `xmn chi nh bhifrr `lhfkr shmfn mh —hN Kvfl sb blvn, ahr Mh-MvuhS krßn,
mho yTk uhi krfbn/
I how-R want-1-PR-S not outside-GEN person-GEN in front of
mother life open all say-3-H-IMP and wail grief do-3-H-IMP mother
also right that EMP do-3-H-FUT
I don’t want mother to pour everything out, wailing and grieving, to outside
people. But she will do just that.
`xKhfn - `s (nounLOC)
`xKhfn ahmhr sbfcfw `byS `zhr `si iLfryzfu `ShcnYwBhfb Bî§ MfwyClhm/
where-R I-GEN of all much strength that-CR EMP English-LOC
woefully fallen be-P-PERF
In English, which was my greatest strength, I failed miserably.
`xKhfn `xKhfn - `s sb zhwgh all the places The doubling of `xKhfn indicates
plurality.
\yn `xKhfn `xKhfn `xfu phfrn `sisb zhwghw `K£hz ynfw bjUò Mfu MfwfC/
he-H where-LOC (×2)-R go-IP be able to-3H-PR-S that all
place-LOC-CR search take-PP fruitless be-IP be-3-PR-PERF
The search was bound to be fruitless in all the places he was able
to go to.
29.8.3 No correlative
uhr e —fSär zbhfb ahym byl, xu svybfQ ùhmhr chrphfS Uhkvk, mMJ yS¶p séy§
`khno sLgî∞hm ChRh s®b nw/
her this question-GEN answer-LOC I say-1-PR-S how much-R
convenience you-GEN four side-LOC stay-3-IMP big art creation any
fight without possible [is not]
In answer to her question I said, ‘However many advantages you have all
around you, the creation of great art is impossible without a struggle.’ 553
29 yuyn xh xh bflfCn `Bfbycf™ agîpŸchJ ybfbcnh kfr bflfCn/
Compound he what (×2)-R say-3H-PR-PERF think-PP forwards and backwards
and complex consideration do-PP say-3-PR-PERF
sentences All that he said was said thoughtfully and with due consideration of the
pros and cons.
uvym `xmn `Kfuo zhn nh Khowhr g¶po krfu phr nh/

you as-R eat-IP also know-2-PR-S not food-GEN story-also do-IP be
able to-2-PR-S not
You don’t know how to eat and you can’t even talk about food.
au bR coRh rhÄhw xuqVr `chK xhw, `khno `lhkzn `chfK pfR nh/
so big wide road-LOC as far-R eye go-3-PR-S any person-CL
eye-LOC fall-3-PR-S not
On this big wide road there was not a single person to be seen
anywhere.
ahr xKn `k\ `khno kUh bfl, —yumhfk \fØSj kfr `bySr Bhg/
and when-R someone any word say-3-PR-S Protima-OBJ direction
do-PP much-GEN part
And when anyone made a remark it was mainly directed at Protima.
The following sentence is quite clear in meaning but somewhat loose in

its syntax:
ahr xh ykCv uhr `ni ùh ahymi ahyC/

more what-R something he-GEN [is absent] EMP I EMP [is present]-1
And for whatever he does not have I am here.
xu how much followed by an adjective and a third person imperative can

often form an embedded clause however good, however tiresome, etc. with
out a correlative.
zYbn xui kyTn `Mhk, mfnr ãPvyuòth `xn rhyK/

life so-R EMP difficult be-3-IMP mind-GEN joy-CL so that
keep-3-PR-S
However difficult life gets, may (we) keep joy in our hearts.
khrN u^hS krfu ygfw ahyb©khr kyr, xu asMj cyrf«r `s `Mhk, `s ahmhfk gvrV¥
yqfÉC Kvb/
reason research do-IP go-PP find-do-1-PR-S how much unbearable
character-GEN he be-3-IMP he I-OBJ importance give-3-PR-C very
Because with some searching I found that, however unbearable a character
554 he may be, he takes me very seriously.
Correlatives
29.8.4 Relative clause following
In the following sentences the relative clause follows the main clause. The
difference between the two types is that preceding main clauses (as below)
usually contain an indefinite subject which is then defined by the relative
clause. If we were to turn these structures around, the main clause would
contain emn, as many of the examples below do.
For instance:
with the usual order of a relative clause preceding the main clause:
xhfu ùhr Bhl Mfb, emn `khno khz yk uvi kKno krfu phyrs?
what-R-LOC you-GEN good be-3-FUT such any work-CR what you
ever do-IP be able to-2I-PR-S
Will you ever be able to do something that is good for you?
with the relative clause following:
emn ekth Gtnh Gtl xh Ùfk S¬frr zYbfnr gyu `mhR Gvfr anj pfU cfl `gl/
such one-CL event-CR occur-3-P-S what-R Sankar-GEN life-GEN
passage crossing turn-PP other road move-PP go-3-P-S
Something happened to alter the direction of Sankar’s life and take it on
a different path.
phyKi ekmh« —hnY, xhr phlk ahfC/

bird EMP one only living creature-CR who-GEN-R feather
[is present]
Birds are the only living beings with feathers.
shQhrN qéy§ yqfw `qKhr `si Çmuh `ni, xh ekyt b≥r ybfSX¥fk uvfl Qrfu phfr/
ordinary view with see-VN-GEN that-EMP power-CR [is absent]
that-R one-CL thing-GEN peculiarity-OBJ raise-PP hold-IP be able
to-3-PR-S
Seen through ordinary eyes, it is difficult to detect the peculiarity of
a thing.
khrN `Shk ekth bhQh, ekth ypCv-thn, xh ahmhfqr phfw Qfr ah£kfR pfR Uhfk,
efghfu `qw nh/
because grief one-CL obstruction one-CL back pull what-R
we-GEN foot-LOC hold-PP hook-LOC fall-PP stay-3-PR-S advance-IP
give-3-PR-S not
Because grief is a hindrance, a drag which attaches itself to our feet and
won't allow us to move forward. 555
29 mhnvfXr zYbfn ykCv Uhkh qrkhr, xh ekmh« uhr/
Compound man-GEN life-LOC something stay-VN need, what-R one only he-GEN
and complex Man needs something in his life which is exclusively his.
sentences
ahym ahr kh\fk phi yn xhfk ahmhr …r∑fpr kUh blh xhw, ahmhr skl ymUjh skl
`ghpnYwuh xhr khfC Kvfl `mfl CyRfw Qrh xhw/
I more someone-CR-OBJ not find-1-PR-PERF who-R-OBJ my
nature-GEN word say-VN go-3-PR-S my all lie all secrecy who-R-GEN
to open-PP mix-PP scatter-PP hold-VN go-3-PR-S
I have never found anyone else to whom I could talk so naturally, with whom
all my lies, all my secrecy could be opened up, spread out and contained.
nh, efkbhfr ahlhqh ekth bhyR bhnhb, `xKhfn bfs uvym —kéyufk efkbhfr khfC
Ùfk phfb/
no totally separate one-CL house build-1-FUT where-R sit-PP you
nature-OBJ totally close from get-2-FUT
No, I will build a totally separate house where you will have nature really
close by.
ahym ekmh« bjy∆ ni xhr kUh blhr `k\ `ni/

I only person-CR [is not]-1 who-CR-GEN word say-VN-GEN
someone [is absent]
I am not the only person who hasn’t got anyone to talk to.
uhr `k\ `ni `x uhfk `qKfb/

he-GEN someone [is absent] who he-OBJ see-3-FUT
There is no one to look after him.
emn afnk ykCv Uhfk xh Bvfl xhowh Bhl/

such-CR much something stay-3-PR-S that-R forget-PP go-VN good
There are many things which are best forgotten.
ahfgäwygyr `si sb ñhn xhr mfQj yqfw péyUbYr aBj™frr \≠ú gylu ySlh BV¥k `Bq
kfr bhifr `byrfw ahfs/
volcano that EMP all place what-GEN within though earth
interior-GEN very hot melted rock crust split-do-PP outside come
out-PP come-3-PR-S
Volcanoes are all those places through which the extremely hot melted rock
from the interior of the earth splits the earth’s crust and comes out.
emn `khno bhfz, `nhLrh khz `ni xh orh phfr nh/

such-CR any pointless ugly work [is absent] what-R they be able
to-3-PR-S not
556 There is no pointless, ugly deed that they are not capable of.
khChkhyC `khno ZrNh ahfC, xh `qfK ahsh xhw? Correlatives
close by any fountain [is present] what-R see-PP come-VN
go-3-PR-S
Is there any fountain nearby which is worth seeing?
péyUbYfu emn qvBòhgh `k\ `ni xhr zYbfn ekbhr bs™ nh efsfC/
world-LOC such wretched someone [is not] who-GEN life-LOC once
spring not come-3-PR-PERF
No one in the world is so wretched that they have never seen spring.
In the following sentence the correlative uKn then is left out.
ahr ykCv Svnfu MfwyCl apNòhyqri mvK Ùfk, xKn ykCvi ahr `ghpn krbhr
ril nh/
more something hear-IP be-3-P-PERF Aparna-sister-GEN mouth
from, when-R something EMP more secret do-baVN-GEN
remain-3-P-S not
And when there was nothing left to keep secret, I had to listen to some
more from Aparnadi.
29.8.5 Embedded relative clauses
Embedding of relative clauses produces nondefining relative structures. This

means that the relative clause offers additional information which could
also be left out.
gwnhgvflh, xh bhf⁄ür mfQj ahfC, uh mwnhr/

jewellery what-R box-GEN in [is present] that-CR Moyna-GEN
The jewellery, which is in the box, belongs to Moyna.
esb bjhphr, xh eKhfn ylKlvm, uhr Khynkth `qfKyC, bhykth anvmhn kfr `nowh
kyTn nw/
this all matter what-R here write-1-P-S that-CR some-CL
see-1-PR-PERF rest-CL guess-do-PP-give-VN difficult [is not]
Of all these things that I have written here I saw some myself and the rest
was not difficult to guess.
ahmhr mu afnfk, xhrh ynShr sfÃ `—m kfryn ykLbh krhr svfxhg phwyn, ùmn ykCv
Gyn©Tuho Mwyn, ubv ynShr r∑p o bjbMhfr mvgÜ ÙfkfC, uhrh sbhi gBYr ahGht
`pfwyCl ei sLbhfq/
Many like me, who didn’t make love to Nisha or who didn’t get the chance
or weren’t that close to her but were still in awe of her beauty and her
manner, were all deeply shocked by this news. 557
29
29.8.6 Multiple relative structures
Compound
and complex ahym xh ylKfu chi, `xrkm kfr ylKfu chi, `s-kUh `s-rkm kfr ylKfu `kn
sentences phyr nh/
I what-R write-IP want-1-PR-S what way-R write-IP want-1-PR-S that
word that way do-PP write-IP why be able to-1-PR-S not
Why can I not write what I want and the way I want to write?
ei séy§fu `xyt —khS `pfwfC uhfk xKn crm bfli `mfn `ni, uKn `s Mw ahmhr
khfC ùmyn suj `xmn suj E btghC/
this EMP creation-LOC that-R-CL expression find-3-PR-PERF that-CR-
OBJ when-R highest say-PP EMP accept-PP take-1-PR-S then-CR that-CR
be-3-PR-S I-GEN to such-CR true such-R true that banyan tree
When I accept what has been expressed in this creation to be of the
highest order, then it becomes to me as real as this banyan tree.
chkyr Mowh `x yk S∆ uh `syqn `xmn kfr bvfZyClhm amn kfr pfr ahr `khnoyqn
bvyZyn/
job be-VN what-R what hard that-CR that day such-R do-PP
understand-1-P-PERF such-CR do-PP after more any day not
understand-1-PR-PERF
The fact that getting a job was so hard I understood on that day in a way
I have never understood it since.
ahym `xth `xBhfb `qKyC afnjrho yk `sth eiBhfb `qKfC?
I what-CL-R which way-LOC-R see-1-PR-C others what that-CL-CR
that way-LOC-CR see-3-PR-C
Do others see what I see the same way I see it?
29.8.7 Complex relatives
Complex relative sentences contain structural features in addition to

correlatives.
1 contains a nonrelative xhfu so that:
gukhl `s xh bflfC uhfu ahym xhfu Qrh nh pyR `s zfnj `s `x szhg uh
bvfZyClhm/
yesterday she what-R say-3-PR-PERF that-LOC-CR I so that
catch-VN not fall-1-PR-S that for she that-R alert that-CR
understand-1-P-PERF
I understood that she was making sure that I would not be caught up in
558 what she had indicated yesterday.
2 contains two imperative insets: Correlatives
kwlh `xmn Subhr Qvflo uhr khflh rL `Ghfc nh, ùmni bhWhylrh `xKhfni
Uhkvk, ahr `x `mfw ybfw krßk, uhfqr bhWhyl¥ `Ghfc nh/
coal as-R hundred time wash-CP even it-GEN black colour
lose-3-PR-S so EMP Bengalis where-R EMP stay-3-IMP and what-R
girl marry-do-3-IMP their Bengaliness lose-3-PR-S not
You can wash coal a hundred times but it will not shed its blackness.
Bengalis are the same. Wherever they live or whatever girl they marry,
they never shed their essential Bengaliness.
3 contains two relatives with the same correlative followed by a content

clause:
péyUbYfu xhr `k\ `ni, `x `mfw `khno pUi `cfn nh, `s yk kfr zhnfb, anj
`khUho uhr ahSîw zvtfb?
world-LOC who-GEN-R someone [is absent] what-R girl any way
EMP know-3-PR-S not she-CR what do-PP know-2-FUT other
somewhere her shelter be available-3-FUT
How can a girl who has no one, and doesn’t know her way around the
world, know where there might be a shelter for her somewhere else?
4 additional conditional participle as well an embedded xu imperative:
ynfzr mn xhfu shw nh `qw, `zhr kfr ùmn `khno khz krfl - ahphuu uh
xui SvB, Pl—sV `Mhk, `SX pxò™ zYbfnr mVflr uh \fÉCq-shQn kfr, nh kfri
phfr nh/
own-GEN mind what-LOC-R consent not give-3-PR-S force do-PP
such any work do-CP for the moment how much beneficial
effective be-3-IMP end until life-GEN foundation-GEN that evict
endeavour-do-3-PR-S not do-PP EMP be able to-3-PR-S not
If something that the mind does not consent to is forced upon one,
however beneficial or effective it may be for the moment, life will, in the
end, get rid of it. There is no other way.
5 correlative – xyq conditional combination:
xuyqn bhyR `SX nh Mw uuyqn xyq ektv mhUh `g£hzbhr ahSî∞w `qn ùh ahmhr bR
\pkhr Mw/
how long-R house finish not be-3-PR-S so long-CR if a bit head
plant-VN-GEN shelter give-2-PR-S then I-GEN big favour
be-3-PR-S
If you could give us somewhere to put our heads until the house is
finished, that would be a great help. 559
29 6 and 7 relative structure as content clause
Compound
6 `x skhfl bhyR Ùfk `br Mw, `s `x ahbhr qvpvfr Bhu `Kfu yPrfb, emn ahSh
and complex
—hwi Uhfk nh/
sentences
who-R morning-LOC house from out be-3-PR-S he-CR that again
midday-LOC rice eat-IP return-3-FUT such hope often EMP
stay-3-PR-S not
Often there is not much hope that someone who leaves the house in
the morning will come back at midday to eat.
7 ùhmhfqr ycyT xKn phi uKn bhfrbhfri mfn Mw, ùhmrh skfli bhLlhth ahmhr
`cfw afnk Bhl `lK/
you-PL-GEN letter when-R get-1-PR-S then-CR again-LOC (×2)
EMP mind-LOC be-3-PR-S you-PL all Bangla-CL I-GEN than much
EMP good write-2-PR-S
When I get your letters, I often think that all of you write Bangla better
than I do.
560
Part 5
Semantic features
Chapter 30
Case use
Case is a category of nouns. It is one of the fundamental ways in which

Bangla conveys meaning and expresses relationships between the differents
parts of a sentence. We have made the considered decision to postulate four
cases in Bangla: nominative, genitive, objective and locative. In the following
sections we look at the particular features of each of these four cases.
30.1 Nominative
The nominative is the unmarked case in Bangla which is used primarily for
the subjects of sentences. The only overt marking of the nominative is the
plural of animate nouns in -rh with its oblique form -`qr (see Ch. 4.13.1).
30.1.1 Nominative subjects
Bqîflhk ahfÄ iLfryzfu blfln . . .

gentleman slowly English-LOC say
The gentleman said slowly in English . . .
bhÉchrh bhghfn `KlfC/
child-PL garden-LOC play-3-PR-C
The children are playing in the garden.
\yn pfr ahsfbn/
he later come-3H-FUT
He will come later.
ahmrh bhWhyl/
we Bengali
We are Bengalis. 563
30 ei bCr Bhl Qhn MfwfC/
Case use this year good paddy be-3-PR-PERF
The paddy has been good this year.
qvQ n§ MfwfC/
milk waste be-3-PR-PERF
The milk has gone off.
bhifr GvGv dhkyCl/
outside dove cal-3-P-C
Outside the doves were cooing.
ySÇk `Cflfqr pRhn/
teacher boy-PL-GEN teach-3H-PR-S
The teacher teaches the boys.
30.1.2 Animate nominative plurals, -e ending
In addition to this there is the nominative plural with an -e ending, mentioned

in Ch. 4.8.8. There are two distinct uses of this. When the animate classifier
zn is added to a number and given an -e ending we get definite people:
qvzfn both of them, chrzfn the four of them and so on. This can be done
with any number.
gyu bhyRfw yql qvzfn/

speed increase-PP give-3-P-S two-CL-e
The two of them increased their speed.
chrzfn ei ghyRfu bsfu phrfb/
four-CL-e this EMP car-LOC sit-IP be able to-3-FUT
Four of them can sit in this car.
The other purpose of -e endings in nominative contexts is to create indefinite
generic animate plurals. Some quantifiers participate in this process. They
are afnk much, skl all, —fujk each and \Bw both.
afnfk many people afnfk ei kUh Svfn Uhkfb/ Many will have heard this.
skfl everyone skfl bvfZ `gl kUhth/ Everybody understood this.
—fujfk each one —fujfkr —yubhq krhr ayQkhr ahfC/
Everyone has the right to protest.
\Bfw the two of them \Bfw ahro ek rhu Uhkfb/
The two of them will stay another night.
564 `lhfk people `lhfk yk nh bfl/ People say anything.
mhnvfX people mhnvfX Bhlbhsh chw/ People want love. Nominative
phyKfu birds phyKfu yk ybr∆ kfr nh? Aren’t birds a nuisance?
bhfG tigers bhfG yqfnr `blhw Gvmhw/ Tigers sleep during the day.
grßfu cows grßfu Ghs Khw/ Cows eat grass.
BVfu ghosts rhÄhw `bfrhfli BVfu `Kfw `nfb?
Will ghosts devour you when you go out?
kvymfr crocodiles kvymfr ahmhfk khmRhfb/ Crocodiles will bite me.
`khno ek rMsjmw khrfN skfl xh phfr `s uh phfr nh/
any one mysterious reason-LOC all-e what-R be able to-3-PR-S he
that-CR be able to-3-PR-S not
For some strange reason he can’t do what others can do.
30.1.3 Nominative subjects governed by non-finites
The nominative subject of a sentence usually has verb agreement. This

means that the finite verb in the sentence fits with (or governs) the subject
ahym xhb I go but uvym xhfb you (fam) go and ahpyn xhfbn you (hon) go.
Non-finite verb forms can govern a nominative subject.
1 with verbal nouns
A genitive verbal noun followed by a postposition can be preceded by
a nominative noun phrase:
uvym ahsbhr ahfg mfn MyÉCl ahym ahr b£hcb nh/
you come-baVN-GEN before mind-LOC be-3-P-C I more
live-1-FUT not
Before you came I thought that I might not survive.
yuyn `xhg `qowhr qvyqfnr mfQj `Klhr ynwm phf¶t `gl/
he-H join-give-VN-GEN two day-GEN within game-GEN rule
change-PP go-3-P-S
Within two days of his joining, the rules of the game were changed.
2 with conditional participles
sVxò \Tfl kvwhSh `kft xhfb/
sun get up-CP fog disperse-PP go-3-FUT
When the sun comes up the fog will disperse.
uvym efl shylm ghn ghifb/
you come-CP Salim song sing-3-FUT
Salim will sing when you come. 565
30 uvym chifl ahym ùhmhfk rhyn bhnhb/
Case use you want-CP I you-OBJ queen make-1-FUT
If you want I will make you into a queen.
3 with imperfective participles
ahym ahsfu blfui qvzn `bwhrh Dvkl/
I come-IP say-IP two-CL bearer enter-3-P-S
When I told them to come, the two bearers entered.
xhqvfghphl MThJ Ùfm `xfui #hyrkh aÑMhys kfr \Tl/
Jadugopal suddenly stop-PP-go-IP Dwarika loud laughter-do-PP get
up-3-P-S
When Jadugopal suddenly stopped, Dwarika roared with laughter.
ahmrh Uhkfu Khbhr efs `gl/
we stay-IP food come-PP go-3-P-S
The food arrived while we were there.
30.2 Genitive
The genitive has a great variety of uses and is the only case which allows
multiple, additive occurrences as in:
uhr bhbhr lhl ghyRr chkhr smsjh
he-GEN father-GEN red car-GEN tyre-GEN problem
the problems with the tyres of his father’s red car
30.2.1 With postpostions
Nominal postpositions (see Ch. 9) usually require a preceding genitive:

ùhmhr sfÃ uhr \pfr bhÉchfqr zfnj
you-GEN with that-GEN on child-PL-GEN for
with you on top of that, for the children
additionally
qvpvfrr ahfg bhyRr yqfk ybfw krhr pfr
midday-GEN before home-GEN towards marriage do-VN-GEN after
before midday towards home after getting married
Cybr mu qvyqfnr mfQj ybSáybqjhlfwr shmfn
picture-GEN like two day-GEN within university-GEN in front of
566 like a picture within two days in front of the university
Postpositional phrases also lend themselves to strings of genitives: Genitive
ahmhfqr gîhfmr bhyRr phfSr pvkvfrr mfQj . . .

our village-GEN home-GEN side-GEN lake-GEN within
in the lake next to our village home
uhr xhowhr ahfgr yqfnr kh’ . . .

he-GEN go-VN-GEN before-GEN day-GEN commotion
The commotion on the day before he left . . .
More examples can be found in Ch. 9.4.
30.2.2 Genitives connecting nouns
A classification of genitive uses according to semantic or functional com-

ponents can only be an approximation and there is a fair bit of overlap.
uYr bank in nqYr uYr bank of the river can be considered a spatial or a par-
tial component. In c£hfqr ahflh moonlight the light can be either the effect of
the moon or the moon can be the source of the light. The scent of a rose
can be its defining quality or originating from it.
Here then is an approximate list:
possessive-belonging
ahmhr bi my book uhr bhyR his home

ryMfmr mh Rohim’s mother ahmhr bhbhr ysºh™ my father’s decision
spatial
gîhfmr `lhk village person pvkvfrr mhC fish from the pond
`qfSr nqY the country’s rivers nqYr uYr river bank
SMfrr zYbn urban life bhyRr mhnvX people at home
temporal
yqfnr `blhw in the daytime `SfXr kUh final words

ahgmfnr mvMVuò moment of arrival ybqhfwr smw time for farewell
`skhflr mhnvX old-fashioned person
part of
mhUhr cvl hair on the head ahÃvflr nK finger nail

ghfCr Chl treebark Mhyur q£hu ivory (elephant’s tooth)
k£hThflr ybyc jackfruit seeds 567
30 origin
Case use
bfnr khT wood from the forest rbY~qînhfUr kybuh Rabindranath’s poetry
eki yzynfsr qvfth kyp two copies
of the same thing
type, characteristic
qvAfKr bjhphr a sad affair rhzhr Mvkvm the king’s orders

mzhr g¶p funny story `—fmr ghn love-song
ahnf~qr Kbr happy news Mhfur `lKh hand-writing
`pftr bjhUh stomach ache skhflr ahkhS the morning sky
Bhlbhshr mhnvXgvflh beloved people
quality
mQvr ym§uh sweetness of honey `ghlhfpr gí scent of roses

khfzr `lhk hard-working man anvBVyur —Kruh strength of feelings
purpose
`rhzhr Cvyt Ramadan holiday ybfwr bjbñh wedding arrangements

zfpr mhlh prayer beads phynr `bhul water bottle
bshr Gr sitting room Khowhr phyn drinking water
material, ingredient
khfTr qrzh wooden door `rsfmr ShyR silk saree

mhfCr urkhyr fish curry ahfmr ahchr mango chutney
khpfRr bjhg cloth bag mhytr Gr mud house
kmlhr rs orange juice phyKr Z£hk flock of birds
effect, result
ahgvfnr \≠hp heat of the fire zYbfnr uvÉCuh life’s insignificance
`rhfgr k§ suffering from illness ZfRr Çyu storm damage
measurement, extent
qvyqfnr Cvyt two days’ holiday

qVfrr kUh word of the distance = an unrelated matter
yun mhiflr pU three miles of road —yuyqfnr Khqj daily bread
yun mhfsr ySSv three months’
old baby
metaphor
mhytr mhnvX man of the earth `—fmr k£hth the thorns of love
568 `qfMr K£hch the cage of the body nnYr pvuvl a doll made from cream =
a weakling
`lhMhr SrYr body of iron = strong constitution Genitive
rhfgr Chwh anger’s shadow = dark cloud of anger
∏Qfxòjr prYÇh test of patience
aim
kYyuòr `lhB the desire for fame smsjhr smhQhn solution to the problem
BhXhr `—ymk lover of languages —fSär \≠r answer to the question
sÃYfur ahkXòN attraction to music chkyrr `c§h attempts to get a job
cause or consequence
bhfGr Bw fear of tigers sfMjr sYmh limit of endurance

ahyb©khfrr ahn~q joy of discovery bhfpr `Shk grief for (her) father
amounts (with numerals)
qfSr ek one out of ten p£hfcr chr four out of five

aht Bhfgr ek one eighth p£hc Bhifwr ekzn one of the five brothers
30.2.3 Genitives preceding adjectives
Genitive nouns can modify some adjectives. The adjective determines the
semantic component.
ahmhr bR older than me

ùhmhr `Cht smaller than you
uhr smhn equal to him
sbhr y—w best liked
uhr `xhgj worthy of it (him, her)
Mvkvfmr bhQj obedient to the order
prbhr \pxv∆ suitable for wearing
30.2.4 With abstract nouns
Genitive nouns, including verbal nouns, can modify abstract nouns, or,
indeed, adverbs, as in the first example below. We have already seen some
examples of this in Chapter 19, p. 361. Verbal noun examples are not given
here.
`sth pvyÄkhr `khUho K£vfz phowh xhwyn/

that-CL book-GEN somewhere search-PP get-VN not go-3-PR-PERF 569
That was nowhere to be found anywhere in the book.
30 yk k§ MfÉC uhr ChRfu!
Case use what pain be-3-PR-C he-GEN leave-IP
How painful it was to leave him!
o£rh `mfwr ybfw yqfu chn/

they-H girl-GEN marriage give-IP want-3H-PR-S
They want to get their daughter married.
afnkyqn Qfr chkyrr `c§h krfC/

many day during job-GEN attempt do-3-PR-C
He has been trying for a job for a long time.
ahym ei pxò™ ahpnhr ycyTr \≠r yqfu phyryn/

I this EMP until your letter-GEN reply give-IP be not able
to-1-PR-PERF
I have not been able to reply to your letter so far.
ahym uhr \≠frr afpÇhw ahyC/

I his reply-GEN wait-LOC [is present]-1
I am waiting for his reply.
uhr bhÉchr znÖ yqfu Mhsphuhfl `gfC/

her baby-GEN birth give-IP hospital go-3-PR-PERF
She went to the hospital to have her baby.
yk≤ uhrh `sgvylr —hyú…Ykhro krl nh/

but they that-CL-PL-GEN acknowledgement even do-3-P-S not
But they did not even acknowledge them.
aynfmX zbhb yql nh kUhr/

Animesh reply give-3-P-S not word-GEN
Animesh made no reply to this.
ahmhr ycyTr emn —SLsh ahfg emnBhfb `k\i kfryn/

my letter-GEN such praise before such way-LOC someone EMP not
do-3-PR-PERF
No one has ever praised my letters like this before.
ahmhfqr ahuÖrÇhr `c§h krfu Mfb nh?

our self-protection attempt do-IP be-3-FUT not
Don’t we have to try to protect ourselves?
åfNr `bhZhr Bhr `cfp bfsfC bvfk/

loan-GEN burden-GEN weight press-PP settle-3-PR-PERF chest-LOC
570 The burden of the loan is weighing on him.
ekth phfwr `ghRhylr MhR `BfW ygfwyCl/ uhrh uhr `sbh kfrfC/ Genitive
one-CL foot-GEN ankle-GEN bone break-PP go-3-P-PERF they
he-GEN care do-3-PR-PERF
A bone in his ankle had broken. They looked after him.
`qfbn ahr afnk ykCvr ahSh rhfK/

Deben more much something-GEN hope keep-3-PR-S
Deben still hopes for much more.
30.2.5 Genitive subjects
The genitive is used for experiencer subjects in impersonal and existential

structures with the following verbs: ahC- be present, exist, have, lhgh feel,
need, like, experience, Mowh be, become, phowh get, receive, krh do, ahsh come.
Examples can be found in Ch. 28.2 and 28.3. Below are a few simple
examples to show the semantic role of these genitive subjects.
possessor ahmhr qvith ybRhl ahfC/ I have two cats.

uhfqr yunth bhyR/ They have three houses.
associate uhr Bhifbhn `ni/ He has no brothers and sisters.
experiencer uhr SYu krfC/ He is feeling cold.
ùhmhr yk MfwfC? What has happened to you?
uhr Mhys `pfwfC/ He felt like laughing.
uhfqr KvvyS `lfgfC/ They felt happy.
uhr rhg MfwfC/ He felt angry.
ahmhr asvK krfC/ I am ill.
uhr l°h lhgfC/ He is feeling embarrassed.
recipient ahmhr nuvn chkyr MfwfC/ I have got a new job.
uhr bhÉch MfwfC/ She has had a baby.
agent ahmhr ycyT `lKh MfwfC/ I have written a letter.
uhfqr kUhbhuòh MfÉC/ They are talking.
uhr xhowh qrkhr/ He needs to leave.
30.2.6 Genitive complements
Sentences like
egvflh ahmhr/ These are mine.

uhr zYbn Kvb kf§r/ His life is hard.
Cybgvflh `s yqfnr/ The pictures are of that day. 571
30 essentially transpose the great variety of connecting genitives (see above
Case use 30.2.2) into equational structures. More examples of genitive complements
are given in Ch. 28.4.1.3.
30.3 Object case
The object case covers both direct and indirect objects. Indirect objects mark
the recipient, direct objects the instrument or goal of the verbal action.
`qowh give is a trivalent verb which takes indirect as well direct objects.
In: ahym ùhmhfk ekth \pMhr yqfwyC/ I have given you a present.
\pMhr present is the direct object, ùhmhfk you is the indirect object.
In sentences with trivalent verbs the direct object is not always expressed.
In: mh `Cflthfk Cyb `qKhfÉC/ Mother is showing the boy some pictures.
Cyb picture is the direct object, `Cflthfk the boy is the indirect object.
If his little sister comes along and wants to see the pictures too, she is
likely to say:
ahmhfko `qKho/ Show me, too! and the direct object is dropped.
Bivalent verbs with a direct object are considerably more common than
trivalent verbs with both kinds of object. Indirect objects (usually humans)
always have the object case marking. With direct objects the case marking
varies, as set out below.
30.3.1 Indirect objects (humans)
\yn yrmhfk yMy~q pRhn/

he-H Rima-OBJ Hindi teach-3H-PR-S
He teaches Rima Hindi.
gyubhbvfk esb kUh blhth `s pC~q kfr nh/
Gotibabu-OBJ this all word say-VN-CL he enjoy-do-3-PR-S
He didn’t enjoy saying all this to Gotibabu.
bhbh ahmhfk anvmyu `qnyn/
father I-OBJ permission not give-3H-PR-PERF
Father did not give me permission.
ahmrh yBÇvkfqr yBÇh `qi/
we beggar-PL-OBJ alms give-1-PR-S
572 We give the beggars alms.
ahmhr Grtho ofk `CfR `qowh xhw/ Object case
my room-CL also she-OBJ leave-PP give-VN go-3-PR-S
My room too can be given to her.
ayB“uh mhnvXfk ykCv `SKhw nh/
experience person-OBJ something teach-3-PR-S not
Experience does not teach people anything.
ahmhfqrfk Srym~qh krfbn nh/
we-OBJ embarrassment do-2H-FUT-IMP not
Don’t embarrass us!
o ùhmhfk `khUhw ahSîw `qfb?
he you-OBJ where shelter give-3-FUT
Where will he give you shelter?
ahmhfko Bw phfÉCn uhi?
I-OBJ also fear get-2H-PR-C so
So you are also afraid of me?
`s `mfwfqr Uhkfu bflfC/
he girl-PL-OBJ stay-IP say-3-PR-PERF
He told the girls to stay.
erh Bhru ebL ahfmyrkhfk e `qfSr ùl, gjhs smÄ yqfw `qfb/
they India and America-OBJ this country-GEN oil, gas all give-PP
give-3-FUT
They will give away all this country’s oil and gas to India and to America.
In the following sentence, ahkhSthfk is the direct, uhfk the indirect object:
aybqh `xn smÄ ahkhSthfk Kvfl yqfln uhfk/

Abida as if whole sky-CL-OBJ open-PP give-3H-P-S he-OBJ
It was as if Abida had opened the whole sky for him.
30.3.1.1 Indirect object (animals)
If an animal is the indirect object, the case ending is used.
`s Mhyuytfk zl yqfÉC/ He is giving water to the elephant.

`s myMXfqr Khowhw/ He feeds the buffalos.
`s kvkvrfk lhyU mhrl/ He kicked the dog.
573
30
30.3.2 Direct objects
Case use
Direct objects are more closely linked to the verb than indirect objects.
Bivalent (transitive) verbs often require a direct object.
30.3.2.1 Specific humans
The direct object case is always marked for nouns denoting individual
human beings, mentioned by name, pronoun or a descriptive term, whether
singular or plural.
bhbh mhfk dhkfln/

father mother-OBJ call-3H-P-S
Father called mother.
`s ahmhfk `cfn/
he I-OBJ know-3-PR-S
He knows me.
uhrh nzrßlfk By∆ kru/

they Nazrul-OBJ worship-do-3-P-HABIT
They worshipped Nazrul.
\yn u£hr b\fk `CfR cfl `gfCn/

he his wife-OBJ leave-PP move-PP go-3H-PR-PERF
He has left his wife.
ùhfk `Cht bR sbhi ahmrh By∆-Sîºh kyr/

you-I-OBJ small big everyone we worship respect do-1-PR-S
All of us, young and old, adore you.
ã«Yflhfkytfk E bhyR Ùfk \JKhu krfu phrl nh/

woman-CL-OBJ that house from evicted do-IP be able to-3-P-S not
He was unable to evict the woman from the house.
yc™hth ahmhfk `pfw bfsfC/

thought-CL I-OBJ get-PP sut-3-PR-PERF
lit: the thought, having got me, has settled
I can’t get the thought out of my head.
uKn uhr bhbh-mhfk BYXN mfn pfR xhw/

then his father-mother-OBJ extremely mind-LOC fall-PP go-3-PR-S
574 Then he missed his parents terribly.
uhrh efs bhmn-mhnvXytfk yGfr Qrl/ Object case
they come-PP Brahman person-CL-OBJ surround hold-3-P-S
They came and surrounded the Brahman.
BVymsVuhfk u£hr chi/
Bhumisuta-OBJ he-H-GEN need
He needs Bhumisuta.
xuyqn `b£fc ahfC e Bhbnh ahr ChRfb nh uhfk/
as long-R live-PP [is present]-3 as long-CR this thought more
leave-3-FUT he-OBJ
This thought will never leave him as long as he is alive.
rybfk yuyn khqôbrYr pÇChwh Ùfk syrfw ynfw `xfu chn/
Robi-OBJ she Kadambari-GEN side shadow from move-PP take-PP
go-IP want-3H-PR-S
She wants to take Robi away from Kadambari’s influence.
uhrh ahmhfqr Bhlbhfs/
they us-OBJ love-3-PR-S
They love us.
ahômh ahmhfqrfk `K£hz ynfu phThfln/
mother we-OBJ search take-IP send-3-P-S
Mother sent us to find out.
ahym Bhifbhnfqr ynfw efsyC/
I sibling-PL-OBJ take-PP come-PR-PERF
I have brought my brothers and sisters with me.
`s ynfz `xmn aSh™ ùmyn anjfk aSh™ krh uhr …Bhb/
she self as restless so other-OBJ restless do-VN her nature
It is in her nature to make other people as restless as she is herself.
ahym bhÉchfqr sähn krhyÉC/
I child-PL-OBJ bath-cause to do-1-PR-C
I am giving the children a bath.
ei bjy∆r ahmhfk Kvb pC~q/ syuj blfu ahmhr uhfk efkbhfr Bhl lhfg nh/
this person-GEN I-OBJ very liking truth say-IP I-GEN he-OBJ at all
good feel-3-PR-S not
This person likes me very much. Truth to tell, I don’t like him at all.
575
30
30.3.2.2 Animals
Case use
Direct object case markings for animals are optional:
`s grß`qr ahnfu `gfC/
or `s grßgvflhfk ahnfu `gfC/
or `s gvrß ahnfu `gfC/ can all mean He has gone to get the cows.
30.3.2.3 Non-specific humans
The object case ending is dropped when human beings are referred to in
general or as representatives of a particular role or profession.
The following sentence shows the contrast:
afnk `mfw ahym `qfKyC, or mu ekznfko `qKlhm nh/
much girl I see-1-PR-PERF she-GEN like one-CL-OBJ EMP see-1-P-S not
I have seen a lot of girls, but I have never seen anyone like her.
zYbfn afnk rkm mhnvX `qfKyC/ svurhL ahmhr QhrNh yCl ahym mhnvX ycyn/
life much kind human being see-1-PR-PERF so my idea [was] I human
being know-1-PR-S
I have seen many people in my life. So I had the idea that I knew human
beings.
eirkm ekth mhnvX chi/
this kind one-CL person need
There is a need for people like that.
ahym `chr `qKb/
I thief see-1-FUT
I will see a thief.
bhfrk kUh yql `s uhr zfnj ekzn Mhysr br Kv£zfb/
once word give-3-P-S he she-GEN for one-CL laugh-GEN bridegroom
search-3-FUT
He promised once that he would find her a husband to laugh with.
dh∆hr ahnfu Mfb nh/
doctor bring-IP be-3-FUT not
There is no need to fetch a doctor.
ebhyRr `lhfkrh pvylS ahnfu `cfwyCfln/
this house-GEN person-PL police fetch-IP want-3H-P-PERF
576 The people from this household wanted to call the police.
The object case is always marked when the sentence subject is inanimate Object case
and the direct object animate, irrespective of whether the object is a par-
ticular person or has a general reference:
aMLkhr mhnvXfk ynfzr azhf™ qvbòl kfr `qw/

pride human being-OBJ own-GEN unknowing-LOC weak do-PP give-3-PR-S
Pride makes people weak, even if they don’t know it.
30.3.2.4 Inanimate – no ending
Object case endings are generally not used with inanimate objects. Glosses
are not given in this section.
ahmrh uhs `KlyC/ We are playing cards.

ahym bith pyRyn/ I haven’t read the book.
ahmrh Bhu Khi/ We eat rice.
`s qrzhth Kvfl yqfwfC/ He opened the door.
`s uhr zYbn Bhlbhfs/ He loves his life.
ahmrh phMhR `qKfu xhyÉC/ We are going to see the mountain.
ahym ghyR Uhmhb/ I will stop the car.
uvym yk pU `qKfu pho nh? Can’t you see the path?
ahym `khno anjhw kyryn/ I haven’t done anything wrong.
`s ahmhr klmth ynfw `gfC/ He has taken my pen.
ekth Chyu `nfb? Will you take an umbrella?
and so on.
30.3.2.5 Equational structures
There are certain cases where the direct object case ending is added to
inanimate nouns.
In extended equational sentences with an overall active sentence pattern

(see Ch. 28.4.4) the object ending must be used. This is a structural requirement
and applies to physical objects, abstract ideas and also to verbal nouns.
Here are two immediately convincing examples:
Mwfk nw krhr lhB yk?

is-3PR-S-OBJ [is not] do-VN-GEN profit what
lit: what is the purpose of making ‘is’ into ‘is not’?
What is the purpose of denying what is true? 577
30 bhLlh BhXhfk krfu Mfb syujkhfrr bhLlh BhXh/
Case use Bangla language-OBJ make-IP-be-3-FUT truly Bangla language
The Bangla language has to be made into the Bangla language
properly.
More examples are given in Ch. 28.4.4.
Similar to these structures are questions and relative clauses with inanimate
objects. The object pronouns khfk and xhfk whom are used for inanimate
nouns in these cases.
svK ahmrh khfk byl?

happiness we what-OBJ say-1-PR-S
What do we mean by happiness?
as®bfk as®b bfl bzòn krhi bvyºmhfnr kuòbj/
impossible-OBJ impossible say-PP abolish-VN EMP wise
people-GEN duty
It is the duty of wise people to abolish the idea that the impossible is
impossible.
ei zhwghth, xhfk ahmrh eu sv~qr mfn kyr . . .
this place-CL what-R-OBJ we so beautiful mind-LOC do-1-PR-S
This place which we consider so beautiful . . .
30.3.2.6 Optional object case ending
Direct object case markings are sometimes added to nouns denoting

things or abstract concepts. This often helps to make the sentence struc-
ture clear. It can indicate a treatment of inanimate things as animates or
show an author’s personal engagement. In many cases these endings are
optional.
kybgvrßr Shy™ynfkunfk yuyn Bhlbhsfun/

poet teacher-GEN Santiniketan-OBJ he love-3H-P-HABIT
He loved the Santiniketan of Tagore.
zYbnhn~q sujfk shrh zYbn Qfr síhn kfrfCn/
Jibanananda truth-OBJ all life during search do-3H-PR-PERF
Jibanananda spent his whole life searching for the truth.
ynfzr bhWhyl¥fk Mhyrfw `Plfb nh ùh?
own-GEN Bengaliness-OBJ lose-PP throw-3-FUT not EMP
578 Surely they are not going to lose their Bengaliness?
ybfSXBhfb smkhflr `xsb kybuhfk ahmrh ahQvynk ySfrhnhfm uhylkhBv∆ Object case
kyr/
especially contemporary-GEN that all poem-OBJ we modern
title-LOC list included do-1-PR-S
We include especially all those contemporary poems under the title of
modern.
ekzn ycykJsk yM`sfb Kvb khC Ùfk zYbnfk `qKhr svfxhg Gft/
one-CL doctor account-LOC very close from life-OBJ see-VN-GEN
opportunity occur-3-PR-S
As a doctor he has the opportunity to see life from close up.
zYbnfk `xn yuyn bMn krfu phrfCn nh/

life-OBJ as if he-H carry-do-IP be able to-3H-PR-C not
It was as if he couldn’t bear life.
In the following sentence the body-part stands for the person:
grYb bhyRfu qvfth `bkhr `ptfk `bySyqn `k\ sMj kfr nh/
poor house-LOC two-CL unemployed stomach much day someone
endure-do-3-PR-S not
No one in a poor household will put up with two unemployed mouths to
feed for very long.
Here is a sentence with a whole row of direct objects. The object ending
is added only to the last item.
`bgm `rhfkwh bhWhyl mvslmhn smhfzr nhnh rkm aíuh, `g£hRhym, kvsLãkhr, nhrYfqr
—yu abfMlh o ybf#X iujhyqfk uYbî∞ BhXhw smhflhcnh kfr `gfCn/
Begum Rokeya Bengali Muslim society-GEN various kind blindness
fanaticism superstition woman-GEN towards disrespect and
malice etcetera-OBJ strong language-LOC discuss-do-PP
go-3H-PR-PERF
Begum Rokeya exposed various kinds of blindness, fanaticism, superstition,
disrespect and malice towards women in Bengali Muslim society and
discussed these things in strong language.
Abstract concepts are treated as animate in the following examples.
ahmhr blbhr kUhytfk séy§ krfu Mfb M∑qw Ùfk/

my say-VN-GEN word-CL-OBJ create-do-IP be-FUT heart from
My words have to be created from the heart. 579
30 ahmhr mnfk mvy∆ yqfwyC/
Case use my mind-OBJ freedom give-1-PR-PERF
I have liberated my mind.
`s anvBb kfr `si `sH~qxòfk rÇh krhr ykCvth qhyw¥ uhr o opr pfRfC/
he feel-do-3PR-S that EMP beauty-OBJ protect do-VN-GEN some-CL
responsibility he-GEN also on fall-3-PR-PERF
He felt that he also had some responsibility in the preservation of this
beauty.
ùhmhr qvAKfk Bhlfbfsh nh, qvAK Bhlbhshr yzyns nw/
your grief-OBJ love-2-PR-IMP not grief love-GEN thing [is not]
Don’t love your grief. Grief is not a thing to be loved.
30.3.2.7 Object case subject
There is just one structure in Bangla with a subject in the object case.
When the imperfective participle combines with a third person form of
Mowh be, become to express obligation, the animate experiencer is usually
in the object case.
ahmhfk ahzfk ei pxò™ pRfu Mfb/

I today this EMP up to read-IP be-3-FUT
I will have to read up to here today.
uhfqrfk bhsh `CfR yqfu MfwfC/
they-OBJ house leave-PP give-IP be-3-PR-PERF
They had to give up the house.
This is a modal structure. It is given in Ch. 34.3.3.
30.4 Locative
The locative gives us the where and when and often also the why and how
of events in sentences. Locative endings are rarely used for animate nouns,
but the forms exist and we get occasional structures like:
ahym `xn ahr ahmhfu `ni/

