Richness is not having many

possessions. Rather, true richness is

the richness of the soul

Reported as Hadith e Nabvi (S.A.W.W) in Sahi Bukhari (6081)
 Dr. Zia-ur-Rehman
ziaurrehman@nice.nust.edu.pk
 Soil & Rock

 Soil
Naturally occurring mineral particles which are readily
separated into relatively small pieces, and in which the
mass may contain air, water, or organic materials
(derived from decay of vegetation).
 Rock
Naturally occurring material composed of mineral
particles so firmly bonded together that relatively great
effort is required to separate the particles (i.e., blasting
or heavy crushing forces).
 Composition of Rocks

 Two different types of rocks in the same climate can
weather differently, depending on the minerals that
make up each rock type. If the minerals in a rock
resist chemical weathering, the rock is called a stable
rock. The stability of a rock can vary depending on
the climate in which the rock is found. Limestone is
stable in a dry climate but not in a wet climate.

 Igneous Rocks

 Definition-Rocks formed by the solidification of molten
material, either by intrusion at depth in the earth's crust
or by extrusion at the earth's surface.
Examples
 Acidic (high silica content) sandy or gravelly soils
 Granite (contains quartz and feldspar w/mica)
 Basic (low silica content) clay soils
 Basalt (contains feldspar and augite with green olivine)
 Intermediate fine textured soils
 Diorite (similar to granite except little or no quartz)
 Sedimentary Rocks

 Definition- Rocks formed by deposition, usually
under water, of products derived by the
disaggregation of pre-existing rocks.
Types
 Shales clay and silt particles
 Sandstones
 Limestone (Karst topography)
 Dolstone (marl, chalk)
 Metamorphic Rocks

 Definition-Rocks that may be either igneous or
sedimentary rocks that have been altered physically
and sometimes chemically by the application of
intense heat and pressure at some time in their
geological history
 Types
 Coarse crystalline (gneiss)
 Medium crystalline (schist, marble, soapstone)
 Fine to microscopic (slate, anthracite coal)
 Soil Formation Process

 Weathering
 Mass wasting
 Erosion
 Weathering

 The breaking down of rocks and other materials on
the Earth’s surface is called weathering. A slow,
continuous process, it affects all substances exposed
to the atmosphere.
 Types of Weathering

 Rocks on the Earth’s surface are broken down by two
types of weathering:
 mechanical
 chemical.
 Mechanical Weathering

 When the forces of weathering break rocks into
smaller pieces but do not change the chemical
makeup of the rocks, the process is called mechanical
weathering. During mechanical weathering, rocks
are broken into different shapes and smaller pieces.
At the beginning the edges are jagged(Sharp), as
weathering continues, they become round.
 Causes of Mechanical
Weathering

 There are several causes of mechanical weathering.
 Temperature
 Frost action
 Organic activity
 Gravity
 abrasion
 Temperature

 Rocks can be broken apart by changes in
temperature. As rocks are heat up in the sun during
the day, the outside of the rock expands. The inside
of the rocks remain cool and do not expand. When
the air temperature drops at night, the outside of the
rock cools and contracts. This continuing cycle
causes particles to break off. This is called
exfoliation.
 Frost Action

 Unlike most liquids, water expands when it freezes.
The repeated freezing and melting of water, called
frost action, is another cause of mechanical
weathering. When water freezes in cracks in the
rocks, it expands, making the crack larger. In time,
this causes the rock to break into pieces.
 Organic Activity

 Plants and animals can cause mechanical
weathering. The roots of plants sometimes loosens
rock material. A plant growing in a crack can make
the crack larger as the root spread out. This is
known as root-pry. It is organic since this activity is
caused by living things.
 Gravity

 Gravity is another agent of mechanical weathering.
Sometimes gravity pulls loosened rocks down
mountain cliffs in a landslide. A landslide is a large
movement of loose rocks and soil. As the rocks fall,
they collide with one another and break into smaller
pieces. Falling rocks usually occur in areas where a
road has been cut through, leaving cliffs on both
sides.
 Abrasion

 Wind-blown sand causes mechanical weathering .
Abrasion is the wearing away of rocks by solid
particles carried by wind, water or other forces. In
desert regions, the wind easily picks up and moves
sand. The sharp edges of the sand particles scrape
off pieces of exposed rocks. Running water also
carries loose rocks which scrape against each other
and break.
 Chemical Weathering