I as if more I-LOC [is absent]
As if I was not (in) myself any more.
There is also a regular reciprocal structure which uses locative endings on
580 humans.
BVfu mhnvfX kKfnh ybfw Mw? Locative
ghost-LOC human being-LOC ever marriage be-3-PR-S
Do ghosts and people ever marry one another?
More examples can be found in Ch. 14.5.
To start with, here is a sentence which combines temporal, spatial and

causal locative uses:
bhXyÑ shfl ahmhr …hmYr krhycfu chkyr Svrß Mowhw ahym o krhycfu `xfu bhQj Mi/
62 year-LOC my husband Karachi-LOC job start-VN-LOC I also
Karachi-LOC go-IP agree-1-PR-S
Due to my husband starting a job in Karachi in 1962 I also agreed to go
to Karachi.
30.4.1 Spatial locatives
Both `khUhw where and eKhfn here are locative forms.
The locative indicates position, area, destination and direction. It can

often replace postpositional phrases. Most of these postpositions are
also locatives.
Instead of a postpositional phrase we can use a locative:
`tybflr \pfr `tybfl on the table

nqYr mhfZ nqYfu on the river
ahkhfSr mfQj ahkhfS in the sky
Gfrr yBufr Gfr in the house
Mhu yqfw Mhfu by hand
Gfrr yqfk Gfr towards the building
The locative uses are more flexible but also less precise than their post-
positional alternatives. Here are some real examples which show the very
wide spatial application of the locative. They include
locations uhrh yqy^fu Uhfk/

they Delhi-LOC live-3-PR-S
They live in Delhi.
directions ahmrh pvylfS xhb/

we police-LOC go-1-FUT
We will go to the police. 581
30 place of uhr `chfK zl pRl/
Case use origin her eye-LOC water fall-3-P-S
Tears were falling from her eyes.
idioms mfn Mw lit: it is in my mind = I think

abstract shu bCr bwfsr uPhfu qvi `Cfl
spaces seven year age-GEN difference-LOC two boy
two boys with an age difference of seven years
Here are the examples:
glhw Mhfu —cvr `shnhr gwnh/

throat-LOC hand-LOC much gold-GEN jewellery
There was much gold jewellery around her neck and on her hands.
`s kUh mvfK ahnfu phrfb nh Mhzrh/
that word mouth-LOC bring-IP be able to-3-FUT not Hajra
lit: Hajra could not bring that word into his mouth
Hajra couldn’t bring himself to say that.
ynfzr ybChnhw Gvmhfl Mu/
own-GEN bed-LOC sleep-CP be-3-P-HABIT
It would be better if he slept in his own bed.
uhrh byÄfu bhs kfro . . .
they slum-LOC live-do-PP CONC EMP
even though they live in a slum . . .
nqYfu xhowh Bhl ùh lhgfbi/
river-LOC go-VN good EMP feel-3-FUT EMP
Of course they will enjoy going on the river.
ei Grthw ahmhr `Cflfblhr afnk ãméyu zyRfw ahfC/
this room-CL-LOC my childhood-GEN much memory link-PP
[is present]
Many of my childhood memories are connected to this room.
`mfwrh ghfCr ulhw bfs yCl/
girl-PL tree-GEN base-LOC sit-PP [was]
The girls were sitting under the tree.
mh"r gTfn, clhfPrhw `khUho bwfsr Chp pfRyn/
mother-GEN figure-LOC movement-LOC anywhere age-GEN imprint
not fall-3-PR-PERF
582 There is no sign of ageing either in mother’s figure or her movements.
`s phowhfu ahn~q/ Locative
that find-VN-LOC joy
There is joy in this discovery.
kUhth yk ùhmhr mhUhw `Dhkhfnh xhfb nh?

word EMP what you-GEN head-LOC implant-VN go-3-FUT not
Can’t you get this into your head?
shrh SMfr ybqvjJ cfl `gfC/

whole town-LOC power move-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The whole town has a power cut.
`mfwth k†hS yUîfu \Tl/

girl-CL class three-LOC rise-3-PS
The girl is now in Year Three.
uhr Mhfu Kvb bjUh krfC/

he-GEN hand-LOC very pain do-3-PR-C
lit: in his hand much pain is doing
His hand is hurting a lot.
eKno ahym ynfzr phfw q£hRhfu phyr nh/

still I own-GEN foot-LOC stand-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
I cannot yet stand on my own feet.
yk≤ uhfqr kUhbhuòh ahmhfk ykCvth a…yÄfu `PflfC/

but they-GEN conversation I-OBJ somewhat unease-LOC
throw
But their conversation made me somewhat uncomfortable.
ùhmhr kfThr bhkj bívr bvfk `lfgfC/

your harsh sentence friend-GEN breast-LOC hit-3-PR-PERF
Your harsh sentence has hurt your friend.
Kvb yc™hw pfR `gfln mfn MfÉC/

very worry-LOC fall-PP go-3H-P-S mind-LOC be-3-PR-C
He seemed very worried.
uhi e bjhphfr ahr mhUh GhmhfÉCn `kn?

so this matter-LOC more head cause to sweat-3-PR-C why
So why are you still worrying about this?
`s `Cflytr `—fm pRfC/

she boy-CL-GEN love-LOC fall-3-PR-C
She is falling in love with the boy. 583
30 gyrb o asvñfqr `sbhw ynfzr zYbn ybylfw yqfwfCn/
Case use poor and ill-PL-GEN service-LOC own life devote-give-3-PR-PERF
She gave her life in the service of the poor and the sick.
uvym `qhX yqÉC ahmhfk, `qhX K£vzC ahmhr bjbMhfr/
you fault give-2-PR-C I-OBJ fault search-2-PR-C I-GEN behaviour-LOC
You are blaming me, you are searching for shortcomings in my behaviour.
ahmhr cyr« `x ∏SflSár yk Cybfu e£fkfC . . .
I-GEN character that Shaileshwar what picture-LOC draw-3-PR-PERF
In what light Shaileshwar had painted my character . . .
The locative ending is sometimes dropped with very common phrases and
with place names:
ahym bhyR xhyÉC/

I am going home.
ahmrh yqy^ xhb/
We will go to Delhi.
30.4.2 Instrumental locatives
This includes instruments, implements, forms of transport, components,

origins and materials, both physical and non-physical.
filled with:
ahr `khno qvA…fpä rhy« Bfr \Tfb nh/

more any nightmare night fill-PP rise-3-FUT not
The night will not be filled with bad dreams any more.
zYbnth Bfr `gl bjUòuhw ahr SVnjuhw/
life-CL fill-PP go-3-P-S futility and emptiness
Life was nothing but pointless and empty.
`s \f≠znhw Brh, pRbhr ahgîfM Brh/ xhr mhfn, svfK Brh/
he excitement fill-VA studying interest-LOC that-REL-GEN meaning
happiness-LOC fill-VN
He was full of excitement and the interest in studying. That means full
of happiness.
mn ahnf~q Bfr \fTfC/
mind joy-LOC fill-PP rise-3-PR-PERF
584 The mind was filled with joy.
SvQv kUhw `pt Bfr nh/ Locative
only word-LOC stomach fill-3-PR-S not
Just words don’t fill the stomach.
khmrßflr yBurth qwhw \Ufl \Tl/
Kamrul-GEN heart-CL compassion-LOC surge-PP rise-3-P-S
Kamrul’s heart overflowed with compassion.
by means of:
kfr, the perfective participle of krh do combines with all sorts of imple-
ments and forms of transport in the locative to produce adverbial phrases.
The locative noun forms alone do the same job.
`s uhr ycyTgvflh Mhfu kfr `lfK/

he he-GEN letter-PL-CL hand-LOC do-PP write-3-PR-S
He writes his letters by hand.
o shifkfl kfr ayPfs xhw/
he bicycle do-PP office-LOC go-3-PR-S
He goes to the office by bicycle.
orh bhfs kfr ahsfb/
they bus-LOC do-PP come-3-FUT
They will come by bus.
`nHkhw kfr by boat, ybmhfn by plane, ghyRfu by car
`shfMl nhfm ekzn `lhk
Sohel name-LOC one person
someone called Sohel
other instrumentals
`s uhr ybfqyS \ÉchrfN sôpVNò ghnth ahmhfk `gfw `Shnhl/

he his foreign pronunciation-LOC complete song-CL I-OBJ sing-PP
made hear-3-P-S
He sang the whole song to me in his foreign pronunciation.
uhfu ùhr MThJ yk qrkhr pRl?
that-LOC you-GEN suddenly what need fall-3-P-S
Why do you suddenly need this?
er shMhfxj `s `BfW `Plfu phfr kyTn bYz/
this-GEN help-LOC it break-PP throw-IP be able to-3-PR-S
hard seed
Using this it (the bird) can break up hard seeds. 585
30 yk ahŸcxò, ynfzr thkhw bi `br kryCl!
Case use what amazing own-GEN money-LOC book publish-do-3-P-CONT
How amazing, he was publishing the book with his own money.
yk≤ eu shbQhnuhfuo `khno Pl Ml nh/
but such caution-LOC even any result be-3-P-S not
But all this caution did not bring any results either.
sYl ynSáhs `nw PvsPvfsr shMhfxj/
seal breath take-3-PR-S lung-GEN help-LOC
Seals breathe with the help of lungs.
BVfurh Mhowhw ymfS Gvrfu phfr/
ghost-PL air-LOC mix-PP roam-IP be able to-3-PR-S
Ghosts can roam about mixing with the air.
ahpnhr khfC ekth qrkhfr efsyC/
you-GEN to one-CL need-LOC come-1-PR-PERF
I have come to you with a request.
ahym dvbs£huhfr `bS qÇ Mfw \fTyClhm/
I diving-LOC quite expert be-PP rise-1-P-PERF
I got quite good at diving.
`s k†hy™fu kybuh `lKh xhw/
that tiredness-LOC poem write-VN go-3-PR-S
In that tiredness poetry can be written.
uhr sbfcfw mQvmw k÷…fr ymfss gvú blfu lhgfln . . .
her most sweet voice-LOC Mrs Gupta say-IP start-3H-P-S
Mrs Gupta started to say in her sweetest voice . . .
SyPk ei bjhphfr `nMhui ahnhyR/
Shafiq this matter totally EMP inexpert
Shofik was totally inexpert in this matter.
bhbhr ybXfw ahr ykCv blfu Mfb nh/
father-GEN subject-LOC more something say-IP be-3-FUT not
Nothing more needs to be said about father.
asvfK Bvfg Bvfg qhqvr SrYr bö khyMl `qKhyÉCl/
illness-LOC suffer-PP (×2) grandfather-GEN body very tired show-3-P-C
Grandfather was looking very tired from the illness he was suffering.
emynfu uhrh Khyl phfwi clh-`Prh kru/
normally-LOC they bare foot-LOC EMP walk-do-3-P-HABIT
586 Normally they would walk around barefoot.
Locative
30.4.3 Temporal locatives
ahmrh skhfl efsyC/

we morning-LOC come-1-PR-PERF
We arrived this morning.
`SfX sBhpyu blfln . . .

end-LOC chairman say-3H-P-S
In the end the chairman said . . .
BybXjfu yk Mfb `k\ zhfn nh/
future-LOC what be-3-FUT someone know-3-PR-S not
No one knows what will be in the future.
k£hthw k£hthw shfR Cwthw ySylgvyR `p£HfC `glhm/

(k£hth is the hand of a clock, k£hthw k£hthw a fixed idiom meaning
on the dot) on the dot half six-CL-LOC Siliguri arrive-PP
go-1-PS
We arrived in Siliguri at half past six on the dot.
Khbhr smfw \Bfw cvpchp bfs Uhfkn/

eating time-LOC both quietly sit-PP stay-3H-PR-S
At meal times the two of them sit quietly.
ahsfC bCfro ahsfb/

next year-LOC also come-3-FUT
It will come again next year.
khzth ei súhfM `sfr `xfu Mfb/

work-CL this EMP week-LOC finish-PP go-IP be-3-FUT
The work has to be finished this week.
rhfui yPfr `xfu Mfb bfl `rfKfCn/

night-LOC return-PP go-IP be-3-FUT say-PP put-3H-PR-PERF
He said that we would have to return at night.
30.4.3.1 Dropped locative endings
Locative endings with expressions of time can sometimes be dropped, e.g.
o `syqn ahr ykCv bflyn/

he that day more something not say-3-PR-PERF
He did not say anything more that day. 587
30 uhfqr gu bCr ybfw MfwfC/
Case use they-GEN last year marriage be-3-PR-PERF
They got married last year.
ekyqn xhb/
one day go-1-FUT
I will go one day.
afnkyqn rybn phyK `qfK nh `shmh/
much day robin bird see-3-PR-S not Soma
Soma had not seen a robin in a long time.
uvym `s smw yk kryCfl?
you that time what do-2-P-C
What were you doing at that time?
yk≤ ei `qfS shrh bCr béy§ Mw/
but this EMP country-LOC all year rain be-3-PR-S
But in this country it rains all year round.
`tînth `khn smw ChRfb?
train-CL which time leave-3-FUT
What time will the train leave?
qvpvrfblhi \yn bhyRfu Uhfkn nh/
midday hour EMP time he-H home-LOC stay-3-H-PR-S not
He is not at home at midday.
nuvn chkyrr —Um yqn \yn bflfCn . . .
new job-GEN first day he-H say-3-H-PR-PERF
He said on the first day of the new job . . .
30.4.4 Locative of manner
mhnvfXr `—m nhyk Mw —Um `qKhw/

man-GEN love not what be-3-PR-S first see-VN-LOC
People fall in love at first sight, don’t they?
svñ mhUhw blyC/
healthy head-LOC say-1-PR-C
I am speaking with a clear head.
ahym emnBhfb ahr Uhkfu phyr nh/
I such way-LOC more stay-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
588 I can’t remain like this any longer.
uhrh akhrfN ZgRh kfr nh/ Locative
they unreason-LOC fight do-3-PR-S not
They don’t fight without a reason.
mhifn Ml ek lhfP ahRhi-`Sh Ùfk shfR chr-`Sh/
salary be-3-P-S one jump-LOC 250 from 450
His salary went from 250 to 450 in one leap.
Mhys mvfK bll
smile face-LOC say-3-P-S
said with a smile
Kvb yncv glhw blyCl
very deep voice-LOC say-3-P-C
was saying in a very deep voice
ayu kf§ \ÉchrN krl/
extreme effort pronounce-do-3-P-S
He spoke with extreme effort.
30.4.5 Locative of cause
\yn zrßrY khfz SMfrr bhifr `gfCn/

he urgent work-LOC town-GEN outside go-3H-PR-PERF
He has left town on urgent business.
ahmhr qvAfK sb chifu `si `byS k§ `pfwfC/
my grief-LOC all than he EMP much suffering get-3-PR-PERF
He suffered the most from my grief.
Th’hw uhr q£hfu q£hu `lfg `xu/
cold-LOC his tooth-LOC tooth attach-PP go-3-P-HABIT
His teeth were chattering with the cold.
mhs kfwk Ml `s mhrh `gl mh« qvyqfnr záfr/
month few ago he hit-go-3-P-S only two day-GEN fever-LOC
He died a few months ago from just two days’ fever.
Bfw uhr glh ahtfk ahsyCl/
fear-LOC his voice obstruct-PP come-3-P-C
He could not speak for fear.
ufb Shymfmr yzfq mhfZ mhfZ xhw/
but Shamim-GEN insistence-LOC sometimes go-3-PR-S
But he sometimes goes because of Shamim’s insistence. 589
30 Verbal nouns in the locative often imply cause:
Case use
béy§ pRhfu `Klhth Ml nh/
rain fall-VN-LOC game-CL be-3-P-S not
The game didn’t happen because it was raining.
More on this is in Ch. 20.4.
590
Chapter 31
Tense use
Tense is built into the verbal system. Every finite verb form contains a
tense element. This is true in English as well as in Bangla, but actual tense
use in Bangla is very different from English tense use. In the previous chap
ters readers have probably noticed (and perhaps been irritated by) example
sentences where the translations did not match the Bangla tense. Here is
one such example:
`si kUh mvfK ahnfu phrfb nh Mhzrh/

that EMP word mouth-LOC bring-IP be able to-3-FUT not Hajra
Hajra couldn’t bring himself to say that.
So why not translate this as Hajra will not be able to bring himself to say
that? In order to answer this and to show just how differently Bangla
tenses operate, we need to take a quick look at the English tense system.
English has a very precise system for which tenses can go together. ‘When
living in the past, stay in the past’ is the formula for English tense use. It
means that in a past tense context, whether we are looking forward or back,
only other past tenses are permissible:
He told me that he had seen a ghost. He knew that he would fail the
exam. He thought that she was being silly.
Bangla has no such restrictions. We find the future tense in happy com
panionship with the past continuous, and the simple present and simple
past are best friends in Bangla. Here is an example with a past perfect and
a future tense:
\yn yTk kfryCfln u£hr bívr ybQbhfk ybfw krfbn/

he decide-do-3H-P-PERF his-H friend-GEN widow
marriage-do-3H-FUT
He decided that he would marry his friend’s widow. 591
31 Bangla tense use is largely guided by actual time rather than by correlation
Tense use between the tenses. It takes into account common sense, the needtoknow
principle and phonaesthetic considerations. In the absence of subjunctive
forms, Bangla tenses, especially the future tense, also take on modal functions.
This explains the translation above.
Before we look at individual tenses there are two other important consider
ations about the Bangla tense system as a whole.
1 ahC-, `ni, n-, zero verb
There are some very common structures which are, to all intents and
purposes, tenseless. The two negative verbs `ni is absent and n- is not
as well as zero verb equational structures and the existential verb ahC-,
are all essential and tenseless features of the language. On the basis of
the needtoknow principle it is normal for these structures to appear in
past tense contexts without having to change to a less expressive tensed
version of themselves.
Compare: ahmrh sbhi smwmu \pyñu yClhm yk≤ uvym `ni/

with ahmrh sbhi smwmu \pyñu yClhm yk≤ uvym yCfl nh/
We were all present on time but you were not there.
The sentence with `ni has considerably more impact and expressiveness
than the past tense version. yCl is of course indispensable as the past
tense not only of ahC- but also of the zero verb. It is precisely because
of this overload of past tense duties that the employment of yCl is kept,
very sensibly, to the necessary minimum.
2 nonfinite verb forms
One of the main tasks of nonfinite verb forms is to provide time rela
tionships within sentences. The perfective participles takes care of pre
ceding events, the imperfective participle can cover simultaneous events
as well as future intentions. A genitive verbal noun followed by smw
time (ronh `qowhr smw at the time of leaving) specifies points in time. The
conditional participle can provide a time frame for whichever tense the
finite verb happens to be in. These readily available devices not only
reduce the need for conjunctions in Bangla but also have a significant
influence on the Bangla tense system.
In order to get an accurate picture of tense use it is helpful to distinguish

actions, events, states and processes. Actions occur at particular points in
time and usually involve a human agent. Events also occur at particular
592 points in time but may or may not have a human agent, for instance
béy§ pRfu lhgl It started raining or uhr asvK Ml She fell ill. States can go on Simple present
for a long time without much change. Processes also have an extension in
time but usually with a clear end point.
Each tense in Bangla has particular designated tasks. Here are the tenses
one by one.
31.1 Simple present
The simple present is used
1 for general, timeless statements:
sVxò skhfl ofT/ The sun rises in the morning.

`shmbhr rybbhfrr pfr ahfs/ Monday comes after Sunday.
`s ch Khw nh/ He doesn’t drink tea.
bvS œhPæt bfl ekth yzyns ahfC/ There is something called bush craft.
2 for regularly occurring events:
skhfl béy§ Mw/ It rains in the mornings.

—yuyqn rhêh krfu Mw/ Cooking needs to be done every day.
ahmrh rhfu Bhu Khi/ We eat (rice) at night.
`s afnk bi pfR/ He reads a lot of books.
ahmrh nqYr phynfu `ghsl kyr/ We wash in the river.
uhrh mhfZ mhfZ uhs `Kfl/ They play cards sometimes.
3 for ongoing states, feelings or experiences:
uhr k£hThl `Kfu Bhl lhfg nh/ He doesn’t like jackfruit.

uhrh Mhsphuhflr khfC Uhfk/ They live near the hospital.
`s ùhmhfk Bhlbhfs/ She loves you.
ahym uhfk ycyn nh/ I don’t know him.
ahpyn ku yqn ahfCn? How long are you staying?
4 for ongoing states with explicit starting points of time in the past (English
uses the present perfect here)
ahym yun bCr ahfg Ùfk eKhfn ahyC/

I have been here for three years.
`s myMlhytfk qS bCr Qfr `cfn/

He has known the woman for ten years.
klkhuhr —hw svcnh Ùfki ahmrh e SMfr ahyC/

We have been in Kolkata almost since its beginning. 593
31 5 for present activities (English uses the present continuous here):
Tense use
ahpyn ku yqn ahfCn? How long are you staying?
o Bhu Khw/ He is eating.
yk kr? What are you doing?
yqn xhw yk≤ smw xhfÉC nh/ The day goes by but time stands still.
6 for dates of births and deaths, historical events with a year given:
rLpvr `zlhw 1880 shfl `bgm `rhfkwhr znÖ Mw/

Rongpur district-LOC 1880 year-LOC Begum Rokeya-GEN birth
be-3-PR-S
Begum Rokeya was born in the district of Rongpur in 1880.
Past tense narratives invariably jump to the simple present for sentences
of this kind. The logic of this is clear: the year gives us what we need to
know so the tense of the sentence becomes unimportant. Here are a couple
of sentences in context.
1268 shflr 25 ∏bShK, 1861 yKîãthfûqr 7 `m mÃlbhr klkhuhr `zhRhs£hfkhr

—Kjhu Thkvr pyrbhfr rbY~qînhfUr znÖ Mw/ rbY~qînhU zfnÖyCfln `shnhr chmc mvfK ynfw/
1268 year-GEN 25 Baishakh 1861 Christian era-GEN 7 May Tuesday
Kolkata-GEN Jorasanko-GEN famous Thakur family-LOC
Rabindranath-GEN birth be-3-PR-S Rabindranath be born-3-H-P-PERF
gold-GEN spoon mouth-LOC with
In 1268 on 25 Baishakh, Christian era 1861 on Tuesday, May 7,
Rabindranath was born into the famous Tagore family of Jorasanko in
Kolkata. Rabindranath was born with a golden spoon in his mouth.
A little bit further on in the same text1 we have the following sequence of
sentences. Again the first, simple present tense sentence contains a date.
The second sentence takes us back to the past tense narrative:
1878 shfl sfur bCr bwfs yuyn —Um yblhu xhn/ `sKhfn u£hr qhqh sfuj~qînhU
Thkvr yCfln/
1878 year-LOC seventeen year age-LOC he-H first abroad go-3H-
PR-S there his-H older brother Satyendranath Thakur [was]-3H
In 1878, aged seventeen, he first went to Great Britain, where his older
brother Satyendranath Tagore was.
The simple present is used in modal clauses with xyq if, `xn so that, xhfu so
that, phfC lest, so that not.
594 1 khzY qYn mvMmÖq, SyP\l ahlm, ahmhfqr BhXh o rcnh, Dhaka 2005, p. 11 (rcnh)
Other modal uses of the simple present are given in Ch. 34. Present
continuous
The simple present can take all the above uses and put them in past tense
contexts. Authors frequently change to the simple present tense within a
narrative in order to add life and immediacy to a text.
31.2 Present continuous
The present continuous is the tense for present ongoing actions and events
as well as for regularly intermittent events in the present. Note that Bangla
uses the present continuous with verbs like phrh be able to, `bhZh understand,
chowh want, Bhbh think, Mowh be, become, lhgh feel where English would often
use the simple present.
`nHkhth dvfb xhfÉC/ The boat is sinking.
orh yk krfC? What are they doing?
béy§ MfÉC/ It is raining.
`s uhr cSmh K£vzfC/ He is looking for his glasses.
`mfwyt k£hqfC/ The girl is crying.
`s ùhmhr yqfk uhkhfÉC/ He is looking at you.
yk mfn MfÉC ùhmhr? What do you think?
ahym ynASáhs ynfu phryC nh/ I can’t breathe.
uhr Bw krfC/ He is scared.
bvZfu phryC/ I have understood.
ahmhr Bhl lhgfC nh/ I am not feeling well.
uhr prYÇh clfC/ She is in the middle of her exams.
tfcòr ahflh záhlhfu uhr Brsh MfÉC nh/
torch-GEN light turn on-IP he-GEN courage be-3-PR-C not
He doesn’t have the courage to switch on the torch.
ei nuvn bjUhth mhfZ mhfZ MfÉC srmhr/
this new pain sometimes occur-3-PR-C Sarma-GEN.
Sarma occasionally gets this new pain.
ku `lhk ahsfC xhfÉC/
how much person come-3-PR-C go-3-PR-C
So many people are coming and going!
shrhyqn Gfrr mfQj Ùfk-Ùfk esb `qfK ùhmhr mn ahro Khrhp Mfw xhfÉC/
all day house-GEN in stay-PP (×2) this all see-PP your mind more
bad be-PP go-3-PR-C
Staying in the house all day and seeing all this just makes you more
depressed. 595
31 `s eKn oi nuvn chX ynfw mhUh GhmhfÉC/
Tense use he now that EMP new farming take-PP head cause to sweat-3-PR-C
He is now worrying about that new farming.
`s ahmhr kUh gvrV¥ yqfÉC Kvb/
she I-GEN word importance give-3-PR-C very
She pays attention to me.
The present continuous is used for imminent future events:
ahmrh ahfmyrkhw xhyÉC/ We are going to America.

bhbh ahz ahsfCn/ Father is coming today.
ahym ùhmhfk thkh yqyÉC/ I am giving you the money.
uhr nuvn chkyr MfÉC/ He is getting a new job.
orh bhsh bql krfC/ They are going to move.
uhi cfl `xfu chfÉC/ So he wants to leave.
for events and states that started in the past:
kyqn Qfri lÇ kryC/ I have noticed for some time.

kuyqn Ùfk clfC esb? Since when has this been going on?
`s afnk yqn Ùfk bhLlh pRfC/ He has been learning Bangla for a long time.
The present continuous is used in compounds with ahsh come to refer to
a process which has been going on for a long time.
ahmrh afnk yqn Qfr ei ynwm anvsrN kfr ahsyC/

we many day during this EMP system follow do-PP come-1-PR-C
We have been following this system for a long time.
ahmrh uhfk afnkyqn Qfr ycfn ahsyC/

we he-OBJ many day during know-PP come-1-PR-C
We have known him for a long time.
ei kUh ahmrh ybSáhs kfr ahsyC/ ahmrh `sth `zfn ahsyC/

this EMP word we belief do-PP come-PR-C. we this-CL know-PP
come-1-PR-C
We have always believed this. We have always known this.
qS bCr Qfr ahym brhbr `si `qhkhn Ùfki Kbfrr khgz ykfn ahsyC/
ten year during I always that EMP shop from newspaper buy-PP
come-1-PR-C
For the last ten years I have always bought the newspaper from this shop.
Like the simple present, the present continuous can turn up in past tense
596 contexts to provide liveliness.
Present perfect
31.3 Present perfect
The present perfect is one of the past tenses in Bangla. It combines

the ability to relate (a) past events which happened fairly recently and
(b) past events whose effects are still felt in the present. In negation the
present perfect verb forms change to simple present verb forms followed
by yn.
affirmative: ahym khpR QvfwyC/ I have washed the clothes.

negative: ahym khpR Qvi yn/ I have not washed the clothes.
(a) `s ùh afnk ahfg klkhuhw `gfC/ He went to Kolkata a long time ago.
uhr gukhl ekysfd~t MfwfC/ He had an accident yesterday.
ahym `s yqn uhr sfÃ `qKh kyryn/ I didn’t meet with him that day.
`Cflyt Bw `pfw `gfC/ The boy was getting scared.
ahym mhCth Khiyn/ I didn’t eat the fish.
uhfqr ãméyu `lhkfqr mn Ùfk mvfC `gfC/
People have forgotten about them.
(b) efqr eKn abñh pfR `gfC/ Their situation has now deteriorated.
ahym biyt pfRyC/ I have read the book.
rhÄhw ku zl zfmfC! How much water has collected in the street!
\yn g¶p krfu efsfCn/ He has come for a chat.
péUáYfSr mu iÉCvk `Sîhuh `s ahr phwyn/
He had never had such a keen listener as Pritish.
uvym yk `KfwC? Have you eaten?

uhfqr bhÉch MfwfC/ They have had a baby.
—hw pÅhSznfk ynmìN zhnhfnh MfwfC/

Almost fifty people have been invited.
bhghfn Pvl PvftfC/

The flowers in the garden are coming into bloom.
ahym kKno pjhyrfs xhiyn/ I have never been to Paris.

ahpyn afnk bqfl `gfCn/ You have changed a lot.
síjh `nfmfC bhifr/ It has gone dark outside.
yk cmJkhr c£hq \fTfC! What a beautiful moon has come up!
The present perfect is used in some contexts to describe an event where

English is more likely to give the afterstate in the simple present, particularly
with things coming to an end or to fruition: 597
31 ùl `SX Mfw `gfC/ The oil is finished.
Tense use síjh Mfw `gfC/ It is evening.
bhbh efsfC/ Father is here.
`qhkhnth bí MfwfC/ The shop is closed.
sbhi \fT `gfC/ Everyone is up.
uhr asvK MfwfC/ He is ill.
ahmhr yKqh `pfwfC/ I am hungry.
uhr zár MfwfC/ He has a fever.
uhr mhUh QfrfC/ He has a headache.
qvQ n§ MfwfC/ The milk is off.
`bhulth Bfr `gfC/ The bottle is full.
uvym ahmhr \pfr rhg kfrC? Are you angry with me?
ahzkhl péyUbYthi bqfl `gfC, mhnvXgvflh sb Khrhp Mfw `gfC/

nowadays world-CL EMPchange-PP go-3-PR-PERF person-CL-PL bad
be-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The world is different today, people are evil.
smw uhfqr `khml Mhfu ãpSò kfryn/

time they-OBJ soft hand-LOC touch not do-3-PR-PERF
Time is not kind to them.
ahym ybfwi ùh kyryn/

I marriage EMP EMP not do-1-PR-PERF
I am not even married.
rhu Gn MfwfC uuÇfN/

night deep be-3-PR-PERF by then
It was deep night by then.
ahmrh eKhfn nuvn efsyC/

we here new come-1-PR-PERF
We are new here.
31.4 Future tense
The future tense covers everything that comes later, whether we start in
the present or in the distant past. This is one of the reasons why Bangla
tense use seems erratic at times, when it is, in fact, remarkably consistent.
The future tense has an inbuilt modal potential in the sense that everything
we say about the future is, in effect, a prediction, an intention, a promise
598 or some such. The classification below is therefore somewhat arbitrary.
(a) future actions, events and states: Future tense
`s khlfk ysºh™ krfb/ He will decide tomorrow.

ahmrh pfr xhb/ We will go later.
khzth krfu yun súhM lhgfb/ It will take three weeks to do the
work.
uhrh shmfnr bCr ybfw krfb/ They will get married next year.
ahr yk Mfb? What else will happen?
`s ahr eKhfn ahsfb nh/ He will not come back here again.
ahym ùhmhr zfnj ekth bhyR I will build you a house.
bhnhb/
rhÄhr khzth khlfk ahr® Mfb/ The roadworks will start tomorrow.
ahbhr nuvnBhfb Pvl Pvtfb/ New flowers will blossom again.
béy§ ahz Mfb nh/ It will not rain today.
uvym Kvb KvyS Mfb/ You will be very happy.
ahym bigvflh `Pru `qb/ I will return the books.
bhghnth qhrßN sv~qr Mfb/ The garden will be very beautiful.
eKhfn nuvn `cwhrgvflh rhKh Mfb/ The new chairs will be put here.
The future tense is used for predictions, assumptions, intentions,
requests and probabilities. Many of these uses are modal.
(b) predictions, probabilities, assumptions, sometimes formed with a

ahpnhrh ynŸcw Svfn Uhkfbn . . . You will undoubtedly have heard . . .

`s ermfQj bhshw ygfw Uhkfb/ He will be home by now.
ekyqfnr mfQj khzth `SX kfr `Plfb/
He will finish the work within a day.
'kwzn efsfC?" '`mht ekS Mfb/"
‘How many came?’ ‘About a hundred.’
`k\ uh ybSáhs krfb nh/ No one will believe that.
orh yzufb/ They will win.
qvQ `Kfl bhÉchfqr SrYr Bhl Uhkfb/
Children will be healthy when they drink milk.
ùhmhr bws ku Mfb? How old are you?
uhfqr mfn Ml `mfwytr bws bCr bhr Mfb/
their mind-LOC be-3-P-S girl-CL-GEN age year twelve
be-3-FUT
They thought that the girl must be twelve years old. 599
31 More examples on the modal use of the future tense are given in
Tense use Ch. 34.2.
(c) intentions, requests, wishes, expressions of politeness, etc.
yk blb? What can I say? or What should I say?

ch Khfbn? Would you like some tea?
phyn Khb/ I would like some water.
Cybth `qKb? Can I see the picture?
ahr yk lhgfb? What else do you need?
ykCv blfu phrb? Can I say something?
BhLyt `qfbn? Can you give me change?
eKn yqfl Bhl Mfb/ Can you give it to me now, please?
Examples of mixed tenses will be given below but here is one to show
the ease with which the future tense combines with other tenses.
yuyn ahr `khno yqn bYrysLM xhfbn nh —yu“h kfrfCn/

he-H more any day Birsingho go-3H-FUT not promise
do-3H-PR-PERF
He promised that he would never return to Birsingho.
31.5 Simple past
The simple past is the usual tense in narrative contexts. Of the five past
tenses (present perfect, simple past, past continuous, past perfect and past
habitual), the simple past is the least marked. It can be used for events and
actions in the distant or the recent past and it can be accompanied by a
time adverbial specifying the time of the event.
(a) past actions, events and states:
ahmrh `s yqni thkh yqlhm/

we that day EMP money give-1-P-S
We paid that day.
o eiBhfb yqn khthl/

he that EMP way-LOC day spend-3-P-S
In this way he spent the day.
bhifrr ahGhu `sfr `gl/

outside-GEN shock finish-PP go-3-P-S
600 The external shock has passed.
sb ymylfw `gl ahfÄ ahfÄ/ Simple past
all mix-PP go-3-P-S slowly slowly
Everything gradually fell into place.
S∆ kfr `sth shmfl ynlhm/
hard do-PP that-CL control-PP take-1-P-S
I braced myself.
`s ybfw ytkl nh/
that marriage last-3-P-S not
That marriage did not last.
ùhmhr zfnj eth Ml/
you-GEN for this-CL be-3-P-S
That happened because of you.
uhrpr xKn brP xvg `kft `gl uKn ChRh `pl \”uh ahr uhfu séy§ Ml
œh™Yw aÅl/
then when-R ice age cut-PP go-3-P-S then-CR release get-3-P-S
warmth and that-LOC creation be-3-P-S tropical region
Then when the ice age finished, warmth was released, and in this way
the tropical regions came into existence.
—Ufm `s ynfzr Gfr ygfw Kvb k£hql, uhrpfr eksmw \fT `chK mvfC opfr `gl/
first-LOC she own-GEN room-LOC go-PP very cry-3-P-S then
one time rise-PP eye wipe-PP upstairs go-3-P-S
At first she went to her room and cried a lot. Then at one point she
got up, wiped her eyes and went upstairs.
MThJ smÄ SrYfrr yBur ekth k£hpvyn \Tl uhr/
suddenly whole body-GEN inside one-CL shivering rise-3-P-S
she-GEN
Suddenly she started shivering all over.
ahym afnkÇN cvp kfr q£hyRfw rilhm/
I long time quiet do-PP stand-PP remain-1-P-S
I remained standing there silently for a long time.
(b) immediate past or immediate future events
This is an idiomatic use of the simple past which is common in spoken
language and is always restricted to informal, simple, single remarks.
Essentially the tense context is removed in these uses.
ahym cllhm/ I’m off!
`khUhw `gfl? Where are you going?
bith yqlhm/ I am giving (you) the book. 601
31 KvyS Mlhm/ I am delighted.
Tense use ei ùh el/ There he is.
ùhmhfk bfl yqlhm/ I am telling you.
ykCv nh `Kfw `gfln? Are you leaving without having anything to eat?
is, pfR `gfl/ Oops, you almost fell.
(c) yCl
yCl is the past tense of ahC- and also of the zero verb.
uKn SYukhl yCl/
then winter [was]
It was winter then.
ahmhr yk≤ shMs yCl nh/
I-GEN but courage [was] not
But I did not have the courage.
uhrh bív yCl/
they friend [was]
They were friends.
ahmrh xKn `Cht yClhm
we when small [was]-1
when we were young
kUhth uhr mfn yCl/
word-CL his mind-LOC [was]
He remembered.
uvym uKn yCfl nh/
you then [was]-2 not
You were not there then.
zhmhth yk lhl yCl nh?
shirt-CL what read [was] not
Wasn’t the shirt red?
ahmrh `mfwfqr sfÃ kUh blfu aBjñ yClhm nh/
we girl-PL-GEN with word speak-IP used to [was]-1 not
We were not used to speaking to girls.
Skv™lhr yk uKn “hn yCl `x `qKfb `k el, `k `gl!
Sakuntula-GEN what then awareness [was] that see-3-FUT who
come-3-P-S who go-3-P-S
As if Sakuntula had the presence of mind then to see who was coming
602 and going!
Past
31.6 Past continuous
continuous
The past continuous either accompanies another past tense, or a perfective
participle, to describe events that were occurring simultaneously, or it can
describe ongoing processes or events in the past. The past continuous is
also used to make requests or demands more polite.
31.6.1 With another past tense
`s xKn el uKn ahmrh uhs `KlyClhm/

he when-R come-3-P-S then-CR we card play-1-P-C
We were playing cards when he arrived.
`s smw ahym khpR QvyÉClhm/
that time I clothes wash-1-P-C
At that time I was washing the clothes.
ghnth Svfn uhr khêh ahsyCl/
song hear-PP she-GEN crying come-3-P-C
When she heard the song she felt like crying.
pyb« ykCv blfu xhyÉCl uhr ahfg tvyn kUh bll/
Pabitra something say-IP go-3-P-C that-GEN before Tuni word say-3-P-S
Pabitra was about to say something when Tuni spoke.
31.6.2 Past processes
This is a very common use with verbs describing mental activity, ability
and such like. They are often equivalent to the simple past in English.
BhbyCl, ykBhfb `s pyrcw krfb uhr bhbhr sfÃ/

think-3-P-C what way-LOC she acquaintance do-3-FUT her
father-GEN with
She was wondering how to introduce herself to her father.
ahmrh ei rhÄh, `s rhÄhw \fØSjMYnBhfb M£htyClhm/
we this EMP road that road-LOC purposeless way-LOC walk-1-P-C
We were walking around aimlessly along one road or another.
yk `x krfbn, `Bfb \Tfu phryCfln nh /
what that do-3H-FUT think-PP rise-IP be able to-3H-P-C not
He could not decide what to do. 603
31 yñr Uhkfu phrh s®b MyÉCl nh/
Tense use calm stay-IP be able to-VN possible be-3-P-C not
It was not possible to stay calm.
asmÖhnth efkbhfr Bvlfu phryCfln nh/

insult-CL entirely forget-IP be able to-3H-P-C not
She could not entirely forget the insult.
yuyn `qKyCfln yTki yk≤ `ssb u£hr mhUhw Chp `Plfu phryCl nh/
he see-3H-P-C certainly but that all his-H head-LOC impression
throw-IP be able to-3-P-C not
He had seen it, yes, but all this did not make much impression on him.
—NfbS yk \≠r `qfbfn `Bfb phyÉCfln nh/

Pranabesh what reply give-3H-FUT think-PP get-3H-P-C not
Pranabesh couldn’t think what to reply.
31.6.3 Politeness
This use is equivalent to the English shift from simple present I want to
the more polite I would like. It is restricted to first person and is very
common with chowh want.
ahym uhr sfÃ ektv kUh blfu chyÉClhm/

I he-GEN with a bit word speak-IP want-1-P-C
I want to talk to him.
BhbyClhm ahr `qyr krb nh/

think-1-P-C more late do-1-FUT not
I am thinking about leaving.
31.7 Past perfect
The past perfect is used for completed events or actions in the past which
no longer have a direct bearing on the present. Events described in the
past perfect do not have to be in the distant past:
o skhfl efsyCl/
he morning-LOC come-3-P-PERF
604 He was here this morning.
and they do not need to be linked to subsequent events: Past perfect
ahym `s yqn Bvl kfryClhm/

I that day mistake do-1-P-PERF
I made a mistake that day.
What distinguishes the past perfect from both the simple past and the
present perfect is the completedness of the related event.
present perfect: `s skhfl efsfC/ He arrived this morning, implies

that he is still here.
simple past: `s skhfl el/ He came this morning, relates the
event without any inferences.
past perfect: `s skhfl efsyCl/ He was here this morning, implies
that he came and left again.
The use of the past perfect implies that the event is over.
klkhuhw yun bCfrr mfQj `s p£hcbhr bhsh bql kfryCl/

Kolkata-LOC three year-GEN in he five time house change
do-3-P-PERF
In Kolkata he had moved five times within three years.
—Ufm bR aÀvu `lfgyCl uhr, abhk MfwyCl/

first-LOC big strange feel-3-P-PERF he-GEN amazement be-3-P-PERF
At first it had felt very strange to him, he had been amazed.
`ghth qvynwhfk Mhzhr Mhzhr bCr Qfr yMmSYul brfP `Dfk `rfKyCl brP xvg/
whole earth-OBJ thousand thousand year during freezing ice cover-PP
keep-3-P-PERF ice age
The ice age kept the whole earth covered in freezing ice for thousands
of years.
Suhyûqr —Um yqfk yuyn ykCv \f^Kfxhgj nhtk rcnh kfryCfln/

century-GEN first towards he-H some remarkable play
compose-do-3H-P-PERF
Towards the beginning of the century he wrote some remarkable plays.
ahym `s smfw mfr ygfwyClhm/ méuvjr kyTn ah£Qhr chryqk Ùfk ahmhfk yGfr QfryCl/
ybChnhw Svfw Svfw ekh Gfrr aíkhfr bhlfkr mu `k£fqyClhm/
I that time die-PP go-1-P-PEF death-GEN merciless darkness four side
from I-OBJ surround-PP hold-3-P-PERF bed-LOC lie down-PP (×2)
alone room-GEN darkness-LOC boy-GEN like cry-1-P-PERF
I was falling apart at that time. The darkness of death surrounded me on
all sides. I lay on my bed alone in the dark house and cried like a boy. 605
31 The past perfect shares its negation with the present perfect.
Tense use
uhrpfr yTk yk MfwyCl, u£hfk zhnhwyn `s/
that-GEN after exactly what be-3-P-PERF he-H-OBJ not
inform-3-P-PERF he
He did not tell him exactly what happened afterwards.
ykCv ekth blfu `c§h kfryCfln yuyn, yk≤ glhr …r `Phftyn/
something one-CL say-IP attempt do-3H-P-PERF he-H but throat-GEN
voice not rise-3-P-PERF
She tried to say something, but her voice failed her.
Thkvmh `s yqn mhrh xhw yn/ ygfwyCl ahro qv-ekyqn pfr/
grandmother that day hit not go-3-P-PERF go-3-P-PERF more two one
day later
Grandmother did not die that day. She died one or two days later.
31.8 Past habitual
The past habitual has two distinct uses.
(1) habitual actions or events in the past, equivalent to the English use to.
The use of the past habitual often includes a fairly precise time frame, as
in the first two sentences.
uhr `Chtfblhw sbhi uhfk ahqr kru/

his childhood-LOC everyone he-OBJ love do-3-P-HABIT
Everyone loved him in his childhood.
`s yqngvflhfu ahmhr emn rhg \Tu nh/
that day-CL-PL-LOC I-GEN such anger rise-3-P-HABIT not
In those days I did not get so angry.
…hmYfk yuyn ycryqni qhrßN Bw ebL l°h krfun/
husband-OBJ she-H always EMP great fear and embarrassment
do-3H-P-HABIT
She was always very afraid of and shy with her husband.
o —yu mhfs gîhfm `xu/
he each month-LOC village-LOC go-3-P-HABIT
He used to go to the village every month.
aynfÉCsf≠áo Gvymfw pRu/
un-wish in spite of sleep-PP fall-3-P-HABIT
606 He used to fall asleep inadvertently.
`Chtfblhw o mhC `Ku nh, ydm `Ku/ Past habitual
childhood-LOC he fish eat-3-P-HABIT not egg eat-3-P-HABIT
As a child he used to eat egg, not fish.
The past habitual is rarely the main tense in narrative contexts but it mixes
easily with yCl and its variants.
ahmhfqr zgJ uKn ã«YflhkMYn yCl, `khno `mfwr ãpSògíybbyzòu abñhfui ahmrh
ahmhfqr `xHbn shÃ kruhm/
our world then female without [was] any woman-GEN touch
smell deprived situation-LOC EMP we our youth complete
do-1-P-HABIT
Our life then was without females. We spent our youth removed from a
woman’s touch or smell.
\yn xKn iLljhf~d yCfln uKn ghn ylKfun/

he-H when England-LOC [was] then song write-3H-P-HABIT
He used to write songs when he was in England.
ei l°h eu `byS yCl `x, …hmYr `GhRhr shmfn `xfuo yuyn l°h `pfun/
this shyness so much [was] that husband-GEN horse-GEN before
go-IP even she shyness get-3H-P-HABIT
Her shyness was so great that she was even embarrassed to appear before
her husband’s horse.
(2) The past habitual is used for hypothetical (modal) language use.
`k uhfk ahSîw yqu?

who he-OBJ shelter give-3-P-HABIT
Who would have given him shelter?
ei kUh `s kKno blu nh/

this word he ever say-3-P-HABIT not
He would never say this.
`sth s®b Mu abSj/

that-CL possible be-3-P-HABIT of course
That would have been possible, of course.
ektv Mfli sbhi gvyl `Kfw mrfu phru, zKm Mfw nqYr phynfu uylfw `xfu phru/
a bit be-CP EMP everyone bullet eat-PP die-IP be possible-3-P-HABIT
wounded be-PP river-GEN water-LOC drown-PP go-IP be
possible-3-P-HABIT
If anything had happened everyone could have been shot and killed, been
wounded and drowned in the river. 607
31 xyq ektv ahfg ahsfu phrfu?
Tense use if a bit before come-IP be able to-2-P-HABIT
If you could come a bit earlier?
`k\ oKhfn rhf« Uhku nh/
someone there night-LOC stay-3-P-HABIT not
No one would spend the night there.
The past habitual is used with zhnh know to convey a simple past meaning.
ahym uh zhnuhm nh/

I that know-1-P-HABIT not
I didn’t know that.
Examples for tense use with zhnh are given in Ch. 37.7.
The past habitual is used in conditional sentences. Examples are given in

Ch. 29.7.
Here is a comparison of conditional participle structures with the simple

past and the past habitual to show the differences in meaning. The only
difference between the respective sentences is the tense.
1 simple past: uvym mfn k§ phfb zhnfl ei kUh bllhm nh/

I didn’t tell you because I knew that it would upset you.
past habitual: uvym mfn k§ phfb zhnfl ei kUh bluhm nh/
I wouldn’t have said this if I had known that it would
upset you.
2 simple past: uvym ahmhfk qwh `qKhfl ahym ùhmhfk qwh `qKhlhm/
I was kind to you because you were kind to me.
past habitual: uvym ahmhfk qwh `qKhfl ahym ùhmhfk qwh `qKhuhm/
If you had been kind to me, I would have been kind to you.
31.9 Mixed tenses
The following examples give an impression of the way tenses combine with
one another.2 Compare also the use of tenses in content clauses (Ch. 29.6).
2 Readers will have noticed that this book contains no chapter on direct and indirect
speech. The simple reason is that speech can be seamlessly inserted into narrative texts
and that the only difference between indirect and direct speech is the change of person
(`s bflfC `x `s xhfb He said that he would go rather than `s bflfC ahym xhb He said I will go),
608 the optional insertion of a linking `x that and the absence or presence of quotation marks
zero verb, past perfect, present perfect Mixed tenses
ahmhr bws uKn —hw cy^S, yk≤ ahmhr mfn MyÉCl ahym ahbhr ahmhr ahThr bCfr
yPfr ygfwyC/
my age then almost forty but my mind-LOC be-3-P-PERF I again my
eighteen year-LOC return-PP go-PR-PERF
I was almost forty years old then, but I felt as if I had returned to my
eighteen year old self.
simple present, present perfect, past perfect (contains direct speech)
yqyq ahuÖñBhfb bfln, yqfwyC/ sfÃ ynfwoyCl/

Didi absorbed way-LOC say-3-PR-S give-1-PR-PERF with take o
-3-P-PERF
Didi said in a self-absorbed way: ‘I gave it to her. And she took it with her too!’
simple present, past continuous, simple past
bfli `ChRqh b\yqr yqfk ahRfchfK `cfw `nn/ b\yq euÇN mn yqfw bvfni xhyÉCfln/
ebhr `bhnh Uhymfw glhyt uvlfln . . .
say-PP EMP Chorada sister-in-law-GEN towards sidelong look-PP
take-3H-PR-S sister-in-law so long mind give-PP knit-PP go-3H-P-C
this time knit-VN stop-PP voice-CL lift-3H-P-S
Having said that, Chorada looked at his sister-in-law with a sidelong glance.
Up till now she had been concentrating on her knitting. Now she stopped
knitting and said . . .
present perfect, future tense, present perfect
yk≤ xh ykCv Mhyrfw `gfC ebL xh ykCv ahr yPfr ahsfb nh, sb ykCv E `qhulhr myMlh
qvyt Qfr `rfKfCn eKfnh/
but what something-R lose-PP go-3-PR-PERF and what something-R
more return-PP come-3-FUT not all something-CR that second floor
woman two-CL hold-PP keep-3H-PR-PERF still
But all that is lost and all that will not return is still held and preserved by
those two ladies from the second floor.
present perfect, ahfC , past perfect
e bhyRfu pÅhS bCr `kftfC `s ybml-—yuBhr ybfw pxò™ uhr mfn ahfC, afnk
Gtnh o rtnh `s `qfKyCl bh SvfnyCl/
this house-LOC fifty year spend-3-PR-PERF he Bimal-Protibha-GEN
wedding until his mind-LOC [is present] much event and publicity
he see-3-P-PERF or hear-3-P-PERF
He had spent fifty years in this house, could even remember Bimal and
Protibha’s wedding, had seen and heard a lot of comings and goings. 609
31 present perfect, present continuous
Tense use
shrhrhu Bhl Gvm MfwfC bfl ùh mfn MÉC nh/
all night good sleep be-3-PR-PERF that EMP mind-LOC be-3-PR-C not
I don’t think that he had a good sleep through the night.
simple past, present continuous
yuyn Mhsfln khrN uhr Mhlkh lhgfC/
he laugh-3-H-P-S khrN he-GEN light feel-3-H-PR-C
He laughed because he was feeling relieved.
past perfect, future tense
ahr ahymo yk rkm `bhkhr mu ybSáhs kfryClhm, `BfbyClhm uvym ahmhfk ymUjh kUh
blfb nh/
and I also what kind stupid-GEN like belief-do-1-P-PERF
think-1-P-PERF you I-OBJ lie word say-2-FUT not
I trusted you like an idiot, believed that you would not lie to me.
past perfect, future, present perfect, future
pyb« mfn mfn yTk kfr `rfKyCl ayPs Kvlfl - xKn sbhi `qKfb nuvn bshr bjbñh
MfwfC uKn pyb« dvb `mfr `qfb/
Pabitra mind-LOC (×2) right do-PP put-3-P-PERF office open-CP
when-R everyone see-3-FUT new sit-VN-GEN arrangement
be-3-P-PERF then Pabitra sink-PP hit-PP give-3-FUT
Pabitra worked out in his mind that when the office opened and everyone
saw the new seating arrangement that he would then drown himself.
past perfect, present continuous, future
pyb« `BfbyCl zl `khn yqfk gRhfÉC `qfK - `s pvfzhr pr mhsKhfnk dvb `qfb/
Pabitra think-3-P-PERF water which way-LOC flow-3-PR-C see-PP he
Puja-GEN after month one drowning give-3-FUT
Having seen which way the water flowed, Pabitra thought that he would
drown himself about a month after Puja.
past perfect (neg), past perfect, simple past, simple past (yCl)
ei kUhth uKn ahym Bhybyn abSj, afnk pfr `s yqngvylr kUh Bhbfu ygfw mfn
MfwyCflh, ykLbh Mwfuh eimh«i Bhblvm/ uKn ahmhr pfÇ emn ykCv Bhbh s®b yCl nh/
this EMP word-CL then I not think-1-P-PERF of course much late that
day-CL-PL-GEN word think-IP go-PP mind-LOC be-3-P-PERF or
perhaps this EMP only think-1-P-S then I-GEN such some think though
possible [was] not
I did not, of course, think about that then. It occurred to me a lot later
610 when I was thinking about that time or perhaps it has only just occurred to
me now. At that time that kind of thinking would have been impossible for me.
Chapter 32
Aspect
Aspect is a grammatical feature of languages which contrasts with tense.

While tense positions the verbal action in time, aspect considers the internal
shape of this verbal action. Tense is about when, aspect about how. Tenses
are clearly marked features of the verbal system; aspect is often less precise.
The aim of this chapter is to see what types of aspect there are in Bangla
and how they are built into the language.
32.1 Aspect and tense (grammatical aspect)
Even though tense (when) and aspect (how) are clearly distinguished from
one another in some languages, the tense systems in both English and
Bangla have aspectual features built into them in, for instance, continuous
tenses.
The difference between:
(i) present continuous: ahym Cyb uvlyC/ I am taking pictures, and

(ii) simple present: ahym Cyb uvyl/ I take pictures,
is aspectual much more than it is temporal. In (i) we have a progressive

aspect. In (ii) we have either a habitual or an iterative aspect. But the
overlap between tense and aspect goes a lot further than that.
The characteristics of present perfect, past perfect and simple past, given
in 31.7 are aspectual distinctions. In fact, any language with more than
one present tense or more than one past tense is likely to have aspectual
features built into its tense system.
Here are the types of grammatical aspect languages usually display with 611
some Bangla examples.
32 (a) stative or continuative – ongoing non-active events
Aspect
Srfu `khno `khno ghfCr phuh lhl rW QhrN kfr/
autumn any any tree-GEN leaf red colour take on-do-3-PR-S
In autumn the leaves of some trees turn red.
(b) progressive – ongoing active events
`sKhfn orh bfs g¶p kryCl/

there they sit-PP story do-3-P-C
They were sitting there talking.
(c) perfective – completed events
ahym uhr sfÃ `qKh krlhm/

I he-GEN with see-VN do-1-P-S
I met with him.
(d) imperfective – incompleted events
dh∆hr uhfk ycykJsh krfCn/

doctor he-OBJ treatment do-3-PR-C
The doctor is treating him.
(e) habitual – regularly occurring events
phyKrh shQhrNu bs™khfl bhsh ∏uyr kfr/

bird-PL usually spring time-LOC house ready make-3-PR-S
Birds usually build their nests in spring.
(f) iterative – repeated events
`mfwyt ycJkhr krfu Uhfk/

girl-CL shout-do-IP stay-3-PR-S
The girl keeps shouting.
(g) inceptive (inchoative) – focusing on the beginning of an event
`s zny—w Mfu lhgl/

she popular be-IP start-3-P-S
She started to become popular.
MThJ `shmnhfUr rhg Mfu ahr® krfC/
suddenly Somnath-GEN anger start-do-3-PR-C
Suddenly Somnath became angry.
shqh Mfu Svrß krfC cvl/
white be-IP start do-3-PR-C hair
612 (His) hair has started to turn white.
(h) telic – focusing on the endpoint of an event Lexical aspect
khzth Mfw `gfC/

work-CL be-PP go-3-PR-PERF
The work is done.
`s ynShr zYbn n§ kfr yqfwfC/

he Nisha-GEN life spoilt-do-PP `qowh-3-P-S
He has ruined Nisha’s life.
ahmrh smwfcunh Mhyrfw `PflyC/

we time sense lose-PP `Plh-1-PR-PERF
We lost our sense of time.
We see from these examples that
• continuous tenses produce progressive and imperfective aspects (b

and d).
• the simple present tense contains the potential for habitual as well as
for stative aspects (a and e).
• an iterative aspect can be produced by an imperfective participle plus
a form of Uhkh stay (f).
• the beginning of events (inceptive aspect) are expressed through imper-
fective participle plus lhgh, ahr® krh, Srß krh (g)
• the endpoint of events (telic aspect) usually involves the present perfect
tense.
32.2 Lexical aspect
Lexical aspect deals with the internal structure of specific verbs. In Bangla
this is particularly relevant for the distinction between ahC- be, be present
and Uhkh stay, the use of ahC- and Uhkh with preceding perfective participles,
the imperfective participle with Uhkh stay and for some aspective features
of Mowh be, become.
32.2.1 ahC- and Uhkh
We have seen that Uhkh steps in for the missing forms of ahC- (see
Ch. 15.4).
But we also have simple present tense uses of Uhkh in contrast with ahC-. 613
32 `s klkhuhw (ahfC)/ He is in Kolkata. gives us his actual current location
Aspect `s klkhuhw Uhfk/ He lives in Kolkata. gives us his place of residence
but makes no comment on his present whereabouts.
In terms of tense and aspect, ahC- represents the here-and-now, so much

so that in effect it creates its own unique tense in Bangla. Rather than
thinking of ahC- as incomplete and in need of supplementary forms, we
can now see that the existence of this verb adds a dimension of immediacy
to the language. This explains why ahC- does not appear in contexts such
as conditional sentences or correlative structures with xKn - uKn, where
the immediacy factor is taken away. Uhkh gives us a longer-lasting habitual
aspect. Simple sentences with Uhkh often contain time adverbials such as sb
smw always, —hwi often, shQhrNu usually. Here are some sentences to show
the contrast:
with ahC- with Uhkh

chybth ahmhr khfC ahfC/ chybth ahmhr khfC Uhfk/
I have the key (with me here now). The key stays with me (though I may
not have it with me right now).
kUhth mfn ahfC/ kUhth ùh mfn Uhfk/
I am aware of this. I am not likely to forget this.
uhfqr `byS thkh `ni/ uhfqr —hwi thkh Uhfk nh/
They don’t have much money They often don’t have much money.
(right now).
uhfqr zfnj Uhkhr bjbñh ahfC/ Uhkhr bjbñh sb smw Uhfk/
Their accommodation is arranged. Accommodation is always available.
qrzhth `Khlh ahfC/ qrzhth `Khlh Uhfk/
The door is (standing) open (now). The door (usually) remains open.
`s Bhl ahfC/ `s bhyRr bhifr `gfl Bhl Uhfk/
He is well. He is well when he leaves the house.
bhyRth eki ahfC/ bhyRgvflh ùh eki Uhfk nh/
The house is the same. The houses don’t stay the same.
32.2.2 Aspective compounds
Perfective participles of many verbs can combine with both ahC- and Uhkh
to form aspective compound verbs. The aspectual difference between the
614 two structures in the simple present tense is the same as in the structures
above, i.e. ahC- implies immediacy, Uhkh a habitual action or event. Uhkh is Lexical aspect
used for all other tenses. Neither continuous nor perfect tenses occur in these
structures. The verbs used are predominantly stative.
ahym `zfg ahyC/ ahym afnk `qyrfu `zfg Uhyk/

I am awake. I stay up very late.
32.2.2.1 Perfective participle with ahC-
ahkhS Cv£fw ahfC yMmhlw/

sky touch-PP [is present] Himalaya
The Himalayas are touching the sky.
bhrS mhil qVfr Ùfko orh u£hfk yGfr ahfC/
twelve hundred mile distance-LOC stay-PP even they he-H-OBJ
encircle-PP [is present]
Even from a distance of twelve hundred miles they encircle him.
phRhth efkbhfr cvpchp pfR ahfC/
village-CL entirely silent fall-PP [is present]
The village is lying in total silence.
shrhyqn `s `lfg ahfC er-or ypCfn/
all day he attach-PP [is present] he-GEN he-GEN behind
He is always running after someone or other.
ahmrh khn `pfu ahyC/
we ear stretch-IP [is present]-1
We are eager to hear.
ahpnhr eKhfn afnk zhwgh pfR ahfC/
your here much space fall-PP [is present]
You have a lot of space here.
`khn smw Ùfk eKhfn bfs ahC?
which time from here sit-PP [is present]-2
How long have you been sitting here?
bhsth ei zhwghw Ùfm ahfC/
bus-CL this EMP place-LOC stop-PP [is present]
The bus is stationary here.
khChkhyC `x kfwkzn q£hyRfw ahfCn/
close by that a few-CL stand-PP [is present]-3H
A few people were standing close by. 615
32 ahmhr mfn —kh’ ekth `lhB M£h kfr ahfC/
Aspect my mind-LOC huge one-CL greed gape-do-PP [is present]
There is a great, fierce temptation in my mind.
mMhrhz eKno Bvrß \£ycfw ahfCn/
emperor still brow raise-PP [is present]-3H
The emperor still has his eyebrows raised.
uhr sfÃ ZgRh ycrthkhl `lfg yCl/
he-GEN with fight forever-CL attach-PP [was]
The fight with him had been going on forever.
—≥u Mfw yCl `s/
ready be-PP [was] she
She was ready.
`tylfPhn `dd Mfw ahfC/
telephone dead be-PP [is present]
The telephone is dead.
sbhi \qgîYb Mfw ahfC/
everybody keen be-PP [is present]
Everybody is keen.
eKno mvfK `lfg ahfC `xn/
still mouth-LOC touch-PP [is present]
It’s as if I can still taste it.
sb eflhfmflh Mfw ahfC/
all mixed up be-PP [is present]
It’s all a muddle.
Sûq kfr `Q£hwh \yRfw QrnYbhbv `mhtr M£hykfw cfl `gfln, yk≤ uKno i~qînhU `sKhfni
q£hyRfw ahfC/
noise do-PP smoke make fly-PP Dharanibabu car drive-PP move-PP
go-3-P-S but still Indranath there EMP stand-PP [is present]
In clouds of smoke and with much noise Dharanibabu drove off in his car,
but Indranath was still standing there.
32.2.2.2 Perfective participle with Uhkh
The simple present tense examples are given first.

`s shrhyqn Svfw Uhfk/
he all day lie down-PP stay-3-PR-S
616 He stays in bed all day long.
`khno \≠r nh yqfw yuyn uhr yqfk uhykfw Uhfkn/ Lexical aspect
any answer not give-PP he-H she-GEN towards look-PP
stay-3H-PR-S
He just looks at her without replying.
eirkm xKn Mw uKn ymnh qrzhr uhlh yqfw cvp kfr uhr Gfr lvykfw Uhfk/
this kind when be-3-PR-S then Mina door-GEN give-PP quiet do-PP
her room-LOC hide-PP stay-3-PR-S
When this happens, Mina locks the door and hides quietly in her room.
ufb zYbfn emn aÀvu Gtnh mhfZ-mhfZi Gft Uhfk/

but life-LOC such strange event sometimes EMP happen-PP
stay-3-PR-S
But sometimes such strange things happen in life.
`s sb Bvfl Uhkfb/
he all forget-PP stay-3-FUT
He will have forgotten everything.
ahmrh `zfg bfs Uhkuhm uhr Khowhr g¶p Svnb bfl/

we wake-PP sit-PP stay-1-P-HABIT his food-VN-GEN story
hear-1-FUT say-PP
We used to stay awake to listen to his food stories.
Mwu mfqr pyrmhN ektv `bSY Mfw ygfw Uhkfb/

perhaps alcohol-GEN amount a bit much be-PP-go-PP stay-3-FUT
The amount of alcohol will probably have been a bit too much.
Unlike other compound makers (Ch. 18) with their varying semantic prop-
erties, these two verbs consistently add a continuative or stative aspect to
the preceding verb.
32.2.3 Imperfective participle plus Uhkh
Uhkh combines with preceding imperfective participles of active verbs and

of Mowh be, become to produce a progressive or iterative effect. This struc-
ture does not occur with ahC- (but see also Ch. 34.3.4). Uhkh in this structure
appears only in simple tenses (simple present, simple past, future and past
habitual).
BYXN yMfm `s k£hpfu Uhkl/

extreme cold-LOC he shiver-IP stay-3-P-S
He was shivering in the extreme cold. 617
32 `s shrhyqn khz krfu Uhfk/
Aspect he all day long work do-IP stay-3-PR-S
He keeps working all day long.
uhrpr chkh Gvrfu Uhfk/
then wheel turn-IP stay-3-PR-S
After that the wheels keep turning.
`pfS~t ycJkhr krfu Uhfk/
patient shouting do-IP stay-3-PR-S
The patient keeps shouting.
ei kUh blfu Uhkb/
this word say-IP stay-1-FUT
I will keep saying this.
eirkm afnk kUh mfn Mfu Uhfk/
this kind much word mind-LOC be-IP stay-3-PR-S
She keeps remembering all these things.
bhbh \tphyK uKn oi ydm gfuòr yBufr ynfw ynfzi uh yqfu Uhfk/
father ostrich then that EMP egg hole-GEN in take-PP self EMP hatch
give-IP stay-3-PR-S
The ostrich father then puts those eggs into a hole in the ground and
hatches them.
er Pfl mhytr \pfrr phyn Svykfw `xfu Uhfk/
that-GEN result-LOC ground-GEN water dry-PP go-IP stay-3-PR-S
As a result the water on the ground dries up.
yk≤ chr Pvt qVrf¥ bfs ekzn `lhk xyq ynuh™ —ymu …fri bívr ã«Yfk eth-`sth
blfu Uhfk, P†htò krfu Uhfk uhr sfÃ ebL ã«Yyto `bS shw yqfu Uhfk, uhMfl
`nMhu khn bí kfr rhKflo ykCv kUh ùh `Shnh Mfw xhfbi/
but four foot distance-LOC sit-PP one-CL man if incessant assured
voice-LOC friend-GEN wife-OBJ this-CL that-CL say-IP stay-3-PR-S
flirt do-IP stay-3-PR-S she-GEN with and wife-CL also quite agreement
give-IP stay then unless ear close do-PP keep some word EMP
hear-VN be-PP go-3-FUT
If four feet away a man keeps telling his friend’s wife this and that in an
assured voice, keeps flirting with the wife and if the wife is also not at all
averse to it, then unless you close your ears you are bound to overhear
some of the conversation.
`s Kvb mfnhfxhg yqfw sLshfrr smÄ khz krfu Uhfk/
he very concentration give-PP family all work do-IP stay-3-PR-S
618 She goes on doing all the work for the family with great dedication.
asMj rhfg uhr mvK Um Um krfu Uhfk/ Becoming
unbearable anger-LOC he-GEN face glum glum-ONOM do-IP properties
stay-3-PR-S of Mowh
He keeps scrunching up his face in terrible anger.
smÄ ngr ahr chrphfS Gvrfu Uhfk/
whole town and four side-LOC roam-IP stay-2-PR-S
He keeps wandering around town and everywhere.
`mfwfqr `qKfl ùhmhr `cnh-`cnh mfn Mfu Uhfk/
girl-OBJ-PL see-CP you-GEN-SG know-VN know-VN mind-LOC be-IP
stay-3-PR-S
When you see girls you keep thinking that you know them.
ufb xh afnk Gtfu Uhfk, uh eksmw shQhrN Mfw q£hRhw/
but what-REL much happen-PP stay-3-PR-S that one time normal
be-PP stand-3-PR-S
But things that happen a lot will at one point become normal.
ãkvl Ùfk `Prhr pr rhzhr Mhu-ph
Qvifw `phShk bqfl yqfu Uhfk/
school from return-VN-GEN after Raja-GEN hand foot wash-PP
clothes change-PP give-IP stay-3-PR-S
When Raja comes back from school, she washes his hands and feet and
changes his clothes.
32.3 Becoming properties of Mowh
The verb Mowh in many of its uses has an element of emerging, becoming,
developing. This may not be a traditionally recognised aspect but it
pervades the Bangla language in many contexts.
When Mowh is used in place of a zero verb copula or in place of ahC- it

conveys a process rather than a state. It is not always possible to reflect
the difference adequately in the translations.
stative with zero verb or ahC- becoming with Mowh
uhrh bív/ They are friends. uhrh bív MfwfC/ They became friends.
mhnvXth pyrbyuòu ahfC/ mhnvXthr pyrbuòn MfwfC/
The man is different. The man has changed.
uhr `rhg ahfC/ He has an illness. uhr `rhg MfwfC/ He has become ill.
bhÉchrh sb bR/ bhÉchrh sb bR MfwfC/
The children are all grown up. The children have all grown up. 619
32 uhr ayB“uh ahfC/ uhr ayB“uh MfwfC/
Aspect He has the experience. He has acquired the experience.
uhr ei svfxhg ahfC/ uhr ei svfxhg MfwfC/
He has this chance. This chance has come up for him.
ypThgvyl mzhqhr/ ypThgvyl mzhqhr MfwfC/
The cakes are delicious. The cakes have turned out delicious.
efu `khno Çyu `ni/ khro `kno Çyu Mwyn/
There is no harm in that. No harm occurred to anyone.
uhr mn Khrhp/ He is sad. uhr mn Khrhp MfwfC/ He became sad.
eth ahmhr pfÇ s®b nw/ eth ahmhr pfÇ s®b MfÉC nh/
This is not possible for me. This is turning out to be impossible for me.
uhr bvyº ahfC/ uhr bvyº MfwfC/
He has wisdom. He has acquired some wisdom.
620
Chapter 33
Negation
Bengali has no negative pronouns like nobody, no one, none, nothing or

adverbials like never, nowhere. This means that all negation in Bangla
happens on the sentence level.
In English we say Nobody will come. In Bangla we can only say:
`k\ ahsfb nh/
someone come-3-FUT not
someone will not come.
Bangla has four main sentence negators. Their uses and positioning in
sentences are set out below.
33.1 nh
nh is the universal negative particle which is placed after the finite verb and
is therefore usually the last word in a sentence.
orh khz kfr/ orh khz kfr nh/
They work. They don’t work.
ahym uhfk ycyn/ ahym uhfk ycyn nh/
I know him. I don’t know him.
`s ùhmhr sfÃ kUh blfb/ `s ùhmhr sfÃ kUh blfb nh/
he you-GEN with word say-3-FUT he you-GEN with word say-3-FUT not
He will talk with you. He will not talk with you.
uhrh bhzhfr `gl/ uhrh bhzhfr `gl nh/
they market-LOC go-3-P-S they market-LOC go-3-P-S not
They went to the market. They did not go to the market. 621
33 When answering yes–no questions in the negative, nh stands independently
Negation at the beginning of the sentence and again follows the verb at the end.
`s yk uh zhfn? nh, `s zhfn nh/

he what that know-3-PR-S no he know-3-PR-S not
Does he know that? No, he doesn’t know that.
uvym yk Chyu `nfb? nh, ahym Chyu `nb nh/

you what umbrella take-2-FUT no I umbrella take-1-FUT not
Will you take an umbrella? No, I won’t take an umbrella.
Negative questions are answered with nh no to confirm the question, with

M£jh yes to contradict it.
uvym yk ahmhfk `cn nh? nh, ahym ùhmhfk ycyn nh/
you what I-OBJ know-2-PR-S not no I you-OBJ know-1-PR-S not
Don’t you know me? No, I don’t know you.
M£jh, ahym ùhmhfk ycyn/ Yes, I know you.
\yn yk mhLs Khn nh? nh, \yn mhLs Khn nh/
he-H what meat eat-3H-PR-S not no he-H meat eat-3H-PR-S not
Doesn’t he eat meat? No, he doesn’t eat meat.
M£jh, mhLs Khn/ Yes, he eats meat.
More on question and answer patterns can be found in Ch. 27.2.
Here is a little exchange which shows a typical negation pattern:
bl nh, yk eu BhbC uvym? Tell me, what are you so worried about?
ki, nh ùh, ykCv nh ùh/ What? No, there is nothing.
M£jh! Yes, there is!
nh nh! No, no!
blfb nh? Will you not tell (me)?
yk blb? yk ahmhr blhr ahfC? What am I supposed to say? What can I say?
ufb yk? Then what is it?
ykCv nh, ykCv nh! Nothing, nothing at all!
33.2 Negation and tense ( yn)
All except two tenses in Bangla negate with nh. Present perfect and past
perfect negatives are constructed with the simple present verb forms fol-
622 lowed by yn/
affirmative negative Negation and
tense (yn)
simple present ahym bi pyR/ ahym bi pyR nh/
I read books. I don’t read books.
present continuous ahym bi pRyC/ ahym bi pRyC nh/
I am reading a book. I am not reading a book.
present perfect ahym bith pfRyC/ ahym bith pyRyn/
I have read the book. I haven’t read the book.
future tense ahym bi pRfbh/ ahym bi pRfbh nh/
I will read books. I will not read books.
simple past ahym bith pRlhm/ ahym bith pRlhm nh/
I read the book. I didn’t read the book.
past continuous ahym bith pRyClhm/ ahym bith pRyClhm nh/
I was reading the book. I was not reading the book.
past perfect ahym bith pfRyClhm/ ahym bith pyRyn/
I had read the book. I hadn’t read the book.
past habitual ahym bi pRuhm/ ahym bi pRuhm nh/
I used to read books. I didn’t use to read books.
The fact that yn is used with simple present tense verb forms means that
yn has tense as well as negative properties and that there is no distinction
between present perfect and past perfect in the negative.
Unlike nh, yn never stands on its own and is often, but not always, attached
directly to the simple present verb form. This is just a spelling convention.
Some authors, e.g. Satyajit Ray, also attached nh to his verb forms. yn cannot
be added to tenses other than the simple present. Because of the lack of
distinction between present and past perfect, yn is retained in the glosses
below. In some cases the English translations require a simple past tense.
eth nuvn `khno sLkln yknh ahym zhnfu phyr yn/
this-CL new any collection or not I know-IP be able to-1-yn
I haven’t been able to find out whether this is a new collection or not.
ahpnhfk ùh blh Mw yn/
you-H-OBJ EMP say-VN be-3-yn
You have not been told.
eKhfn emn ykCv eKno Gftyn/
here such something yet not happen-3-PR-PERF
Nothing like this has happened here yet.
yuyn ahr kUh bhRhnyn/
he more word increase-3H-yn
He did not elaborate. 623
33 ahym uhr ypCfn lhygyn/
Negation I he-GEN behind not attach-1-yn
I was not teasing him.
qi, chtyn ùh fC£hwhi Mwyn/
yoghurt, chutney EMP touch EMP be-3-yn
The yoghurt and chutney were untouched.
ufb xh Bvfl xhnyn uh Ml `ghphl mvKhyzò mvKbvfz —NfbfSr ahœmN sMj kfrnyn/
but what-R not forget-go-3H-yn that be-3-P-S Gopal Mukherji mouth
shut-PP Pranabesh-GEN attack endure-do-3-yn
But what he had not forgotten was that Gopal Mukherji did not suffer
Pranabesh’s attack in silence.
33.3 n- (ni , no, ns, nw, nn ) is not
Equational sentences are negated with n-.
1 ahmhr khfz ahym `mhfto uéú ni/

my work-LOC I at all EMP satisfied [is not]-1
I am not at all satisfied with my work.
2F ùhmrh ùh ymyã« no/

you-PL EMP mechanic [is not]-2F
But you are not mechanics.
2I uvi eu `bhkh ns/

you-I such stupid [is not]-2I
You are not that stupid.
3 ahmhr bhyR eKhn Ùfk `byS qVfr nw/
my home here from much distance-LOC [is not]-3
My home is not very far from here.
2H ahpyn ahpnhr ã«Yr `xhgj nn/

you your wife-GEN worthy [is not]-2H
You are not worthy of your wife.
3H \yn shymwhr bhbh nn/

he-H Samia-GEN father [is not]-3H
He is not Samia’s father.
Since the 3rd person ordinary is used for all inanimates as well as he, she and
624 they, the form nw appears much more frequently than any of the other forms.
eth emn ahŸcxò bjhphr nw/ n- (ni, no, ns,
this such amazing matter [is not] nw, nn ) is not
This is not such an amazing thing.
ei yk xfU§ nw?
this what enough [is not]
Is this not enough?
yk≤ yuyn xh bflfCn uhr ekyt Sûqo ymfUj nw/
but he-H what-R say-3H-PR-PERF that-GEN one-CL word even lie [is not]
But not a word of what he had said was a lie.
esb `mfwgvflh iLylS nw/
this all girl-CL-PL English [is not]
All these girls are not English.
o SvQv ahmhri nw, ùhmhro `mfw/
she only my EMP [is not] your also daughter
She is your daughter as well as mine.
n- is used to negate modal verbal noun structures with \ycu ought and kUh
supposed to (see Ch. 34 modals)
ei kUh blh \ycu nw/
this word say ought is not
This ought not to be said.
khro zhnhr uh kUho nw/
of someone of the knowing word is not
No one is supposed to know about this.
Past tense negation of the zero verb is shared with ahC-: yClhm, yCyl, yCfl,
yCl, yCfln nh.
Future tense and past habitual uses are formed with Mowh be, become.
Conditional and non-finite verb form uses are also done with Mowh.
simple present: uhr ahsh ahz s®b nw/
his coming today possible [is not]
He is not able to come today.
future tense: uhr ahsh khlfk s®b Mfb nh/
his coming tomorrow possible be-3-FUT
He will not be able to come tomorrow.
simple past: uhr ahsh gukhl s®b yCl nh/
his coming yesterday possible [was] not
He was not able to come yesterday. 625
33 past habitual: uhr ahsh `s yqn s®b Mu nh/
Negation his coming that day possible be-3-P-HABIT
He would not have been able to come that day.
Note that in informal contexts, particularly in Bangladesh, all forms of
n- can be replaced by nh/
33.3.1 Contrasting nw
nw can be used without any syntactical structuring as a contrasting

negative:
khlfk nw, ahzfki thkh yqfu Mfb/

tomorrow [is not] today EMP money give-IP be-3-FUT
Not tomorrow, the money has to be paid today.
ahmhfk nw, bhbhfk bflh!
I-OBJ [is not] father-OBJ say-2-FUT-IMP
Don’t tell me, tell father!
bhbh rhfg nw, Bfw aí Mfw ygfwyCfln/
father anger-LOC [is not] fear-LOC blind be-PP go-3H-P-PERF
Father became blind from fear, not from anger.
`bhrKh-Dhkh myrwm nw, sbvz ShyR prh `si ahfgkhr myrwm/
burkha cover-VA Mariam [is not] green saree wear-VA that
before-GEN Mariam
Not a burkha-covered Mariam, but the old Mariam in a green saree.
33.3.2 uh nw
uh nw/
that [is not]-3
It’s not that.
uh nw is very frequently used to evade an affirmative statement and to keep
sentence structures simple. It is usually added after negative and occasionally
after affirmative statements. Structurally uh nw forms the main clause of
content clauses. (See Ch. 29.6.)
uh SvQv nw/
that only is not
626 It’s not just that.
emn sometimes takes the place of uh `ni Negation
of existential
emn ùh nw/ sentences
such that is not
It’s not like that.
Bhirh shMhxjo nh kfrfC emn nw/

the brothers help did not do such [is not]
It was not that the brothers didn’t help.
qvAK `x Mw nh uh nw/
sadness that doesn’t occur is not
Not that there wasn’t any sadness.
Here is a nice example of triple negation:
nh `gfl `x clu nh, uh nw/

not go-CP that-R move-3-P-HABIT not that-CR [is not]
lit: if not going wouldn’t work it’s not that
It is not absolutely necessary to go.
Although all of these are overtly simple present tense negations, this
structure can be used for past and future as well as present tense contexts.
The existence of the two negative verbs n- and `ni , which are tenseless in
use, contributes significantly to the flexibility Bangla displays in its tense
use.
33.4 `ni -negation of existential sentences
`ni is used in negation of ahC-, whether used in an existential/locative or

in a possessive context.
`ni , like n- is a negative verb but it is unchangeable for all persons and is
only used in the simple present. `ni , in a nutshell, denotes absence. The
use of nhi for `ni is common in spoken language in some areas.
existential/locative use
\yn bhshw ahfCn/ \yn bhshw `ni/

he house (loc) is he house (loc) is not
He is in the house. He is not in the house. 627
33 ahm ahfC/ ahm `ni/
Negation mango is mango is not
There are mangoes. There are no mangoes.
possessive use:
uhr åN ahfC/ uhr åN `ni/
he-GEN debt [is present] he-GEN debt `ni
He has debts. He does not have debts.
uhfqr ykCv ahfC/ uhfqr ykCv `ni/
they-GEN something [is present] they-GEN something `ni
They have something. They have nothing.
Here is a nice sentence which shows the relationship between `ni and ahfC :
ahfr `ni `ni kfro xh ahfC nh!

INT [is absent] (×2) do-PP even what-R [is present] not
lit: well, even though they go don’t have, don’t have, what don’t they
have!
Although they keep saying they do not have this or that, how much they do
have!
ahpnhfqr pyrcw yTk zhnh `ni/

you-PL-GEN acquaintance correct knowledge `ni
We don’t exactly know who you are.
er `khno ybk¶p `ni/

this-GEN any alternative `ni
There is no alternative (to this).
ahpnhr ybrßfº ahmhr `khno rhg `ni/

you-H-GEN against I-GEN any anger `ni
I have no bad feelings towards you.
`khUho xhbhr `ni, ykCv krbhr `ni/

somewhere go-baVN-GEN [is absent] something do-baVN-GEN
[is absent]
There is nowhere to go, nothing to do.
yunft `zlhw uhr nhm zhfn nh emn `lhk `ni/

three-CL district-LOC his name know-3-PR-S such person
[is absent]
628 There is no-one in the three districts who doesn’t know his name.
The following sentence from Buddhadeva Bose shows the distinction Positioning
between n- and `ni perfectly. of nh
yk™ svfKr `D\ xKn mfn efs lhfg, uhr mu ykCv nw, smÄ péyUbYfu uhr mu ykCv `ni/
but happiness-GEN wave when-R mind-LOC come-PP touch-3-PR-S
it-GEN like something [is not]-3 whole world-LOC it-GEN like
something [is absent]
But when the wave of happiness reaches the mind, it is unlike anything else,
there is nothing in the world like it.
33.5 Positioning of nh
When nh follows the verb at the end of a sentence, the whole sentence
is negated. In order to get around this, there are certain cases where nh
precedes the verb.
33.5.1 Subordinate clauses
The following subordinate conjunctions call for a reversed order of verb

and negative in the subordinate clause they govern.
xyq if
eth xyq syuj nh Mw ufb `k ahmhfk zhnhfb?
this-CL if true not be-3-PR-S then who I-OBJ inform-3-FUT
If this is not true then who will tell me?
uhfqr xyq ghyR nh Uhfk ufb yk kfr xhfb?
they-GEN if car not stay-3-PR-S then what do-PP go-3-FUT
How will they go if they don’t have a car?
`xn so that
uhr Gvm `xn `BfW nh xhw, ahym bhÉchfqr bhifr ynfw `gyC/
his sleep so that break-PP not go-3-PR-S I child-PL-OBJ outside
take-PP go-1-PR-PERF
I took the children outside so as not to disturb his sleep.
ahym emnBhfb ph `Pyl `xn mhytr bvfko ahGhu nh lhfg/

I such way-LOC foot throw-1-PR-S so that earth-GEN breast-LOC
EMP shock not feel-3-PR-S
I set my feet in such a way that even the earth does not feel a tremor. 629
33 xhfu so that
Negation
emn-ykCv khz ùhmhr ynŸcw `ni, xhfu kfwkth yqn n§ krfu nh phfrh/
(BB, ekqh uvym y—fw)
Such something work you-GEN of course [is absent] that a few-CL
day waste do-IP nh be able to-2-PR-S
You surely don’t have so much work that you can’t waste a few days?
MÄh™rth Mfb emnBhfb xhfu khkpÇYo `tr nh phw/
transfer-CL be 3-FUT such way-LOC crows birds EMP feel nh
get-3-PR-S
The transfer will be done in such a way that not even the birds will notice.
33.5.2 Negated relative clauses
In subordinate relative clauses with conjunctions indicating time (xuyqn,

xuÇN as long as) nh can either follow or precede the finite verb form with-
out any change in meaning. This is similar to the flexibility of nh in verbal
noun structures with pxò™ (see Ch. 33.5.2.1)
uhr Uhkhw xuyqn ùhmhr ybr∆ lhfg nh, uuyqn Uhkvk/

his stay-VN-LOC as long-R you-GEN nuisance feel-3-PR-S not so
long-CR stay-3-IMP or
uhr Uhkhw xuyqn ùhmhr ybr∆ nh lhfg, uuyqn Uhkvk/

his stay-VN-LOC as long-R you-GEN nuisance not feel-3-PR-S so
long-CR stay-3-IMP
He can stay as long as having him here does not become a nuisance to you.
xuÇN nh rßym ahsfC eKhfni afpÇh krfbn/

as long-R not Rumi come-3-PR-C here EMP wait do-3H-FUT
As long as Rumi didn’t turn up he would wait for her here.
xKn rßym el nh uKn `shzh `kwhulhw yPfr efln/

when-R Rumi come-3-P-S not then-CR straight Keyatala-LOC
return-PP come-3H-P-S
When Rumi didn’t turn up he went straight back to Keyatala.
yk≤ xuyqn nh péyUbY QáLs MfÉC, uuyqn ùh mhnvfXr ahMhfrr sLñhn krfu Mfb/
but as long not world destroy be-3-PR-C so long-CR EMP person-
GEN food-GEN arrangement do-IP be-3-FUT
But as long as the world is not on the point of extinction, provisions have to
630 be made for man to eat.
33.5.3 Non-finite verb forms Positioning
of nh
nh precedes non-finite verb forms in order to restrict the negative impact
to the particular verbal action following it.
33.5.3.1 Verbal noun
xh `chfKr shmfn uhr yqfk mhfZmhfZ nh uhkhfnh qrkhr/

what eye-GEN in front of that-GEN direction sometimes [na]
look-VN need
Sometimes it is necessary not to look at what is in front of one’s eyes.
svKY nh-Mbhr `khfnh khrN ùh ùhmhr `ni/
happy not be-baVN any reason EMP you-GEN [is absent]
You have no reason not to be happy.
uhr nhm \f^K nh krhi \ycu/
his name mention not do-VN EMP should
His name should not be mentioned.
ahzfk nh xhowh \ycu/
today [na] go-VN ought
Today it would be appropriate not to go.
If we compare this with the usual sentence negation:
ahzfk xhowh \ycu nw/

today go-VN ought is not
Today it would not be appropriate to go.
we see that subtle distinctions can be made in Bangla through the positioning
of nh.
With pxò™ until, up to nh is added either before the verbal noun or before
pxò™. The translation is often best done with before or as long as . . .
not.
nh `qKh pxò™ uvymi bh mnyñr krfb yk kfr?

not see until you EMP or decide-do-2-FUT what do-PP
How can you decide before you have seen it?
khzth `SX krh nh pxò™ thkh phowh xhfb nh/

work-CL finish-do not until money get-VN go-3-FUT not
lit: it won’t be possible to get paid as long as the work is not finished
There won’t be any payment before the work is finished. 631
33
33.5.3.2 Imperfective participle
Negation
As the imperfective participle is concerned with future or on-going
processes rather than with past events, it is rarely negated but emphatic
uses and doubled negatives do exist.
Cybth ùhmhr Bhl nho lhgfu phfr/

film-CL you-GEN good [not] EMP feel-IP can 3-ORD PR S
You may not like the film.
ahym yk nh krfu phyr? ahym yk nh Mfu phyr?
I what not do-IP be able to-1-PR-S I what not be-IP be able to-1-PR-S
Is there anything I can’t do. Is there anything I can’t be?
`s ahzfk nh ahsfu phfr yk≤ iÉCh kfr `qyr krfb nh/
he today not come-IP be possible-3-PR-S but wish do-PP
delay-do-3-FUT not
He may not come today but he will not deliberately be late.
An imperfective participle before a negated phrh be able to changes to a
perfective participle in negative structures:
ahym khzth nh kfr phyr nh/

I work-CL not do-PP be able to-1-PR-S
I can’t not do the work. → I have to do the work.
More examples of this are given in Ch. 37 (individual verbs) under phrh
Note that the following sentences contains a different structure:
nh krh is a conjunct verb meaning refuse, deny

ahym uhfk nh krfu phyr nh/
I he-OBJ not-do-IP be able to-1-PR-S not
I can’t refuse him.
ahmhfk nh krfl nw/
I-OBJ not-do-CP [is not]
Nothing can stop me.
33.5.3.3 Conditional participle
uvym thkh nh yqfl ahr khr khfC chib?

you money not give-CP who-GEN near ask-1-FUT
632 If you don’t give (me) the money, who else can I ask (for it)?
smsjh nh Mfl nthr yqfk ahsfu phr? Changed order
problem not be-CP nine-CL-GEN about come-IP be able to-2-PR-S for emphasis
Could you come around nine, if it’s not a problem?
ahz `rhq nh Mfl khpRgvflh Svkhfu mvSykl/
today sunshine not be-CP cloth-CL-PL dry-IP problem
Drying the clothes will be difficult if there is no sunshine today.
33.5.3.4 Perfective participle
`khno \≠r nh yqfw yuyn uhykfw Uhfkn/

any answer not give-PP he-H look-PP stay-3H-PR-S
He kept staring without giving an answer.
ektvo ch nh `Kfw `gl/
a little bit tea not drink-PP went-3-P-S
He left without having even a little bit of tea.
BhXh nh bvfZo mvgÜ Mfw SvnyC ahmrh/
language not understand-PP even fascinated-be-PP hear-1-PR-C we
Even though we didn’t understand the language we were listening with
fascination.
33.6 Changed order for emphasis
nh and `ni can precede finite verb forms for emphasis.

cÑ∞gî∞hfm nhi ahuÖYw, nhi …zn, nh ahfC `khno Uhkhr zhwgh/
Chittagong-LOC [is absent] family [is absent] relative not
[is present] any stay-VN-GEN place
In Chittagong she had no family, no relatives, nowhere to stay.
nh ahfC mh-bhbhr shMhxj, nh ahfC uhfqr anvmyu/
not [is present] mother father-GEN help not [is present] their permission.
She has neither her parents' help, not their permission.
`sKhfn nh ahfC Gr-`qhr, nh ahfC ykCv/
there not [is present] house not [is present] something
There are no houses there, there is nothing.
Pvl `qKfl khr nh mn Bfr xhw?
flower see-CP who not mind fill-PP go-3-PR-S
Who is not happy to see a flower? 633
33 nh xhb bfôbfu, nh xhb `khUho/ eKhfni Uhkb ùhmhr sfÃ/
Negation not go-1-FUT Bombay-LOC not go-1-FUT somewhere here EMP
stay-1-FUT you-GEN with
I am not going to Bombay. I am not going anywhere. I am staying here with you.
33.7 Double negatives
Double negatives often contain adjectives with negative prefixes such as

as®b impossible, azhnh unknown, a—fwhzn unnecessary, a—≥u unprepared,
etc. (see also Ch. 3, p. 69). The impact of double negatives is much the same as
in English: `sth as®b nw/ That is not impossible. The first two sentences below
show another pattern with km little, less, which produces phrases like:
That is not nothing. Bangla double negatives are often best translated with
affirmative structures in English.
ùhmhr esb `lKh bh km kUh nw/

your this all write-VN or little word [is not]
All this writing of yours is quite something.
emn yk, `x-—yœwhw ybfw Mu, `stho km smsjh yCl nh/

even that method-LOC marriage be-3-P-HABIT that-CL less problem
[was] not
Even the way the marriage was handled was not without problems.
ynfzr ayQkhfrr sYmh kuqVr pxò™ thnh, `sth uhr azhnh nw/
own-GEN right-GEN limit how far stretch-VA that-CL he-GEN
unknown [is not]
He was not unaware of how far he could stretch the limits of his privileges.
uh ChRh u£hr mfQj emn ek —bl bjy∆¥ rfwfC, xh amhnj krh as®b/
that except she-GEN in such one strong personality stay-3-PR-PERF
what-R ignore do-VN impossible
Apart from this, she had such a strong personality. It was impossible to
ignore it.
emn yqn bR xhw nh `xyqn a™u qv-ekbhr ShyR-prh Mhlkh ektv Mhowh mhKnlhlfk
ahnmnh kfr nh `qw/
such day big go-3-PR-S not what day at least two one time saree
wear-VA light a bit air Makhanlal-OBJ distract-do-PP not give-3-PR-S
Not a day goes by that Makhanlal does not get distracted at least once or
634 twice by a light breeze, dressed in a saree.
Negation of
33.8 Negation of compound verbs
compound
verbs
The negation of compound verbs is a crucial factor in their definition.
As the following sentences show, a sentence final nh negates the perfective
participle and leaves the compound maker unnegated, making the two an
indivisible unit.
`s ykCv bfl xhwyn/

he something say-PP not-go-3-PR-PERF
He didn’t say anything (before he left).
ahym ùhmhfk ynfw xhb nh/
I you-OBJ take-PP go-1-FUT not
I will not take you (when I go).
yuyn zhfnn ùh ahpyn ahmhr eKhfn efsfCn? nh, zhfn nh/ o smw o oKhfn yCl nh/
o `kn, `k\i zhfn nh/ kh\fk bfl ahsh Mwyn/
he know-3H-PR-S EMP you-H I-GEN here come-2H-PR-PERF no
know-3-PR-S not that time he there [was absent] he why someone
EMP know-3-PR-S someone-OBJ say-PP come-VN not be-3-PR-PERF
‘He knows that you have come here, doesn’t he?’ ‘No he doesn’t know.
He wasn’t there at the time. Not just he, though, no one knows. I didn’t tell
anyone (before I came).’
This example (above) is particularly revealing. The speaker could just as easily
have given the final sentence as kh\fk nh bfl ahsh MfwfC/ putting the negation
before the perfective participle. The fact that the sentence comes out as it
does shows the inseparability of main verb and compound maker.
ahsfl ahz ahr Bhl lhgl nh bfl `glhm nh/

actually today more good feel-3-P-S not say-PP go-1-P-S not
Actually I didn’t say that I didn’t like it today.
\yn ahmhfk `khno \pfqS yqfw xhnyn/
he-H I-OBJ any advice give-PP not go-3H-PR-PERF
He didn’t give me any advice.
yk≤ alkn~qh yk eui k£hch `mfw? yuyn `s ybXfw ∏uyr Mfw ahfsnyn?
but Alkananda what such immature girl she that subject-LOC ready
be-PP not come-3H-PR-PERF
But was Alkananda such an immature girl? Did she not come prepared for
this subject?
635
Chapter 34
Modals
Anything in a language that goes beyond the factual, anything that expresses
intention, purpose, wish, attitude, prohibition or any other kind of directed
ness or illocutionary force can be considered modal or subjunctive. In many
languages the subjunctive has its own set of verb forms which stand in
contrast to the verb forms of the indicative (factual) mood. English has
traces of subjunctive verb forms in structures like I request that he be
there. If I were younger, I would go. Heaven forbid! and so on. The fact
that these forms are gradually disappearing from the English language does
not mean that modals are going out of fashion, though, just that the forms
are changing. This chapter gives an overview of how modals are formed
systematically in Bangla. It does not take into account lexical items such
as adverbials, verbs like phrh be possible, chowh want. Examples for phrh and
chowh can be found in Ch. 21 (imperfective participle).
Let us take a simple example for a comparison between English and Bangla.
indicative mood: I bought a car.

ahym ekth ghyR yknlhm/
subjunctive mood: I would have bought a car.
ahym ekth ghyR yknuhm/
The past habitual tense in Bangla has the subjunctive built into it and is
therefore one of the devices for creating modal structures.
ahymo ùhmhr sfÃ `xuhm/

I o you-GEN with go-1-P-HABIT
I would also have gone with you.
uvym phrfl svfxhgth ynfu nh?
you be able to-CP opportunity take-2-P-HABIT
636 Wouldn’t you have taken the opportunity?
ykCv cYfn bhsn BhWfu phrfl Bhl lhgu/ Subjunctive-
some china container break-IP be able to-CP good feel-3-P-HABIT triggering
It would have felt good to be able to break some dishes. conjunctions
Apart from the past habitual, Bangla has the following ways of making
modal structures:
1 subjunctivetriggering conjunctions (xyq, xhfu, phfC, `xn)