 When the chemical makeup of the rocks is changed
it is called chemical weathering. During chemical
weathering, changes occur in the mineral
composition of rocks. Minerals can be added,
removed or broken down (decomposed).Many
substances react chemically with rocks to break them
down.
 Types of Chemical
Weathering

 There are several causes of chemical weathering.
 Water
 Oxidation
 Carbonation
 Sulfuric acid
 Plant acids
 Water

Most chemical weathering is caused by water and
carbon dioxide. Water can dissolve most of the
mineral that hold rocks together. Rocks that dissolve
in water are said to be soluble. Water can form acids
when it mixes with certain gases in the atmosphere
to speed up the decomposition of rocks. Water can
also combine with a mineral to form a new mineral.
 Oxidation

 Chemical weathering is also caused by oxidation.
Oxidation is the process in which oxygen chemically
combines with another substance. The result of
oxidation is the formation of an entirely different
substance. Iron in rocks combines with oxygen in the
air to form iron oxide, or rust.
 Carbonation

 When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, a weak acid
called carbonic acid is formed. When carbonic acid
reacts chemically with other substance, the process
of carbonation occurs. In nature, carbonic acid is
formed when carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in
rain. This acid rain falls to the ground and sinks into
the soil. It decomposes feldspar and limestone.
 Sulfuric Acid

 The air in certain areas is polluted with sulfur oxides.
Sulfur oxides are a byproduct of the burning of coal
as a source of energy. These compounds dissolve in
rainwater to form sulfuric acid. Rain that contains
sulfuric acid is one type of acid rain. It is much
stronger than carbonic acid. Sulfuric acid corrodes
rocks, metals and other materials quickly.
 Plant Acids

 Plants produce weak acids that dissolve certain
minerals in rocks. Mosses and lichens produce weak
acids that dissolve some of the minerals in the rocks
they grow on. Gradually the rocks break into
smaller pieces. They are important in the formation
of soil.
 Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is the movement of rock debris down
slope primarily under the direct influence of gravity.
Water may be present to act as a lubricant and minor
carrier, but is not necessary to the process. The common
terms talus and colluvium are applied to rock
fragments that accumulate in this process of
degradation
 Erosion

Erosion, like the term soil, has been defined to mean
different things to different disciplines. In all these
definitions, there is usually an implication of transport.
Regardless of the definition, there is a segment of this
process that is degradation. Whether the transportation
mechanism is wind, water, ice, or gravity, there is
always a gradual breakdown of rock particles into ever
smaller pieces. The grinding, bumping, and bouncing
that takes place in transit are important in the process
of degradation. Erosion can take place without
weathering.
 Decay

 Certain bacteria in the soil cause the decay of dead
plants and animals. This decaying material is called
humus. Humus is a dark-colored material that is
important for the growth of plants. Some of the
chemicals produced during the process of decay
speed up the breakdown of rocks into soil.
 Living Things

 Living things such as moles, earthworms, ants and
beetles help to break apart large pieces of soil as they
burrow through the ground. The burrows allow
water to move rapidly through the soil. The water
speeds up the weathering of the underlying rock.
 Rate of Weathering

 The rate of weathering depends on several factors,
including:
 The composition of the rock
 The amount of time that the rock is exposed on the
Earth’s surface
 The amount of exposed surface on a rock
 Amount of Time of
Exposure

 The amount of time that rock is exposed on the
Earth’s surface also affects its rate of weathering. A
very old rock that has not been exposed to the forces
of weathering can remain almost unchanged. If a
newly formed rock is deposited on the Earth’s
surface it will begin to weather right away.
 The Amount of Exposed
Surface

 The amount of exposed surface area on a rock also
affects its rate of weathering. As rocks are broken
down into many small pieces, more rock surfaces are
exposed and more weathering takes place. In rocks
that contain many joints or cracks, various chemicals
easily come into contact with the rock surfaces and
break them down.