2 changes in tense
3 impersonal structures with certain nonfinite verb forms which are modal
in meaning
4 verbal noun with qrkhr, \ycu and kUh
34.1 Subjunctive-triggering conjunctions (xyq if, `xn so that,

as if, xhfu so that, phfC so that not)
Of these four subordinating conjunctions xyq if is almost always used in

correlative structures. Two noncorrelative uses are given below. The other
three conjunctions can act as single subordinating conjunctions. These usu
ally demand a certain tense structure and nh preceding the verb:
(a) xyq (sentence structuring is given in Ch. 29.7.)
xyq if usually comes straight after the sentence subject (see also
Ch. 29)
simple present (without correlative)
ahphuu ahmhr \pyñyu xyq bhMvlj mfn Mw ahym brL bhifr Ùfk ektv Gvfr
ahsfu rhyz ahyC/
now my presence if superfluous mind-LOC is-3-PR-S I rather
outside from a bit stroll-PP come-IP agreed [I am]
If my presence is considered superfluous at this time, then I have no
objections to taking a little walk.
past habitual:
ahym xyq BhrubfXòr rhzh Muhm, —yu mhfsr ytykftr rL bqlhuhm/

I if India-GEN king be-1-P-HABIT each month-GEN stamp-GEN
colour change-1-P-HABIT
If I were the king of India, I would change the colour of the stamps
every month.
xyq can form clauses that express if only wishes. For these uses it is
not followed by a correlative. 637
34 ahym xyq uhfk a™u ybqhw yqfu phruhm/
Modals I xyq him at least farewell give-IP be able to-1-P-HABIT
If only I could at least have said goodbye to him.
xh yCflh, uh xyq ahbhr yPfr ahsu/

what-REL [was] that xyq again return-PP come-3-P-HABIT
If only things returned to the way they were.
(b) xhfu so that
nh precedes the verb. The verb in the subordinate xhfu clause is in the
simple present. xhfu is the locative form of the relative pronoun xh that,
literally meaning in that. The modal element in xhfu varies from almost
nonexistent (see below) to a thoughtful planning of future events.
yuyn xhfu Shy™ phn/

he xhfu peace find-3H-PR-S
so that he may have peace
bYNh emnBhfb `Mfs \Tl xhfu bRyqr kUhthr crm ashruh —mhN krh Mw/
bina such way-LOC laugh-PP rise-3-P-S so that big sister-GEN
word-CL-GEN big absurdity proof-do-VN be-3-PR-S
Bina laughed like that in order to prove the total absurdity of her big
sister’s statement.
ahr xhfu qviyt s™hfnr `byS znÖgîMN nh kfr `s yqfko nzr rhKfu Mfb/
and so that two-CL offspring-GEN much birth not do-3-PR-S that
direction-LOC also observation keep-IP be-3-FUT
And care must also be taken that no more than two children should
be born.
apyrycu ñhfn `bySqVr agîsr Mbhr smfw pfUr phfS `s `xn `khno yc– `rfK
xhw xhfu ahbhr `si yc– Qfr yPrfu phfr/
unknown place-LOC much distance advance-be-baVN time-LOC
path-GEN side-LOC he so that any sign leave-PP go-3-PR-S xhfu
again that sign catch-PP return-IP be able to-3-PR-S
When he goes any distance in an unknown place he should leave a
sign at the side of the path so that he can find his way back from
that sign.
rfmfSr ahuÖsômhfn xhfu Gh nh lhfg, `s zfnj yuyn xuä ynfln/

Romesh-GEN self-esteem-LOC xhfu blow not attach-3-PR-S
that for he-H care take-3H-P-S
638 He took care that Romesh’s self-esteem should not suffer a blow.
ahym blfu chiyC ofqr sfÃ emnBhfb kUh blfu Mfb xhfu orh ahmhfqr Subjunctive-
ynfzfqr `lhk bfl yc™h kfr/ triggering
I say-IP want-1-PR-C they-GEN with such way-LOC word speak-IP conjunctions
be-3-FUT xhfu they we-GEN own-PL-GEN person say-PP
thought-do-3-PR-S
What I am saying is that we have to speak to them in such a way
that they consider themselves our own people.
In the following sentence xhfu is almost entirely locative in meaning:
Mwfuh anj `khno rkm svK uhrh `pfwfCn xhfu smÄ pvyXfw xhw/
perhaps other any kind happiness they find-3-PR-PERF xhfu all
nourish-PP go-3-PR-S
Perhaps they have found some other kind of happiness which fulfils them.
(c) phfC lest, in order not to, so that not
The finite verb in the phfC sentence is in the simple present and nh would
come before the verb but in fact negation in phfC sentences is unlikely
from a logistic point of view.
uhRhuhyR `s `chK nhymfw ynflh, phfC plhS mvK `Prhw, phfC uhfqr `chKhfchyK Mw/
quickly she eye lower-PP take-3-P-S phfC Polash face turn-3-PR-S
phfC they-GEN eye-contact be-3-PR-S
She quickly lowered her eyes in case Polash turned his head, in order
to avoid eye-contact.
ahmhr emn Bw Mw, emn Bw Mw, Bhi, phfC ahym mfr xhi/
I-GEN such fear be-3-PR-S such fear be-3-PR-S brother phfC I
die-PP go-1-PR-S
I feel such fear, such fear, as if I was going to die.
yuyn ct kfr ykCv blfln nh, phfC Bvl kUh bfl `Pfln/
he quick-do-PP something say-3H-P-S not phfC mistake word
say-PP throw-3H-PR-S
He didn’t say anything immediately so as not to say the wrong thing.
Bvbn mhzvmqhr phfC ã«Yr nhfk `Q£hwh lhfg `si zfnj ektv qVfr Gfrr `cHkhfTr
bhifr bfs uhmhk `Ku/
Bhubon Majumdar phfC wife-GEN nose-LOC smoke attach-3-PR-S
this for a bit distance-LOC house-GEN door-frame-GEN outside
sit-PP tobacco smoke-3-P-HABIT
In order to prevent the smoke from irritating his wife, Bhubon
Majumdar used to sit a little way away from the house to smoke his
tobacco. 639
34 phfC uvym qvAK pho uhi ùhmhfk ahfg Ùfk —≥u kfr yqlvm/
Modals phfC you sadness receive-2-PR-S so you-OBJ before from
ready-do-PP give-1-P-S
I prepared you beforehand so that you wouldn’t be disappointed.
sb smw ahmhfqr ahzkhl Bw, phfC smw n§ Mw/
all time we-GEN nowadays fear phfC time waste be-3-PR-S
Nowadays we are always anxious not to waste time.
uhr mfn brhbr ùh eri Bw yCl, phfC uhrh ymUjhfk `dfk ahfn, phfC uhrh
prãprfk apmhn kfr, Mujh kfr/ uhr `cfw qvAfKr ahr ykCv Mu nh/
his mind-LOC again and again this-GEN EMP fear [was] phfC
they lie-OBJ call-PP bring-3-PR-S phfC they one another
offend-do-3-PR-S killing-do-3-PR-S that-GEN than sadness-GEN
more something be-3-P-HABIT not
There was the constant fear in his mind that they might be inviting a
lie, that they might offend or kill one another. Nothing would be more
painful than that.
(d) `xn
`xn has two distinct uses (1) meaning as if with no tense restrictions
and (2) meaning so that used with simple present verb forms and nh
preceding the verb
1 as if
`xmn is also used in this sense, `kmn `xn is also common. Both of
these are included here.
ahr `sKhfn chryqk ghfCr Gn shyrfu emn ahtkhfnh `x mfn Mw ei `xn

péyUbYr `SX/
and there all around tree-GEN dense row-LOC such
obstruct-VN that mind-LOC be-3-PR-S this `xn world-GEN end
And there they were surrounded by such a dense circle of trees that
it felt as if this was the end of the earth.
orh kvytfrr mhUhw shqh rßmhl Gvyrfw ahmhr ahshr sLfku phThu - `kmn
`xn shgfr zhMhz ahsfu `qfK phMhfR puhkh uvfl `qowh Ml/
they hut-GEN head-LOC white handkerchief turn-PP my come-
VN-GEN sign send-3-P-HABIT how as if sea-LOC ship come-IP
see-PP mountain-LOC flag raise-PP give-VN be-3-P-S
They used to signal my arrival by waving a white handkerchief from
the front of the hut, in the same way in which a flag would be
640 raised on a mountain at the sighting of a ship at sea.
mfn Ml `xn ahym mhnvX Kvn kryC/ Subjunctive-
mind-LOC be-3-P-S `xn I person murder do-1-PR-C triggering
I felt as if I was murdering someone. conjunctions
ahym `xn uKn ashR Mfw `gyC, ahym phUr . . .

I `xn then numb be-PP go-1-PR-PERF I stone
as if I had become numb, like a stone
ahr ahmrh svfKr ypCfn Cvyt, `xn xfU§ `zhfr Cvtfu phrfli uhfk Qrh
xhfb/
and we happiness-GEN behind run-1-PR-S `xn sufficient
force-LOC run-IP be able to-CP it-OBJ catch-VN go-3-FUT
And we chase after happiness in the illusion that if we run fast
enough we can grab hold of it.
bCr qvi xhbJi \qwnhrhwN `xn `kmn anjrkm Mfw `gfC/

year two since Udaynarayan as if other way be-PP
go-3-PR-PERF
It was as if Udaynarayan had somehow changed over the last
two years.
`s ykCv Bhbfu phrl nh - uhr qéy§ `xn aãp§ Mfw `gfC/

he something think-IP be able to-3-P-S not his vision as if
unclear be-PP go-3-PR-PERF
He couldn’t think of anything, as if his vision had become blurred.
'ahzkhl `kn erkm bjbMhr kfrn?" 'yk rkm?" '`xn `cfnn nh/"
nowadays why this way behaviour-do-2-H-PR S what way as if
know-2-H-PR-S not
‘Why are you behaving like this these days?’ ‘Like what?’ ‘As if you
didn’t know me.’
yk≤ eKn - ynCk k†hy™ ChRh ahr ykCv smáfí `s `xn sfcun nw/
but now sheer tiredness except more something about he as
if aware [is not]
But now it seemed as if he was unaware of anything except sheer
exhaustion.
ahr ahz smÄ zYbn `xmn uhr bvfkr \pr `BfW pRfu chifC/
and today whole life as if his chest on break-PP fall-IP
want-3-PR-C
And today his whole life seemed to be falling on top of him.
In the following sentence `xn is followed by a present perfect verb form: 641
34 uhfk `qfK emn mzh `pfw `gl `Chkrhgvflh `xn `khno ynyXº p^Yfu uhfk
Modals uhrh ahyb©khr kfrfC/
he-OBJ see-PP such fun get-PP go-3-P-S boy-CL-PL as if any
forbidden place-LOC he-OBJ they discover-do-3-PR-PERF
The boys were greatly amused by seeing him, as if they had
discovered him in some forbidden place.
2 `xn so that (simple present, nh before verb)
a™u ahmhfqr mfn `xn ybnw Uhfk, Sîº∞h Uhfk, `säM Uhfk/ ahr ykCv nh phyr,
qvAfKr `xn ahmrh mhnMhyn nh kyr, `knnh, qvAfKri K£vyt qrkhr, svK ynfzr
phfw q£hRhfu phfr, `qhMhi `qbuhr, M∑qwfk `xn ahmrh phUr kfr
nh uvyl/
at least our mind-LOC so that modesty stay-3-PR-S respect
stay-3-PR-S affection stay-3-PR-S more something not be
able to-1-PR-S grief-GEN so that we mind defeat not
do-1-PR-S because grief-GEN EMP stake need happiness
own-GEN foot-LOC stand-IP be able to-3-PR-S in the name of
god heart-OBJ so that we stone do-PP not raise-1-PR-S
So that at least we have modesty, respect and affection in our
hearts. Even if we can’t do anything else, let us not be defeated
by grief. Because grief needs a support. Happiness can stand
on its own feet. Let us, for heaven’s sake, not make our hearts
into stone.
ynfzr mfQj xui anjrkm lhgvk, mhnvfXr shmfn `xn `mzhz Bhl Uhfk/
self-GEN within how much other way feel-3-IMP person-GEN
before so that temper good stay-3-PR-S
However strange you feel, make sure you are even-tempered with
other people.
`bS Bhl kfr Kv£ytfw Kv£ythw `qfK ynn/ `SXkhl `xn blfbn nh `x ahym
ahpnhfk Qhùh yqfwyC/
quite good do-PP observe-PP (×2) take-2-H-PR-IMP. end
time so that say-3-H-FUT not that I you-OBJ bluff
give-1-PR-PERF
Take a thorough look around, so that in the end you won’t say I was
tricking you.
uhrpr yPfr uhkhl, `xn ahym uhfk anvsrN kryC yknh `qKhr zfnj/
then return-PP look-3-P-S so that I he-OBJ follow-do-1-PR-C
what not see-VN-GEN for
642 Then he looked back to see whether I was following him or not.
Tense changes
34.2 Tense changes
Unexpected changes in tense provide an elegant and unobtrusive method

of incorporating modals. There are no established rules for these changes
but the examples below give an impression of the range of possibilities.
More important than the actual tense is the fact of the change.
1 future tense
The future tense has the modal element of intention, speculation or predic
tion built into it and is therefore perhaps the most obvious tense for modal
expressions.
ahr ùhr mhmhbhbvr sfÃ `s-`sSn, …pä ybXfw `si `x `r, `xKhfn ahym ahmhr zflr
…päthr mhfn yzfgjs kfryClvm? \yno Kvfl blfbn nh, ahymo nh `zfn ChRb nh/ eKn
ùh mhfnth zhyn, \A eu Mhys phw `syqnkhr kUh Bhbfl/
and your uncle-GEN with that session dream subject-LOC that
that INT where I my water-GEN dream-CL-GEN meaning
question-do-1-P-PERF he also open-PP speak-3H-FUT not I also not
know-PP leave-1-FUT not now EMP meaning know-1-PR-S INT so
much laughter get-1PR-S that day-GEN word think-CP
And that session with your uncle on the subject of dreams, when I asked
him about the meaning of my water-dream. He didn’t tell me straight and
I wasn’t willing to let it go without knowing . . . Now I know the meaning but,
oh, how much I laugh when I think about those days.
The modals in the above paragraph are the two underlined future tense
occurrences in a past, even a past perfect context. Note that this is not the
same as the cooccurrence of the simple past and the future in sentences like:
ahym uhfk bllhm `x ahzfk Uhkb/
I he-OBJ say-1-P-S that today stay-1FUT
I told him that I would stay today.
where actual future events are the topic of discussion. Modal structures
do not affect the temporal progression of events but take us onto a non
temporal level.
`qyK `qyK! \JPv^ kyrm ycyTth Mhfu ynfu chil/ ahym `qb nh/ bllhm, ahfg bl
oBhrdî∞hPætth yqyb/
see-1-PR-S (×2) excited Karim letter-CL hand-LOC take-IP want-3-P-S
I give-1-FUT not say-1-P-S first say-2-PR-IMP overdraft give-2I-FUT
‘Let me see, let me see!’ Full of excitement Karim wanted to take the letter.
But I wouldn’t give it to him and said ‘First tell me that you are giving me
the overdraft.’ 643
34 bYrBVfmr BhXh ahr Pyrqpvfrr BhXhw uPhu Uhkfbi/
Modals Birbhum-GEN language and Faridpur language-LOC different
stay-3-FUT
There is bound to be a difference between the languages of Birbhum
and Faridpur.
…hmY uhfk chw - `kni bh chifb nh?

husband she-OBJ want-3-PR-S why EMP or want-3-FUT not
Her husband wants her – why would he not want her?
`s brL rhêhGfr xhfb/
he brL kitchen-LOC go-3-FUT
He would rather go into the kitchen.
GyR `qKlhm/ rht ahtth/ eKn klkhuhw yPrfu chifl bhrth `bfz xhfb/
watch see-1-P-S night eight-CL now Kolkata-LOC return-IP want-CP
twelve ring-PP go-3-FUT
I looked at my watch. Eight o’clock. If I wanted to return to Kolkata now
it would be midnight.
2 simple present
uhr ynfzr iÉCh Ml, `s sbhifk Sh™ kfr/

his own-GEN wish be-3-P-S he everyone-OBJ peaceful
do-3-PR-S
His own wish was that he calm everyone.
ahySX chw `x eKhfn `byS `lhk nh ahfs/

Ashish want-3-PR-S that here much person not come-3-PR-S
Ashish wants to make sure that not too many people come here.
(note the positioning of nh indicates modality)
3 simple past
pfnfrh bCr Qfr ekth Çuñhn `x eKno emn k£hch yCl, `k zhnu/
fifteen year during one-CL wound that still so raw [was present]
who zhnh-3-P-HABIT
Who could have known that after fifteen years a wound could still be so
raw?
oKhfn zym yknfu phru, bhyR krho as®b yCl nh/

there land buy-IP be able to-3-P-HABIT home do-VN also impossible
[was] not
They could have bought land and it would’t have been impossible to make
644 a home there.
iÉChmu phyK Mfu phrfl ku svybQh yCl/ ekbhr ahkhfS \Rhl yqfl pU `cnhr Tense changes
`khno smsjh `ni/ phyKfqr smhfz `lhkl°h bflo ykCv `ni/ emn Mfl ùh `bS Mw,
SrYrth ahr ril nh, ahuÖhth phyKr mun sbò« pyrBîmN krfu lhgl/
wish according to bird be-IP be able to-CP how much convenient
be-3-P-HABIT one time sky-LOC fly-give-CP way know-VN-GEN any
problem [is absent] bird-PL-GEN society-LOC public disgrace say-PP
also something [is absent] such be-3-P-S EMP quite be-3-PR-S
body-CL more stay-3-P-S not soul-CL bird-GEN like everywhere
roaming do-IP start-3-P-S
If she could become a bird, how convenient that would be! Once she was
up in the sky there would be no problem in finding the way. Also, there was
no such thing as public disgrace in bird society. How good it would be if this
could happen. The body would be no longer there, the soul could roam
about freely like the birds.
efuhth ∏M-∏c nh krflo Çyu yCl nh/
so much-CL uproar not do-CP also harm [was] not
There would have been no harm in not making such a fuss.
e nh-Mfli Bhl yCl/ khrN, syuj blfu . . .
this not be-CP good [was] khrN truth say-IP
It would have been better if this had not happened. Because, truth to tell . . .
`bHºrh u£hfqr QmòYw sÃYu yMfsfb egvflh `nphfl nh ynfw `gfl Mhyrfw xhowhi …hBhybk
yCl/
Buddhist-PL their religious song account-LOC this-CL-PL Nepal-LOC
not take-PP go-CP lose-PP go-VN EMP normal [was]
If the Buddhists had not taken them, as their devotional songs, to Nepal,
they would likely have been destroyed.
bwfsr uvlnhw uhfk bR `qKhw, `sth Mwfuh svybfQ yCl/
age-GEN comparison-LOC he-OBJ big show-3-PR-S that-CL perhaps
convenience [was]
Perhaps it was quite convenient that he looked older than he was.
Qfr ynlhm ahym \pr Ùfk `qKb `s el/ ahym `qHfR ynfc `glhm nh/
hold-PP take-1-P-S I upstairs from see-1-FUT she come-3-P-S I run-PP
downstairs go-1-P-S not
I decided that I would see her arrive from upstairs. I would not go running
downstairs.
ahz nh efl `khno asvybQh yCl nh/ ahym ùh ahyC/
today not come-CP any problem [was not] I EMP [is present]-1
It would not have been a problem if you hadn’t come today. I am here. 645
34 4 past perfect
Modals
ahr-ektv Mfl ahym `c£ycfw \fTyClhm —hw/
more a bit be-CP I shout-PP rise-1-P-PERF almost
A little bit more and I would have started screaming.
5 past habitual
The examples below show the modal uses of the past habitual. There are
no unexpected tense changes involved here.
e shtòth nh pfr shqh yt shtòth pfr ahsfl Mu/ oth nuvn yCl ebL qhgMYn/
this shirt-CL not wear-PP white T-shirt-CL wear-PP come-CP
be-3-P-HABIT that-CL new was and spotless
It would have been better to wear the white T-shirt instead of this shirt. That
would have been new and spotless.
uhr `cfw qvAfKr ahr ykCv Mu nh/
that-GEN sorrow-GEN more something be-3-P-HABIT not
Nothing could have caused greater sorrow.
`khnoyqn zhnfu phruhm nh `Cflgvflhr yk Ml/
any day know-IP be able to-1-P-HABIT boy-CL-PL-GEN what be-3-P-S
I would never have known what had happened to the boys.
Mwfuh `s nh efl Bhl kru/
perhaps he not come-CP good do-3-P-HABIT
Perhaps it would have been better if he hadn’t come.
KvyS Mfu uhr sfÃ ahlhp kfr/
happy be-2-P-HABIT he-GEN with talk-do-PP
You would have been happy to meet him.
xh yCl, uh xyq ahbhr yPfr ahsu/
what [was] that if again return-PP come-3-P-HABIT
If only things returned to the way they were before.
zhnfu `pfr uhr rhg Mu, qvAK Mu/
know-IP be able to-PP he-GEN much anger be-3-P-HABIT sadness
be-3-P-HABIT
If he knew he would be very angry and upset.
34.3 Non-finite modal structures
Nonfinite verb forms in connection with some of the very common verbs
646 produce modal meanings such as prohibition, possibility, sufficiency,
obligation. All Bangla verbs can participate in these structures, which are Non-finite
all impersonal, i.e. they have a third person finite verb form. In some cases modal
a genitive experiencer subject can be expressed. Here is an overview of the structures
structures with the verb xhowh as an example.
non-finite verb form + 3rd ps verb form modal meaning
ex xhowh go pos neg
1 conditional participle `gfl Mw Mw nh sufficiency
2 conditional participle `gfl cfl cfl nh sufficiency
3 imperfective participle `xfu Mw Mw nh obligation
4 imperfective participle `xfu ahfC `ni acceptability
5 negated conditional nh `gfl - nw compulsion
participle must go
6 verbal noun genitive xhowhr - nw compulsion
must not
7 verbal noun xhowh xhw xhw nh possibility
All of these structures have already appeared earlier in the book. Here are
just a few examples for each of them, focusing on their modal properties.
34.3.1 Conditional participle with clh go, move and Mowh be,
become
These structures express sufficiency in affirmative and interrogative contexts,

not enough or not good enough in negative structures. Third person verb
forms of clh and Mowh can be in any tense. There is no significant difference
between Mowh and clh in these structures.
SvQ v uhr sfÃ kUh blfl Mfb nh/

only he-GEN with word speak-CP be-3-FUT not
It is not enough just to talk to him.
ahmhfk ektv ch yqfl Mfb/

I-OBJ a bit tea give-CP be-3-FUT
A little bit of tea is enough for me.
eu a¶p `Kfl Mw?

such little eat-CP be-3-PR-S
Will eating so little be enough?
kKno kKno `zhr nh krfl cfl nh/

sometimes (×2) force not do-CP move-3-PR-S not
One has to use force occasionally. 647
34 `k\ nh efl yk cfl?
Modals someone not come-CP what move-3-PR-S
What if no one comes?
khz `SX nh krfl ùh Mfb nh/
work end not do-CP EMP be-3-FUT not
It won’t do not to finish the work.
ekbhr K£vfz `qKfl Mw nh?
once search-PP see-CP be-3-PR-S not
Wouldn’t it make sense to at least look for it?
34.3.2 Imperfective participle followed by a 3rd person form

of Mowh be, become
This structure expresses obligation or what has to be done. What distin

guishes it from all other impersonal structures in Bangla is the fact that the
experiencer subject is usually in the object case, though genitive appearances
also occur.
Sentences are structured like this:
experiencer subject in + imperfective + 3rd person of + nh

object or genitive case participle Mowh (any tense)
(can be omitted)
The third person form of Mowh can be in any tense but the future tense is by
far the most common tense for anything that is not in the past or a has a
habitual connotation.
When this structure is negated the obligation is taken away, i.e. there is
no need to . . .
Mowh in future tense
ahmhfk eKni `xfu Mfb/
I-OBJ right now go-IP be-3-FUT
I have to leave right now.
emn mn Khrhp krfu Mfb nh/
such mind bad do-IP be-3-FUT not
(You) don’t need to be so down.
ahmhfki ynfzr Mhfu Mhl Qrfu Mfb/
I-OBJ own hand-LOC control take-IP be-3-FUT
648 I will have to take control myself.
aueb ahflh ahr aíkhfrr mfQji ekth pU ahmhfqr `bfC ynfu Mfb/ Non-finite
so light and day-GEN between one-CL path we-OBJ choose-PP modal
take-IP be-3-FUT structures
So we have to choose a path midway between light and darkness.
e ynfw mhysmhfk bjÄ krfu Mfb nh/
this take-PP aunt-OBJ anxious do-IP be-3-FUT not
Aunt doesn’t need to worry about that.
ùhmhfk uhr \pfr eu chp yqfu Mfb nh/
you-OBJ he-GEN on so much pressure give-IP be-3-FUT not
You don’t have to put so much pressure on him.
Mowh is used in the simple present for recurrent or habitual events:
`rhz ùh khpR Qvfu Mw/
daily EMP clothes wash-IP be-3-PR-S
But the clothes have to be washed every day.
SrYr Bhflh rhKhr zfnj Bhflh Khbhr `Kfu Mw/
health good keep-VN-GEN for good food eat be-3-PR-S
In order to be healthy one has to eat well.
uhfqr zfnj pNjshmgîYr srbrhMo bhRhfu Mw/
they-GEN for saleable total-GEN supply increase-IP be-3-PR-S
For them the supply of merchandise has to be increased.
Mowh in the simple past for specific events in the past:
khfzi yTkhnh chifu Ml/
therefore address ask-IP be-3-P-S
So (we) had to ask for the address.
ny~qnYfk rhg yglfu Ml/
Nandini-OBJ anger swallow-IP be-3-P-S
Nandini had to swallow her anger.
Mowh in present continuous for ongoing, repeated events:
b\fk afnk ymUjh blfu MfÉC/
wife-OBJ many lie say-IP be-3-PR-C
He is having to tell his wife many lies.
ahmhfk ùh bhrbhr erkm bhfz khgz yPl-ahp krfu MfÉC/
I-OBJ EMP again and again this kind pointless paper fill up do-IP
be-3-PR-C
I keep having to fill in these pointless papers. 649
34 Mowh in present perfect for unspecified events in the past:
Modals
ghyRth ybyœ krfu MfwfC/
car-CL sale-do-IP be-3-PR-PERF
The car had to be sold.
—yuyt uhmhr pwsh gvnfu MfwfC/
each-CL copper-GEN money count-IP be-3-PR-PERF
Each copper coin had to be counted.
Mowh in past habitual for hypothetical contexts or habitual events in the
past.
uh zhnfl ahmhfk eu k§ krfu Mu nh/

that know-CP I-OBJ so much trouble do-IP be-3-P-HABIT not
If I had known that, I would not have had to go to so much trouble.
`s yqngvflhfu ahmhr khz krfu Mu nh/
that day-CL-PL-LOC I-GEN work-IP be-3-P-HABIT not
In those days I did not have to work.
uvym nh efl ahmhfqr uhr sfÃ ahro smw khthfu Mu/
you not come-CP we-OBJ he-GEN with more time spend-IP
be-3-P-HABIT
If you had not come, we would have had to spend more time with him.
Pf~tr smsjh smhQhn nh Mfl pvrh biyt ahbhr ylKfu Mu uhfk/
font-GEN problem solution not be-CP whole book-CL again write-IP
be-3-P-HABIT
If the font problem had not been solved she would have had to write the
whole book again.
The obligation factor is sometimes weak or altogether absent.
smfwr chp uhfk anvBb krfu Mu nh/

time-GEN pressure he-OBJ feel-do-IP be-3-P-HABIT not
He was under no time pressure.
khfzi ùmn abñhfu pRfuo Mw nh uhfk/
so such situation-LOC fall-IP EMP be-3-PR-S not he-OBJ
He doesn’t get himself into such situations.
`bySyqn Qfr xh KvyS uhi krfu Uhkfl ekyqn mvSykfl pRfu Mw/
many day during what-REL happy that do-IP stay-CP one day
problem-LOC fall-IP be-3-PR-S
If (she) carries on doing as she likes for much longer then one day she will
650 get into trouble.
eKn esb kUh Bhbfl abhk Mfw `xfu Mw/ Non-finite
now this all word think-CP amazement-be-PP go-IP be-3-PR-S modal
Thinking about all this now one has to be amazed. structures
yk Mwrhni Mfu MfwfC `r `Khkh!

what exhausted be-IP be-3-PR-PERF INT boy
How exhausted one would get!
When the conditional participle of Mowh is used, the obligation factor is

absent in the conditional clause.
kmyu `pfu Mfl —yuyqn khgzth yknfu Mw/

discount get-IP be-CP every day paper buy-IP be-3-PR-S
If one wants the discount one has to buy the paper every day.
ahmhfk `pfu Mfl ùhmhr …hmYfk ChRfu Mfb/

I-OBJ get-IP be-CP your husband-OBJ leave-IP be-3-FUT
If you want me, you’ll have to leave your husband.
Bhl bhLlh ySKfu Mfl . . .

good Bangla learn-IP be-CP
If you want to learn good Bangla . . .
esb zhnfu Mfl ùhmhfk ekth bi `qb/

this all know-IP be-CP you-OBJ one-CL book give-1-FUT
If you want to know all this, I will give you a book.
34.3.3 Imperfective participle with ahC- and `ni
The `ni version of this structure is common. The version with ahC- appears
occasionally in questions. The structure expresses acceptability or the lack
of it. Forms of ahC- are always in the third person and there is no animate
subject. Some examples are given in Ch. 21.1 (k).
Here are two examples with ahfC :
eKhfn yk zvfuh prfu ahfC?

here what shoe wear-IP [is present]
Is one allowed to wear shoes here?
efu ykCv KvyS Mfu ahfC, ahfC nh?

this something happy be-IP [is present] [is present] not
This is something to be happy about, isn’t it? 651
34 Here are the more common negative occurrences:
Modals
ei rkm kUh blfu `ni/
this way word speak-IP [is absent]
This is no way to talk.
ahmhr yk ekzn `bhn Uhkfu `ni nhyk?
I-GEN what one-CL sister be-IP [is absent] not what
I am not eligible to have a sister, is that it?
zYbfnr prYÇhw eu sMfz phs krfu `ni/
life-GEN test-LOC so easily pass do-IP [is absent]
It is not supposed to be so easy to pass the tests of life.
emnBhfb ynfzfk —SLsh krfu `ni/
such way-LOC self-OBJ praise-do-IP [is absent]
This kind of self-glorification is unacceptable.
phyn n§ krfu `ni/
water waste-do [is absent]
One should not waste water.
prYÇhr mfQj kUh blfu `ni/
exam-GEN in word speak-IP [is absent]
No talking is allowed during the exam.
34.3.4 Negated conditional participle with nw
This structure has a strong compulsive force. The conditional participle is

always negated, so we have a natural double negative. No animate subject
is present. In Bangla:
ei bhfkjr mfQj \`ØSj chph nh yqfl nw/

this sentence-GEN in subject suppress-VN not give-CP [is not]
In this sentence the subject has to be suppressed.
In fact, there is no suppressed subject here as it is, quite simply, an
impersonal structure. The structure can be used for internal as well as
external compulsion. For the translation an affirmative structure with an
emphatic must is usually appropriate; and an animate subject often needs
to be added.
ahzfk bhyR nh `gfl nw/

today home not go-CP [is not]
652 Today I simply have to go home.
bhbhr kUh nh Svnfl nw/ Non-finite
father-GEN word not listen-CP [is not] modal
You must listen to father. structures
clyÉc«th `qfKC? eth nh `qKfl nw/

film-CL see-2-PR-PERF this-CL not see-CP [is not]
Have you seen the film? You must see it.
bjhphrth uhRhuhyR ysºh™ nh Mfl nw/
matter-CL quickly decision not be-CP [is not]
You will have to decide quickly.
34.3.5 Genitive verbal noun plus nw
This is another structure expressing compulsion but of a more moral, less

immediate and gentler kind.
Again this is an impersonal structure without an animate subject.
nh, zYbn n§ krbhr nw/

no life waste-do-baVN-GEN [is not]
No, life should not be wasted.
xh Mowhr nw uh Mfbo nh/
what-R be-VN-GEN that-CR be-3-FUT also not
What is not supposed to happen will not happen.
ei bjhphfr rhg krbhr nw/
this matter-LOC anger-do-baVN-GEN [is not]
This is not something to get angry about.
uhr sfÃ ahr kUh blbhr nw/
he-GEN with more word say-baVN-GEN [is not]
(You) are not supposed to talk to him any more.
eKhfn mwlh `Pfl `qowhr nw/
here litter throw-PP give-VN-GEN [is not]
This is not a place for throwing away litter.
uhfk ahmhfqr eKhfn Uhkfu `qowhr nw/
he-OBJ our here stay-IP give-VN-GEN [is not]
He can’t be be allowed to stay at our house.
653
34
34.3.6 Verbal noun plus xhowh to express possibility
Modals
This is one of the main impersonal structures in Bangla with the modal
component of possibility.
It is discussed with examples in Ch. 28.3.5.2.
aueb pyr©khrBhfb `qKh xhfÉC . . .

so clearly see-VN go-3-PR-C
So it can be clearly seen . . .
BhbyCfln `si C£hqthfk bhLlhfqfSr —kéyur sfÃ Khp Khowhfnh xhw yknh/
think-3-P-C that EMP roof-CL-OBJ Bangladesh-GEN nature with
harmony feed-VN go-3-PR-S what not
He wondered whether that roof could be brought in harmony with the
natural features of Bangladesh.
34.4 Verbal noun with qrkhr need, \ycu should, ought,

kUh supposed to
These three important structures are for many foreign learners the first
point of contact with verbal nouns. Of the nonfinite structures given in
34.3 above, the imperfective participle with Mowh (34.3.1) alongside the
verbal noun with xhowh (34.3.6) far outweigh the other structures in terms
of frequency of occurrence. Verbal noun structures with qrkhr, \ycu and
kUh are only a little less frequent than these.
34.4.1 qrkhr need
This is an impersonal structure with a genitive experiencer subject. qrkhr

is a noun with a peculiarity in its case use.1
When it stands on its own, preceding verbal nouns, other inanimate nouns
and pronouns as well as nonspecific animate nouns are in the nominative.
Personal pronouns and specific people (names) are in the object case.
1 There is no convincing agreement yet on the interpretation of this structure. I have

at times wondered whether qrkhr preceded by a nominative verbal noun could be taken
as a complement in a copulative sentence but the semantic relation between qrkhr and
its precedent is so clearly one of governing noun and direct object that this interpretation
does not stand. More headway can probably be made in comparison with other abstract
654 nouns like khrN, svfxhg, \fØSj, abñh and their preceding genitive verbal noun complements.
Verbal noun
34.4.1 (a) qrkhr alone
with qrkhr
need, \ycu
no case ending ahmhr ekth klm qrkhr/
should ought,
I-GEN one-CL pen need
kUh supposed to
I need a pen.
ahmhr afnk thkh qrkhr/
I-GEN much money need
I need a lot of money.
uhfqr ahr yk qrkhr?
they-GEN more what need
What else do they need?
uhr ekzn …hmY qrkhr/
she-GEN one-CL husband need
She needs a husband.
object ending ahmhfqr qvzfnr —yumhfk qrkhr/
with animates: we-GEN two-CL-GEN Protima-OBJ need
Both of us need Protima.
ahmhr ùhmhfk qrkhr/
I-GEN you-OBJ need
I need you.
verbal noun ahmhr cfl xhowh qrkhr/
(nominative) I-GEN move-PP go-VN need
I need to leave.
ahmhr bsh qrkhr/
I-GEN sit need
I need to sit down.
Here are some more examples with preceding nominative verbal nouns.
In all these cases qrkhr stands on its own without a following verb.
ahflhcnhr Svrßfui ahro mfn rhKh qrkhr `x

discussion-GEN beginning EMP more mind-LOC keep need that
At the beginning of the discussion we need to remember that . . .
ektv ynfzr yqfk uhkhfnh qrkhr, ektv ahn~q-Pvyuò krhi qrkhr/
a bit self-GEN towards look-VN need a bit joy fun do-VN
EMP need
(We) need to pay some attention to ourselves and enjoy ourselves
a bit. 655
34 sb bjhphfr `Khlhfmlh kUh Mowh qrkhr/
Modals all matter-LOC open open word be-VN need
(We) need to be frank and open in everything.
ghlhghyl Khowhi ofqr pfÇ eKn qrkhr/
scolding eat-VN they-GEN for now need
They need a telling-off now.
yk≤ SrYrth ùh shrhfnh qrkhr/
but body-CL EMP heal-VN need
But he needs to recover.
béy§r Mhu Ùfk rÇh krh qrkhr/

rain-GEN hand from protection do-VN need
(They) need to be protected from the rain.
e ybXfw ahmhfqr syuji abyMu Mowh qrkhr/

this subject we-GEN truly EMP alert be-VN need
We really need to be alert in this matter.
`pCfnr zYbnth ùhr `Bhlh qrkhr, ynfzr —hfNr zfnj qrkhr/

behind-GEN life-CL you-I-GEN forget need own-GEN life-GEN for need
You need to forget about your past life, for the sake of your survival.
eKhfn ekth kUh Bhbh qrkhr/

here one-CL word think-VN need
Here we need to consider something.
—Um ahmhr zhnh qrkhr ùhmhr zfnj `s `kmn ph« yTk kfrfC/
first I-GEN know-VN need you-GEN for he how partner
decide-do-3-PR-PERF
First I need to know what kind of a partner he has decided on for you.
ebL ynfzfqr ybfnhqfnr znjo ykCv Krfcr bhfzt rhKh qrkhr/

and own-PL-GEN entertainment-GEN for also some expense budget
keep-VN need
And they need to reserve some money for their entertainment.
34.4.1 (b) qrkhr followed by a finite verb
When qrkhr is followed by a finite verb, animate nouns and pronouns

retain their objective endings
656 ahmhr uhfk qrkhr `ni/ I don’t need him.

Verbal and other nouns invariably change into the genitive. Verbal noun
with qrkhr
qrkhr can link up with ahfC is present, with pRh fall, with Mowh be and, need, \ycu
occasionally, with krh do. Negation of qrkhr is very often done with `ni ,
should ought,
although the other verbs can, of course, also provide negative structures.
kUh supposed to
The expression qrkhr `ni no need! is commonly used on its own to ward
off overeager salespeople.
The first three examples are with nonverbal nouns.
ymflr qrkhr ahfC/

concord-GEN need [is present]
There needs to be harmony.
ahr ykCvr qrkhr `ni/

she-GEN something-GEN need [is absent]
She does not need anything.
Shsfnr qrkhr yk efkbhfri `ni?

control-GEN need what totally [is absent]
Is there absolutely no need for control?
uhr sfÃ kUh blhr mhfZ mhfZ qrkhr pfR/

he-GEN with word say-VN-GEN sometimes need fall-3-PR-S
I sometimes need to speak to him.
`SfX ahr Bhbbhr qrkhr Ml nh/

finally more think-VN-GEN need be-3-P-S not
In the end there was nothing to worry about.
uhr zfnj uhfqr `qKbhr qrkhr pfR nh/

he-GEN for they-GEN see-baVN-GEN need do-3-PR-S not
They don't need to look after him.
ybfwthfk eu bR kfr `qKhr qrkhr `ni/

wedding-CL-OBJ such big do-VN see-VN-GEN need [is absent]
One doesn’t have to make the wedding into such a big deal.
ykCv ylfK `qbhr qrkhr `ni/

something write-PP give-baVN-GEN need [is absent]
Nothing needs to be written down.
`byS blbhr qrkhr Ml nh, `s —≥u Mfwi yCl/

much say-baVN-GEN need be-3-P-S she ready be-PP EMP [was]
There was no need to say much. She was already ready. 657
34 ahmhr ùhmhfk kukgvflh kUh blhr qrkhr ahfC/
Modals I-GEN you-OBJ a few-CL word say-VN-GEN need [is present]
I have a few things I need to say to you.
nh-`Kfw bfs Uhkbhr `khno qrkhr `ni/

not eat-PP sit-PP stay-baVN-GEN any need [is absent]
If you are not eating there is no need to sit around.
34.4.2 Verbal noun with \ycu ought
The situation with \ycu is very much simpler than that with qrkhr. \ycu is an
adjective, the preceding verbal noun is in the nominative, animate subjects
in the genitive. It is negated with nw, future and past tense are formed with
Mowh be and yCl, respectively. The translation of \ycu in dictionaries is usually
given as proper, which fits with the word class but is a bit weak in reflecting
its modal features. \ycu is used in situations where external moral codes
or questions of propriety are under discussion.
\ycu is used as an attributive adjective in two phrases:
\ycu kUh reflects a whole world of political correctness, social acceptability

and conventions.
\ycu bjbMhr proper behaviour, the done thing.
ahmhfqr ahzfk `SX krh \ycu/

we-GEN today finish-do-VN \ycu
We ought to finish today.
uhfqr bfs Uhkh \ycu/

they-GEN sit-PP stay-VN \ycu
They ought to stay sitting down.
ahmhr yk ykCv blh \ycu?

I-GEN what something say-VN \ycu/
Should I say something?
uhr Bw MyÉCl `mfwyt emn ykCv bfl `Plfb xh uhr `Shnh \ycu nw/
his fear be-3-P-C girl-CL such something say-PP throw-3-FUT what-R
he-GEN hear-VN \ycu [is not]
He was afraid that the girl might suddenly say something which he ought
658 not to hear.
ahpnhfk ybfSX Qnjbhq yqfu ahsh \ycu yCl ahmhr/ Verbal noun
you-H-OBJ special thanks give-IP come-VN \ycu [was] I-GEN with qrkhr
I should have come especially to thank you. need, \ycu
should ought,
yk≤ `s ynfzfk `x-Bhfb `qfK `sBhfb `qKbhr `c§h krh \ycu yCl/
kUh supposed to
but he self-OBJ what way-LOC-R see-3-PR-S that way-CR
see-baVN-GEN attempt do-VN \ycu [was]
But we ought to have tried to see him the way he sees himself.
`s qrzh bíi Uhfk - bí Uhkh \ycu/
that door closed stay-3-PR-S closed stay-VN \ycu
That door stays closed and ought to stay closed.
ùhr \ycu yCl nh uhfk `xfu `qowh/
you-I-GEN \ycu [was] not he-OBJ go-IP give-VN
You ought not to have let him go.
ahmhr uhrpfr yk blh \ycu yCl?
I-GEN that-GEN after what say-VN \ycu [was]
What was I supposed to say after that?
ahmhr iÉChr ybrßfº `zhr krhth uhr \ycu nw/
my wish against force do-VN-CL he-GEN \ycu [is not]
He should not force me against my will.
o-rkm zGnj cyrf«r `lhfkr sfÃ ahmhr `khno `xhghfxhg rhKh \ycu Mwyn/
that type abominable character-GEN person-GEN with I-GEN any
contact keep-VN \ycu not be-3-PR-PERF
I should not have kept in touch with a person of such abominable
character.
ghmCh shbhn xhr xhr ahlhqh Uhkh \ycu/
gamcha soap who-GEN (x 2) separate stay \ycu
They should each have their own, separate gamcha and soap.
`sth Mfu `qowh \ycu Mfb nh/
that-CL be-IP give-VN \ycu be-3-FUT not
That should not be allowed to happen.
uhr bjy∆gu ycyT pRh ùhmhr \ycu yCl nh/
his private letter read-VN you-GEN \ycu [was not]
You should not have read his private letters.
afShkkvmhfrr shmfn …huYflKhr nhm blh \ycu Mfb nh/
Ashok Kumar-GEN before Swatilekha-GEN name say-VN \ycu
be-3-FUT not
Swatilekha’s name should not be mentioned in front of Ashok Kumar. 659
34 …hmYr \pr `khno khrfN `khno `mfwr aSîºhr \fqî∞k krh khro \ycu nw/
Modals husband-GEN on any reason-LOC any girl disrespect-GEN
incite-do-VN someone-GEN \ycu [is not]
No one should incite any woman for any reason to be disrespectful to her
husband.
34.4.3 Genitive verbal noun with kUh supposed to
The word kUh has so many meanings and farreaching uses that it is
difficult to gauge whether the particular structure given here should count
as a special use. There is no doubt, however, that it is modal, implying
expectations, arrangements and the failure of the two. kUh is preceded by
a genitive verbal noun, the structure is negated with nw and formed with
yCl in the past tense. There can be a genitive subject and there seem to be
no future tense uses. Translations are quite varied, but the supposed to or
meant to factor is fairly consistent.
eth Svfn ahn~q Mowhr kUh/

this-CL hear-PP joy be-VN-GEN word
(You) are supposed to be happy to hear this.
bithr —khS Mowhr ùh kUh/

book-CL-GEN publication be-VN-GEN EMP kUh
The book is meant for publication.
ei kUh uhr nh-zhnhr kUh nw/

this EMP word not know-VN-GEN word [is not]
It is inconceivable that he does not know about this matter.
khro zhnhr ùh kUho nw/

who-GEN EMP know-VN-GEN EMP kUh EMP [is not]
No one is even supposed to know about it.
yk krhr kUh yCl ahmhr?

what do-VN-GEN word [was] I-GEN
What was I supposed to do?
au aíkhfr yb“hpn nzfr nh pRbhr kUh/

such darkness-LOC advertisement observation-LOC not
fall-baVN-GEN word
In such darkness it would have been more likely for him not to notice the
660 advert.
rhfmr abñh `qfK Bw phbhri kUh/ Verbal noun
Ram-GEN situation see-PP fear get-VN-GEN EMP kUh with qrkhr
Seeing Ram’s condition is bound to be frightening. need, \ycu
should ought,
ynwfmr bjyuœm Mbhr kUh ùh nw/ kUh supposed to
rule violation be-VN-GEN kUh EMP [is not]
The rule is not meant to be broken.
ahmhfqr `khUhw xhowhr kUh yCl uh Bvfl `gfl yk kfr/

we-GEN where go-VN-GEN kUh [was] that forget-PP go-2-P-S what
do-PP
How did you forget where we were supposed to be going?
`x mhnvX GyRr khthr ynfqòS `mfn cfln u£hr afMuvk yblôb Mbhr kUh nw/
that person clock-GEN hand-GEN directive obey-PP move-3H-PR-S
he-H-GEN without reason delay be-baVN-GEN kUh [is not]
Someone who lives by the dictates of the clock is not meant to be
inexplicably delayed.
uhr k§ mvyCfw `qowhr kUh yCl/

his grief wipe-PP give-VN-GEN kUh [was]
I was meant to alleviate his grief.
asvñ mhnvfXr SrYfr uhp `byS Uhkhri ùh kUh/

ill person-GEN body-LOC temperature high stay-VN-GEN EMP kUh
The body temperature of a sick person is naturally high.
khur Mowhri ùh kUh/

distressed be-VN-GEN EMP EMP word
It is quite natural for her to be distressed.
euyqn pfr MThJ kh\fk `qfK ycf™ phrhr kUh nw/

so much day after suddenly someone-OBJ see-PP recognise-PP be able
to-VN-GEN word [is not]
When you see someone again after such a long time you are not expected
to recognise him.
ei Gtnhr kUh zhnhfnhr kUh yCl abSj/

this EMP event-GEN word inform-VN-GEN word [was] of course
(He) was of course supposed to let us know about this event.
`sizfnj ei khz krhr kUh/

that EMP for this EMP work do-VN-GEN word
That’s why we are supposed to do this work. 661
34 nh, eth sMz Mowhr kUho nw/
Modals no this-CL easy be-VN-GEN word also [is not]
No, this is not supposed to be easy.
yk≤ uKn ahmhfqr `s abñh uhfu e-kUh ybSáhs nh-krbhr kUh/
but then our that state that-LOC this word belief not no-baVN-GEN
word
But at that time we were in such a state that this would have been barely
believable.
662
Chapter 35
Pairings and doublings
Bangla has a great number of word pairs. The following is an overview

of the types of doublings we find in Bangla with some examples but these
lists are by no means exhaustive. A brief summary of these structures was
given in Ch. 3.1, Duplication.
35.1 . . . etcetera
The first word, either a noun or an adjective, is echoed by a meaningless

rhyming word with a different initial consonant. This consonant is often
t but other consonants also occur. Some of these pairs are well established,
others are spontaneous creations.
The purpose of these combinations is not to make short words longer but
to add a note of nonchalance or depreciation: and things like that. Here
are just a few examples:
a¬-t¬ maths, etc. Kbr-tbr news

a¶p-…¶p bits and pieces ghn-thn song and such
ahuÖYw-thuÖYw relatives ghmCh-thmCh towels
ahrhm-thrhm creature comforts chkyr-bhkyr job
ahlhp-shlhp familiarity uì-sì scriptures
ahlvUhlv dishevelled, unkempt `—m-`tîm love and romance
\Jsb-tvJsb event bi-ti books
\lth-tvlth opposite bív-tív friends
eflhfmflh disorder ybfw-ytfw marriage and such
k§-t§ efforts ybX-ymX poison
khz-thz work béy§-yty§ bad weather
khpR-`chpR clothes bjhphr-sjhphr matters
`kk-`tk cakes mhlh-thlh jewellery 663
35 ymUjh - ytUjh lies `SX-`mX end, conclusion
Pairings and mvyR-tvyR snacks shbhn-thbhn soap
doublings `mhth-`shth fat MhyR-thyR pots and pans
rhêh-bhêh cooking yMLsh-ymLsh jealousy
l°h-t°h airs and graces `Mn-ùn and so on
This phenomenon can be extended to verb-forms:
ektv bvfZ-svfZ cl . . .
a bit understand-PP RHYMEWORD go-3-PR-IMP
tread a bit carefully . . .
myMlh `rfg-`mfg ekth ykCv kfr bsfbn/
woman be angry-PP RHYMEWORD one-CL something do-PP sit-3H-FUT
The woman will do something in her anger . . .
ahmrh uhfk `p£chfu-`t£chfu chiyn/
we he-OBJ involve-IP RHYMEWORD not want-1-PR-P
We didn’t want to involve him.
35.2 Synonyms and near-synonyms
Two nouns, verbs or adjectives with the same or very similar meanings
are paired up with an accumulative effect:
asvK-ybsvK sickness z£hk-zmk pomp

iShrh-iyÃu insinuation thkh-pwsh money
\lthphlth topsy-turvy Thkvr-`qbuh the elders
kUhbhuòh discussion ThÑh-uhmhSh mockery
khgzp« papers uvÉC-uhyÉClj trifle
khzkmò work qwh-mhwh mercy
khylykyÄ written contract qvAK-Qh~qh misery
g¶pgvzb gossip phMhR-pbòu mountains
ghn-bhznh music bn-zÃl woods
gvrßThkvr spiritual guide blh-kowh request
Gr-bhyR buildings bjhbsh-bhyNzj business
chlhk-cuvr crafty Bwdr fear
ycyTp« correspondence Bhbnh-yc™h thought
Chip£hS stuff and nonsense myN-mhyNkj jewels
`Cflpvfl offspring mhmlh-`mhkØmh court proceedings
664 `ChtKhfth insignificant mhwhmmuh sympathy
`mlhfmSh mix `lhkzn people Accumulative
l°h-Srm embarrassment shzs°h decorations
35.3 Accumulative
Two meaningful lexical items are combined to create an accumulative

meaning.
aÃ—ujÃ bodily appendages phlhphbòN annual festivals

ahkhr-iyÃu gestures and postures Pvylfw P£hypfw exaggeratedly
ahkvyl-ybkvyl restlessness, anxiety bnzÃl wood and forest
ahChyR-ypChyR writhing and wriggling blBrsh strength and support
ahnhfc-khnhfc in nooks and corners blhbl strength and weakness
ahlhp-pyrcw familiarity bsbhs settling down
Khowh-qhowh meal bhkjhlhp communication
Khlybl waterways bhÉchkhÉch small children
KvnKhrhyp bloodshed bhCybchr discrimination
`Kwhl-KvyS caprice, whim bhsh-bhyR rented house
`Klh-Qvlh sports ybfÉCq-`bqnh pains of separation
gyrbqvAKY poor and pitiful ybylbjbñh orderly arrangement
gh-gur flesh and bones myN-rÕ precious stones
ghn-bhznh music mhT-Ght field and wharf
gvNhgvN merits and demerits mhuhypuh parents
`chK-mvK facial expression mhbhbh parents
`Cflfmfw children mhl-mslh ingredients and spices
zlzym marshland méqv-m~q gentle and pleasant
“hnyb“hn arts and science rshlhp witty conversation
`ZhpzÃl underwood rMsjhlhp confidential talk
Thkvr-`qbuh the elders `rhgh-phulh emaciated
dhlphlh twigs and leaves lhghyn-BhWhyn malicious secret report
dhl-Bhu rice and lentils lvfkhcvyr hide and seek
qhghbhyz treachery lvturhz extensive plundering
qvAKqhyrqî distress and poverty `lKhpRh study
`qnh-phonh assets and liabilities Shk-sbyz vegetables
`qhXhfqhX vices and virtues smhzShsn social rules
Qrh-`C£hwh reach, proximity Mht-bhzhr markets
Qhùhbhyz bluffing, hoaxing M£hthfGhrh walking around
nRh-cRh moving about M£hth-clh moving about
nhc-ghn song and dance M£hyR-kvyR kitchen utensils
nhyu-nhuyn grandchildren Mhu-ph hands and feet
pRhfShnh study Mhys-KvyS happy 665
35
35.4 Echo words a-i pattern
Pairings and
doublings
The first component (often but not always a verbal noun) has a distinct
meaning and is followed by an echo word.
ah£ch-ah£yc guessing > ah£ch vb surmise, guess

a£hhtha£hyt excessive tightness > ah£t n tightness, tension
ahRhahyR cross-wise > ahRh n cross-beam
ahQhahyQ fifty-fifty > ahQh adj half
kclh-kcyl squeezing, wringing > kclhfnh vb wring, squeeze
kXhkyX tightness, tugging > kXh adj tight
k£hqhkhyt, weeping > k£hqh, vb weep
khêh-khyt khêh n weeping
khChkhyC close, near by > khC n proximity
khthkhyt fight, brawl > khth vb cut
khnhkhyn secret whisperings > khn n ear
`khlhkvyl embrace, greeting > `khl n lap
`khÄhkvyÄ wrestling > kvyÄ n wrestling
`K£hzhK£vyz continuous searching > `K£hzh vb search, look for
`KhlhKvyl frank, open > `Khlh adj open
glhgyl close intimacy > glh n throat
gRhgyR state of rolling about > gRhfnh vb roll
ghqhghyq crowding > ghqh n heap
ghlhghyl rebuke, abuse > ghl n abuse
`GhrhGvyr wandering about > `Ghrh vb turn about, revolve
ctkh-ctyk drowsiness > ctkh n drowsiness
cthcyt tiff, bickering > cth vb splinter
chthchyt mutual flattery > chth vb lick
chphchyp concealment > chph vb press, conceal
cvlhcvyl scramble, quarrel > cvl n hair
CRhCyR profusion, abundance > CRhfnh vb scatter
`C£hwhC£vyw mutual touch > `C£hwh vb touch
`ChRhCvyR act of throwing > `ChRh vb throw
zRhzyR intertwined > zRhfnh vb embrace
`zhrhzvyr violence, insistence > `zhr n force
ZvlhZvyl swinging > `Zhlh vb hang
tŒrh-tŒyr bumping, shuffling > tŒr n jolt, collision
thnhthyn tightly stretched > thn n pull, attraction
ytphytyp mutual pinching > ytph vb squeeze, massage
`TkhfTyk contact > `Tkh vb touch
`TlhfTyl mutual pushing > `Tlh vb push
666
`ThkhTvyk bantering > `Thkh vb strike, hammer
dhkhdhyk repeated calling > dhk n call Echo words a-i
DhlhDhyl repeated pouring > Dhlh vb pour pattern
ukòhuykò debate, altercation > ukò n argument
uhRhuhyR hurry > uhRh n rush
uhlhuhyl clapping > uhl n musical beat
qlhqyl partisanship > ql n group
qhphqhyp bragging > qhp n pride, vanity
qhmhqhym bargaining > qhm n price
`qKhfqyK mutual visits > `qKh vb see
`qhlhqvyl rocking, swinging > `qhlnh n swing
`qHRhfqHyR running about > `qHRhfnh vb run
QrhQyr arrests > Qrh vb hold, catch
QhŒh-QhyŒ mutual shoving > QhŒh vb push, shove
ngqhngyq cash transaction > ngq n cash
nhchnhyc dancing > nhc n dance
nhRhnhyR stirring, moving > nhRh vb stir
phkhphyk settled, finalised > phkh adj ripe, mature
phlthphlyt exchange > phlth adj contrary, counter-
phShphyS adjacent > phS n side
pvrhpvyr completely > `phrh vb fill
p£jhchp£jhyc mixed up > p£jhc n twist
bkhbyk altercation > bkh vb scold, prattle
bqlh-bqyl exchange > bql n exchange
blhbyl conversation > blh vb speak
bhRhbhyR excess > bhRh vb increase
`bhZhbvyZ mutual understanding > `bhZh vb understand
BhghBhyg sharing out > Bhg n part, share
mhKhmhyK smearing > mhKh vb smear, mix
mhZhmhyZ in between > mhZ n middle, centre
mhrhmhyr fight, struggle > mhrh vb hit, strike
`mShymyS familiarity > `mSh vb mix
mvKhmvyK face to face > mvK n face
`mthmvyt more or less > `mht n total
`mhRhmvyR repeated twisting > `mhRh vb fold
rhuhrhyu overnight > rhu n night
lôbh-lyôb lengthwise > lôbh adj long
lhThlhyT fighting > lhyT n stick
`lKhflyK correspondence > `lKh vb write
srhsyr directly > srh vb move
M£hkhM£hyk repeated shouting > M£hkh vb call
MhuhMhyu scuffle > Mhu n hand
667
MhshMhys laughing > Mhsh vb laugh
35
35.5
Pairings and
doublings Opposite terms combine to give a comprehensive meaning.
ahkhS-phuhl heaven and hell, everywhere

ahgh-`ghRh beginning and end
ahqr-anhqr respect and neglect
ahqhn-—qhn giving and taking, exchange
ahflh-ah£Qhr light and darkness
ahflh-Chwh light and shadow
ahSh-ynrhSh hope and despair
ahsl-nkl true and false
ahsh xhowh, xhowh-ahsh coming and going
iur-Bqî high and low
iÉCh-aynÉCh willy-nilly
\»hnpun rise and fall
\UhlphUhl topsy-turvy
oTh-nhmh up and down
`knh-`bch, `bch-`knh selling and buying, trade
Gfr-bhifr home and abroad
clh-`Prh coming and going
`cnh-afcnh known and unknown
`Cht-bR big and small
znÖ-méuvj birth and death
zfl-ñfl on sea and land
ùhlh-pRh up and down
yqn-rhu, rhu-yqn day and night
yqbh-ynyS day and night
yqbh-rhy« day and night
`qnh-phonh assets and liabilities
`qhX-gvN vice and virtue
php-pvNj vice and virtue
pVrN-Bhg the whole and the parts
Bhl-m~q good and bad
`xhg-ybfwhg union and separation
lhB-`lhkshn profit and loss
skhl-síjh day and night
suj-ymUjh, sujhsuj right and wrong, truth and falsehood
svK-qvAK pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow
Mhr-yzJ success and failure, victory and defeat
Mhys-khêh smiles and tears
668 Mîhs-béyº rise and fall
Reduplication
35.6 Reduplication
Doubled adjectives, nominative and locative nouns have a variety of effects

such as approximation almost (zár zár feverish), intensity very (khfC khfC
very close), gradual build-up (yufl yufl bit by bit), multiplicity (shyr shyr in
rows), pervasiveness (xvfg xvfg through the ages).
a¶p a¶p a small amount

ahfÄ ahfÄ slowly
ekh ekh lonely
ektv ektv a little bit
kUhw kUhw by the way
k£hthw k£hthw on the dot, punctually
khfC khfC very close
khfn khfn in whispers
khfl khfl with the passage of time
grmhgrm exciting
glhw glhw close, intimate
cvfp cvfp secretly
`zhfr `zhfr forcefully
zár zár feverish
ytypytyp stealthily
tvkfrh tvkfrh broken to pieces
uêuê thoroughly
yufl yufl little by little
Ufr Ufr in rows
yqfn yqfn day by day, gradually
QYfr QYfr slowly
ynzynz respectively
prpr one after another
phyuphyu line by line
ypfTypfT back to back
bhr bhr again and again
P£hkh P£hkh empty, desolate
P£hfk P£hfk at intervals
Phlh Phlh tattered, cut into long strips
Phyl Phyl strip by strip
mfn mfn secretly
mvMVfuò mvMVfuò from moment to moment
xvfg xvfg from age to age
rhyS rhyS heaps 669
35 skhl skhl very early
Pairings and sfÃ sfÃ immediately
doublings súhfM súhfM week after week
shyr shyr in rows
MhfR MhfR to the bone
yMuhyMu good and evil
35.7 Doubling of interrogatives, indefinites and adverbs
These are discussed in Ch. 8.3, 11.8 and 14.2.6.
`k `k who (plural)
yk yk what (plural)
kKno kKno from time to time
`k\ `k\ somebody or other
ykCv ykCv a little bit
`khno `khno any, something or other
35.8 Doubling of non-finite verb forms
These are discussed in Ch. 21.3.3 and 23.7.
mrfu mrfu b£hch lit: survive on the point of dying

have a lucky escape
`qKfu `qKfu lit: seeing seeing
immediately
Mfu Mfu Ml nh/ lit: becoming becoming did not happen
a near miss
Here is a passage with multiple doubled imperfective participles and other
doublings which demonstrates the sweeping effect of these structures:1
1 From Abanindranath Thakur, bvfRh ahLlh, Ananda Publishers, Kolkata, 8th edition,
670 2002, p. 20
`rlghyR `xmn `qS-ybfqfSr mfQj yqfw b£hyS yqfu yqfu `ãtSfn `ãtSfn nuvn nuvn Doubling of
`lhk oThfu oThfu cfl, ei phyKr qlo ùmni ahkhS yqfw dhk yqfu yqfu cfl ; finite verb
ahr ei gîhm `s gîhm e `qS `s `qS e bn o bn Ùfk xhy«-phyK sb \fR ygfw Z£hfk forms
ymfS ahnf~q mÄ ek ql `b£fQ clfu Uhfk ; ahkhS yqfw ekthr pr ekth shrhyqn
emyn qfl qfl xhuhwhu kfr dhk-M£hk yqfu yqfu - `Cht-bR nhnh phyK/
train as-R country abroad-GEN in through whistle give-IP (×2)
station-LOC (×2) new (×2) person lift-IP (×2) go-3-PR-S so-CR sky
through call give-IP (×2) and this village that village this country that
country this forest that forest from traveller bird all fly-PP go-PP
flock-LOC mix-PP joy-LOC big one group form-PP go-IP stay-3-PR-S
sky through one-CL-GEN after one-CL all day group-LOC (×2)
travel-do-IP call cry give-IP (×2) small big various bird
Just as a train goes from country to country, blowing its whistle, loading up
new passengers at every station, so the group of birds call out as they move
through the sky. Through village after village, country after country, forest
after forest the travelling birds fly up, form groups and come together in
delight to form a large flock. They fly through the sky one group after
another, all day long they travel uttering their shouts and cries, many
different birds, big and small.
35.9 Doubling of finite verb forms
xhi xhi abñh lit: go go state

on its last leg
ykdyn `xth yCl `stho xhi xhi abñhw/
kidney that-CL-R [was] that-CL-CR also go-1-PR-S (×2) state-LOC
The kidney he still had was also failing.
Doubling of finite verb forms often occurs as embedded direct speech,
followed by kfr having done.
cyl cyl kfr bfs Uhkfb/

go-1-PR-S (×2) do-PP sit-PP stay-3-FUT
She will sit there saying that she is leaving.
mVyuòth pyR pyR kfr q£hRhfÉC/
statue fall-1-PR-S (×2) do-PP stand-3-PR-C
The statue looks as if it is going to topple over.
671
Chapter 36
Onomatopoeia
QánjhuÖk (words whose soul is in their sound)

Onomatopoeia add colour, flavour and spice to the Bangla language. In
one of Upendrakishore Raychaudhuri’s stories a farmer, Buddhur Bap, is
desperately trying to chase away a flock of hungry birds from his rice
fields. He shouts to them:
ebhr i£yR-ynyR-yk£yR-b£hQn `qyKfw `qb/

this time jri niri kjri bãdhon show-PP give-1-FUT
This time I will show you JRi niRi kJRi bãdhon.
Of course there is no such thing as i£yR-ynyR-yk£yR-b£hQn but
bvºvr bhp ahr `khfnh Bwhnk ghl Kv£fz nh `pfw e kUh bfl/
Buddhur Bap more any scary abuse search-PP not find-PP this word
say-3-PR-S
Buddhur Bap couldn’t think of a scarier term of abuse so he said it.
This is the way onomatopoeia come about – when nothing else is quite
expressive enough. The range of onomatopoeia in Bangla goes far beyond
sound-imitating words and Tagore’s1 coinage of QánjhuÖk soul in the sound is
probably the best way to describe them. The Greek word ονοµατοποιeω
(onomatopoieo) actually means name-making and has, by itself, no connota-
tion of imitating sounds. I will therefore continue to use this word but in its
expanded sense of word-creations, sound-pictures or sensory words.
Onomatopoeia are an open word class: new creations are added to the
language all the time but there is a long list of well-established specimens.
In order to increase our understanding of Bangla onomatopoeia they need
1 Rabindranath Tagore gives a comprehensive and fascinating account of onomatopoeia

672 in his two books Sûquµ (1885) and bhLlh BhXh pyrcw (1938).
to be recorded in context. Onomatopoeia can be interpreted as nouns or Onomatopoeia
adjectives – many of them are used with kfr having done to make adverbs.
The Samsad dictionary marks onomatopoeia as interjection denoting or
interjection expressing . . . which is syntactically rather unsatisfactory. They
constitute a distinct and coherent word class in Bangla and should be
treated as such.
There are a number of onomatopoeic variations such as the following:
kckc kchkc cutting, chopping ktkt kthkt painful throbbing
kRkR kRhŒR munching kpkp kphkp gulping
KpKp KphKp haste gpgp gphgp rapid eating
tktk tkhtk ticking QpQp QphQp thudding, etc.
The additional a h between the two rhyming syllables does not change the
meaning but adds an iterative or continuous aspect to the expression: ktkt
describes a painful throbbing, kthkt an ongoing throbbing pain. Tagore
says in Sûquµ (p. 55): ‘The fact that an a-kar is inserted in some onomatopoeia
and the change it causes to the meaning of that word is difficult to explain
to a foreigner in meaningful (aUòybyS§) language: When we say TkhTk we
mean that after giving one Tk (rap) there is, after collecting all our strength,
another Tk. The a-kar expresses the momentary pause of getting ready for
the repeated action.’
Tagore’s list of onomatopoeia is probably the most complete anyone has
ever compiled, but what is more remarkable are his comments on the
characteristics of particular sounds and the impact these sounds have. Here
is an example:
‘lvyc, ynmyk, kcvyr are delicious sounding items of food, but when we say
lvycPvyc then the whole thing sounds unappetising’.2
Tagore also draws our attention to an important difference between
descriptive adjectives and onomatopoeia. While adjectives like loud (sound)
and sweet (taste) almost inevitably extend their meaning to other sensory
contexts (loud colours, sweet music) onomatopoeia give one and only one
sensory impression. They stand like soldiers ready to jump into action
when their turn comes.
Bangla onomatopoeia are an absorbing field of study. Below is a list of
common onomatopoeia followed by a random mix of example sentences.
While much in this book requires thought and concentration, this chapter
has the sole purpose to entertain and to delight.
2 Tagore, Sûqu¥, rbY~qî rcnhblY, 4th volume, p. 37. 673

36 ahithi uneasy gmgm resounding
Onomatopoeia a£hkvp£hkv fidgety glgl pouring liquid
a£htvb£htv fumbling g£hg£h bellowing
ahkch-ahkyc mutual jealousy gvzgvz muttering
ahgRm-bhgRm idle talk gvytgvyt moving very slowly
ahfzbhfz nonsense gvytSvyt coweringly
ahnchn uneasy gvRgvR rumbling
ahfbhl-uhfbhl nonsense gvfuhgvyu shoving
ahmuh ahmuh stuttering `g£h `g£h groaning
iynfw ybynfw exaggerating GRGR rattling
\UhlphUhl topsy-turvy GvtGvt dark, black
\SKvS restive, fidgeting yGnyGn loathsome
kckc cutting, chopping `G£XhfG£yX crowdingly
kcrmcr munching GjhnGjhn nagging
ktmt angry ckck, ckmk bright, glittering
kRkR rumbling ctct sticky
knkn painful, smarting ctpt, ctPt quick, prompt
kpkp gulping cncn smarting
khtvrkvtvr scratching (mice) chknyckn sparkling
khyRkhyR snatching yckyck, yckymk sparkling
ykcymc grating ycRybR itching, irritation
ykyRymyR gnashing (teeth) ycnycn mild pain
yklybl swarm (fish) yCpyCfp lean, slender
kvckvc dark (black) yc^hycy^ uproar, outcry
kvRmvR crunching sound cvpchp quietly
k£jhtk£jht harsh, bright CtPt restless
KkKk coughing CmCm eerie
KcKc repeated chopping CpCp splashing
Kcmc causing a fuss ClCl running water
KtKt striking sound yCpyCp slender, slim
KnKn striking metal zbzb drenched
KlKl metallic laughter zhpthzhpyt mutual embracing
KsKs rustling zárzár feverish
K£hK£h empty, desolate zálzál blazing
yKycymyc peevishness ZkZk bright, shining
yKlyKl giggling Ztpt flapping
K£vuK£vu pettiness ZnZn clattering
gzgz grumbling ZmZm heavy rain
gRgR rumble (thunder) ZrZr drizzling (rain)
gqgq over-emotional Zlml glitter, sparkle
gngn blazing Z£hZ£h severe heat
674 voracious pins and needles
gpgp, gphgp yZ£yZ£
yZkymk twinkling, sparkling qh\qh\ burning fiercely Onomatopoeia
yZynyZyn jingling qhphqhyp bragging
yZryZr gently blowing qvmqvm banging
yZylymyl sparkling qvrqvr, qvrßqvrß trembling in fear
ZvrZvr rapid drizzle qvlqvl dangling
tktk light drumming QRPR restless
tktk, tktfk deep red QRmR sudden hurry
tgbg, tgbghbg bubbling (water) QpQp, QbQb spotless, white
tntn sharp pain QphQp thumping noise
tlml restless QÄhQyÄ scuffle, struggle
thpvr-tvpvr pitter-patter (rain) Q£h-Q£h sudden
thlmhthl great danger yQkyQk, yQykyQyk smouldering,
ytpytp drizzle continuously
ytmytm dim, declining yQnhyQn dancing steps
tvkthk, tvykthyk odds and ends Qv-Qv desolate
tvstvs fully ripe QvmQvm grand
`tkftk blunt (speaking) QvmQhm pomp
`th-`th gadding about nhqvsnvqvs podgy, plump
TkTk violent shiver nRbR limp, flaccid
yTkThk precise ynsyps, ynSypS dying to do sth
TvkTvk hammering nkRh-CkRh slight, neglect
dgmg brimming, overflowing ntKt petty quarrel
DlDl charming, beautiful pipi again and again
DvlDvl drowsiness ptpyt bragging
ukufk neat and clean pthpt sudden crackling
ucnc, uCnC destroyed, ruined yptypt winking
uRbfR rapid, hurried yplypl swarming crowd
urur quick flowing PRPR buzzing
yuyRLybyRL quick jumping Py§ny§ banter, witticism
uvluvl soft, tender PsPs rubbing (paper)
ùfl-ùfl oily yPkyPk giggle
UpUp thudding yPtPht spick and span
UmUm dreadful silence yPnyPfn very fine (cloth)
UsUs wet, moist yPsyPs whisper
yUkyUk thick clay PvtPvt bright, tidy
UvrUvr unsteady PvrPvr gently blowing
∏U-∏U vast expanse `P£hsfP£hs sighing, weeping
qgqg burning sensation P£jhcP£jhc prattle
qpqp blazing PjhlPjhl vacant look
qmqm thudding noise bkbk chatter
qrqr, qrhqyr haggling bnbn whirling
excessively soft ybzybz crawling (worms) 675
qlql
36 ybRybR mumbling lvfthpvyt wallowing
Onomatopoeia `b£h-`b£h whirring SphJ, SphSp gulping greedily
`B\fB\ loud blubbering spsp wet
BnBn hum, buzz s£h-s£h fast blowing
`B£h-`B£h dizziness ysrysr tingling
mcmc, mtmt snapping `s£hfs£h fast blowing
mRmR crashing s£jhJs£jhJ dampness
ym\ym\ mewing Mi-Mi, ∏M-∏c noise, fuss
ymyCymyC useless MRbR rapidly
ymtymt twinkle, flicker MnMn great speed
ymnymn mumbling Myôb-uyôb bullying, intimidation
mvcmvc sharp snapping MlMl slack
mjhzmjhz indisposed Mh\mh\ hue and cry
mjhRmjhR dull M£hkhM£hyk shouting
`xmyu ùmyu = `xmn ùmn M£hsP£hs panting
rgrfg deep colour Mhpvs-Mvpvs noisy eating
yr-yr expr: anger, abhorrence yMyzybyz illegible
rßnZvn jingling yMsyMs hissing sound
lklk lolling, dangling yM-yM shivering with cold
lgbfg supple, pliant yMRyMR dragging
ltpt, ltrptr flapping loosely Mv-Mv strong blowing
l’B’ utter confusion
Onomatopoeia in use
The examples below are a random mix of sentences from a variety of

sources to show how onomatopoeia are used in sentences.
shrh SrYr `xn yr yr kfr \Tl/

whole body as if yr yr do-PP rise-3-P-S
My whole body recoiled in abhorrence.
`ssmw `mz chchr `Cht `mfw SyrPhfk Kvb QvmQhm kfr ybfw `qowh MyÉCl/
that time middle uncle small girl Sharifa-OBJ very QvmQhm do-PP give-VN
be-3-P-C
At that time, Sharifa, the youngest daughter of the middle uncle,3 was
married off with much grandeur.
3 This sounds strange in English but it is the way Bengalis specify their relatives. `mz
chch indicates that the speaker’s father has (at least) three younger brothers and the one
676 in question is the middle one.
ahmhr Mhu ph BYXN Bfw Ur Ur kfr k£hpfu lhgl/ Onomatopoeia
my hand foot extreme fear Ur Ur do-PP shiver-IP start-3-P-S
In great fear I started shivering all over.
ei smwthfu Z£hfk Z£hfk phyKrh ahfs, shrhyqn ykycrymycr, `c£chfmycfu mvKr Uhfk
Pflr bhghn/
this time-CL-LOC flock-LOC (×2) bird-PL come-3-PR-S, all
day ykycrymycr `c£ c hfmyc -LOC resounding stay-3-PR-S fruit-GEN
garden
At that time the birds come in flocks; and the fruit garden resounds with
their chirping and twittering all day.
alkhr `chK ClCl kfr \Tl/

Olka-GEN eye ClCl do-PP rise-3-P-S
Olka’s eyes filled with tears.
uhr `Chfth qvyt cyt ct-ct krfC uhr Bhbnhr Cf~qr uhfl-uhfl/
her small two sandal ct-ct do-3-PR-C her thought-GEN rhythm
beat-LOC (×2)
Her two small sandals were slapping to the rhythm of her thoughts.
`khfnh `ghpn kUhr chfp UrUr kfr k£hfp/

any secret word-GEN pressure UrUr do-PP tremble-3-PR-S
Under the pressure of any secret she trembles.
ei Kbfrr ahBhs `tr `pfw svyc«h ahfmhfq dgmygfw \fTyCl/

this news-GEN hint feel-get-PP Suchitra delight-LOC dgmghfnh-PP
rise-3-P-PERF
Suchitra was overflowing with delight when she sensed this.
phRhr yTk —h™buòY —kh’ ekth btghC yCl, `sKhnth eKn K£h-K£h krfC/
village-GEN exact border huge one-CL banyan tree [was present]
there-CL now K£h-K£h do-3-PR-C
Right at the border of the village there used to be a huge banyan tree.
That place is now empty.
kUh blfl q£hu yZkymk kfr ofT/

word say-CP tooth yZkymk do-PP rise
When she speaks her teeth sparkle.
uhrpr el béy§/ smÄ bn `bfz \Tl ZmZm kfr/

then come-3-P-S rain whole forest sound-PP rise ZmZm do-PP
Then came the rain. The whole forest reverberated with its
sound. 677
36 `bH-er rL Kvb Prsh nh Mflo mvKKhyn DlDfl yCpyCfp, `cMhrh `qKhi mh« mfn Mw
Onomatopoeia ahr ekbhr `qfK `ni/
wife-GEN colour very light-coloured not be-CP although-EMP face-CL
DlDfl yCpyCfp face see-VB-EMP only mind-LOC be-3-PR-S more one
time see-PP take-1-PR-S
Although the wife was not very fair-skinned, her face was so lovely and
slender that, having taken one look at her, one immediately wanted to look
at her again.
ahym gp gp kfr phynth `Kfw `Pllhm/
I gp gp do-PP water-CL drink-PP throw-1-P-S
I gulped the water down.
rhfg q£hu ykRykR krfC/

anger-LOC tooth ykRykR do-3-PR-C
He is gnashing his teeth in anger.
mhfZ mhfZ b£v b£v Sûq krfC mvK yqfw/

sometimes b£v b£v sound make-3-PR-C mouth from
From time to time a whirring sound came from his mouth.
`chfKr bhifr `gfli bvk qvrßqvrß kfr/

eye-GEN outside go-CP EMP chest qvrßqvrß do-3-PR-S
As soon as he was out of sight she trembled in fear.
qv khfn qvl ZkZk krfC/

two ear earring ZkZk do-3-PR-C
Earrings are sparkling on both her ears.
yb~qv QRmR kfr \fT zhnhlhr shmfn q£hRhflh/

Bindu QRmR do-PP get up-PP window-GEN in front of stand-3-P-S
Bindu got up suddenly and stood in front of the window.
ahym uhr mfQj Ufrh Ufrh kôpmhn/

I meanwhile Ufrh Ufrh trembling
In the meantime I was shivering violently.
kUh blfu blfu `s efkbhfr `Mfs lvfthpvyt `Kfu lhgl/

word speak-IP (×2) he totally laugh-PP lvfthpvyt eat-PP start-3-P-S
As he spoke he started rolling about with laughter.
678
ahŸcxò nw, btghCfk `x oKhfn ytkfu `q`b nh, `k zhfn ku qYGò bCr Qfr xh ahfÄ Onomatopoeia
ahfÄ mhytr gBYr aíkhfrr mfQj mVl ybÄhr kfr ahkhfSr ynfc agNj phuhw ybkySu
uhr yZryZfr —hN CyRfw yqfwyCl/
amazing [is not] banyan tree-OBJ that-REL there stay-IP allow-3-FUT
not who know-3-P-S how many long year during that slowly (×2)
earth-GEN deep darkness-GEN in root spread-do-PP sky-GEN under
countless leaf-LOC shed it-GEN gradually-ONOM life spread-PP
give-3-P-PERF
This banyan tree, which they will not allow to stay there! No wonder! Who
knows how for many long years it spread out its roots slowly deep into the
earth’s darkness, displayed itself in countless leaves under the sky and
gently scattered its life-force.
`SfX p£hcvmhmh Kcmc kfr `byÅfu \fT bsl/

finally Pachumama Kcmc do-PP bench-LOC get up-PP sit-3-P-S
Finally, with a big fuss, Pachumama climbed onto the bench and sat down.
yk≤ glhr `g£h-`g£h Sûq kmfC nh/

but throat `g£h-`g£h sound decrease-3-PR-C not
But the groaning sound from his throat is not getting any less.
uKn sbhi pi-pi kfr blfl, ahi-ys-es yk yb-ys-es xh `Mhk ekth prYÇh `q/
then everyone pi-pi do-PP say-3-P-S ICS or BCS that-REL
be-3-PR-IMP one-CL exam give-2I-PR-IMP
Then everyone said repeatedly, ‘Whether it be an ICS or a BCS, just take
any exam.’
qv thkh p£hc thkhr zfnj Pjh-Pjh kfr eKhn Ùfk Gvfr `bRhfnh - eri zfnj yk uvi
eu `lKhpRh ySfKyCyl?
two Taka five Taka-GEN for Pjh-Pjh do-PP here from turn round-PP
go around-VN – this-GEN for what-QU you-INT so much studying
learn-2I-P-PERF
Did you do all this studying in order to wander about aimlessly in search of
a few measly Taka?
uh Mflo uhr mfQj ekth mhuéM∑qw ClCl kfr/

that be-CP CONC she-GEN middle-GEN one-CL mother-heart ClCl
do-3-PR-S
So she does have a mother’s heart beating in her, after all.
ykCvyqn Qfr r∆ cnmn krfC/

some day during blood cnmn do-3-PR-S
He has been feeling restless for a few days. 679
36 bhblh uhr khflh djhbfdfb `chK uvfl yms `rhzmjhyrr yqfk emnBhfb `cfwyCl `xn
Onomatopoeia ybSáhfsr afxhgj ykCv SvfnfC `s/
Babla his black djhbdfb eye lift-PP Miss Rosemary-GEN towards such
way-LOC look-3-P-PERF as if belief-GEN unworthy something
hear-3-PR-PERF
Babla looked at Miss Rosemary with his big black eyes as if he had heard
something that was quite unbelievable.
bjUhw shrh SrYr tntn krfC/
pain-LOC whole body tntn do-3-PR-C
(My) whole body was smarting with pain.
zvfuh msmysfw #hrkhnhU `suv phr Mfw cfl efln bhyRr yqfk/ with squeaking
shoes
shoe msmysfw Dwarkanath bridge cross-be-PP move-PP come-3H-P-S
home-GEN towards
With squeaking shoes Dwarkanath crossed the bridge towards home.
mhUhth yBfz zbzfb Mfw `gfC/
head-CL wet zbzfb be-PP go-3-PR-PERF
His head got thoroughly wet.
SMryt xui ygzygfz o qVyXu `Mhk nh `kn, efk `CfR `khUho ygfw `bySyqn Uhkfu
phyr nh/
town-CL so much-REL ygzygz and polluted be-3-PR-IMP not
why it-OBJ leave-PP somewhere go-PP many day stay-IP be able
to-1-PR-S
However crowded and polluted the town may be, I can’t bear to be away
from it for very long.
ahym uhr glhw ghmCh yqfw eKhfn yMRyMR kfr `tfn ahnb/
I his throat-LOC gamcha with here yMRyMR do-PP pull-PP bring-1-FUT
I will drag him here with a gamcha around his throat.
yuyn KvySfui dgmg kfr blfln/
he-H happy-LOC EMP dgmg do-PP say-3-P-S
He was brimming with happiness as he spoke.
`Cflytr SrYr Th’hw TkTk kfr k£hpfC/ shiver violently
boy-CL-GEN body cold-LOC TkTk do-PP shiver-3-PR-C
The boy is shivering with cold.
bhÉchyt Bfw Mh\mh\ kfr `k£fq \Tl/
child-CL fear-LOC Mh\mh\ do-PP cry-PP get up-3-P-S
680 The child burst out crying with fear.
sLbhqth Svfn ryMfmr mh Pjhl Pjhl kfr `cfw Uhkl/ Onomatopoeia
news-CL hear-PP Rohim-GEN mother Pjhl Pjhl do-PP look-PP
stay-3-P-S
On hearing the news Rohim’s mother looked bewildered.
`mfwyt yKlyKl kfr Mhfs/

girl-CL yKlyKl do-PP laugh-3-PR-S
The girl laughs with a giggle.
shrhyqn tvpthp kfr béy§ pfRfC/

all day tvpthp do-PP rain fall-3-PR-PERF
It has been drizzling all day.
Mhyrfkfnr ytmytfm ahflhfu

hurricane lamp-LOC ytmytfm light-LOC
in the dim light of the hurricane lamp
BhÃh `cwhrthw bsfl kcrmcr ahowhz MfÉC/

break-VA chair-CL sit-CP kcrmcr noise be-3-PR-C
The broken chair creaks when one sits in it.
`Cflyt ahmhr shmfn efs k£hcvmhcv krfC/

boy i-GEN in front of come-PP k£hcvmhcv do-3-PR-C
The boy was scared out of his wits when he came before me.
qrzhr bhifr ygfw ahbhr Myôbuyôb Svrß krl/

door-GEN outside go-PP again Myôbuyôb start-do-3-P-S
As soon as they were out of the door they started heckling again.
qvpvr `blhr K£h-K£h `rhfq pyUk k†h™ Mfw pRflh/

midday hour-GEN K£h-K£h sunshine traveller tired be-PP fall-3-P-S
The travellers got tired in the relentless heat of the midday sunshine.
`mfwyt ahmuh ahmuh kfr kUh bll/

girl-CL ahmuh ahmuh do-PP word speak-3-P-S
The girl spoke with a stutter.
mhR `qowhw khpRgvflh kRkfR MfwfC/

starch give-VN-LOC cloth-PL-CL kRkfR be-3-PR-PERF
The clothes have become crisp from the starch.
`khno S∆ mhnvfXr ph^hw pRfli mhUh yncv kfr k£vi k£vi kfr/
any hard person-GEN control fall-PP EMP head down do-PP k£vi k£vi
do-3-PR-S
When he falls into the clutches of a strong man, he pulls his head in and groans. 681
36 qh\qh\ kfr shrh bfn ahgvn záfl \Tflh/
Onomatopoeia qh\qh\ do-PP whole forest-LOC fire burn rise-3-P-S
The whole forest was engulfed in flames.
The colours white, red and black each have their own accompaniment:
tktfk lhl: tktfk lhl ShyRfu uhfk mhynfwfC/

tktfk red saree-LOC she-OBJ suit-3-PR-PERF
The bright red saree suits her.
kvckvfc khflh: uhr `chfKr rL kvckvfc khflh/
her eye-GEN colour kvckvfc black
Her eyes are a shiny black.
QbQfb shqh: yqyqmh sb smw QbQfb shqh ShyR prfu Bhlbhfsn/
grandmother always QbQfb white saree wear-IP
love-3-PR-S
Grandmother loves wearing sparkling white sarees always.
From a short story bRfqr g¶p by ahPshr ahfmq, published in Kali o kolom,
April–May 2007, p. 47.
ykCvÇN pr \fThfn chl bhCfu bhCfu ahymnh bhghfnr yqfk mvK `Prhw/ rhzhfk ahr
`qKfu phw nh/ `bhQMw `khno ghfCr ahRhl MfwfC/ rhzhr zfnj qvyŸc™h `x MfÉC nh uh
nw/ `chfKr bhifr `gfli bvk qvrqvr kfr/ ph-Mhu yMm Mfw xhw/ ySrq£hRh ySrySyrfw
ofT/ bvk P£hkh Mfw xhw/ mhUh yZmyZm kfr/
A bit later, as she was picking through the rice in the courtyard, Amina
looked towards the garden. She couldn’t see Raja any more. Probably he
was hidden by a tree. Not that she didn’t worry about him. As soon as he
was out of her sight her heart would start racing. Her hands and feet went
cold. Her spine would tingle, she would have a feeling of emptiness in her
chest and feel dizzy.
682
Chapter 37
Individual verbs
The following section brings together special features and idiomatic uses
of some very common verbs.
They are (1) ahsh: efs-xhowh, (2) oTh, (3) khth, (4) Khowh, (5) Gth, (6) chowh,
(7) zhnh, (8) `qKh, (9) phowh, (10) phrh, (11) blh, (12) mhnh
Glosses are given in this section only where they are felt to be necessary.
37.1 ahsh come and xhowh go

(a) Both these verbs are more restricted than their English equivalents
in their directions towards and away from the speaker. The speaker
cannot come to a place where he is not:
‘I will come to your house tomorrow’, will in Bangla be

ahym khlfk ùhmhr bhshw (or ùhmhr oKhfn) xhb/ (not ahsb)
If you are going somewhere and want your brother to come with you,
you will say:
uvym yk ahmhr sfÃ xhfb? (not ahsfb)
Will you come with me?
(b) efs-xhowh
ykCv efs xhw nh/ It makes no difference.
This is an idiomatic use expressing indifference. It is common in nega-
tive sentences and in questions. Examples were found in the simple
present, simple past, present continuous and future tense. Occasionally
we find ahfs xhw, both simple present 3rd person verb forms, or the
reversed order xhw ahfs. The topic whose significance is under discussion
is in the locative case, animate nouns or pronouns in the genitive. 683
37 uhfu ykCv efs xhw nh/
Individual verbs That doesn’t matter.
A genitive experiencer subject can be added in these structures:
ahmhr rhyz arhyzfu efs xhw yk?

Does it matter whether I agree or not?
'uhfu yk efs xhw?" 'Kvbi efs xhw/"

‘What does it matter?’ ‘It matters a great deal.’
Symòuh khr uhfu ahmhr yk efs xhw?

What does it matter to me who Shartima belongs to?
`SX pxò™ svfK yk qvAfK ybfSX ykCv efs-xhw nh/

In the end there is no real difference between joy and grief.
mhnysk abñhr sVÇä uhrufmj `s-khfzr ykCv efs xhw nh/

The finer details of the human condition do not matter for this work.
two finite verb forms uhfu ahmhr ykCv xhw ahfs nh/
It makes no difference to me.
ek `Cfl nh Uhkfl ykCv ahfs xhw nh/
One boy’s absence makes no difference.
affirmative erh Bhl yk m~q Mfl afnk ykCv efs xhw/
Whether they are good or bad makes a great
deal of difference.
simple past nh `pfl ùh khr yk efs `gl?
If he doesn’t get it, who cares?
uhfu efs `gl nh ykCv/
That didn’t matter.
present continuous yk≤ ahz ykCvfu ahr ykCv efs xhfÉC nh/
But nothing today will make any difference any more.
future uhfu yk ahr ykCv efs xhfb?
Will that make any difference?
37.2 oTh get up, rise
oTh is one of the important compound makers and combines with a great
number of other verbs. Here we look at some of its other uses.
—Sä oTh and kUh oTh are often used in negative structures to imply that some-
684 thing was out of the question or too absurd to consider.
ekh ekh `khUho xhowhr ùh —Sä ofT nh/ khth cut –
(Her) going out on her own is out of the question. khthfnh cause
to cut
ahr iÉCh yk aynÉCh, ahn~q yk ybué”hr kUh ùh ofT nh/
And the question of wanting or not wanting, of joy or disgust doesn’t even
arise.
The use of oTh can be tricky as it has two diametrically opposite meanings.
On its own it means arise, come up, appear:
sVxò (c£hq) \fTfC/ The sun (moon) has come up.

gvzb \fTfC/ A rumour has arisen.
uhr nhm \fTfC/ His name was mentioned.
ZR \Tfb/ There will be a storm.
bhzhfr ahm \fTfC/ Mangoes have appeared in the market.
bhÉchr q£hu \fTfC/ The baby is teething.
`s smw chrh ofT/ At that time the seeds sprout.
uhr ybfwr kUh \fTfC/ The subject of her wedding has come up.
bhyR Ùfk Mhysr `rhl \Tl/ The sound of laughter came from the house.
kUhth ahmhr khfn \Tl/ I have heard about this.
In compounds with xhowh it means disappear, be dissolved, come off, fade:
uhr cvl \fT xhfÉC/ His hair is falling out.

ei rkm khpfRr rL With material like this the colours usually fade.
shQhrNu \fT xhw/
qhgth \fT xhfÉC nh/ The stain is not coming out.
`qhkhnth \fT `gfC/ The shop has been closed.
pvfrhfnh ynwmth \fT `gfC/ The old system has been abolished.
oTh-pRh as a noun-pair means rise and fall but it can also imply confusion
or aimlessness:
`lhkyt \yT-pyR kfr Cvft xhfÉC/ The man is running haphazardly.
37.3 khth cut – khthfnh cause to cut
Both khth and khthfnh have a variety of idiomatic uses. The most common
is in relation to time:
smw khft time passes

`khUh yqfw `x smwth `kft `gl
`tr `plhm nh/ I was unaware of how the time passed. 685
37 bCr `qfRk emyn `kft `gl/ One and a half years passed just like that.
Individual verbs smw ahr khft nh/ Time hangs heavy.
`s smwth ahmhr mh-r Bhl
khftyn/ My mother was not having a good time then.
smw khthfnh spend time
ahmrh Kvb sv~qr ekth yqn khthlhm/ We spent a beautiful day.
yBKhyrth ghCulhw rhu khthw/ The beggar spends the night under
the tree.
yuyn ayu kf§ khl khytfw efsfCn/ He has had a very rough time.
uhr yqngvflh khtfb `khno ahypfsr aíkhr Kvpyrfu/
His days will be spent in a dark corner in some office.
sell, make an impact Mvmhwvn ahMfmfqr bi bhzhfr `bS khtfC/
Humayun Ahmed’s books are selling quite well.
clear, disappear ahkhSth eKn pyr©khr, `mG `kft `gfC/
The sky is clear now, the clouds have disappeared.
kvwhSh khtfC/ The fog is clearing.

destroy, kill `phkhw bi `kftfC/
Bookworms have eaten through the book.
afnk ∏snj khth pfRyCl/ Many soldiers were killed.
uhl khth get out of rhythm
uhr ghfnr smw bhr bhr uhl `kft xhowhw g’fghl kfr \Tl/
He made a fuss because the rhythm of his song got repeatedly disturbed.
qhg khth mark, hurt
uhr kUhth yk≤ mfn Kvb qhg `kftfC/
But his words hurt me deeply.
yzB khth bite tongue, be embarrassed
kUhth Svfn `mfwyt yzB `kft sfr `gl/
When she heard this, the girl left in embarrassment.
Bw khth dispel fear
uhr sfÃ kUh blhr pfr Bw `kft `gfC/
The fear went away when I talked to him.
ybpq (P£hRh), (s¬t) khft danger passes
686 ybpq `kft `gfC/ The danger has passed.
ybpq (P£hRh), (s¬t) khthfnh avert danger Khowh eat
ek P£hRh khytfw uhr `cfw `byS ybpfq pRh
lit: having cut one danger get into an even bigger danger
from the frying pan into the fire
o emn s¬t emn sMfz khytfw yql e yk km kUh?
The way he averted such danger so easily was quite something.
Ghs khth lit: cut grass thankless task
ahym yk Ghs khtfu efsyC?
Have I come here to waste my time?
37.4 Khowh eat

Khowh includes all kinds of oral intake such as breathing, drinking, smoking,
kissing and can extend to being at the receiving end of.
ghyl Khowh be rebuked
bhyR ygfw ghyl `Kfu Mfb/ I will get a scolding when I go home.
`ghuh Khowh fall headlong
`Cflyt bhs Ùfk nhmfu nhmfu `ghuh The boy fell headlong as he was
`Kfw pfR `gl/ getting off the bus.
mhr Khowh get beaten up
bhyRr `Prhr pfU mhr `KfwfC/ He got beaten up on the way home.
GvX Khowh take a bribe
uhrh GvX Khw nh/ They don’t take bribes.
thkh Khowh use up
uvym ahmhr afnk thkh KhÉC/ You are using up a lot of my money.
chkyr Khowh get someone sacked
\yn iÉCh kfr ahmhr chkyr `KfwfCn/ He got me sacked deliberately.
`lhkshn Khowh make a loss
ei phglhymfu afnk `lhkshn `KfwfC/ He made a considerable loss due to
this insane idea.
mhUh Khowh spoil rotten
ayu ahqr yqfw `Cflthr mhUh `Kfwh nh/ Don’t spoil the boy with too much
indulgence. 687
37 ahChR Khowh fall, tumble
Individual verbs
ys£yRfu nhmfu ahym ahChR `Klhm/ I fell when I was coming down the stairs.
cvmv Khowh kiss
ahym `mfwytfk `Cflthr GhfR cvmv
`Kfu `qfKyC/ I saw the girl kissing the boy’s neck.
ysghfrt Khowh smoke
ahmrh `k\ ysghfrt Khi nh/ None of us smoke.
`M£hct Khowh stumble, trip
`chK Bhl nw `x, `M£hct Khw/ His eye-sight is not good, so he stumbles.
Khyb Khowh gasp
uhr M£hphyn ahfC, uhi Khyb KhfÉC/ She has asthma. That’s why she is gasping.
Uumu Khowh be disconcerted, be embarrassed
uhfk `qfK `mfwyt Uumu `KfwfC/ The girl was embarrassed when she saw him.
Gvrphk Khowh spin around

`s eKno khfC ahfC bft/ uhr shifkflr chkh Gvrphk KhfÉC/
He must be close by. The wheels of his bike are still spinning.
37.5 Gth happen, occur
Gth shares some uses with Mowh happen, occur

eKhfn yk MfwfC? eKhfn yk GftfC? What has happened here?
gukhl ekth qvGòtnh Ml/
gukhl ekth qvGòtnh Gtl/ An accident happened yesterday.
Unlike Mowh, Gth in affirmative sentences is restricted to unplanned occurrences
and things that happen unexpectedly.
ahz sfbri bjyuœm Gtl/ Today everything was out of order.
Gth often doubles up with its noun Gtnh event:

uKn ekth aÀvu Gtnh Gtl/ Then something strange happened.
In negative sentences it can also be used for things that were expected to
688 occur and did not:
uhfqr `qKh krh ahr Gtl nh/ They did not meet again. chowh want,
look at
ei bCfr klkhuh SMfrr byMrfÃr ybfSX ykCv pyrbuòn Gftyn/
This year nothing much had changed in the appearance of Kolkata.
The following sentence makes a contrast between the simple Gth happen
and its causative Gthfnh cause to happen
yk≤ mhnvfXr zYbfn emn sb aÀvu Gtnh Gft xh \pnjhfs Gthfu `gfl pTfkrh ybSáhs
krfu chifb nh, `Mfs \yRfw `qfb/
All these strange things happen in human life, but when they are made to
happen in a novel readers don’t want to believe them and laugh them
away.
37.6 chowh want, look at
chowh has two separate meanings.