 
 Igneous Rock Those rocks formed by the cooling and
hardening of molten magma from deeper areas of the earth.
Molten material that is extruded onto the surface is known as
lava. Granite and basalt are common igneous rocks.
 Metamorphic Rock Those rocks formed by tremendous heat
and pressure which alter the original character of the
previously existing rock. Slate, marble and quartzite are
common rocks of this group.
 Sedimentary Rock Those rocks which are formed by either
mechanical or chemical formation from degraded particles of
other rock. These are rocks which have become hardened as a
result of
 Soil Formation

 The weathering of rocks on the Earth’s surface
results in the formation of soil. Soil is formed when
rocks are continuously broken down by weathering.
As rocks weather, they break into smaller pieces.
These pieces are broken down into even smaller
pieces to form soil.
 Importance of Soil

 The formation of soil is extremely important to most
living organisms. Plants depend on soil as source of
food. Soil supplies plants with minerals and water
needed for growth. Animals depend indirectly on
soil since they eat plants and other animals that eat
plants.
 Soil Composition

 Pieces of weathered rock and organic material, or
humus, are the two main ingredients of soil. Organic
materials is material that was once living or was
formed by the activity of living organisms. Rock
particles form more than 80% of soil. Air and water
are also present in soil.
 Pore Spaces

 Air and water fill the spaces between soil particles.
These are called pore spaces. Plants and animals use
the water and air in these spaces, as well as the
minerals dissolved in water. Pore spaces provide
needed oxygen for healthy plant root growth.
 Different Compositions of
Soil

 The composition of soil varies from place to place.
The type of rock broken down by weathering
determines the kinds of minerals in the soil. The
type of weathering also affects the composition of
soil. Mechanical weathering produces soil with a
composition similar to the rock being weathered.
Chemical weathering produces soil with a different
composition.

 Bedrock

 The layer of rock beneath the soil is called bedrock.
 Soil Horizons

 As soil forms, it develops separate soil layers called
horizons. Each soil horizon is different. A cross
section of the soil horizons is called soil profile. A
soil profile shows the different layers of soil.
 Mature Soil

 Soil that has developed three layers is called mature
soil. It takes thousands of years and the proper
conditions for soil to develop three layers. The
uppermost layer of mature soil is called the A
horizon. The A horizon is a dark-colored soil layer
in which much activity by living organisms takes
place. Bacteria, earthworms and beetles help the
decay.

 A Horizon

 The soil in the A horizon is called topsail. Topsail
consists mostly of humus and other organic
materials. Humus supplies minerals essential for
plant growth. Humus is spongy and stores water. It
also contains pore space for air and water. Topsoil is
the most fertile part of the soil.
 B Horizon

 Water that soaks into the ground washes some
minerals from the A horizon into the second layer of
soil, or the B horizon. This process is called
leaching.The B horizon is just below the A horizon.
The B horizon is also made of clay and some humus.
The soil in the B horizon is called subsoil. Subsoil is
formed very slowly.
 C Horizon

 The third layer of soil is called the C horizon. The C
horizon consists of partly weathered rock. The C
horizon extends down to the top of the unweathered
parent rock. The composition of the soil in the C
horizon is similar to that of the parent rock.
 Immature Soil

 . In some places, the upper layers of soil are
removed and the rocks below the soil are exposed.
The weathering process then forms new soil from the
exposed rocks. This recently formed soil is
immature because there has not been enough time
for all three soil layers to form. The soil in the
northern regions where glacial erosion has taken
place, is immature soil.
 Formation of Soil

 There are several factors that determine whether
three layers of soil will form.
 Time
 Climate
 Type of rock
 Surface features of the region
 Time

 Time is one of the most important factors in soil
formation. The longer a rock is exposed to the forces
of weathering, the more it is broken down. Mature
soil is formed if all three layers have had time to
develop.
 Climate

 Climate is another important factor in the formation
of soil. In areas with heavy rainfall and warm
temperatures, weathering takes place more rapidly.
Heavy rainfall may wash much of the topsoil away.
Since Organisms are more plentiful these areas, the
soil is quickly replaced. They speed up the chemical
and mechanical weathering of rocks.
 Type of Rock

 The type of rock in an area also affects soil
formation. Some rocks do not weather as rapidly as
other do. Rocks that do not break down easily do
not form soil rapidly. In some climates it takes along
time for granite to break down. So soil formation
from granite is slow. But sandstone breaks easily
and forms soil quickly.
 Surface Features of
Region

 The surface features of the region also determine the
speed at which soil is formed. On very steep slopes,
rainwater running off the land erodes the soil and
exposes rock to weathering.
 Color