In the sense of looking chowh is used with yqfk towards.
`s nqYr yqfk `cfw q£hRhfÉC/ He is standing looking towards the river.

chowh rarely appears as a single verb in this use but usually in a compound
verb, a verbal sequence or in imperfective participle structures:
`mfwyt ahmhr yqfk `cfw ril/ The girl kept looking at me.
yuyn `chK `mfl chifln/ He was staring with wide-open eyes.
`s Cybthr yqfk ahr chifu phfryn/ She could not look at the picture any more.
ahr ekbhr zhnhlhr bhifrr yqfk `cfw rhuth ah~qhz krl/
One more time she looked out of the window to guess the time of night.
but we also find occurrences like:
`mfwyt ahmhr yqfk chiu nh/ The girl never looked at me.
chowh meaning want can appear in all tenses when it is preceded by an
imperfective participle:
ahym uhfqr sfÃ `xfu `cfwyClhm/ I wanted to go with them.

uhrh ahm `Kfu chfÉC/ They want to eat some mangoes.
`s bith pRfu chifb nh/ He will not want to read the book.
Simple present tense occurrences have an added decisiveness:
ahpyn yk chn blvn ùh/

Just tell me what you want. 689
37 ahym yk≤ ahpnhfk ei bjhphfr shMhxj krfu chi/
Individual verbs But I want to help you in this matter.
ahmrh —fujk mhnvXfk ynfzr sfÃ mhpsi kfr `qKfu chi, uhrpr ektv gryml Mfli
c£jhchfmyc kfr \yT/
We want every human being to conform to our standards and then if they
don’t we make a big fuss.
An idiomatic structure is the use of the simple present of chowh with an
imperative subordinate content clause:
`khno khrfN e bjhphfr \yn mhnysk k§ phn ahym chi nh/

I don’t want him to suffer any distress in this matter for any reason.
ahpyn yk chn `s ei kUh blvk? Do you want him to say this?
37.7 zhnh know
zhnh has some peculiarities in its tense use – in fact its tense use splits the
verb into two quite distinct meanings. To a lesser extent this split can also
occur with verbs of comprehension like `bhZh understand or `qKh see but it
is particularly poignant with zhnh.
37.7.1 Simple past
The simple past is often used with fixed points of time in the past and
means learn, find out about, come to know
ahym uh —Ufm zhnlhm `s yqn/

I that first-LOC know-1-P-S that day means
I first found out about this that day.
bjhphrth xKn zhnfln uKn uhr mfnr Shy™ `BfW pRl/
matter-CL when-REL zhnh-3H-P-S then he-GEN mind-GEN peace
break-PP fall-3-P-S
When he found out about this matter his peace of mind was
shattered.
ahz zhnlhm `x `s ahr yPrfb nh/
today zhnh-1-P-S that he more return-3-FUT not
I found out today that he wasn’t coming back.
690
37.7.2 Past habitual zhnh know
The past habitual is used to indicate a past awareness: know, be aware of
ahmrh uhr nhm zhnuhm/

we he-GEN name know-1-P-HABIT
We knew his name.
Here is a more elaborate sentence:
eki mhnvX `x kybo Mfu phfr, py’uo Mfu phfr, uh yk yuyn zhnfun nh?
same person that poet be-IP be able to-3-PR-S scholar also be-IP be
able to-3-PR-S that what he-H zhnh-3H-P-HABIT
Did he not know that one person can be both a poet and a scholar?
This means that the past habitual of zhnh operates as the normal past tense
form when zhnh means know, be aware of
uvym `x ahsfb ahym ùh zhnuhm nh/

you that come-2-FUT I EMP zhnh-1-P-HABIT
But I didn’t know that you were coming.
eKno eu r∆ Zrfu phfr, `k zhnu/

still so much blood flow-IP be able to-3-PR-S who zhnh-3-P-HABIT
Who would have guessed that so much blood could still flow?
yuyn `x gu bCr mhrh `gfCn uvym yk zhnfu nh?

he-H that last year hit-VN go-3H-PR-PERF you what zhnh-2-P-HABIT
Didn’t you know that he died last year?
ahym `x chkyrth kryC uh qhqh abSj zhnu/

I that job-CL do-1-PR-C that Dada of course zhnh-3-P-HABIT
Of course Dada knew that I had this job.
Here is a sentence which combines the two uses:
ahfg zhnuhm nh, eKn zhnlhm/

before know-1-P-HABIT not now know-1-P-S
I didn’t know this before but now I have found out.
691
37
37.7.3 Present perfect
Individual verbs
The present perfect uses of zhnh again split into the two different meanings:
affirmative: find out, learn
pfr `zfnyC . . .
after zhnh-1-PR-PERF
we found out later
er mfQj ahmrh `zfn `gyC . . .
this-GEN within we zhnh-PP go-1-PR-PERF
by then we had come to know . . .
yuyn zhnfu `pfrfCn . . .
he zhnh-IP be able to-3-PR-PERF
He found out . . .
khz `x `pfwyCs, uh ùhr thkh phThfnhfu `zfnyC/
work that-REL find-2I-PR-PERF that you-GEN money send-VN-LOC
zhnh1-PR-PERF
We knew that you had found a job because you were sending money.
negative: know, be aware of. It seems that the use of the present perfect
can provide a time element which is absent with the past habitual. All the
example sentences contain kKno ever.
er ahfg kKno ahym zhynyn bh yzf“s kyr yn . . .

this-GEN before ever I not zhnh-1-PR-PERF or question not
do-1-PR-PERF
Until now I had never known or never asked . . .
nymu kKno zhfnyn `x bhLlh BhXhr zfnj urßNrh SMYq MfwyCfln/
Namito ever not zhnh-3-PR-PERF that Bangla language-GEN young
people-CL martyr become-3-P-PERF
Namito had never known that young people had become martyrs for the
Bangla language.
emn sôpVNò, apr∑p ShrYyrk Shy™ `s kKno zhfn yn/
such complete incomparable physical peace he ever not
zhnh-3-PR-PERF
He had never known such a complete and utter physical
peacefulness.
692
37.7.4 Verbal noun zhnh know
zhnh is also frequently used as a verbal noun with ahC-. This structure
implies awareness of:
`s `x ct kfr e rkm ekth lhifs~s `pfw xhfb `s kUh zhnh yCl nh ahmhr/
he that quick-do-PP this kind one-CL license get-PP go-3-FUT that
word I-GEN zhnh-VN [was not]
I was not aware that he would get this kind of licence so quickly.
ei kUh ùh sbhri zhnh ahfC/
this word EMP everybody-GEN zhnh [is present]
Everyone knows this.
uhfqr ybfw `x MfwfC ùhmhr yk zhnh `ni?
they-GEN marriage that be-3-PR PERF you-GEN what zhnh [is absent]
Did you not know that they got married?
The regular verb for specific knowledge in the sense of recognition is `cnh.
ahym uhfk ycyn nh/

I he-OBJ `cnh-1-PR-S not
I don’t know him.
`lhkthfk `cnh `cnh lhgfC/
person-CL-OBJ `cnh-VA (×2) feel-3-PR-C
The man seems familiar to me.
zhwghth nh ycnfl yk kfr xhfb?
place-CL not `cnh-CP what do-PP go-3-FUT
How will he go if he doesn’t know the place.
uhr kybuh ahym afnk yqn Ml ycyn/
his poem I much day be-3-P-S `cnh-1-PR-S
I have known his poems for a long time.
zhnh can also be used in this sense:

SMYq khqrYfk xhrh zhfnn uhrh sbhi …Ykhr krfbn `x . . .
Shahid Qadri-OBJ who-R know-3-PR-S they-CR everyone
admit-do-3-H-FUT that
All those who know Shahid Qadri will admit that . . .
ùhr Bhi yk kfr ofqr zhnl?

your brother what do-PP they-OBJ know-3-P-S
How did your brother know them? 693
37 ahmrh ahpnhfk zhyn/
Individual verbs we you-H-OBJ know-1-PR-S
We know you.
37.8 `qKh see, `qKhfnh show
`qKh is similar in scope to the English see but its actual uses are quite
specific.
`qKh with a direct object

ahym —qSònYth `qfKyC/ I have seen the exhibition.
ahmrh ekth shp `qKlhm/ We saw a snake.
In connection with meeting and seeing human beings `qKh has the following
uses:
with direct object
ahym uhfk `qKlhm/ I saw him, maybe from a distance, but did
not speak to him.
`qKh Mowh meet, whether by design or chance
uhr sfÃ `qKh MfwfC/ I met him, perhaps by chance, and talked to him.
khlfk uhr sfÃ `qKh Mfb/ I will see him tomorrow. (We work in the same
place or we are going to the same event.)
Not necessarily a deliberate meeting.
uhr sfÃ —hwi `qKh Mw/ I often see him. (Our paths cross.)
ahbhr `qKh Mfb! See you! This is a common phrase for
saying goodbye.
`qKh krh meet, by design

ahmhfqr `qKh krfu Mfb/ We need to meet. (We have something to
discuss.)
uhr sfÃ `qKh krb nh/ I will not meet up with him.
Other uses of `qKh
`qKh xhowh become apparent

uhr pfri svzhuhr syujkhfrr `cMhrh `qKh `gl/
that-GEN after EMP Sujata-GEN true-GEN appearance be seen-VA
go-3-P-S
694 After that Sujata’s true nature became apparent.
ektv pfr `qKh ygfwyCl, bhyRr sbhi e Gfr Cvft efsfC/ `qKh see,
a bit later be seen-VA go-3-P-PERF house-GEN this room-LOC `qKhfnh show
run-PP come-3-PR-PERF
A bit later it became apparent that everyone from the house had run into
this room.
Examples for `qKh `qowh appear and `qKh phowh manage to see are given in
Ch. 20.5.3.
Both `qKh see and `qKhfnh show are used to talk about physical appearance.
The object of seeing goes into the object case, except in connection with
an imperfective participle. This structure is given in Ch. 21.2(c).
yk≤ yk sv~qr eKno yuyn `qKfu/
but what beautiful still she-H see-IP
But how beautiful she still looks!
with `qKh
u£hfk Kvb KvyS `qKlhm/
he-H-OBJ very happy see-1-P-S
He looked very happy to me.
`s ahmhfk kKno mnmrh abñhw `qfKyn/
he I-OBJ ever depressed situation-LOC not see-3-PR-PERF
He has never seen me depressed.
The structures with `qKhfnh show are impersonal.
ahpnhfk ybfqyS `qKhfÉC ahz/
you-H-OBJ foreign show-3-PR-C today
You look foreign today.
`bS sfuz o svñ `qKhfÉC ghCgvflhfk eKn/
quite alive and healthy show-3-PR-C tree-CL-PL-OBJ now
The trees look quite alive and healthy now.
`s b†h\fz apVbò `qKhfÉC anvrhQhfk/
that blouse-LOC incomparable sow-3-PR-C Onuradha-OBJ
Onuradha looks wonderful in that blouse.
`lhkytfk Kvb \f≠yzu `qKhyÉCl/
man-CL-OBJ very excited show-3-P-C
The man looks very worked up.
ahwnhw ahmhfqr qvznfk aÀvu `qKhl/
mirror-LOC we-OBJ two-CL-OBJ strange show-3-P-S
The two of us looked strange in the mirror. 695
37 Here we have `qKhfnh in its more usual context:
Individual verbs
yuyn Kvb \qhruho `qKhfln/
he very generosity also show-3H-P-S
He also showed great generosity.
As with blh say the perfective participle of `qKh can follow a subordinate
clause in a linking function.
`s rhzhmShifk `qyr krhr `khno khrN yqfu phfrn nh `qfK bll, bhifrr péyUbYfk
Kvbi ynmòl `qKhfÉC/
he king–OBJ delay do-VN-GEN any reason give-IP be able to-3H-
PR-S not `qfK say outside-GEN world-OBJ very EMP fair show-3-
PR-C
He saw that he could not give the king any reason to delay. So he said,
‘The weather looks very nice.’
Figurative uses of `qKh include:
look after: bhghnth ektv `qKfbn? Will you look after the garden a bit?
examine: dh∆hr uhfk gukhl
`qfKfCn/ The doctor examined him yesterday.
wait: ahr ektv `qyK/ Let’s wait a bit longer.
`qKh xhk! Let’s wait and see!
consider: uhfqr abñh `qKfu Mfb/ Their situation needs to be considered.
read: Kbfrr khgz ahz `qyKyn/ I haven’t read the newspaper today.
`qKfu-`qKfu is an adverb meaning in an instant, immediately

uhi ahmrh `qKfu phi ñlBVymfu ahshr pr GVyNòZR `qKfu `qKfu qvbòl Mfw xhw/
So we see that on reaching dry land the cyclone immediately weakens.
37.9 phowh get, receive
With verbs of perception phowh replaces phrh be able to to express ability.

The preceding verb is in the imperfective participle.
`mG yCl bfl ahmrh phMhRgvflh `qKfu phi yn/

cloud [was present] because mountain-PL-CL see-IP not phowh-1-PR-PERF
Because of the clouds we couldn’t see the mountains.
`tylfPhn lhinth emn Khrhp ykCv Svnfu phowh xhw nh/

telephone line-CL such bad something hear-IP phowh-VN go-3-PR-S not
696 The phone-line is so bad that one can’t hear anything.
ùhmhfk shrhyqn `qKfu phb, ùhmhr khfC Uhkfu phb, ùhmhr sfÃ kUh kifu phb/ phowh get,
you-OBJ all day see-IP phowh-1-FUT you-GEN with stay-IP phowh-1-FUT receive
you-GEN with word speak-IP phowh-1-FUT
I will be able to see you all day and to be with you and talk to you.
qvyqn `Kfu phiyn/
two day eat not phowh-1-PR-PERF
I haven’t had any food for two days.
phowh is used idiomatically with a number of abstract nouns:
Bw phowh get scared
o ykCvfu Bw phw nh/
he something-LOC Bw phowh-3-PR-S not
He is not afraid of anything.
shMs phowh muster the courage, be brave
ahym eklh `xfu shMs phyÉC nh/
I alone go-IP courage phowh-1-PR-S-not
I don’t have the courage to go by myself.
`ShBh phowh become, behove, be seemly
`mfwfCflr sfÃ ZgRh krh pvrßXfqr `ShBh phw nh/
girl boy-GEN with argument-do-VN man-PL-GEN beauty phowh-3-PR-S
It is not seemly for men to argue with girls.
ahfmhq phowh and mzh phowh be amused
er mfQj ekth qlfk `qfK ahym Bhyr ahfmhq `plhm/
this-GEN in one-CL group-OBJ see-PP I heavy amusement phowh-1-P-S
At that time I saw a group that caused me great amusement.
yZnvk mzh `pl/
Jhinuk fun phowh-3-P-S
Jhinuk was amused.
…yÄ phowh be comforted, be relieved
ektv …yÄ `pl zwqYp/
a bit relief phowh-3-P-S Jaydip
Jaydip was a bit relieved.
`qKh phowh get to see
The object of the seeing is in the genitive. This is a verbal adjective conjunct
verb. 697
37 rßmh —hw qv mhs `GhrhGvyr kfro uhr bhbhr `qKh `pl nh/
Individual verbs Ruma almost two month wandering wandering do-PP even her
father-GEN see-VN phowh-3-P-S not
Despite roaming around for almost two months Runa did not get to see
her father.
sVxò \fT `gfC, ubv uhr `qKh phi nh `kn?

sun rise-PP go-3-PR-PERF but it-GEN see-VN phowh-1-PR-S not why
The sun has come up. Why can I not see it?
phowh is used with the perfective participles of `K£hzh search: K£vfz phowh find
and in negative contexts with the perfective participle of Bhbh think: `Bfb nh
phowh not be able to think, imagine.
Examples for K£vfz phowh are given in Ch. 18.13 under compound verbs.
Examples for `Bfb phowh are given here:
—NfbS yk \≠r `qfbn `Bfb phyÉCfln nh/

Pranabesh what reply give-3-H-FUT think-PP phowh-3-P-C not
Pranabesh had no idea what to reply.
o `Bfb phw nh `si qéy§ `khUhw `gl/

he think-PP phowh-3-PR-S not that vision where go-3-P-S
He couldn’t understand where that vision had gone.
mYrh ahr yk blfb `Bfb `pl nh/

Mira more what say-3-FUT think-PP phowh-3-P-S not
Mira didn’t know what else to say.
With physical sensations phowh is used in an impersonal structure with a

genitive experiencer subject:
Examples can be found in Ch. 28.3.3 impersonal structures.
37.10 phrh be able to, be possible, may
phrh can combine with a preceding imperfective participle to express ability,

permission or possiblity:
ability: ahym `xfu phrb/ I will be able to go.

permission: uvym eKn `xfu phr/ You may go now.
possibility: bhynfw blfuo ùh phfr/ He may be lying.
698
Unlike the English can, phrh is a full verb which can stand on its own phrh be able
without a preceding imperfective participle: to, be possible,
may
ahmrh Q£hQhr \≠r phyr nh/
we puzzle-GEN answer phrh-1-PR-S
We can’t solve the puzzle.
ahym bhbhr sfÃ phrb nh/

I father-GEN with phrh-1-FUT not
I can’t compete with father.
`s Kvb Bhl s£huhr phfr/

he very good swimming phrh-3-PR-S
He is a very good swimmer.
When a negated phrh is preceded by a negation, the imperfective participle

changes to a perfective participle. The semantic impact of this struc-
tures is unable to resist, can’t help doing or, in impersonal structures be
inevitable.
svyc«h `k£fq nh \fT phfryn/

Suchitra cry-PP not rise-PP phrh-3-PR-S not
Suchitra coudn’t help crying.
`SX pxò™ zwqYp nh bfl phrl nh/

end until Jaydip not say-PP phrh-3-P-S not
In the end, Jaydip couldn’t remain silent.
ei —Sä mfn nh efs phfr nh/

this question mind-LOC not come-PP phrh-3-P-S not
This question came to mind inevitably.
bhp o SáSvr `gfl nh efs phrfb nh/

father and father-in-law go-CP not come-PP phrh3-FUT not
With his father and father-in-law going (to fetch him) he will have to
come.
And here is a negated non-finite structure with an imperfective participle.
nh Mhsfu nh phrhr `khno khrN `ni/

not laugh-IP not phrh-VN-GEN any reason [is absent]
There was no reason not to be able to laugh.
699
37 Imperfective participle with phrh and verbal noun with xhowh.
Individual verbs
phrh preceded by an imperfective participle is the personal equivalent to
structures with a verbal noun followed by xhowh. Both structures express
possibility.
personal: ùhmrh oiyqfk `xfu phrfb/ You can go that way.

impersonal: oiyqfk xhowh xhw nh/ It is not possible to go that way.
personal ahym blfu phrb nh/ I am unable to say.
impersonal: blh xhw nh/ It is impossible to tell.
These two structures, particularly with the verb blh say, often get linked
together for a stronger impact. There are two ways of combining them:
1 imperfective participle + verbal noun of phrh + third person of xhowh or

2 verbal noun + imperfective participle of xhowh + third person of phrh
(1) kUhth blfu phrh xhw/ or (2) kUhth blh `xfu phfr/ It is possible to say this.
Note that the impersonal character of the verbal noun + xhowh structure
remains in place and makes (2) a phrase without a subject.
ahzfkr BhXhw blh `xfu phfr `x . . .

today-GEN language-LOC say-VN go-IP be possible-3-PR-S
In modern language it is possible to say that . . .
`si mhnvfXr shmfn ygfw q£hRhfu phrh xhfb?
that EMP man-GEN in front of go-PP stand-IP be possible-VN go-3-FUT
Is it possible to go and stand in front of that man?
`s eu cÅl `x uhfk shmlhfu phrh xhw nh/
he so much restless that he-OBJ restrain-IP be possible-VN go-3-PR-S not
He is so restless that he can’t be restrained.
bhyRth ycynfw yqfu phrh xhfb/
house-CL make known-PP give-IP be possible-VN go-3-PR-S
It is possible to show you the house.
ei bjhgthw `rfK `qowh `xfu phfr/
this EMP bag-CL-GEN put-PP give-VN go-IP be possible-3-PR-S
It can be put into this bag.
37.11 blh say, speak, tell

In English we have the monovalent talk but blh is always bivalent and has
700 a direct object except in elliptical uses like ahym blb nh/ I won’t tell.
For the English talk Bangla uses kUh blh: blh say, speak,
uhrh kUh blfb/ tell
they word say-3-FUT
They will talk.
`s kUh blfC nh/
he word say-3-PR-C not
He is not talking.
eu kUh blfb nh/
so much word say-2-FUT-IMP not
Don’t talk so much.
ahfÄ ahfÄ kUh blfu Mfb/
softly softly word say-IP be-3-FUT
(We) will have to talk quietly.
For all other contexts the direct object is equivalent to English uses:
`s yk bflfC?
he what say-3-PR-PERF
What did he say?
`s ykCv bflyn/
he something not say-3-PR-PERF
He didn’t say anything.
blh can become a trivalent verb with an indirect as well as a direct object:
ahym ùhmhfk sb ykCv blb/
I you-OBJ all something say-1-FUT
I will tell you everything.
In this type of structure the direct object can be dropped (as is also pos-
sible in English) – this is an elliptical use:
ahym ùhmhfk blb/

I you-OBJ say-1-FUT
I will tell you.
The imperfective participle of blh is used to explain terminology and word
use. It can occur with forms of `bhZh understand as in the first three sen-
tences below or as an independent clause.
ahi i blfu yk `bhZhw?

i.e. say-IP what explain-3-PR-S
What is meant by i.e.? 701
37 zflr qhfm blfu `bhZhw ybnhmVlj/
Individual verbs water-GEN price-LOC say-IP explain-3-PR-S without cost
Saying ‘for the price of water’ means that it comes free.
svXm Khqj blfu ahmrh `si zhuYw Khqj bvyZ xhr mfQj Khfqjr \phqhn . . .
good food say-IP we that EMP national food understand -1-PR-S
that-REL among food-GEN ingredient
When we say good fodder we mean the kind of indigenous fodder which
contains such ingredients as . . .
'ahmrh" blfu s®bu bhWhyl phTksmhfzr `si aLSyt x£hrh smhfzr nhnh ybXfw mhUh
Ghymfw Uhfkn/
we say-IP possibly Bengali reading society that EMP part-CL rel-HON
various subject head worry-PP stay-3H-PR-S
By ‘we’ he probably means those members of the Bengali reading society
who worry about a variety of social issues.
shMsY blfu eKhfn afnk `Cfl /
courageous say-IP here-LOC many boy
There are many boys here who could be called courageous.
l°h blfu uhfqr ykCv `ni/
shame say-IP they-GEN something [is absent]
They have no such thing as shame.
Another way of talking about the meaning of words is with direct object
structures. All non-finite verb forms of blh can be used.
verbal noun:
`khqhlfk `khqhli blh qrkhr/

spade-OBJ spade say-VN need
A spade needs to be called a spade.
imperfective participle:
`khqhlfk `khqhli blfu Mw/

spade-OBJ spade say-IP be-3-PR-S
A spade has to be called a spade.
`khqhlfk `khqhli nh bfl yk blfb?

spade-OBJ spade not say-PP what say-2-FUT
What will you call a spade if not a spade?
702
conditional participle: mhnh respect,
accept
`khqhlfk `khqhli blfl `khno khz Mw nh/
spade-OBJ spade say-CP any work be-3-PR-S not
Calling a spade a spade doesn’t get us anywhere.
The perfective participle bfl acts as a conjunction (see Ch. 29.3.2, 29.6,
29.6.2.)
ahuÖh bfl `khno yzynsi uhr `ni/

soul say-PP any thing EMP he-GEN [is absent]
He has no such thing as a soul.
The expression blh bhMvlj means needless to say.
37.12 mhnh respect, accept
mhnh ranges in meaning from pay heed, listen, believe to respect and an
acceptance of particular rules.
ei Qrfnr `khfnh ukò \Tfl `SX pxò™ ahmhfk Mhr mhnfu Mw/
When there is an argument of this kind, in the end I will have to admit
defeat.
uhr kUh ahym `mfn ynfu phryC nh/ I can’t accept what he is saying.
smhfzr ahin-khnvn `mfn cflfC/ They followed the rules of society.
`xn GyRr k£htho emn ynwm `mfn cfl nh/
It seems as if the hands on the clock don’t follow such a system either.
sb `mfn ynfw cyl/ I accept everything and live accordingly.
eirkm kvsLãkhfrr kUh ahmrh mhyn nh/
We don’t listen to this kind of superstitious talk.
mhnhfnh fit, suit
`bhkhr mu kUh blfbn nh, `bhkhr mu kUh blh ahpnhfk mhnhw nh/
Don’t talk like a fool. Talking like a fool does not suit you.
ShyRth uhfk Kvb mhnhw/ The saree suits her very well.
rLth ùhmhfk mhnhw nh/ The colour does not suit you.
'`qKvn ùh Qvyuth uhfk mhnhfb yknh?" 'o mh! `Cflfqr ahbhr mhnhfnh, a-mhnhfnh yk?"
‘Have a look whether the dhoti will be right for him.’ ‘Heavens, why should
men worry about things like that?’
703
Chapter 38
Idioms
This section brings together a selection of idiomatic uses for individual

nouns and adjectives. For anyone interested in idioms, proverbs, sayings
and suchlike, Hayat Mamud’s \Écur …ynBòr ybSvº BhXh-ySÇh (Dhaka 2007) is
recommended. No glosses are given in this section.1
Nouns
38.1 kUh statement, utterance, fact
kUh is very widely used and covers everything from an individual state
ment to a whole philosophy or theory. Sûq is the appropriate term for an
individual word. kUh can be used with personal pronouns to talk about
people, particular in connection with memories and opinions about these
people. Where in English we say directly I remember him, in Bangla we
are likely to say uhr kUh ahmhr mfn ahfC/
Equally:
uhr kUh bhq qho/

Stop talking about him.
ùhmhr kUh ahym ykCv zhyn nh/
I know nothing about you.
ùhmhr sfÃ khr kUh?
Who can compete with you?
1 Some of the examples in this section are taken from ShMhzhn mynb, bhLlh bjhkrN, Student’s
704 publication, first edition 1959, second edition 2006, Dhaka.
kUh `qowh promise kUh statement,
utterance, fact
ahym ùhmhfk `khno kUh `qiyn/
I did not promise you anything.
kUh rhKh keep a promise
`s afnk ykCv bfl yk≤ kUh rhfK nh/

He says a lot but he does not keep his promises.
kUh bhRhfnh elaborate

ahym ahr e ynfw kUh bhRhiyn/
I didn’t elaborate any more on this.
kUh `CfR `qowh drop a subject

ahr yk blfu Mfb? kUhth `CfR qho/
What else needs to be said? Drop the subject!
mfnr kUh private thoughts

uhr mfnr kUh ahym ahr ykCvi zhyn nh/
I don’t know any longer what he really thinks.
bhfz kUh nonsense
`lhkyt afnk bhfz kUh bfl/

The man talks a lot of nonsense.
\ycu kUh appropriate talk

\ycu kUh ChRh ykCv blh Mfb nh/
Nothing will be said apart from what ought to be said.
\fRh kUh lit: flying words = rumours

\fRh kUhfu khn yqo nh/
Don’t listen to rumours!
uvÉC kUh a mere trifle

eth ykCv nw, uvÉC kUh/
That’s nothing, a mere trifle.
qVfrr kUh something a long way off

ynfz M£htfu phrh eKno qVfrr kUh/
Being able to walk by himself is still a long way off. 705
38 something not to be mentioned, out of the question, taboo
Idioms eKn `Kfu bfs `kmn `xn l°h phw/ rhêhr smhflhcnh ùh qVfrr kUh/
Now when he sits down to eat he feels embarrassed. Discussing the cooking
is out of the question.
bR kUh important matter, real issue or big words
bR kUh pxò™ blh Mwyn/
The real issue was not talked about.
rhK rhK bR kUh!
Spare me your sermon!
Uses of kUh with a preceding genitive verbal noun are given in Ch. 34.4.
38.2 khz work, deed, action, result
khz is not just work but any deed or action that human beings undertake.
e.g.:
uhr khC Ùfk ybqhw ynfw ahshr khzyt sMz Mw yn/

It was not easy to say good-bye to him.
fixed phrases:
khfzr mhnvX/ khfzr `lhk someone who works hard

khfzr `lhk can also mean servant or employee
khfzr yzyns something that serves a particular purpose
khfzr `nSh workaholic
khfz bjÄ busy with work
`s sb smw khfz bjÄ/
He is always busy.
khfz lhgh use
yzynsth chkh bqlhfnhr kfz lhfg nh/
That thing is useless for changing a tyre.
eth `Pfl yqfwh nh - eKno khfz lhgfb/
Don’t throw this away – it will still be useful.
khz Mowh get a result
uhfk dhkfl khz Mfw xhfb/
706 If we call him the job will get done.
gh body
38.3 khn ear
khn phuh listen eagerly

`shfMflr g¶p Svnfu ahmrh sbhi khn `pfu yClhm/
We were all very keen to hear Sohel’s story.
khn `qowh listen, pay attention
yuyn ùhmhr khpfRr abñh `qfK ahr khn `qfbn nh/
Once he has seen the state of your clothes he won’t listen to you.
khn bhzh resound, ring, make an impact
uhr kUh eKno ahmhr khfn bhzfC/
His words are still ringing in my ears.
khfn lhgh be pleasant to hear
`Cht ySSvr kUh Kvb khfn `lfgfC/
Hearing the little child speak was very pleasant.
khnkhth brazen
emn khnkhth `lhk ahym ahfg `qyKyn/
I have not met such a brazen person before.
38.4 gh body
ghfw mhKh lit: apply to the body accept, take to heart

`mfwyt bR `zyq, khro kUh ghfw mhfK nh/
The girl is very headstrong. She doesn’t listen to anyone.
ghfw Mhu ùhlh raise a hand to someone
`Cht bhÉchfqr ghfw Mhu ùhlh ahmhfqr ynwm nw/
It is not our custom to hit small children.
ghfw k£hth `qowh get goose bumps
`s yqfnr kUh mfn pRfu ahmhr ghfw eKno k£hth yqfw ofT/
When I think about that day, I still get goose bumps.
gh Dhkh `qowh go undercover
`khno Zhfmlh Mfl `lhkth gh Dhkh `qw/
Whenever there is any trouble, the man goes undercover. 707
38 gh záhlh krh be vexed, be irritated
Idioms
uhfqr qvzfn eksfÃ `qfK ùhmhr emn gh záhlh kfr `kn?
Why are you so vexed at seeing those two together?
gh zvRhfnh relax, refresh
ahz Kvb gh zvRhfnh bhuhs MfÉC/

There is a lovely, refreshing breeze today.
ghfw P£v `qowh relax
abfSfX ghfw ektv P£v yqfu phrfb/

Finally he will be able to relax a bit.
ghfw pRh intrusive, officious
ghfw pRh `lhk `k\ pC~q kfr nh/

No one likes intrusive people.
38.5 `chK eye
`chK oTh eye-infection

`Cflytr `chK \fTfC/
The boy has an eye-infection.
`chK `Phth realise, wake up to something

kfb `x uhr `chK Pvtfb `k zhfn?
Who knows when he will wake up to the situation.
`chK `Khlh begin to understand

yk≤ uhr kUh Svfn ahmhr kuKhyn `chK Kvfl `gfC `s uh zhfn nh/
But he doesn’t know how much I understood from what he told me.
`chK `qKh eye examination

dh∆hr shfMb `rhgYr `chK `qfK cSmh ynfu bflfCn/
The doctor examined the patient’s eyes and prescribed glasses.
`chfK Qvflh `qowh cheat, lit: throw sand in the eye

pfrr `chfK Qvflh yqfw ahr kuyqn clfb?
708 How much longer will he go on cheating others.
`chK ththfnh be envious, lit: eye inflamed ph foot, leg
pfrr mÃl `qKfl ùhmhr eu `chK ththw `kn, bl ùh?

Why are you so envious of other people’s good fortune, tell me.
`chK Thrh wink, signal
ahym `x ùhmhfk uhr yqfk `chK Thrfu `qfKyC/

I saw you winking at him.
`chK phkhfnh, `chK rhWhfnh express anger
`s ùhmhr sfÃ kKno `chK rhyWfw kUh bfl nh/

He never speaks to you in anger.
`chK rhKh keep an eye on
`Cflytr yqfk ektv `chK `rfKh/

Keep an eye on the boy.
`chfKr mhUh Khowh fail to see
ei `x ùhmhr cSmh! `chfKr mhUh `KfwC?

Here are your glasses! Are you blind?
`chfK ahWvl yqfw `qKhfnh / zhnhfnh spell out
ahpnhfk yk `chfK ahWvl yqfw zhynfw yqfu Mfb?

Do I really have to spell it out for you?
`chfKr \pfr in front of
`s ùhmhr `chfKr \pfr yk kfr eirkm krl?

How could he do this right in front of your eyes?
`chfKr `nSh infatuation
eth SvQv `chfKr `nSh, emyn yTk Mfw xhfb/

This is just an infatuation. It will sort itself out.
38.6 ph foot, leg
phfw Qrh touch someone’s feet, flatter
or mu képfNr phfw Qrflo qvyt thkh phfb nh/

Flattering a miser like him will not get you anywhere. 709
38 phfw pRh fall at someone’s feet
Idioms
`lhkth rhzhr phfw Qfr Çmh chil/
The man prostrated himself before the king and asked for forgiveness.
ph ph kfr step by step

ahmrh ph ph kfr eygfw xhyÉC/
We are making progress step by step.
ph bhRhfnh step out, go
—qYp rhÄhr yqfk ph bhRhfu lhgl/
Prodip started walking towards the road.
ph chth lit: lick feet kowtow

qvmvfTh Bhfur zfnj khro ph chtfuo uhr ahpy≠ `ni/
He has no qualms kowtowing to anyone for a handful of rice.
ph ytfpytfp on tiptoe
ahmrh ph ytfpytfp cvfp cvfp cfl `glhm/
We crept out quietly on tiptoe.
phfw rhKh give shelter

uhfqr a™u qvfwk rhfur zfnj phfw rhKvn/
At least give them shelter for a few nights.
38.7 bvk breast, chest
bvk `Phlh feel proud

`Cflr prYÇh phS krhr pr mhbhbhr bvk Pvfl `gfC/
The parents felt very proud when their son passed his exams.
bvk qvrqvr krh feel nervous

eu yqn pfr ahbhr `qKh Mfb bfl bvk qvrqvr krfC/
He was feeling nervous at the thought of meeting her again after such a
long time.
bvfk Mhu yqfw blh hand on heart

kUhth ahmhfk bvfk Mhu yqfw bll `s/
710 He told me this in all sincerity.
bvk b£hQh gather one’s courage mn mind, heart
bhbhr méuvjr pfr `Cflyt bvk `b£fQ zYbnfk mvkhyblh krl/

After the death of his father the boy gathered his courage and faced life.
bvk Phth heart-wrenching
uhfk ei bvk-Phth Kbr yqfu Ml/
We had to tell him the heart-breaking news.
38.8 mn mind, heart
mn is the part of a human being which is concerned with moods, emotions,

memory, inclination, thought, attention, character, concentration and will.
Heart is a more suitable translation for mn than mind. mn is not used for
mental or intellectual properties. For those mhUh head or `mQh brain are
used.
Locative verbal conjuncts with mn are given in Ch. 19.3.
mn pRh like (with preceding locative)

`mfwytfu uhr mn pfRfC/
He likes the girl.
mn oTh be satisfied
xu ybfSX bjbñh krfb, uhr mn uhfu \Tfb nh/
Whatever special arrangements you make for him, he won’t be satisfied.
eu af¶p uhr mn ofT nh/

He is not content with so little.
mn lhgh, mn `qowh concentrate

ykCvfu mn lhgfC nh ahz ahmhr/
I can’t concentrate on anything today.
mn `kmn krh feel out of sorts

skhl Ùfk mn `kmn krfC/
I have been feeling out of sorts since morning.
mn Khrhp Mowh be depressed

Kbrth Svfn mn Khrhp ùh Mfbi/
On hearing this he is bound to be depressed. 711
38 mn Kvfl blh speak frankly
Idioms
mn Kvfl kUh blhr uhr `k\ `ni/
He has no one to whom he can speak frankly.
mn `Cht petty, small-minded
emn `Cht mfnr `lhfkr muhmu `Shnhr qrkhr `ni ùhmhr/
You don’t need to hear the opinions of such small-minded people.
mn bsh attract attention, concentrate
prYÇhr Khuhgvflh `qKyCfln, uhfuo mn bfs nh/
He was looking at the exam papers, but he could not concentrate on them.
mfnr mhnvX kindred spirit
mfnr mhnvX phowh zYbfnr crm svK/
To find a kindred spirit is the greatest happiness in life.
mfnr yml good understanding
ofqr qvzfnr mfQj mfnr yml yCl Kvb/
They used to have a good understanding.
38.9 mhUh head
mhUh is predominantly the human head but it can also signify the top of a
mountain (phMhfRr mhUh), the end of a road (rhÄhr mhUh), the tip of a finger
(ahWvflr mhUh) or similar objects, the head of a family (pyrbhfrr mhUh), the
beginning of a narrative (gf¶pr mhUh) and so on.
uhr qv§vymfu mhUh `ni/
He is not one for being naughty.
mhUh Ghmhfnh worry
mhUh Ghmhfnh `khno lhB `ni/
There is no point in worrying.
mhUh Qrh headache
`rhfqî `M£ft `gfl uhr mhUh Qfr/
He gets a headache when he goes walking in the sunshine.
mhUh Khowh spoil rotten
ayu ahqr yqfw `Cflthr mhUh `Kfwh nh/
712 Don’t spoil the boy with too much loving.
mhUh gvylfw `qowh confuse mvK face, mouth
ahflhcnhth ahmhr mhUh efkbhfr gvylfw yqfwfC/

The discussion totally confused me.
mhUh `Ghrh feel dizzy
phMhfRr yqfk uhkhfl ahmhr mhUh `Ghfr/
When I look at the mountain my head spins.
mhUh Khrhp crazy
uhr s®bu mhUh Khrhp Mfw `gfC/
He has probably gone crazy.
mhUh khth xhowh be mortified
uhfqr bhyRfu ùhmhr MjhLlhym `qfK ahmhr mhUh khth `gl/
I was mortified to see your greediness at their house.
mhUh `qowh help
ybpq-ahpfq `x mhUh `qw, `si —kéu bív/
He helps in difficulties, he is a true friend.
mhUh grm krh become angry
eu af¶p mhUh grm krh yk lhB?
What is the point in getting worked up about such a minor matter?
38.10 mvK face, mouth
mvKfchrh shy, embarrassed

uhr mvKfchrh mhnvX Bhl lhfg nh/
He does not like shy people.
mvfK Ki `Phth prattle, talk too much
mfn Mw, b∆hr mvfK `xn Ki PvtfC/
It seems that the lecturer is just prattling on.
mvK shmlhfnh speak guardedly
mvK shmylfw kUh blfu k§ MfÉC, nhyk?
You are finding it difficult to stay polite, aren’t you?
mvfKr \pr kUh blh contradict, defy
uhr mvfKr \pr kUh blh ùhmhr \ycu nw/
It is not right for you to defy him. 713
38 mvK cvn Mowh be embarrassed
Idioms
`Cht Bhifwr aBqî bjbMhfr ahmhr mvK cvn MfwfC/
I was embarrassed by my younger brother’s rude behaviour.
mvfKr kUh mere words
ùhmhr mvfKr kUh ahmhr ahr `Shnhr qrkhr `ni/
I don’t want to listen to your empty words any more.
mvK chowh be dependent on
uhrh apfrr mvK `cfw bfs Uhfk nh/
They don’t sit around depending on others.
mvK `g£hz krh be down in the mouth
mvK `g£hz kfr bfs Ùfk yk lhB?
What is the point in sitting around with a long face?
mvfK ahnh bring oneself to say
`s xh bflfC uh ahym mvfKo ahnfu phyr nh/
I can’t even bring myself to say what he told me.
mvKbí preface
mvKbfí biytr sLyÇú pyrcw ahfC/
The preface gives an abbreviated introduction to the book.
mvKÄ by heart
kybuh ahmhr mvKÄ ahfC/
I know the poem by heart.
mvfKhmvyK face to face
mvfKhmvyK kUh blhr svfxhg ùh km/
There is little chance of speaking face to face.
38.11 Mhu hand
Mhu uhyl `qowh clap, applaud

ei zhwghw Mhu uhyl `qowh clfb nh/
In this place clapping is not appropriate.
Mhuthn light-fingered
`Cflytr Mhuthfnr aBjhs ahfC/
714 The boy is light-fingered.
Mhu `qowh become active, set to, take control Mhu hand
uvym Mhu nh yqfl khzth ahz `sfr `xfu phruhm/

If you had not got involved, we would have been able to finish the work
today.
Mhu krh bribe
chkrthfk Mhu kfr `chr Gfr DvfkfC/

The thief bribed the servant and entered the house.
Mhu Uhkh have influence
ei bjhphfr ahmhr `khno Mhu `ni/

I have no influence in this matter.
Mhu `qowh start, be active
shmfn mhs Ùfk ahym khfz Mhu yqfu phrb/

I will be able to put all my effort into this from next month.
Mhu chlhfnh be quick about something
ektv Mhu chlho, afnk khz `x bhyk/

Hurry up a bit, there is lots of work left.
MhufzhR krh ask forgiveness
Ght MfwfC Bhi, ahr bfkhnh, ùhmhr khfC MhufzhR kryC/

It was my fault, brother, don’t be cross any more, I ask your forgiveness.
Mhu phkhfnh become adept
`c§h krfl Mhu phkhfu phrfb/

You can become good at this if you try.
MhuChyn `qowh beckon
`s ykfs ùhmhfk MhuChyn yql?

What did he signal to you?
Khyl Mhfu empty-handed
ahym Khyl Mhfu ùhmhr khfC ahsyC/

I come to you with nothing.
715
38 Adjectives
Idioms
38.12 k£hch raw, unripe and phkh ripe

These two adjectives form a contrasting pair and can be used with many
items as a comment on the stage of their development. Here are just a few
examples:
k£hch phkh
k£hch Pl unripe fruit phkh Pl ripe fruit
k£hch ghC young, green tree phkh ghC fully grown tree
k£hch rhÄh mud road phkh rhÄh tarmacked road
k£hch it unburnt brick phkh it burnt brick
k£hch khT untreated wood phkh khT seasoned wood
k£hch bhyR mud house phkh bhyR brick house
k£hch kUh unfinished ideas phkh kUh firm promise
k£hch bws young age phkh bws ripe, old age
k£hch `lhk inexperienced person phkh `lhk skilled, experienced person
k£hch `lKh rough draft phkh `lKh finished copy
k£hch bvyº immature brain phkh bvyº wisdom
k£hch rL non-fast colour phkh rL durable, fast colour
Here are some individual terms:
k£hch mhl raw material phkh cvl grey hair
k£hch mhLs raw meat phkh Qhn ripe paddy
k£hch myrc green chili phkh mhUh wise, experienced person
k£hch thkh cash phkh `chr inveterate, hardened thief
k£hch Gvm first, light sleep phkh chkyr permanent job
As a verb phkhphyk krh means settle, finalise, phkhfnh cook or complicate.
uhr xhowhr uhyrK eKno phkhphyk Mwyn/
The date of his departure has not been finalised.
bjhphrth yqfnr pr yqn ahro phykfw xhfÉC/
The matter is getting more complicated every day.
38.13 bR big
Apart from indicating physical size, bR has the following idiomatic uses.
as an adjective:
`s ahmhr bR Bhi/ He is my older brother.
716 bhÉchrh bR Mfw `gfC/ The children have grown up.
eth bR kUh nw/ This is not what matters. Idioms with
emn bR bjhphfr . . . in such an important matter . . . numbers
`s afnk bR g¶p blfu phfr/ He can tell long stories.
ahmrh bRyqfn `khUhw Uhkb? Where will we be at Christmas?
uhr bR chkyr ahfC/ He has an important job.
uhr mn Kvb bR/ He is very broad-minded.
`s bR `bun phw/ He has a substantial salary.
`s bR glhw kUh bfl/ He talks in a loud voice.
yuyn Kvb bR `lhk/ He is a very influential man.
kUhth Svfn bR qvAK `pfwfC/ He was deeply saddened when he heard this.
bR mzh MfwfC/ It was great fun.
uhr bR åN ahfC/ He has severe debts.
`s bR pyrbhfrr `Cfl/ He comes from an upper class family.
emn bR shMs uhr! He is very impudent.
as an adverb very
`Cflyt bR lhzvk/ The boy is very shy.

ghnth bR Bhl lhfg/ I like the song very much.
`Cflthfk bR `cnh lhgfC/ The boy looks very familiar.
ekth bR aÀvu bjhphr a very strange affair
mhnvXth bR sJ, bR ybnwY, bR Bqî, bR af¶p uv§/

The man is very honest, very modest, very polite, satisfied with very little.
bR ekth nh is an idiomatic use meaning hardly, barely. Examples are given

in Ch. 13.7.
38.14 Idioms with numbers
blhmh« ekfSh xvy∆/

lit: only saying one hundred logic
makes total sense
`mzhz súfm cfR `gfC/

lit: temper climbs up to seventh
His temper reached boiling point.
Mhzhr `Mhk
lit: let it be a thousand
be that as it may 717
38 nw-Cw krh waste
Idioms sbgvflh thkh nw-Cw kfr \yRfw yqfwh nh/
Don’t fritter all the money away.
smÄ `x nw-Cw Mfw xhw/
lit: everything becomes nine six
Everything goes to pot.
ahpnhr bhrth bhyzfw `qb/
lit: I will make it strike twelve for you
I will finish you off.
shuskhl
lit: seven in the morning
very early morning
718
Chapter 39
Numerals
A full list of cardinal, ordinal and date numbers is given in Appendix 7.

This section brings together some remaining numerical topics, collective
and approximate numbers. Idioms with numbers are given in 38.14.
39.1 Fractions and percentages
half, a half 1/2 ahQ, ahQh, afQòk

a third 1/3 ùMhi
a quarter 1/4 `phwh
three quarters 3/4 `pHfn
one and a quarter 11/4 `shwh
one and a half 11/2 `qR
two and a half 21/2 ahRhi
three (four, five, etc.) and a half shfR yun (chr, p£hc)
For all other fractions use of x parts y parts:
yun Bhfgr qvi Bhg
three part-GEN two part
two thirds
p£hc Bhfgr chr Bhg
five part-GEN four part
four fifths
shu Bhfgr Cw Bhg
seven part-GEN six part
six sevenths
aht Bhfgr ek Bhg
eight part-GEN one part 719
one eighth
39 For multiples the word gvN times is used:
Numerals
p£hc qv-gvfN qS
five times two is ten
—hw yun gvN bR
almost three times as big
yk≤ a“hn mhnvX `xn y#gvN BhrY Mfw xhw/
but unconscious person so that twice heavy be-PP go-3-PR-S
But an unconscious person becomes twice as heavy.
For percentages use Sukrh, Sukrh Mhr or SuhLS parts of one hundred:
`mht åfNr 50SuhLS

total debt-GEN fifty hundred part
fifty percent of the total debt
uJsm Sûq Sukrh 25 Bhg/
tatsama word hundred do-VN 25 part
Tatsama words are 25 per cent.
ei péyUbYfu Sukrh 20zn Bhl Khbhr zl phw nh, Sukrh 40zn ybqvjJ bjbMhr
krfu phfr nh ahr Sukrh 70 zn ylKfu-pRfu zhfn nh/
this world-LOC 100 do-VN 20-CL good food water get-3-PR-S not,
100 do-VN 40-CL electricity use-do-IP be able to-3-PR-S and 100
d-VN 70-CL write-IP read-IP be able to-3-PR-S not
Of the people on earth 20 per cent don’t have proper food and water,
40 per cent don’t have electricity and 70 per cent are illiterate.
39.2 Weights and measures
distances
iyÅ inch (2.54 cm)

Pvt foot (30.48 cm)
Mhu half a yard
gz, qvMhu yard (91.4 cm)
z, svfuh one quarter of an inch (6.35 mm)
mhil mile (1.6 km)
`œhS about two miles (3 km)
ymthr metre
ykflhymthr kilometre
720 ybGu span, about nine inches
area: Collective
numbers
bgòiyÅ square inch
bgòPvt square foot
bgòMhu about half a square yard
bgògz square yard
bgòymthr square metre
bgòmhil square mile
Cthk 4.18 square metres
khTh 720 square feet
ybGh 0.13 hectares (about one third of an acre)
kvR about 13 hectares (33 acres)
weights:
gîhm gramme
`phwh quarter of a seer, 230 gr
ykflh, `kyz kilogramme, 1000 g
tn tonne, 1000 kg
`sr seer, 0.9 kg
mn maund, 37.5 kg
Cthk about 60 grammes
ùhlh about 12 grammes
mhXh about 15 grammes
Byr about 11 grammes (180 grains)
39.3 Collective numbers
dzn dozen, 12 ek dzn ahmghC twelve mango trees

Mhyl hali, 4 qvi Mhyl klh eight bananas
`zhRh a pair, 2 ek `zhRh rhzM£hs a pair of swans
yqÄh, yqfÄ 25 ek yqfÄ khgz about 25 sheets of paper
g’h ganda, 4 ek g’h bhÉch a group of four children
pN 80 = 20 ganda
mvy§ handful ek mvy§ Bhu a handful of rice
rhyS heap ek rhyS —Sä a heap of questions
39.4 Approximate numbers
For approximate numbers or vague figures Bangla employs the following

techniques: 721
39 1 Two numbers are given together. The two numbers need not be con-
Numerals secutive. Note that when a number precedes a measure word the classifier
th is usually dropped.
p£hc -shu khp ch five, seven cups of tea
qS-bhfrh mhil ten, twelve miles
qv"yun `Sh thkh two or three hundred Taka
uKn uhr bws pfnr-`Xhl bCr/
then his age fifteen sixteen year
He was then about fifteen, sixteen years old.
qvekth yqn
two one-CL day
one or two days
bfws bhiS cyûbfSr mfQji
age 22 24-GEN between
between 22 and 24 years old
qv-ahRhiS mhil qVfr
two two and a half mile distance-LOC
about two or two and a half miles away
yun-chrft rßfphr Prys
three four silver hookah
three or four silver hookahs
ybS p£ycSyt qhs-qhsYr mfQj qv chrznfk abSj MThJ MThJ qwh-qhyÇNj `qKhw `s/
twenty twenty five servant (male) servant (female)-GEN among
two four-CL-OBJ of course suddenly suddenly kindness charity
show-3-PR-S he
Of course he shows unexpected kindnesses from time to time to two or
three of his two dozen or so servants.
bfwfs Bhifwr chifu shu-aht bCr bR
age-LOC brother-GEN than seven eight year big
He was about seven or eight years older than his brother.
qv yun yqfnr mfQj Pvyrfw xhfb
two three day-GEN within run out-PP go-3-FUT
will run out within two or three days
—hw Xht s≠r ybfG QhnY zym
almost sixty seventy bigha rice field
722 almost sixty or seventy bigha of rice fields
uhr sfÃ ahmhr ahro qv chryt kUh ahfC/ Indefinite big
he-GEN with I-GEN more two four-CL word [is present] numbers
I still have a few things to talk to him about.
2 Adding ek one after a number or quantifier:
afnk = an not + ek one = many

kfwk = kw some + ek = a few
kfwkzn Ch«Y a few students
The number can precede or follow the noun it modifies.
bws bCr p£hfck about five years old
Mhzhfrk about a thousand
chfrk bCr pfr about four years later
mhs yufnfkr znj Uhkb/ I will stay for about three months.
—hw ymynt ahftk bhfq after about eight minutes
mhs p£hfck ahfg about five months ago
`ghth shfuk `mfw uhr/ He has seven daughters in total.
3 Khfnk
Khfnk on its own means about one.
er bCr Khfnk pfri uhr ybfw Mfw `gl/
this-GEN year Khfnk after EMP his marriage be-PP go-3-P-S
He got married about a year later.
ybbhfMr bCrKhfnfkr mfQj
marriage-GEN year Khfnk-GEN within
within a year of getting married
MhzhrKhfnk about a thousand
39.5 Indefinite big numbers
Su Su hundred hundred
orh sfÃ kfr efnyCfln Su Su bhbvycò/
they with do-PP bring-3-P-PERF hundred (×2) cook
They brought with them hundreds of cooks.
Mhzhr Mhzhr thousand thousand
Mhzhr Mhzhr `lhk mhrh xhn/
thousand (×2) person die-3-PR-S
Thousands of people died. 723
Appendices
Appendix 1
150 common verbs
ah£kh draw chowh want `Dhkh enter

ah£cRhfnh comb, scratch chth lick uhkhfnh look at
ah£th tighten chph press ùhlh lift
ahC- be, have chlhfnh lead, drive Uhkh stay
ahtkhfnh arrest `cnh know Uhmh stop
ahnh bring cvXh suck q£hRhfnh stand
ahsh come `c£chfnh shout `qowh give
oRh fy CRhfnh spread `qKh see
oTh rise C£hkh sieve `qhlh swing
kowh speak ChRh leave `qHRhfnh run
kmh decrease `Chlh peel Qrh hold
kmhfnh reduce `C£Rh tear `Qhwh wash
krh do `C£hwh touch nRh move
k£hqh cry `ChRh throw nhch dance
k£hph shiver zmh pile up nhRh stir
khth cut zmhfnh collect nhmh descend
khmRhfnh bite zhgh wake `nowh take
`knh buy zhnh know pRh read, fall
Khowh eat zvth collect phowh get
Khth work hard zvRhfnh cool phkhfnh ripen
`Klh play zálh burn phThfnh send
`K£hzh search záhlhfnh ignite phuh spread out
`Khlh open Z£hkh shake phrh be able to
ghowh sing `Zhlh hang phlhfnh fee
`glh swallow thnh pull pvRh burn
`ghChfnh tidy up ytkh last pvRhfnh burn
Gth happen `tph press `phXh bring up
Ghmh sweat `thkh imitate `p£HChfnh arrive
Gvmhfnh sleep Tkhfnh cheat Phth burst
`Ghrh move, turn `Tkh touch `Prh return
cth be angry dhkh call `Plh throw
cRh climb `dhbh sink `Phthfnh boil
clh move Dhkh cover bkh scold 727
Appendix 1 blh speak Bhbh think lhghfnh employ
bsh sit Bhlbhsh love lhPh jump
b£hch survive Bhsh foat lvkhfnh hide
b£hchfnh save `Bzh get wet `lKh write
b£hQh tie up `Bhgh suffer `SKh learn
bhzhfnh play music `Bhlh forget `SKhfnh teach
bhRh grow mrh die Svkhfnh dry
bhQh obstruct mhzh brush `Shnh listen, hear
`bch sell mhnh respect `Shwh lie down
`bhZh understand mhph measure srh move
`bhZhfnh explain mhrh beat shzh dress up
`bhnh knit `mlh mix shrh fnish
Brh fll `mSh mix Mowh be
Brhfnh fll `mhCh wipe M£hth walk
B£hzh fold xhowh go Mhrh be lost
BhWh break rowh remain Mhrhfnh lose
Bhzh fry lhgh attach Mhsh laugh
728
Appendix 2
200 adjectives
200 common adjectives Bangla–English

(Bangla alphabetical order)
aÀvu strange krßN sad, pitiful

an™ endless kXh tight, strict
anvpxv∆ unsuitable k£hch unripe
aí blind khur distressed
anj other khnh blind
as®b impossible khlh deaf
asMhw helpless khflh black
ayñr restless khyMl tired, exhausted
aãp§ unclear, fuzzy `khml soft, gentle
ahqvfr beloved k†h™ tired
ahQvynk modern K£hyt pure, unadulterated
ahlhqh separate Khrhp bad, wicked
ahsl real Khyl empty
ahMu hurt, injured KvyS happy
\ycu proper, right `KwhlY whimsical, capricious
\Éc high `K£hRh lame, crippled
\°ál bright `Khlh open
\qhr generous, liberal gu last, previous
\qhsYn detached gBYr deep
\êu improved g®Yr serious
\pxv∆ suitable grm hot
\pyñu present gyrb poor
\bòr fertile gybòu proud
\lth opposite, reverse gvrß¥pVNò important
ekfGfw monotonous, boring `ghpn secret
kyc fresh, geen `ghl round
k´vs miserly `ghlhyp pink
kyTn difficult Gn (ghono) dense, thick
kRh harsh, severe Gyn©T close, intimate
kmlh orange coRh broad, wide 729
Appendix 2 cÅl moving, mobile nYl blue
cuvr cunning ynyŸcu certain
cmJkhr excellent, fabulous yn©Tvr cruel
crm high, ultimate `nLth naked
clyu current `nhLrh dirty
chlhk clever pch spoilt, rotten
yckn fine, delicate pyb« sacred
cvp, cvpchp quiet, silent phkh ripe
`Cht small phgl crazy
zLyl wild, untamed phyz naughty
zytl complex phulh thin, slender
zny—w favourite ypClh slippery
zrßyr urgent pvrh whole
zhuYw national pvrhfnh old
zYybu alive —kh’ huge, great
`zyq stubborn —Um first
`zhrhflh forceful, emphatic —fwhznYw necessary
“hnY learned, erudite, wise —≥u ready
tk sour y—w dear
thtkh fresh Prsh fair
Th’h cold `PkhfS pale
url liquid bR big
urßN young, fresh bí closed, shut
uhzh fresh bhyk remaining
yuuh, ùfuh bitter bhfz inferior, worthless
uvÉC insignificant bhQj obedient
qÇ skilled ybKjhu famous
qhym expensive ybyCê varied
qhwY responsible ybfqyS foreign
qhrßN great, excellent ybfQw lawful
yqfSMhrh confused ybp°nk, ybpqznk dangerous
qYGò long ybprYu opposite
qvAyKu regretful ybBîh™ confused, bewildered
qvbòl weak ybr∆ annoyed
qv§v naughty ybfSX special
`qSY local, indigenous ybSáÄ faithful
qîßu quick, swift ybSî∞Y ugly
QnY rich bvRh, bfRh, bvyR old
Qhrhflh sharp bvyºmhn wise
nuvn new `bimhn treacherous
nrm soft `bMhwh brazen, shameless
n§ spoilt, rotten `bhkh stupid
nhgyrk urban `bhbh dumb
ynK£vu perfect bjy∆gu private
yncv low Bqî∞ polite, gentle
ynwymu regular Bw¬r scary
ynrhpq safe BhWh broken
730 ynyqò§ fixed, regulated Bhzh fried
BhrY heavy Sh™ peaceful 200 adjectives
Bhl good ySyÇu educated
yBzh, `Bzh wet SYu cold
yBê different Svknh, Svkfnh dry
BYXN terrible, severe suj true
m~q bad s≤§ satisfied
mwlh dirty sbvz green
mhuhl drunk, intoxicated s®b possible
ymSvk friendly srl honest
ymy§ sweet srß narrow
mv∆ free sÄh cheap
mVljbhn precious sMz simple
`mhth fat shqh white
xfU§ sufficient shQhrN usual
xv∆ joined sv~qr beautiful
`xhgj worthy svñ healthy
rhyz agreed `shzh straight
`rhgh thin ãp§ clear
lÇÖY sweet, good-natured …hQYn independent
lôbh long …hBhybk ordinary
lhl red Mlvq, Mlfq yellow
S∆ strong, hard Mhlkh light
Here is the same list for English to Bangla.
agreed rhyz closed, shut bí

alive zYybu cold Th’h
annoyed ybr∆ cold SYu
bad m~q complex zytl
bad, wicked Khrhp confused yqfSMhrh
beautiful sv~qr confused,
beloved ahqvfr bewildered ybBîh™
big bR crazy phgl
bitter yuuh cruel yn©Tvr
black khflh cunning cuvr
blind aí current clyu
blind khnh dangerous ybp°nk
blue nYl deaf khlh
brazen, shameless `bMhwh dear y—w
bright \°ál deep gBYr
broad, wide coRh dense, thick Gn (ghono)
broken BhWh detached \qhsYn
certain ynyŸcu different yBê
cheap sÄh difficult kyTn
clear ãp§ dirty `nhLrh
clever chlhk dirty mwlh
close, intimate Gyn©T distressed khur 731
Appendix 2 drunk, intoxicated mhuhl lame, crippled `K£hRh
dry Svknh, Svkfnh last, previous gu
dumb `bhbh lawful ybfQw
educated ySyÇu learned, erudite,
empty Khyl wise “hnY
endless an™ light Mhlkh
excellent, liquid url
fabulous cmJkhr local, indigenous `qSY
expensive qhmY long lôbh
fair Prsh long qYGò
faithful ybSáÄ low yncv
famous ybKjhu miserly k´vs
fat `mhth modern ahQvynk
favourite zny—w monotonous,
fertile \bòr boring ekfGfw
fine, delicate yckn moving, mobile cÅl
first —Um naked `nLth
fixed, regulated ynyqò§ narrow srß
forceful, emphatic `zhrhflh national zhuYw
foreign ybfqyS naughty phyz
free mv∆ naughty qv§v
fresh thtkh necessary —fwhznYw
fresh uhzh new nuvn
fresh, green kyc obedient bhQj
fried Bhzh old bvRh
friendly ymSvk old pvrhfnh
generous, liberal \qhr open `Khlh
good Bhl opposite ybprYu
great, excellent qhrßN opposite, reverse \lth
green sbvz orange kmlh
happy KvyS ordinary …hBhybk
harsh, severe kRh other anj
healthy svñ pale `PkhfS
heavy BhrY peaceful Sh™
helpless asMhw perfect ynK£vu
high \Éc pink `ghlhyp
high, ultimate crm polite Bqî
honest srl poor gyrb
hot grm possible s®b
huge, great —kh’ precious mVljbhn
hurt, injured ahMu present \pyñu
important gvrß¥pVNò private bjy∆gu
impossible as®b proper, right \ycu
improved \êu proud gybòu
independent …hQYn pure,
inferior, worthless bhfz unadulterated K£hyt
insignificant uvÉC quick, swift qîßu
732 joined xv∆ quiet, silent cvp, cvpchp
ready —≥u stupid `bhkh 200 adjectives
real ahsl sufficient xfU§
red lhl suitable \pxv∆
regretful qvAyKu sweet ymy§
regular ynwymu sweet, good-
remaining bhyk natured lÇÖY
responsible qhwY terrible, severe BYXN
restless ayñr thin `rhgh
rich QnY thin, slender phulh
ripe phkh tight, strict kXh
round `ghl tired k†h™
sacred pyb« tired, exhausted khyMl
sad, pitiful krßN treacherous `bimhn
safe ynrhpq true suj
satisfied s≤§ ugly ybSî∞Y
scary Bw¬r unclear, fuzzy aãp§
secret `ghpn unripe k£hch
separate ahlhqh unsuitable anvpxv∆
serious g®Yr urban nhgyrk
sharp Qhrhflh urgent zrßyr
simple sMz usual shQhrN
skilled qÇ varied ybyCê
slippery ypClh weak qvbòl
small `Cht wet yBzh, `Bzh
soft nrm whimsical,
soft, gentle `khml capricious `KwhlY
sour tk white shqh
special ybfSX whole pvrh
spoilt, rotten n§ wild, untamed zLyl
spoilt, rotten pch wise bvyºmhn
straight `shzh worthy `xhgj
strange aÀvu yellow Mlvq, Mlfq
strong, hard S∆ young, fresh urßN
stubborn `zyq
733
Appendix 3
Extended and
causative verbs
Extended and causative verbs are identical in morphological form (verbal

noun in `nh no) and conjugation (conjugation charts Class 5 o, p and q,
pages 155 and 156) but they differ in their derivation. Extended verbs (see
Ch. 16) are derived from nouns and adjectives. Causative verbs (see Ch. 17)
are derived from simple verbs.
Appendix 3.1 is an extract of Appendix 3.2 with the derivations given.
Appendix 3.1
ahoRhfnh recite repeatedly from ahoR whirlpool
ah£cRhfnh scratch, comb from ah£cR scraping
ahtkhfnh obstruct from ahtk impediment
ahPshfnh brag, bluster from ahPshyn fretting, chafing
\lthfnh turn upside down from \lth opposite
kkhfnh sob, groan from kkhyn groan, sobbing
khmRhfnh bite from khmR bite
khmhfnh earn money from khmhi earnings
k£vkRhfnh curl, shrivel from `k£hkRh curly
k£vckhfnh shrink, contract from `k£hc wrinkle
`khqlhfnh dig with spade from `khqhl spade
yK£chfnh grimace from `K£ch convulsion, cramp
gzòhfnh roar from gzòn roar
Gnhfnh thicken, draw near from Gn thick, dense
Gvmhfnh sleep from Gvm sleep
cvlkhfnh itch from cvl hair
CRhfnh scatter, sprinkle from CR bunch, cluster
yCtkhfnh scatter, sprinkle from yCt drop, blob
znÖhfnh bring forth, produce from znÖ birth
tpkhfnh leap, jump from tp adv quickly
Thorhfnh view, see from ThMr act of seeing
uhkhfnh look at, gaze from uhk target, aim
734 uhRhfnh chase away from uhRh hurry
UhpRhfnh slap from UhpR, UhùR slap Extended and
UhbRhfnh slap from Uhbh paw causative verbs
qLShfnh sting, bite from qLS gnat, gadfly
qmhfnh subdue, suppress from qmn subdual, restraint
q£hRhfnh stand from q£hR standing
`qHRhfnh run from `qHR run, spurt
Qmkhfnh scold from Qmk act of scolding
phlthfnh exchange from phlt reversal
ypClhfnh slip, slide from ypClh slippery
bqlhfnh change from bql change
bhghfnh control, tame from bhghn garden
yb£Qhfnh pierce, prick from yb£Q perforation
ybkhfnh sell from ybyk, ybyœ sale
`xhghfnh supply, purvey from `xhg union, mixture
rshfnh add interest from rs juice
rhghfnh make angry from rhg anger
lhPhfnh jump from lhP jump
`lpthfnh wrap around from `lp quilt
Svkhfnh dry from Svknh, Sv©k dry
`ShQrhfnh correct from `ShQ correction
shmlhfnh manage from shmhl act of restraining
Mkckhfnh be nonplussed from Mk = proper ck = square ?
MhuRhfnh misappropriate from Mhu hand
Appendix 3.2
The pattern for causative verbs is very regular: oTh rise (simple) → oThfnh
raise (causative), lhgh be attached (simple) → lhghfnh attach, employ (causa-
tive). Simple verbs are not given in this chart.
extended causative
(non causative)
ahoRhfnh recite
ah£cRhfnh comb, scratch
ahtkhfnh confine, obstruct, take hold of, block
ahPshfnh brag, bluster, fret
\lthfnh turn upside down
eRhfnh avoid
oThfnh raise, lift, wake
kkhfnh sob, groan, moan
kmhfnh reduce
krhfnh cause to do
k£hqhfnh make weep
k£hphfnh set trembling
khthfnh cause to be cut, spend
khmRhfnh, khmR `qowh bite 735
Appendix 3 khmhfnh earn (money)
k£vckhfnh shrink, contract
kvchfnh chop finely
kvRhfnh gather, collect
kvphfnh, `khphfnh strike, dig
kvlhfnh be sufficient, be adequate
`k£hkRhfnh curl, shrink
Khowhfnh feed, give to eat
Khthfnh cause to work
yK£chfnh grimace, make faces
`Kqhfnh drive away, scare off
`K£hRhfnh limp, hobble
gChfnh persuade to accept
gzrhfnh rumble, grumble, growl
gzhfnh sprout, originate, evolve
gRhfnh roll, cause to roll, pour
gzòhfnh roar, howl, thunder
g£hzhfnh ferment
ghlhfnh melt, cause to melt
gvChfnh tidy up, put into order, arrange
gvzrhfnh spend (time), pass
gvthfnh roll up, wind up
`g£zhfnh, g£jhzhfnh chatter, gossip
`ghWhfnh whine, whimper
Gnhfnh thicken, draw near
GhbRhfnh be taken aback, lose one’s balance
Gvmhfnh sleep
ctkhfnh knead, press, handle
cRhfnh ride, board, cause to rise
clkhfnh spill, overflow
chphfnh lay upon, place onto
chlhfnh drive, conduct, lead
ycbhfnh chew, masticate
cvthfnh do one’s utmost
cvwhfnh ooze, leak, fall in drops
cvlkhfnh scratch, itch
`c£chfnh shout, scream, yell
CRhfnh scatter, spread out
ChRhfnh release, set off
Chphfnh print
yCtkhfnh splash, sprinkle (of liquids)
yCthfnh spray, sprinkle
yCnhfnh snatch, seize
`Chphfnh stain, dye
zRhfnh embrace, hug
z~Öhfnh produce, grow
zmhfnh save, collect
736
zrhfnh smear, preserve, pickle Extended and
zhghfnh wake up, cause to wake causative verbs
zhnhfnh inform, make known
zhpthfnh seize, clasp
zhrhfnh digest, dissolve
yzwhfnh keep alive, preserve
yzrhfnh relax, take a rest
zvRhfnh cool, soothe, calm
zvRhfnh cause to join, add, unite
záhlhfnh kindle, light, set on fire, irritate, vex, annoy
Zlshfnh dazzle, singe
Z£hkhfnh shake
tpkhfnh leap, take two steps at a time
tltlhfnh stagger, totter, waver
tskhfnh be weakened, impaired
thWhfnh suspend, hang up
ththfnh smart, feel acute pain
Tkhfnh (Tkh) cheat, deceive
yTkrhfnh scatter, disperse
`Tkhfnh obstruct, impede
`Thkrhfnh peck, nibble
dvbhfnh plunge, drown
uRphfnh boast, brag
ulhfnh be drowned, sink, probe
uhowhfnh heat up, provoke, incite
uhkhfnh look at, see, stare, gaze
uhRhfnh chase away, drive out
uhuhfnh make hot, heat, warm up, provoke, excite
uvbRhfnh shrivel, shrink
ùlhfnh grease, cover in oil
ùhulhfnh stammer, stutter
Umkhfnh stop suddenly, halt abruptly
UhbRhfnh strike, slap
Uhmhfnh stop, arrest, check, cause to stop
UvbRhfnh fall flat on one’s face
Ù£ulhfnh smash, pound, bruise
qLShfnh bite, sting
qmhfnh suppress, subdue
q£hRhfnh stand, wait
qhbRhfnh bully, threaten
`qKhfnh show, cause to see
`qhlhfnh cause to swing, cause to rock
`qHRhfnh run, rush, dash
Qmkhfnh rebuff, scold, threaten
`Qhwhfnh cause to wash, have cleaned
nhchfnh cause to dance, move, excite
nhmhfnh drop off, set off, unload
737
Appendix 3 ynbhfnh extinguish, put out (fire)
ptkhfnh knock down, fling to the ground
pRhfnh teach, instruct
prhfnh cause to wear, dress
phkRhfnh catch, seize, arrest
phkhfnh cook
phkhfnh involve in, twist, engage in, complicate
phThfnh send, despatch
ph¶thfnh alter, revoke, change
phlhfnh flee, run away
pvRhfnh, `phRhfnh set on fire, incinerate, burn, afflict
pvrhfnh fill, fulfil, satisfy
`p£chfnh twist, involve, entangle
`phMhfnh dawn, end (night), be exposed to
`p£HChfnh (`p£HCh) arrive, reach, come
Pskhfnh slip, miss (an opportunity)
Phthfnh cause to explode
P£vphfnh sob, whimper
Pvthfnh, `Phthfnh cause to bloom, boil
Pvrhfnh terminate, conclude, finish
Pvslhfnh instigate, entice, seduce
`Pthfnh whisk, froth up
`Prhfnh cause to return, bring back
bqlhfnh change, exchange
bshfnh place, set down, cause to sit, plant
b£hkhfnh deflect, bend, cause to swerve, turn
b£hchfnh save, rescue, revive
b£hQhfnh bind, enframe, dam up
bhghfnh bring under control, tame, master
bhzhfnh play (a musical instrument), strike
bhRhfnh increase, augment, enhance, enlarge
bhnhfnh prepare, create, build, get ready, devise
yb£Qhfnh pierce, prick
ybkhfnh sell, give away
ybgRhfnh corrupt, spoil
bvlhfnh caress, pass (hand) lightly over
`bRhfnh walk, go out, visit
`bhZhfnh explain, make understand, comfort
Brhfnh fill, fill up, load
BhWhfnh break, split
yBzhfnh, `Bzhfnh make wet, soak
mckhfnh sprain, twist (ankle etc)
mtkhfnh twist, snap, break, crack
mhnhfnh fit, suit, become
ymthfnh, `mthfnh accomplish, finish, settle, compromise
ymShfnh mix, blend, join, unite
mvckhfnh sprain, twist, injure
738
`mlhfnh open, spread out Extended and
`mhcRhfnh twist, wrench causative verbs
`xhghfnh supply, purvey
rthfnh circulate, spread
rshfnh add spice, add interest
ltkhfnh hang, hang up, post
lhghfnh plant, attach, apply, employ, engage
lhPhfnh jump, spring
lvkhfnh hide, put out of sight
`lpthfnh wrap around oneself, huddle into
`llhfnh incite, attack, set upon
Shnh, Shnhfnh whet, sharpen
Svkhfnh dry, extract moisture
SvQrhfnh, `ShQrhfnh rectify, correct
`SKhfnh teach
`Shnhfnh cause to hear, tell
`Shwhfnh lay down, cause to lie down
stkhfnh decamp, escape
srhfnh move, remove, shift
shzhfnh dress, decorate, embellish, fit out
shmlhfnh manage, check, guard
shrhfnh mend, repair, correct
Mkckhfnh be nonplussed, be taken aback
MRkhfnh slip, lose one’s footing
MhuRhfnh misappropriate
Mhrhfnh lose, misplace
Mhshfnh amuse
739
Appendix 4
Compound verbs
Common compound verbs
the compound makers:
1 xhowh 2 ahsh 3 clh 4 oTh 5 pRh 6 bsh

7 q£hRhfnh 8 `qowh 9 `nowh 10 `Plh 11 ùhlh 12 rhKh
1 xhowh go
with verbs of motion
cfl xhowh go away, leave efs xhowh arrive

Gvfr xhowh move around yPfr xhowh go back, return
phylfw xhowh flee, run away `byRfw xhowh go visiting
`M£ft xhowh walk `qHyRfw xhowh run
\fR xhowh fly away `Bfs xhowh float away
with verbs expressing a change of state
Mfw xhowh become, be finished, mfr xhowh die

come to pass
\fT xhowh come off, get up Ùfm xhowh come to a stop
`nfm xhowh get down, descend bfs xhowh go down, subside
\lft xhowh be turned upside down kfm xhowh decrease, come down
pfR xhowh fall down, decrease `bfR xhowh increase, go up
`BfW xhowh get broken `kft xhowh be cut, be cut off
Svykfw xhowh dry yC£fr xhowh get torn
Kvfl xhowh open yC£fR xhowh get lost
pvfR xhowh get burnt `rfg xhowh become angry
dvfb xhowh sink, drown Ùfk xhowh stay, remain
740
with transitive verbs Compound
verbs
ynfw xhowh take bfl xhowh tell
ymfS xhowh mix `rfK xhowh leave behind
`Pfl xhowh abandon, throw away Bvfl xhowh forget
chylfw xhowh continue `CfR xhowh give up, leave
2 ahsh come
Mfw ahsh become cfl ahsh arrive
yPfr ahsh return, come back Gvfr ahsh turn around, come back
`rfK ahsh leave behind `Pfl ahsh desert
ynfw ahsh bring `nfm ahsh come down
3 clh move, go
yPfr clh return Gvfr clh walk around
`M£ft clh carry on walking `qHyRfw clh carry on running
Qfr clh carry on holding kfr clh carry on doing
bfl clh continue saying `mfn clh pay attention
`CfR clh leave behind ylfK clh continue writing
4 oTh rise, get up
Mfw oTh become `k£fq oTh burst into tears
`Mfs oTh burst out laughing Pvfl oTh swell, blossom
Gft oTh happen `sfr oTh be finished
`bfR oTh increase `rfg oTh burst out in anger
kfr oTh finish doing bfl oTh have one’s say
ylfK oTh finish writing pfR oTh read to the end
`mfr oTh hit suddenly Qvfw oTh finish washing
`Kfw oTh eat up uvfl oTh lift up
5 pRh fall, drop
Mfw pRh happen \fT pRh get up
`byrfw pRh get out Dvfk pRh enter
`nfm pRh get down efs pRh arrive
bfs pRh sit down `BfÃ pRh break down, have a breakdown
`Pft pRh explode Gvymfw pRh fall asleep
Svfw pRh lie down kfm pRh decrease rapidly
6 bsh sit
\fT bsh get up efs arrive
ygfw arrive kfr bsh do
bfl bsh say `cfw bsh demand 741
Appendix 4 7 q£hRhfnh stand
Mfw q£hRhfnh become \fT q£hRhfnh stand up

ygfw q£hRhfnh end, terminate kfr q£hRhfnh finish doing
bfl q£hRhfnh say uvfl q£hRhfnh prosper, flourish
8 `qowh give
kfr `qowh do (for s.o.) bfl `qowh tell

ylfK `qowh write (for s.o.) uvfl `qowh lift
`Pfl `qowh throw away `CfR `qowh leave, give up
`BfÃ `qowh break `kft `qowh cut
`rfK `qowh keep, put aside Kvfl `qowh open
ykfn `qowh buy (for s.o.) yqfw `qowh give away
\yTfw `qowh lift up nhymfw `qowh drop off
bvyZfw `qowh explain Svykfw `qowh put out to dry
bysfw `qowh put on (kettle etc) pyrfw `qowh cause to wear
9 `nowh take
`qfK `nowh look at `Kfw `nowh eat

uvfl `nowh lift kfr `nowh do (for oneself )
`tfn `nowh pull `mfn `nowh mind, obey
`cfw `nowh ask for Kvfl `nowh open
ylfK `nowh write (for oneself ) ynfw `nowh take away
Qfr `nowh grasp ykfn `nowh buy (for oneself )
shmylfw `nowh manage `zfn `nowh find out
ySfK `nowh learn bvfZ `nowh accept
10 `Plh throw
`Kfw `Plh eat up bfl `Plh blurt out

kfr `Plh finish doing `qfK `Plh see
ycfn `Plh recognize Kvfl `Plh open
`bfc `Plh sell ykfn `Plh buy
`kft `Plh chop off yqfw `Plh give away
`mfr `Plh kill `BfÃ `Plh break
mvfC `Plh wipe off yC£fR `Plh tear up
`k£fq `Plh burst into tears `Mfs `Plh burst out laughing
11 ùhlh lift, raise
kfr ùhlh make, cause to be shyrfw ùhlh nurse back to health

gyRfw ùhlh build, create b£hycfw ùhlh save
742 zhygfw ùhlh wake up from sleep lhygfw ùhlh grow (plants)
12 rhKh keep, put down Compound
verbs
kfr rhKh have done beforehand, bfl rhKh pronounce, tell
have got ready
`Pfl rhKh put off, neglect Qfr rhKh detain, hold back
ylfK rhKh note, put down in writing uvfl rhKh keep aside, postpone
`p£ycfw rhKh involve Kvfl rhKh keep open
gvfn rhKh keep account lvykfw rhKh hide, conceal
zymfw rhKh lay by, set aside shyzfw rhKh keep in order
ahtykfw rhKh confine, detain Zvylfw rhKh keep something
hanging
743
Appendix 5
Conjunct verbs
with krh make, do
anvkrN imitate ahfwhzn arrange `Kwhl be attentive,

anvfmhqn approve ahr® start notice
anvbhq translate ahlhp talk, introduce `K£hz search
anvmhn guess, suppose ahylÃn embrace `KhShfmhq flatter
anjhw do wrong ahflhcnh discuss gRgR rumble
aburN descend ahSh hope gNnh reckon, count
anvBb feel ahSYbòhq bless gfbXNh research
anvsíhn search iÉCh wish g¶p gossip, chat
anvfrhQ request iuÄuA hesitate ghn sing
apmhn insult iShrh hunt ghp misappropriate
aprhQ commit offence \ÉchrN pronounce gvyl shoot
apMrN kidnap \Jphtn extract, remove gî∞MN accept
afpÇh wait \Jphqn produce, create gî∞hs snatch, seize
abfMlh neglect \ºhr rescue GéNh hate
ayBnw act, play \êyu improve `GnfGn whine, whimper
aBjhs practise \pkhr help ccòh practise
amhnj disregard \phzòn earn chX plough, till
aSîº∞h disrespect \phsnh meditate ycykJsh treat
a…Ykhr deny \f^K mention ycJkhr shout
abfrhQ obstruct, hinder kfwq imprison, yc™h think
ayBsôphu curse confine cvp shut up,
azòn earn, reap k¶pnh imagine, fancy be quiet
ahœmN attack `kwhr care cvyr steal
ahGhu hurt Çyu harm `c£chfmyc shout
ahtk confine Çmh forgive `c§h try
ahuÖMujh commit suicide `Çpn cast, throw Cl pretend, feign
ahqr caress Kum finish, complete C£hthi trim, clip
ahfqS order Krc spend (money) zKm wound, injure
ahf~qhln agitate Khyur treat with zûq harass, subdue
ahpy≠ object respect zmh accumulate
ahPfShs repent yKlyKl giggle zw win
744 ahyb©khr invent Kvn murder yz“hsh ask
`zhr force phkhphyk finalise ymt balance Conjunct verbs
ZgRh quarrel phr cross, pass ymnyu beg, request
tvkfrh break into phln celebrate, yml unite, combine
pieces foster mYmhLsh solve, decide
yTk correct, repair phs pass mv∆ free, release
upsjh meditate pvfzh worship mvKñ memorise
uPhu alienate, pVNò fulfil mvgÜ fascinate
estrange —khS reveal, publish mvluvyb postpone
ukò argue —chr preach `mrhmu repair
uvlnh compare —yu“h promise `mlhfmSh mix up
ujhg give up —yubhq protest xuä take care of
«hN save, deliver —yu©Th establish xhchi verify
qKl occupy —fbS enter xhuhwhu come and go
qwh be kind to, —mhN prove xv∆ join, unite
favour —SLsh praise xvy∆ plan, scheme
qpòn boast, show off —Sä ask `xhg unite
qSòn see, behold —hUònh pray `xhghr collect
qhn give, donate bkbk chatter rÇh protect
qhyb demand bql change rÃ make fun of
qvAK regret bym vomit rcnh compose
qVr remove, banish bNònh describe rhg be angry
`qyr delay bMn carry rhêh cook
QXòN rape, violate bhyul cancel rßº shut, close
Qhowh chase bhrN forbid `rowhz practise
Qhr lend bhs dwell `rhzghr earn
QhrNh comprehend ybyœ sell `rhQ obstruct, block
QVmphn smoke ybchr judge lÇ notice, observe
QáLs destroy, ruin ybqhw dismiss l°h be
nkl initate ybnhS destroy, ruin embarrassed
nmãkhr salute ybynmw barter, lhGb reduce,
n§ spoil exchange decrease
nh forbid, deny ybfw marry lhB gain
nhc dance ybr∆ annoy lvt plunder, loot
nhfzMhl pester, harass ybSáhs believe `lhB krh be greedy
yn~qh blame bvyº scheme, plan Shsn rule
ynmìN invite `br utter ySkhr hunt
ynfwhg employ `bhQ feel, perceive ySÇh learn, study
ynBòr depend on bjbMhr use SYu feel cold
ynSypS fidget By∆ worship Svº clean, purify
ynfXQ forbid BhRh rent, hire Svrß start, begin
ynÄhr rescue, deliver Bhn pretend `SX finish
`nSh become Bvl mistake `ShQ repay
intoxicated `Bhg enjoy `ShBh embellish,
njÄ entrust, place Bî∞mN travel adorn
pC~q like mzh amuse Sîm toil, labour
pyrSî∞m toil, labour mzvu restore Sîh™ tire, wear out
pyr©khr clean mhn sulk, huff `S†X insinuate, mock
prYÇh examine mhfn explain si sign
745
Appendix 5 soqh purchase, buy sMj bear, tolerate ãpSò touch
sLkln add, collect shÇhJ interview …Ykhr confess
sL`khc curtail, cut shQnh endeavour sÖrN remember
sLfÇp shorten, reduce shbQhn caution, warn Mzm digest
sLgî∞M collect shw finish, end MuhS disappoint,
sLgî∞hm struggle shMs venture, dare deject
sLxu curb, restrain shMhxj help Mujh kill
sLfShQn correct, amend ysº boil Mwrhn harass, badger
sLãkhr purify, reform ysºh™ decide MrN rob, plunder
sÅw gather, collect svphyrS recommend MÄfÇp interfere
sukò warn, alert svr tune Mhmlh attack
sf~qM doubt, suspect svñ cure yMLsh envy
sPl accomplish séy§ create yMsyMs hiss, fizz
smUòn support `scnh sprinkle yMfsb, yMshb calculate
smpòn surrender, give `sbh nurse, care for Mvkvm order
away `slhi sew, stitch `MrfPr alter,
smhQhn solve, resolve `slhm greet, salute manipulate
smhn equalise, `shMhg caress `Mlh despise, neglect
balance ñhpn establish Mîhs diminish,
sôphqn perform, edit sähn bathe decrease
sôpVNò complete, finish `säM love
sômhn respect, honour ãpQòh defy, dare
with khth / khthfnh cut

ah£cR khth scratch ybpq khthfnh escape, overcome
kUh khth retort `bun khth cut (salary)
kvwhSh khth lift, disperse (fog) Bw khth overcome (fear)
∏kyPwu khth give an explanation `mG khth disperse
yKmyc, ycmyt khth pinch xvy∆ khthfnh refute
`ck khth write out (a check) lhin khth get cut off
yzB khth bite one’s tongue lhin khthfnh cross out
ytykt khth buy a ticket smw khth / khthfnh pass, spend (time)
qhg khth rub off (mark) s£huhr khth swim
`qhX khth absolve ys£Q khth break into a house (by
pU khth construct, get ready drilling a hole through
P£hRh khth avoid, escape the wall)
with Khowh eat

ahChr Khowh slip, stumble uhRh Khowh be snubbed, rebuked
ykl Khowh take a beating Uumu Khowh be perplexed
ghl Khowh be told off nvn Khowh benefit
GvX Khowh take bribe bkh, bkvyn Khowh be scolded
cyr« Khowh assassinate someone’s mhUh Khowh ruin, spoil
character mhr Khowh get a beating
chkyr Khowh make s.o. lose their job yMmySm Khowh faint with exhaustion
ycR Khowh crack MvmyR Khowh stumble
cvmv Khowh kiss `M£hct Khowh stumble
746 ydgbhyz Khowh tumble
with ùhlh lift, raise Conjunct verbs
kUh, gvzb ùhlh raise, bring q£hu ùhlh extract bhyR ùhlh build
up (tooth) bjbsh ùhlh dissolve,
Cyb, `Phfth ùhlh take (a ptl ùhlh die close
photo) puhkh ùhlh hoist (a Mhi ùhlh ùhlh yawn
Chl ùhlh peel, flay flag) Mhu ùhlh raise hand
`Dkvr ùhlh burp Pvl, Pl ùhlh pick, pluck
with `qowh give

aBw `qowh reassure QhŒh `qowh push, knock mhUh `qowh pay attention
\≠r `qowh reply, answer Qhr `qowh lend mhn `qowh treat with
kUh `qowh promise `Q£hkh `qowh hoodwink, respect
khn `qowh pay attention deceive mhr `qowh beat, flog
gh `qowh put in effort prYÇh `qowh take exam mvy∆ `qowh release
ghyl `qowh scold ph≠h nh `qowh make light of xìNh `qowh torture
cvmvk `qowh sip phMhrh `qowh keep watch `rMhi `qowh acquit,
Cvt `qowh run off —Sîw `qowh indulge exempt
thkh `qowh pay P£hyk `qowh cheat, evade l°h `qowh embarrass
ytp `qowh pinch, P£hys `qowh hang lhP `qowh jump
squeeze bhQh `qowh obstruct Shp `qowh curse
dvb `qowh dive ybqhw `qowh say farewell ShyÄ `qowh punish
uhRh `qowh snub, tell off bvyº `qowh advise ySÇh `qowh teach
ùl `qowh flatter, praise mn `qowh concentrate s£huhr `qowh swim
qhm `qowh pay for mfnhfxhg `qowh concentrate sh™ánh `qowh console
(mistake etc) mxòhqh `qowh pay respect to Mhu `qowh undertake
`qHR `qowh run mhR `qowh starch Mvkvm `qowh order
with `nowh take

aLS `nowh take part Qhr `nowh borrow sáhq `nowh taste
absr `nowh retire ynASáhs `nowh breathe Sáhs `nowh breathe
GvX `nowh accept a bribe ypCv `nowh follow

k§ phowh suffer ThMr phowh realise, see bjUh phowh be in pain
khêh phowh feel like crying `qKh phowh get to see Bw phowh be frightened
yKqh phowh be hungry nhghl phowh reach shMs phowh feel courageous
`tr phowh feel, notice ypphsh phowh be thirsty Mhys phowh want to smile
with mhrh hit

ahöh mhrh meet to discuss Cvt mhrh run off Uhùr mhrh slap
\£yk mhrh peep, pry `z^h mhrh sparkle, gleam Qhùh mhrh bluff, hoax
Khblh mhrh paw, seize ytykt mhrh affix stamp pfkt mhrh pickpocket
gvl mhrh fib yttkhyr mhrh taunt P£hk mhrh fill a gap
chbvk mhrh whip, flog P£hk mhrh close up a gap Bhu mhrh gobble food
chl mhrh boast dvb mhrh dive, disappear lhyU mhrh kick
cvp mhrh fall silent uhyl mhrh patch up M£hk mhrh shout 747
Appendix 5 mixed
kUh blh speak phr Mowh cross rhyz Mowh agree
kUh rhKh keep promise bhQj Mowh be compelled to Svrß Mowh begin
nzr rhKh keep watch Bvl Qrh detect yMshb rhKh keep account
748
Appendix 6
Numbers
Cardinal numbers one, two, three
Ordinal numbers first, second, third
Below is a complete list of cardinal, ordinal and date-of-the-month numbers.