 Color is a major characteristic in evaluating soils, soil
profiles and keeping track of samples. Color is
usually not considered an engineering parameter;
however, engineering assessment can be well served
by considering this factor. Natural colors recorded in
the field during sampling give the testing technician
and the designer a distinct advantage when
comparing and grouping soils. Color patterns such
as banding, marbling, and mottling, are indicators of
performance and should be recorded with other field
data at the time a sample is retrieved.
 Color

 Color is an indicator of certain soil chemicals and mineral
particles.
 Black to dark brown usually results from organic matter.
 Reds are due to the presence of iron in a well-drained soil that
is highly oxidized resulting in hematite or siderite.
 Yellow-brown is also primarily a result of iron. This color is
usually associated with the mineral limonite that occurs in soils
with less drainage and less complete oxidation.
 Gray and blue soils result when soils are poorly drained.
Yellow mottling sometimes occurs with these colors.
 The darker gray and blue (gleyed) soils are generally produced
below permanent water tables; a result of reduction rather than
oxidation.
 Soil Texture

 The type of weathering also affects soil texture.
Texture refers to the size of the individual soil
particles. Soil particles vary from very small to large.
Both mechanical and chemical weathering first
breaks rocks into gravel (2-64mm) and then in sand
(less than 2mm) and finally into silt.
Basic Soil Types

 Residual Soil

 Sometimes soil remains on top of its parent rock, or
the rock from which it was formed. This is called
residual soil. Residual soil has a composition similar
to that of the parent rock it covers.
 Transported Soil

 Some soil is removed from the parent rock by water,
wind, glaciers and waves.soil that is moved away
from its place of origin is called transported soil.
Transported soil can be very different in composition
from the rock it covers.
 
 Residual Soils: Material formed by disintegration of underlying
parent rock or partially indurated material.
 􀂾 Sands
 􀂾 Residual sands and fragments of gravel size formed by
solution and leaching of cementing material, leaving the more
resistant particles; commonly quartz. Generally, favourable
foundation conditions.
 􀂾 Clays
 􀂾 Residual clays formed by decomposition of silicate rocks,
disintegration of shales, and solution of carbonates in
limestone.
 􀂾 Variable properties requiring detailed investigation.
Deposits present favorable foundation conditions except in
humid and tropical climates.
 
 Organic Soils: Accumulation of highly organic material
formed in place by the growth and subsequent decay of
plant life.
 Peat. A somewhat fibrous aggregate of decayed and
decaying vegetation matter having a dark colour and
odour of decay.
 Muck. Peat deposits which have advanced in stage of
decomposition to such extent that the botanical character
is no longer evident.
Very compressible, entirely unsuitable
for supporting building foundations.
 Transported

 .:. Alluvial -These soils have been transported
and deposited by the forces of moving water.
Depending on the volume and velocity of the water,
particles ranging in size from huge boulders to
microscopic clays are moved in the process of
creating these soils. Alluvial soils usually show
distinct depositional layering and a reduction in
particle size as the distance from the source
increases. These materials represent much of the
land surface.
Alluvial Soil


 
 Aeolian -These soils are the result of fragments
being transported and deposited by wind. These soil
particles are usually relatively small, since wind does
not have sufficient sustained energy to move large
pieces of rock.
Aeolian Soil

 
 Colluvial -These materials involve the bulk movement
of rock debris downslope under the direct influence of
gravity. Varying amounts of water may be available, but
water is not the major moving agent. Huge boulders
routinely move down slope, colliding and grinding until
particles of varying sizes accumulate at the bottom of
mountains .
 Talus
 􀂾 Deposits created by gradual accumulation of
unsorted rock fragments and debris at base of cliffs.
 􀂾 Previous movement indicates possible future
difficulties. Generally unstable foundation conditions.
Colluvial Soil

 
 • :. Glacial -During periods of glaciation, ice picks
up massive quantities of abraded material and
transports them long distances. As the glacial ice
melts, it deposits this debris
 Pyroclastic: Deposit due to volcanic activities
 Types of soil based on
size of particles

 Broad classification of soils may be:
 1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size
greater than 0.075 mm, e.g., gravels and sands.
 2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less
than 0.075 mm, e.g., silts and clays.

 References

 Geotechnical Engineering by Baraja M. Das
 Soil Mechanics by Aziz Akbar