Apart from the first three days of the month, the common way of referring
to a date is chr uhyrK (the 4th), p£hc uhyrK (the 5th), ybS uhyrK (the 20th) and
so on. With ordinal numbers, it is rare to hear these in use beyond ten
except in highly formal contexts such as the numbering of the volumes of
Tagore’s Collected Works. An easier way is to say ùy«S nôbr (number 33),
bhMhê nôbr (number 52).
cardinal sLKjh ordinal pVrm date uhyrK

1 1 ek 1m —Um 1lh pwlh
2 2 qvi 2w y#uYw 2rh `qhsrh
3 3 yun 3w uéuYw 3rh ùsrh
4 4 chr 4Uò cuvUò 4Th `cHTh
5 5 p£hc 5m pÅm 5i p£hci
6 6 Cw 6©T X©T 6i Cdi
7 7 shu 7m súm 7i shui
8 8 aht 8m a§m 8i ahti
9 9 nw 9m nbm 9i n\i
10 10 qS 10m qSm 10i qSi
11 11 eghfrh 11S ekhqS 11i eghfrhi
12 12 bhfrh 12S #hqS 12i bhfrhi
13 13 ùfrh 13S «fwhqS 13i ùfrhi
14 14 `cHfØh 14S cuvqòS 14i `cHfØhi
15 15 pfnfrh 15S pÅqS 15i pfnfrhi
16 16 `Xhflh 16S `XhRS 16i `Xhflhi
17 17 sfufrh 17S súqS 17i sfufrhi
18 18 ahThfrh 18S a§qS 18i ahThfrhi
19 19 \ynS 19S \nybLS 19`S \ynfS 749
Appendix 6 20 20 ybS / kvyR 20S ybLS 20`S ybfS
21 21 ekvS 21S ekybLS 21`S ekvfS
22 22 bhiS 22S #hybLS 22`S bhifS
23 23 ùiS 23S «fwhybLS 23`S ùifS
24 24 cyûbS 24S cuvybòLS 24`S cyûbfS
25 25 p£ycS 25S pÅybLS 25`S p£ycfS
26 26 ChyûbS 26S XRybLS 26`S ChyûbfS
27 27 shuhS, shuhiS 27S súybLS 27`S shuhS, shuhifS
28 28 ahthS, ahthiS 28S a§hybLS 28`S ahthfS, ahthifS
29 29 \ny«S 29S \ny«LS 29`S \ny«fS
30 30 y«S 30S y«LS 30`S y«fS
31 31 eky«S 31S eky«LS 31`S eky«fS
cardinal ordinal
32 32 by«S 32S #hy«LS
33 33 ùy«S 33S «wyã«LS
34 34 `cHy«S 34S cuvyãLS
35 35 p£wy«S 35S pÅy«LS
36 36 Cy«S 36S Xty«LS
37 37 s£hiy«S 37S súy«LS
38 38 ahty«S 38S a§hy«LS
39 39 \ncy^S 39S \nc¥hyrLS
40 40 cy^S 40S c¥hyrLS
41 41 ekcy^S 41S ekc¥hyrLS
42 42 ybwhy^S 42S y#c¥hyrLS
43 43 ùuhy^S 43S y«Ÿc¥hyrLS
44 44 cvwhy^S 44S cuvŸc¥hyrLS
45 45 p£wuhy^S 45S pÅc¥hyrLS
46 46 `Ccy^S 46S Xtc¥hyrLS
47 47 shucy^S 47S súc¥hyrLS
48 48 ahtcy^S 48S a§c¥hyrLS
49 49 \npÅhS 49um \npÅhS≠m
50 50 pÅhS 50um pÅhS≠m
51 51 ekhê 51um ekpÅhS≠m
52 52 bhMhê 52um y#pÅhS≠m
53 53 yuùhê 53um y«pÅhS≠m
54 54 cvwhê 54um cuvApÅhS≠m
55 55 pÅhê 55um pÅpÅhS≠m
56 56 Chùhê 56um XtpÅhS≠m
57 57 shuhê 57um súpÅhS≠m
58 58 ahthê 58um a§pÅhS≠m
59 59 \nXht 59um \nXy§um
60 60 Xht 60um Xy§um
61 61 ekXyÑ 61um ekXy§um
62 62 bhXyÑ 62um y#Xy§um
750
63 63 ùXyÑ 63um y«Xy§um Numbers
64 64 `cHXyÑ 64um cuvAXy§um
65 65 p£wXyÑ 65um pÅXy§um
66 66 `CXyÑ 66om XtXy§um
67 67 shuXyÑ 67um súXy§um
68 68 ahtXyÑ 68um a§hXy§um
69 69 \ns≠r 69um \nsúyuum
70 70 s≠r 70um súyuum
71 71 ekh≠r 71um eksúyuum
72 72 bhMh≠r 72um y#súyuum
73 73 yuwh≠r 73um y«súyuum
74 74 cvwh≠r 74um cuvAsúyuum
75 75 p£ch≠r 75om pÅsúyuum
76 76 yCwh≠r 76um Xtsúyuum
77 77 shuh≠r 77um súsúyuum
78 78 ahth≠r 78um a§hsúyuum
79 79 \nahyS 79um \nhSYyuum
80 80 ahyS 80um ahSYyuum
81 81 ekhyS 81um ekhSYyuum
82 82 ybrhyS 82um #jSYyuum
83 83 yurhyS 83um «jSYyuum
84 84 cvrhyS 84um cuvrSYyuum
85 85 p£chyS 85um pÅhSYyuum
86 86 yCwhyS 86um XRSYyuum
87 87 shuhyS 87um súSYyuum
88 88 ahthyS, a§hyS 88um a§SYyuum
89 89 \nnûbi 89um \nhnbyuum
90 90 nûbi 90um nbyuum
91 91 ekhnûbi 91um eknbyuum
92 92 ybrhnûbi 92um y#nbyuum
93 93 yrhnûbi 93um y«nbyuum
94 94 cvrhnûbi 94um cuvnòbyuum
95 95 p£chnûbi 95um pÅnbyuum
96 96 yCwhnûbi 96um XNäbyuum
97 97 shuhnûbi 97um súnbyuum
98 98 ahthnûbi 98um a§hnbyuum
99 99 ynrhnûbi 99um nbnbyuum
100 100 ek S 100um Suum
200 200 qv S 200um y#Suum
1000 1000 Mhzhr, sMsî 1000um sMsîum
zero SVnj (0)
751
Appendix 6 For big numbers, Bengalis think in lhK lakh (one hundred thousand)
and `œhR crore (ten million) rather than in millions and billions. This applies
to writing in figures too – the commas sit at the lakh and crore
positions.
ten thousand 10,000 qS Mhzhr 10,000
one hundred thousand (one lakh) 100,000 ek lhK, ek lÇ 1,00,000
one million 1,000,000 qS lhK 10, 00, 000
ten million (one crore) 10,000,000 ek `khyt, ek `œhR 1,00,00,000
752
Primary sources
Here is a list of the sources used in this book. It is impossible to acknow-

ledge or even retrace every single example sentence. In the course of
acquiring a language, phrases or expressions are picked up and stored in
the memory, taken out of context and re-used in different contexts. This
is a natural part of language learning and I am grateful to all those who have,
in their speaking and writing, helped me in this learning. A special thank
you goes to the authors and publishers who have provided the specific
examples used in this book. Authors are listed in English alphabetical order
by first name.
Abanindranath Thakur, 2002 (7th edn) bvfRh ahLlh Ananda Publishers,
Kolkata
Abdul Mannan Syed, 1973 cflh xhi pfrhfÇ Bangladesh Book Corporation,
Dhaka
Abdur Rahman, 1982 anvyc™n Jakia Akhtari, Dhaka
Abdur Rahman Shadab, 1985 uhfk `qyKyn Begum Akhtari, Dhaka
Abdur Rauf Chaudhuri, 2003 prfqfS prbhsY Pathak Shamebesh, Dhaka
Ali Imam, 2005 —yuyqfnr g¶p Bidyoprokash, Dhaka
Amitabh Bhattacharya, 1993 ek dzn Sîßyu nhtk Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Ashapurna Devi, 1995 anmnYwh Koruna Prokashoni, Kolkata
——, 1997 ybSáhs aybSáhs Deba Sahitya Kutir, Kolkata
Atin Bandhopadhyay, 1987 ekyt zflr `rKh Protibhas Prokash, Kolkata
Banaphul, 1999 (reprint) bhnhPvflr rcnh sLgîM Banisilpa, Kolkata
Bangla Academy, Dhaka, 1991 BhXh ahf~qhlfnr ShMYfqrh Bangla Academy, Dhaka
Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, 1970 rcnhblY Mitra o Ghosh, Kolkata
——, 1984 (reprint) c£hfqr phMhR Signet Press, Kolkata
——, 1999 (reprint) pfUr p£hchlY, aprhyzu, apvr sLshr Kolkata
Bimal Kar, \≠frr Mhowh (no bibliographical information)
——, 1997`ghlhfpr qvAK Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
——, 1972 ekh ekh Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
——, 1979 g¶p sLgîM Bisvabana Prakasani, Kolkata 753
Primary ——, 1983 afSX Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
sources Bimal Mitra, 1966 kUh cyru mhns Prakasha Bhaban, Kolkata
——, 1972 ahym Omor Sahityo Prokashon, Kolkata
——, 1976 ahmhr y—wh Karuna Prakasani, Kolkata
——, 1994 shu smvqî ùr nqY Ujjvala Sahitya Mandira, Kolkata
——, 2000 g¶p s®hr Ujjal Sahitya Mandir, Kolkata
Buddhadeva Bose, rcnh sLgîM
Buddhadeb Guha, 1985 `Sî∞©T g¶p Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1992 chnGfr ghn Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1997 Bhl lhfg nh Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Chitrabangla, weekly popular magazine, published in Dhaka
Debesh Roy, 1988 yuÄhphfrr bé≠h™, Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Deepti Tripathi, 1959 ahQvynk bhLlh khbjpyrcw
Dhiraj Bhattacharya, 1996 xKn pvylS yClhm New Age Publishers, Kolkata
Fazlul Alam, 2004 œhy™khfl —uhrk Anyaprokash, Dhaka
Hasan Azizul Huq, 2002 ynbòhycu g¶p Jatyia Gronth Prokashon, Dhaka
——, 2006 ahgvnphyK Sondhani Prokashoni, Dhaka
——, 2008 bfRhg¶p Iftekhar Amin, Dhaka
Hossein Shahariyar, 2002 ahmhfqr nYl gîM, pyrbS o —kéyu Dhaka
Humayun Ahmed, 1991 ekzn mhwhbuY Abdul Kadir Khan, Dhaka
——, 1992 `Sî©T g¶p, Shamay Prakashon, Dhaka
Jahanara Imam, 1986 ekh≠frr yqngvyl Sondhani Prokashoni, Dhaka
Kabita Singh, 1976 ekyt Khrhp `mfwr g¶p Bisbani Prokashoni, Kolkata
Kasem Bin Abubakar, 2001 yblyôbu bhsr Noor Kasem Publisher, Dhaka
Ketaki Kushari Dyson, 1986 rbY~q∞nhU o yBkfuhyrwh okhfôphr síhfn
——, 1997 rhfur `rhfq Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Khaleda Hanum, 1987 kUh ahr kUh Ahamad Publishing, Dhaka
Krishanprasad Mandal, ÇvQhr kRch (no bibliographical information)
Lila Majumdar, 1967 ahr `khnoKhfn Mitra and Ghosh, Kolkata
——, 2007 (reprint) pyqypysr bymòb⁄ü
Manik Bandopadhyay, 1988 gî√blY Granthalaya, Kolkata
Mohammad Hossein, 2000 aQjhpk zhlhflr ã«Y Bidyoprokash, Dhaka
Mohito Kamal, 2007 c£hqmvK, ynbòhycu g¶p Bidyoprokash, Dhaka
Moyetri Debi, 1981 …fgòr khChkhyC Premier, Kolkata
——, 1986 ybyQ o ybQhuh Prima, Kolkata
——, 1974 nh Mnjfu Manisa Granthalaya, Kolkata
Nabanita Debsen, 1996 sYuh Ùfk Svrß Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
Nasrin Jahan, 2002 phyK uvym `syqn rhfu k£hqyCfl `kn? Anyaprokash, Dhaka
——, 2000 \pnjhs smgî Anyaprokash, Dhaka
Praphullo Ray, 1968 anj BVbn Omor Sahityo Prokashona, Kolkata
——, 1981 akhfSr nYfc mhnvX Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1993 `Sî©T g¶p Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1997 aul zflr yqfk Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
754 Probash Kumar Das, 1995 `M nhrY, ahkhS Mo Pelican Press, Kolkata
Protibha Bose, 1959 `—fmr g¶p Grantham, Kolkata Primary
——, 1989 M∑qfwr bhghn, Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata sources
——, 1993 aflh ahmhr ahflh Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1993 aygä uvXhr Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1995 smhgu bs™, Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Rabindranath Tagore, 1910 `ghrh
——, 1912 dhkGr
——, 1913 yCê p«
——, 1915 Gfr bhifr
——, 1917 `chfKr bhyl
——, 1933 uhfsr `qS
——, 1938 bhLlh BhXh pyrcw
——, 1944 ycyT p«
Rashid Hayder, 1988 mhbvMhi
Robaet Ferdous and Firoz Zaman Choudhury, 2005 ybfSX zfnr ybfSX shÇhukhr
Prithish Prottoy, Dhaka
Sachindranath Bandyopadhyay, 1996 …fpär khfC `Prh Mitra and Ghosh Publishers,
Kolkata
Samarajita Kar, 1972 ek `P£hth ybX Mousumi Prokashani, Kolkata
Samaresh Basu, 1972 ybkhfl `Bhfrr Pvl Mousumi Prokashoni, Kolkata
——, 1997 shmhfrS bsvr rcnhblY Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
Samaresh Debonath (ed.), 1994 ei smfwr `Sî©T g¶p, Kakoli Prokashoni, Dhaka
Samaresh Majumdar, 1997 …fpär bhzhr Mitra o Ghosh, Kolkata
——, 1998 qhwbín Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
——, 1998 `Sî©§ g¶p Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Sankar, 1985 ekyqn MThJ Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1985 `xKhfn `xmn Kolkata
Santas Kumar Ghosh, 1977 qVfrr nqY Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1996 zn arnj Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
Saratchandra Chattopadhyay, 2000 (reprint) …hmY, Manurani Das, Dhaka
Satyajit Ray, 1982 xKn `Cht yClhm Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
——, 2000 `srh sujyzu Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
Selina Hossein, 1992 Bhlbhsh —Yyuluh Agami Prokashoni, Dhaka
——, 2000 lhrh, Mowla Brothers, Dhaka
——, 2008 pVN ò Cybr mgäuh Anyaprokash, Dhaka
Shahid Shatabdi, 1997 klh Bbfnr yqngvyl Ghati Prokashoni, Dhaka
Shailajananda Mukhopadhyay, 1968 `x kUh blh Mwyn Kolkata
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Shambhu Mitra, 1993 p£hcyt g¶p qvyt nhytkh Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, qéSjblY (no bibliographical information)
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Suchitra Bhattacharya, 1995 qMn Dey’s Publishing, Kolkata
——, 1997 `Mmf™r phyK Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
Sunil Gangopadhyay, 1981 `s smw Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
755
Primary ——, 1983 arfnjr yqnrhy« Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
sources ——, 1988 pVb ò pyŸcm Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
——, 1989 g¶p smgî Mitra and Ghosh, Kolkata
——, 1996 —Um ahflh (Vols 1 and 2) Ananda Publishers, Kolkata
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Syed Manzoorul Islam, 2005 `—m o —hUònhr g¶p, Anyaprokash, Dhaka
Syed Waliullah, 1986 lhl shlv Eden Press, Dhaka
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Tapan Bandhyopadhyay, 1997 ekth zrßyr Phil Mitra and Ghosh, Kolkata
Tapanmohon Chattopadhyay, 1996 ãméyurÃ, Ananda Publishing, Kolkata
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Bangla Journal, published by Iqbal Karim Hasnu (ed.), North York, Ontario
`qS, monthly cultural journal, Kolkata
khyl o klm, monthly literary journal, Dhaka
—Um ahflh, daily newspaper, Dhaka
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Islam, Rafiqul, 1963 Introduction to an East Pakistan Dialect, University of
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Jasanoff, Sheila Sen, 1971 Outlines of Bengali grammar, Language Reports 5
——, 1973 The Participial Tenses in Bengali, PhD thesis, Harvard
Kachru, Yamuna, 1980 Aspects of Hindi Grammar Manohar, New Delhi
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Klaiman, Mimi H., 1981 Volitionality and Subject in Bengali: A study of
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Page, Sutton W., 1920 Bengali for Beginners (2 vols), Kolkata
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——, 1987 bhLlh bhnhn sLãkhr: smsjh o s®hbnh , Kolkata
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William Radice, Teach Yourself Bengali, p. 293
761
Bangla index
This index contains lexical items, including pre-and suffixes and those individual
letters which are dealt with in detail. It does not contain Bangla grammatical terms.
These can be accessed via the English index. A list of Bangla grammatical terminology
is given on pages 5 and 6. Declined noun and pronoun forms as well as conjugated
verb forms are not given unless they have special uses, such as Ùfk from, blfu `gfl
so to speak, bhfq after etc. Abbreviations can be found on page xxiii. All references
are to page numbers.
a inherent vowel 36ff ap- prefix 70

a, an, anh prefixes 69 apr reciprocal 320
aÇr syllable 40 apr pfÇ conjunction 241
au quantifier 188 ab- prefix 70
adv degree 206 abyQ postposition 230
deictic 301 abfSfX adv time 207
aueb conjunction 264, 519 ayB- prefix 70
ayu adv degree 69, 203, amn adv manner 218
222 aUòhJ conjunction 511
ayuyr∆ adv degree 222f a¶p adjective 175, 217
aUc conjunction 263, 522 ah- prefix 70
aUbh conjunction 262, 511 ahfg adv time 207, 255
ayQ prefix 70 postposition 230
anv prefix 70 with yTk 258
anv…r → L consonant 44, 53f ahÉCh interjection 293
afnk quantifier 102, 104, ahC- chart 157, 170
105, 189f existential 323–6,
in comparisons 180, 181, 380, 429,
182 436, 457,
vs `byS 198 480–5
afnkÇN adv time 207 immediacy 614
afnfk plural noun 104, 110, locative 481
190, 250, negation 627–9
565 omission of 485
a™u spelling 54 possessive 482
adv degree 205, 223 tense use 592
a™r postposition 230 vs Uhkh 613–6
a™ñ a → glide 41 with yTk 484
w with Bhl 484
a™ñ x → consonant 45 ahz, ahzfk adv time 208
x ahzkhl adv time 208
anj adjective 175 ahf“, ahfr interjection 294
in reciprocals 320 ahQ, ahQh numeral 719
762 with indefinites 309, 310 ahn- prefix 70
ahnh chart 152 with nouns 305 Bangla index
ahpn reflexive 137 without
ahpyn pronoun 113, 123, classifier 305
125 ektv adjective 176
reflexive 137 classifier 106
ahbhr adv time 208 quantifier 190
conjunction 262, 511 ekqm adv degree 223
ahm- prefix 69 ekmh« only 175, 224
ahmhw obj pronoun 129–30 ekrkm adv vagueness 222
ahym, ahmrh pronoun 127, 143, eksfÃ adv manner 220
145 ekh, eklh adv manner 219, 220
ahr amount 198–200 eki same 256, 282
conjunction 262, 269, efkbhfr adv degree 206, 258
512 eÇyN adv time 209
with indefinites 310 eKn adv time 209
ahr yk interjection 233, 294 eKno adv time 209
ahro in comparisons 180, 198, eKhfn adv place 216
199 egfnh chart 157
ahfr interjection 294 eth, oth deictics 102, 125,
(ahf“) 140
ahsfC adjective 171 eu quantifier 188
ahsfl sentence adv 205, 207 euÇN adv time 209
ahsh chart 152 eyqfk adv place 216
colloquial enhrh →
forms 158 e£rh
compound e-, ophfr adv place 216
maker 347–9 ebL conjunction 261, 269
impersonal use 491 ebhr, eibhr adv time 210
tense use 596 emn adv manner 218ff
ahfs -xhw idiom 683 emn yk adv manner 223
ahfÄ adv manner 219 emn smw adv time 210
ahMh interjection 293 emyn adv manner 219, 282
i emphasiser 281–3 er mfQj adv time 210
mid-word 283 efs-xhowh idiom 683
with CP 409 E deictic 32
with deictics 139 o concessive 409, 417
with IP 401 conjunction 261
i and I vowels 33 deictic 308
iyumfQj adv time 208 emphasiser 283ff
iqhnYL adv time 208 pronoun 127f, 165
iyn pronoun 126f o, ahr, ebL conjunctions 269
is interjection 295 oi deictic 139, 175
\ and | vowels 33 oKhfn adv place 139
\ycu with VN 377, 658 ofgh, mhfgh interjection 293
\J, \q prefix 71 oth → eth
\fØfSj postposition 231 oTh chart 151
\nhrh → compound
orh maker 350f
\yn pronoun 126, 132 rise, get up
\p- prefix 71 uses 684f
\pr, \pfr postposition 231 omn adv manner 218ff
\Bfw both 564 omh interjection 294
å vowel 33 owhlh suffix 72
e pronunciation 34 orh pronoun 110, 123,
e, ei pronouns 127, 139f 127
deictic 307 O vowel 32
e£, e£rh pronouns 127 L an…r use 44, 53f
ek one 97 A ybsgò use 54
with classifier 97, 101 £ c~qî-yb~qv use 54
with indefinites 312 ki interrogative 276
with measure rhetorical 290
words 114, 305 kKn interrogative 276f 763
Bangla index kKno indefinite 210, 309, `kmn kfr interrogative 276
692 `kmn zhyn adv vagueness 222
kKno adv frequency 210, 670 `kmn `xn adv vagueness 222
kKno conjunction 640
ku interrogative 279 `khUh, interrogative 276
quantifier 188 `khUhw
kUh with gen VN 382 `khUho indefinite 308, 309
kUh word, idioms 704 `khn interrogative 278
kfb interrogative 276f `khno and ykCv 195
km adjective 182 indefinite 309–11
adverb 214, 634 `khno rkm adv vagueness 222
kmfbyS adv degree 224 `œhr numeral 752
kw, kwth interrogative 191, 279 Ç conjunct,
kfwk quantifier 191 pronunciation 47
-kr suffix 73, 81 Khowh conjunct verbs 747
krh in conjunct eat, uses 687
verbs 361–7 Khnh classifier 104
impersonal use 491 Khynk quantifier 195
kfr forming with ÇN 211
adverbs 204 Khfnk numeral 723
with Kvb adv degree 206,
onomatopoeia 673 224f, 304
k£hch raw, idioms 716 Kvb ekth adv degree 304
khChkhyC postposition 186, 231 gRh build verb set 75
khC, khfC postposition 186, 232 gN collective 109
khC Ùfk postposition 235 gu suffix 81
origin 258 adjective 276
khz work, idioms 706 gr- prefix 69
khfzi conjunction 265 glh melt, verb set 75
khth, khthfnh cut, spend, gh interjection 471
uses 685f gh body, idioms 707
khn ear, idioms 707 gvyl, gvflh classifiers 105
-khr suffix 73 -`g in imperatives 471
-khr genitive 118 `gl adjective 171
khrN conjunction 264, 516 Gth happen, uses 688
khl, khlfk adverb 210 Gvmhfnh chart 155
yk conjunction 262 W and L occurrence 43f
interrogative 272f c~qîyb~qv → £ occurrence 54
particle 291 clh compound
question maker 349f
marker 273 impersonal 497
yk zhyn adv vagueness 291 with CP 647f
yknh conjunction 262, 533 chi impersonal 498
yk `xn adv vagueness 292 chifu comparison 183
yk `r interjection 295 chowh chart 154
ykLbh conjunction 262, 512 tense use 595, 604
ykCv quantifier 192ff want, see, uses 689f
with ÇN 211, 277 with IP 394
with th 194 chlhfnh causative 333
ykCvfu adv degree 194 chart 156
yk≤ conjunction 263, 522 ycrkhl, -yqn adv time 211
-`k object case 119, 572 `cnh know, uses 693
`k, khrh pronouns 271f `cfw comparison 180ff
`k\ indefinite non-
pronoun 135 comparative 187
`k `xn what’s his postposition 232
name 314 `chK eye, idioms 708
`kn interrogative 274 ChRh postposition 233
rhetorical 290 yC yC interjection 294, 478
`knnh conjunction 264 yCl uses 602
`kbl adv degree 224 zn classifier 104
764 `kmn interrogative 275 -znk suffix 74
znj, zfnj postposition 234 replacing ahC- 170, 403, Bangla index
zhnh know, uses 690–4 495, 534
tense use 608 with IP 617f
with IP 390 with PP 616f
`zhfr adv manner 206, 220 Ùfk comparison 182
zálh burn verb set 75 postposition 234–6
õ occurrence 44 origin 258f
th classifier 99, qr- prefix 68
101–3, qrkhr with yk 273f
299–302 with gen VN 656–8
with ek 101, 304, with nom VN 377,
305 654–6
with ku 280 q£hRhfnh compound
with ykCv 194 maker 353, 743
with deictics 140, 301 extended vb 328
with numbers 101 q£hyR punctuation 57
with qhrßN adjective 175
quantifiers 188–98, adv degree 225
302 yqfk postposition 236
yt classifier 103 yqfw postposition 237
tvk, tvkv classifier 106 qv-, qvr- prefix 71
`t, `th classifiers 101 qvr interjection 295
yTk adv manner 205, 221, qVr, qVfr adv place 217
286 `qowh chart 153
with ahC- 436 compound
dhn, dhfn adv place 216 maker 354f
ƒ occurrence 44 conjunct verbs 367
N occurrence 44 uses 694–6
uKn, uKno adv time 211 VA compounds 387
uJÇNhJ adv time 211 with IP 394
ubv, ubvo conjunction 263, 421 `qKh see, uses 694
with xyqo 524 with phowh 393, 696
ufb conjunction 264, 435 `qKhfnh trivalent vb 432
correlative 545 uses 695–6,
uh in content 709
clauses 526ff `qKfu `qKfu idiom 401
particle 288f -`qr plural 110
pronoun 139 #hrh postposition 238
suffix 82 Qrh pRh VA compound 387
uh nw fixed phrase 531, 626f Qfr postposition 238f
uhi conjunction 265 QjhJ interjection 295
uhi nh? interrogative 467f n- zero verb
uhChRh conjunction 512 negator 158, 439,
uhRhuhyR adv manner 220, 221 624–6
uhfqr, uhr pronoun 128f nifl conjunction 514
uhrpr conjunction 266, 512 nRh stir verb set 76
uhMfl conjunction 265, 513 nuvbh conjunction 514
uvlnhw comparison 186 nw contrasting 626
-ù locative 121, with negated
580ff CP 407
ùmn adv manner 218 with gen VN 653
ùh emphasiser 285ff with \ycu 658
correlative 534 with kUh 660
ùhlh compound nwfuh conjunction 514
maker 357, 743 nh conjunction 263, 513,
verbal adjective 385 629
J occurrence 45 in imperatives 471
Uhkh aspective negating
compounds 613ff sentences 621–2
chart 151 particle 290
periphrastic position of 629–633
tenses 171f prefix 68 765
Bangla index nhi colloquial compound
for `ni 627 maker 356f, 743
nhyk conjunction 263, 467 bft incomplete
nhghq postposition 239 vb form 170
nh Mfl conjunction 265 sentence adv 206
yn-, ynr- prefix 71 bR as adv 222
yn tensed negator 622ff big, idioms 716
ynfc postposition 239 comparison 186
ynz, ynfz reflexive 136–138 bR ekth adv degree 304, 717
ynz… reflexive 137 bq prefix 69
ynfw postposition 239 bqfl postposition 245
`ni neg of ahC- 627ff b-Plh pronounced b 56
`nowh compound silent 56
maker 355 uses 51, 55f
`nMhu conjunction 221 brL conjunction 263, 513
pfÇ postposition 240 blh chart 149
pRh compound speak, uses 700ff
maker 352f with IP 390
fall verb set 76 blfu idiomatic use 402, 701f
prãpr reciprocal 320 blfu `gfl idiomatic use 410
prh prefix 71 bfl conjunction 266,
pyr prefix 71 421f,
pyrbfuò postposition 241 517f, 529
pfr adverb 255 bsh compound
postposition 242 maker 353
pxò™ following IP 243 b£h, bhm adv place 216
postposition 242f bhA interjection 293
with Ùfk 235 bh conjuncion 262, 513
with VN, particle 289
negated 631 VN ending 161, 377
ph foot, idioms 709 bhifr postposition 245
phowh chart 154 bhfq postposition 246
get, receive, bhn suffix 80
uses 696 bhr adv time 214
impersonal use 490f yb- prefix 72
with IP 393f ybnh postposition 246
phkh ripe, idioms 716 ybrßfº postposition 247
phfC conjunction 639 ybfSXu adv degree 226
phfn postposition 244 ybsgò → A occurrence 52
phrh be able to, uses 698 bvk breast, idioms 710
mixed bvyZ interjection 171, 461
structure 497, 700 `b- prefix 68
negated with `bfrhfnh chart 157
PP 699 formation 159
uses 698–700 `bS adv degree 226
with CP 408 `byS amounts 198, 201f
with IP 392 in comparisons 180, 184
phfS postposition 244 `bhZh chart 149
ypCfn postposition 244 `bhZhfnh chart 156
—- prefix 71 Bhfb forming
—yu- prefix 72 adverbs 204
—yu distributive adj 201 yBufr adverb 255
postposition 245 postposition 247
—yuyqn adv frequency 214 BYXN adv degree 226
—fujk distributive adj 202 mu comparison 185
—Umu adv formation 205 postposition 247f
—Ufm adv time 212 with gen VN 379
—Qhnu adv degree 225 mfQj comparison 184
adv formation 205 postposition 248
—hw adv degree 225 mn heart, idioms 711
—hw-—hwi contrast 282 locative
766 `Plh chart 150 conjuncts 370f
m-Plh use 51, 55f particle 292 Bangla index
mrh die verb set 76 relative
mhZhmhyZ postposition 249 pronoun 124, 132
mhfZ postposition 249 with indefinites 310f
mhfZ mhfZ adv time 215 `x - uh correlatives 269
mh« adv time 212 `x - `s correlatives 251
adv degree 224 `xn adv vagueness 221f, 314
with VN 377f conjunction 267
mhUh head, idioms 712 in exclamations 478
mhQjfm postposition 250 in imperatives 475
mhn, mhN suffix 80 modal use 640–3
mhnh accept, uses 703 `xmn modal use 640
mhfn pro-copular use 509 sentence
mhyPk postposition 250 adverb 58
mhrPu postposition 251 with 3rd ps
mhrh conjunct verbs 368, 749 imperative 465
verb set 76 `xmn-ùmn comparison 185
verbal adjective 385 correlatives 549f
mvK face, idioms 713 relative pairs 315
`mhthmvyt adv degree 226 `xfMuv conjunction 517
`mhfti adv degree 226 w glide 41
x consonant, 45 r in conjuncts 47, 51
uses -rh animate plural 97, 110
xKn -uKn correlatives 269, 542f rhKh compound
xu - uu correlatives 269, 543f maker 357f
xfU§ adj, adv 226 rYyumu adv frequency 215
xyq conditionals 533ff `rhz adv frequency 215
conjunction 268 lhgh impersonal use 487–90
equational with IP 391f
sentences 504 tense use 595
xyqo concessives 524 `lKh chart 150
conjunction 268 `lhfk people 110
x-Plh uses 52f SYl suffix 80
xh - uh correlatives 269, 545f SvQv adv degree 224
xh ykCv whatever 311, 548 `SX, `SfX adv time 212
xhowh chart 155 `Shwh chart 153
compound s-, sL, sm- prefix 72
maker 341–7, sfÃ postposition 251
741 sfÃ sfÃ adv time 212
impersonal sfµo postposition 252
with VN 376, sb quantifier 196
495–7, sbfcfw comparison 183
654 sb smw adv time 213, 215
verbal sbhi everyone 197
adjectives 389 smw smw adv frequency 215
vs ahsh 683 smÄ quantifier 197
with IP sôpfkò postposition 252
(purpose) 396 sôpVNò adv degree 223
with PP 422 sô—yu adv time 213
xhfu conjunction 267, 555 smáfí postposition 252
modal use 638f sMfz adv manner 221
negated 630 shQhrNu adv frequency 216
relative shmfn postposition 253
pronoun 124, 133 shrh quantifier 198
xh with ykCv 311 sv- prefix 72
with indefinites 310f svurhL conjunction 265, 514,
xhbJ postposition 251 519
`x conjunction 266, 268 `s deictic adj 175
in content pronoun 126–7,
clauses 526, 528 131, 140
in result `sznj conjunction 265
clauses 520 `syqn adv time 213 767
Bangla index `shzh adj, adv place 217 Mbv to be 171
Mowh chart 152 Mw - nh Mw correlatives 267
verb of being 325 Mwfuh sentence adv 206
impersonal use 491 Mfw postposition 254
passives (with Ms™ occurrence 55
VN) 494 Mhu hand, idioms 714
with abstract Mhw, Mhwfr interjection 295
nouns 370 Mhrh, Mhrhfnh uses 337
MThJ adv manner 221 -MYn suffix 73, 81
Mfu postposition 253
768
English index
This index contains the keywords and grammatical terms used in this book, general
grammatical terms which readers may be looking for and semantic headwords such
as cause, comparison, purpose etc. It does not contain English lexical items. If you
want to know how to say have in Bangla, go to possessives. If you want to know
about each, go to adjectives or find the Bangla word and look in the Bangla index.
Personal names are not given.
abbreviations xxiii perfective participles as 204

ability 392f, 603, postpositions as 255f
696, 698 sentence adverbs 206
accusative → object case time 207–13
active sentences 178, 435, vaguenness 221f
456, 479f, affirmative – negative
577 contrast 198, 322f
address 125f, 165, in existential sentences 627f
442, 470 agreement 433, 565
adjectives 93, 102, alphabet
105, 109, (order of letters) 20
139, amounts 198–201
174–202 animate – inanimate 113
as adverbs 203, 205 apostrophe 59f
attributive 175 approximate numbers 721–3
comparison 179–87 Arabic words 14
derivation 77–81 articles → classifiers
distributive 176 aspect 611–20
predicative 177 grammatical 611ff
quantifiers 188–98 lexical 613
suffixes 77–81 aspiration 28f
types 174f Bangla vs Bengali 3
verbal 178 ba-verbal noun 161, 377
adverbs 203–27 bare nouns 95f
in e 205 bishorgo A 54
in u to 205 bivalent verbs 348, 353,
degree 222–6 355, 380,
formation 204 430f
frequency 213–6 bophola 51, 55f
manner 218–22 calit bhasa 16
modifying adjectives 206 case 115–21,
modifying adverbs 206 564–91
modifying sentences 206 endings, position 97
modifying verbs 205 endings dropped 121f
order 226 genitive 116f,
place 216f 566–572 769
English index locative 119f, negated 498, 535,
580–590 632
nominative 115, negated with nw 407, 653
563–566 temporal 405
objective 118f, with Mowh and clh 406, 648
572–580 conditional sentences 403, 469,
causative verbs 331–338, 533, 608
431–432, xyq clause following 539f
736–740 xyq with other tenses 540f
cause 384, 515 incomplete 469, 478,
classifiers 97 539
in noun phrases 299 negated 535f
plural 105, 119, past 538
188, 196, perfective 536f
279 present 534f
singular 97 without xyq 541
with deictics 301 condro bindu 21, 27
with numbers 304 conjugation 145–58
with possessives 300 sadhu bhasha 17f
with quantifiers 188–98, conjunctions 261–70
302 coordinating 261–6,
collective nouns 108, 305 510ff
collective numbers 721 correlative 267–9
comma 57 subordinating 266f
comparative 179 conjuncts 46–50
comparison 179–87 conjunct verbs 361–73
negated 183 beyond conjunct verbs 369
complements 438–40, locative conjuncts 370ff
458, consonants 42ff
499–501 consonant assimilation 66
adjectives 500 consonant clusters →
genitive nouns 501 conjuncts
complex relatives 558f content clauses 526–33
complex sentences 517–60 with yknh 532
causal 517 with uh nw 531
concessive 524 with bfl 529
conditional 533–41 with `x 528
content 526–33 without conjunction 529f
result 520 with question words 530
compound makers 341–58 context 288, 289,
compound sentences 510–26 446
causal 516 continuous → 172, 611–3,
concessive 522 progressive 617
contradicting 514f coordination 510–23
coordinating 511ff (see also compound
result 519 sentences)
compound verbs 339–60 copula → zero verb 322, 507–9
negation 635 correlative pairs 542
same sense correlatives → relative
compounds 358f sentences
shortened participles 359f count – non-count 114
concessives 522–5 dative → object case
conditional participle 163, declarative sentences 464
403–410, definite article →
533 classifiers
followed by an definiteness 112
imperative 410 definitions (glossary) xviii
followed by i 409 deictics 138–41
followed by o 409 independent 307
followed by phrh 408 in noun phrases 176, 301f
forms 163f deletion (of pronouns)
770 if-conditionals 404 → pro-drop
demonstratives → comparison 186, 569 English index
deictics complements 501, 571f
deshi words 14 experiencer subjects 490
determiners → classifiers modifiers 567f
dialogue 449f semantics 567f, 571
dictionary use 60 subjects → impersonal
diglossia 15 structures 490f, 571
diphthongs 26f verbal noun → verbal
direct object 574–80 noun, genitive
distributive adjectives 201f habitual (aspect) 612
double negatives 634 habitual past → past
double postpositions 256 habitual 606f
double pronouns 313–6 high vowels 23, 64,
doubling 62, 143, 144,
664–72 146, 159
adjectives 109 Hindi words 14
. . . etcetera 663f history 9
indefinites 311f honorific (address) 113
ykCv 194 honorific noun paradigm 98
nouns 63, hosonto (hasanta) 55
plural formation 63, 109 hyphen 58f
embedded relative clauses 557f imperatives 165–8,
emphasis 219, 272, 470–7
306, 445, 2nd person 473
508 3rd person 473
emphasisers 281–8 embedded 476
echo words 63, 666f expanded 475
English words 15, 362 future 165–8,
e-plurals 110, 564 471
exclamative sentences 477f negated 472
existential sentences 480–5 reinforced 471
locative 481 imperfective (aspect) 612
negated 627ff imperfective participle 162,
possessive 482 390–402
existential verb ahC- 323–5, doubled 400
457, 480–5 doubled with nh 401
omission of ahC- 485 forms 162f
equational sentences 438f, 458, simultaneous events 398–402
499–506 with abstract nouns 397
adjectival complements 500 with adjectives 398
affirmative 499ff with verbs 390–7
extended 504ff with time component 397
genitive noun with verbs of motion 395
complements 501 with ahC- and `ni 651
negated 501f, 627 with chowh 394
past, future, non-finite 502 with Uhkh 399
experiencer subjects 490f with `qowh 394
extended verbs 159, with `ni 396, 652f
327–30 with phowh 393
familiar (address) 113, 125, with phrh 392f
471 with lhgh 391f
finite verb forms 143–59 with Mowh 398, 649f
formality 86, 92, 98, impersonal passives 493–7
101, 103 with xhowh 495–7
fractions 719 with Mowh 494
frequency (adverbs) 213–6 impersonal structures 485–99
full stop 60 genitive experiencer
future tense 598ff subjects 490f
modal use 643f no subject structures 486
gender 92ff with lhgh 487–90
genitive 116–8, with Mowh 491f
567–73 inanimate 113 771
English index nouns, paradigm 100 mood → modality
pronouns 131f mophola 51, 55f
inceptive (aspect) 390, 391, morphologically linked
612 verbs 75ff
incomplete verbs 170 -mu and um endings for
indefiniteness 112 1st-FUT 158
indefinites 308–13 multiple indefinites 312f
doubled 311 multiple relative
formation 308 structures 558
multiple 312 nasal 27f
with ahr and anj 310 need (with qrkhr) 654ff
with ek 312 (with lhgh) 489
with `x and xh 310 need-to-know 95, 316,
indirect object 572f 592
infinitive → imperfective negation 625–39
participle nominative 115f,
inflection → case 564–91
inherent vowel 36ff plural 115f
after conjuncts 37 pronouns 123
pronunciation 39 subjects with CP 565f
intention 396 subjects with IP 566
interjections 293–5 subjects with VN 378, 565
interrogative pronouns 133–135 non-finite verb forms 374f
interrogative sentences 465–469 → conditional
interrogatives 271–279 participle 403–410
as indefinites 280 → imperfective
intransitive verbs → participle 390–402
monovalent verbs → perfective participle 411–425
iterative (aspect) 612, 617–9 → verbal noun 375–89
jophola 52 time components 592
-le endings for 3rd P-S 158 no subject structure 486
lexicon 13–5 nouns 91–122
like and dislike animate – inanimate 113
(with lhgh) 488 attachments 121f
linking verbs → verbs case 115–21,
of being 322–6 564–91
location 258f categories 85
locative 119–21, count – non-count 114
205, 228, derivations 82–5
580–90 formation 92ff
cause 589 gender 92ff
endings dropped 584, 587f ordinary – honorific 113
instrumental 584 paradigms 98ff
manner 588 types 91, 95
spatial 581f verbal 375–85
temporal 587 noun phrase 299–306
verbal conjuncts 370–3 numbers 750–3
verbal noun 384 numerals 719–23
low vowels 23, 64, approximate 721f
143, 144, cardinal 750ff
146, 159 collective 721
-lum endings for 1st P-S 158 fractions and
measures 720 percentages 719
Middle Bengali 10 idioms 717f
minimal pairs 23, 25–31 in noun phrases 302
modality 636–53 indefinite big numbers 723
conjunctions 637–42 ordinal 750ff
non-finite structures 646–62 weights and measures 720–1
tense use 643–6 without classifiers 304
modifiers (noun phrases) 299–306 object case, objective 118, 505,
monovalent verbs 429, 456, 57–80
772 487 case endings dropped 576
obligation 648ff temporal 229 English index
o-kar verbs 159–60 underived 229
Old Bengali 10 predicate 435ff
omission (of ahC-) 485 predicate adjective 177f
onomatopoeia 672–82 prefixes 67ff
verbs derived from 77 prepositions →
ordinary – honorific 113 postpositions
PAP → perfective present → simple present
participle present continuous 595f
particles 288–92 present participle →
participle → non-finite imperfective participle
verb forms present perfect 597ff
passives 376, 493–7 pro-copula 507–509
past → simple past pro-drop 447ff
past conditional 538 progressive (aspect) 612
past continuous 603f prohibition with nw 407, 626,
past habitual 606f 653
past participle → pronouns 123–41
perfective participle deictic 138ff
past perfect 604f inanimate 131f
percentages 719 indefinite 135f
perfective conditional 536f interrogative 133f
perfective participle 411–25 number 316f
as pospositions 422 personal 127f
doubled 419 reflexive 136f
describing relative 132f
circumstances 415 punctuation 57ff
describing cause 415 purpose 234, 266,
describing manner 414 379, 395,
forms 164f 638
implied meanings 415 qualifiers 303
negated 416, 420 quantifiers 176,
sequence of events 412f 188–98
sequences and reverse order 303
compound verbs 422 questions 465–70
shortened 359 question words 271–80
simultaneous events 414 reciprocals 320f
with abstract nouns 418 reduplication →
with different subjects 417f doubling
with verbs of motion 413 reflexives 317–9
periphrastic tenses 171 relative pairs 315
Persian words 14 relative sentences 541–60
phonemes 22–31 complex 558
place adverbs 216 rel clause embedded 557
plural 107–111 rel clause following 555
in e 110 multiple 558
of names 111 negated 630
polite (address) 125, 471 rel clause preceding 542
Portuguese words 15 relative pronouns 132
possession 323, 457 doubled 315
possessive adjectives 176f pairs 315
possessive pronouns 123f, 128 with other pronouns 313
possibility 241, 392f, reph 47, 51
408, result clauses 519f
495–7, 654 reversed order
postpositions 228–58 quantifiers 303f
adverbial uses 255 rophola 47, 51
attributive uses 255 sadhu bhasha 15
case use 229f same sense compound
double 256 verbs 358
modified 258 Sanskrit 9, 16
spatial 229 script 19 773
English index semicolon 58 derived from
sentences 439–560 onomatopoeia 77
sentence adverbs 232f extended 327–30
sentence classification 451–63 morphology 142ff
sentence components 435ff simple 73, 331
sentence modes 464–78 types 322–361
sentence patterns 479–509 verb sets 75
sentence structure 460–3 verbal adjective 178,
sentence types 464–78 385–389
shortened participles 359f active – passive
simple past 600ff meaning 385
simple present 593f attributive 385
singular 97, 107–10 compounds 386–9
sounds and phonemes 24ff predicative 386
spelling and sound 60 verbal fragments 170
spelling variations 54, 73, 174 verbal noun 161f,
stative (aspect) 612 375–89
stem (verb) 143 forms 161f
subjunctive → modals genitive 378–82
subordinating attributive 379
conjunctions 266 modifying other
subordination → nouns 379–382
complex sentences with postpositions 378f
suffixes 72 with kUh 660
superlative 179, 183, with qrkhr 656
184 with nw 382, 653
syllable structure 40 with mu 379
tadbhava words 13 locative 384f
tatsama words 13 expressing cause 384
tense changes (modal) 643ff nominative 375–8
tense use 527, 591–3, as subject 375
608 with \ycu 377, 658
tenses 591–610 with qrkhr 377, 654f
future 598–600 with mh« 377f
past continuous 490, 603f with xhowh 495ff
past habitual 606–8 object 383
past perfect 604–6 verbal predicates 435–8
periphrastic 170 verbs of being 322–6
present continuous 603f vowels 31ff
present perfect 595f vowel harmony 64
simple past 350, 502, vowel mutation 64
507, 600ff in verbs 143
simple present 593–5 vowel sounds 31
time adverbs 207 weights 720
transitive verbs → West Bengal / Bangladesh 3, 8
bivalent verbs 426 when-conditional 405
trivalent verbs 431, 572, word classes 85–7
701 word order 435ff
Turkish words 15 complements 438–40
vagueness 221f verbal predicates 435–8
valency 426–32 word order flexibility 440
verbs 142–73, adverbs,
322–432 sentence-initial 445
causative 331–8 adverbs, sentence-final 445
classes 142 object, sentence-initial 444
compound 339–60 object, sentence-final 443f
conjugation 43, subject, sentence-final 441f
145–158 yes-no questions 466
conjunct 361–73 zero verb 322, 438f
774

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Bengali: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to

Routledge Comprehensive Grammars

It presents a fresh, accessible and thorough description of the language,

The volume is organised to promote a thorough understanding of

An extensive index and numbered paragraphs provide readers with easy

• detailed treatment of the common grammatical structures and parts of

Hanne - Ruth Thompson

Bengali: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to Bengali

Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages:

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2010 Hanne-Ruth Thompson

Typeset in Sabon and Gill

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-41137-0 (hbk)

To the children of Bangladesh

Chapter 2 Script and sound 19

PART 2 WORD CLASSES 89

Chapter 5 Pronouns 123

Chapter 6 Verbs 142

Chapter 7 Adjectives 174

Chapter 8 Adverbs 203

Chapter 9 Postpositions 228

Chapter 10 Conjunctions 261

Chapter 11 Interrogatives 271

Chapter 12 Emphasisers, particles, interjections 281

PART 3 FUNCTIONS 297

Chapter 14 Pronouns in use 307

Chapter 15 Verbs of being 322

x Chapter 16 Extended verbs 327

17.1 Causative verbs – one-by-one 332

Chapter 18 Compound verbs 339

Chapter 19 Conjunct verbs 361

Chapter 20 Verbal noun 374

Chapter 21 Imperfective participle 390

Chapter 23 Perfective participle 411

Chapter 24 Verb valency 426

PART 4 SENTENCES 433

Chapter 26 Sentence classification 451

Chapter 27 Modes 464

Chapter 28 Patterns 479

Chapter 29 Compound and complex sentences 510

PART 5 SEMANTIC FEATURES 561

Chapter 31 Tense use 591

Chapter 32 Aspect 611

Chapter 33 Negation 621

Chapter 34 Modals 636

Chapter 35 Pairings and doublings 663

Chapter 37 Individual verbs 683

Chapter 38 Idioms 704

Chapter 39 Numerals 719

Primary sources 753

My heartfelt thanks go to William Radice, Probal Dasgupta, Monsur

I am very grateful to the Harold Hyam Wingate Foundation for their

active A type of sentence which has a nominative subject and agreement

case A category of nouns and pronouns, marked by case endings, to show

deictic (Pronounced as in dyke, dike) showing, pointing. A word specifying