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3. Preliminary and primary Wastewater Treatment Methods

3.1 Preliminary Treatment

Preliminary treatment consists solely in separating the floating materials (like dead animals, tree branches, papers,
pieces of rags, wood, etc.), and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids. It also helps in removing the oils and
greases, etc. from the sewage. This treatment reduces the BOD of the wastewater, by about 15 to 30%. The
processes used are:
- Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc
- Grit chambers or Detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; and
- Skimming tanks for removing oils and greases

3.1.1 Screening
Screening is the very first operation carried out at a sewage treatment plant, and consists of passing the sewage
through different types of screens, so as to trap and remove the floating matter, such as pieces of cloth, paper,
wood, cork, hair, fiber, kitchen refuse, fecal solids, etc. present in sewage. These floating materials, if not
removed, will choke the pipes, or adversely affect the working of the sewage pumps. Thus, the main idea of
providing screens is to protect the pumps and other equipments from the possible damages due to the floating
matter of the sewage.
Screens should preferably be placed before the grit chambers (described in the next article). However, if the
quality of 'grit' is not of much importance, as in the case of land fillings, etc., screens may even be placed after
the grit chambers. They may sometimes be accommodated in the body of the grit chambers themselves.

1. Types of Screens, their Designs and Cleaning

Depending upon the size of the openings, screens may be classified as coarse screens, medium screens, and fine
screens.
(i) Coarse screens are also known as Racks, and the spacing between the bars (i.e. opening size) is about 50
mm or more. These screens do help in removing large floating objects from sewage. They will collect about
6 liters of solids per million liter of sewage. The material separated by coarse screens, usually consists of
rags, wood, paper, etc., which will not putrefy, and may be disposed of by incineration, burial, or dumping.
(ii) In medium screens, the spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm. These screens will ordinarily collect 30
to 90 liters of material per million liter of sewage. The screenings usually contain some quantity of organic
material, which may putrefy and become offensive, and must, therefore, be disposed of by incineration, or
burial (not by dumping).

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Rectangular shaped coarse and medium screens are now-a-days widely used at sewage treatment plants. They are
made of steel bars, fixed parallel to one another at desired spacing on a rectangular steel frame, and are called bar
screens. The screens are set in a masonry or R.C.C. chamber, called the screen chamber.
Now-a-days, these screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60° to the direction of flow, so as to increase
the opening area, and to reduce the flow velocity; and thus making the screening more effective. While designing
the screens, clear openings should have sufficient total area, so that the velocity through them is not more than
0.8 to 1m/sec. This limit, placed on velocity, limits the head loss through the screens, and, thus, reduces the
opportunity for screenings to be pushed through the screens.
The material collected on bar screens can be removed either manually or mechanically. Manual cleaning is
practiced at small plants with hand operated rakes. The inclined screens help in their cleaning by the upward
stroke of the rake. Large plants, however, use mechanically operated rakes, which move over the screens, either
continuously or intermittently.
The cleaning of screens by rakes will be hindered by cross bars, if at all provided. They are, therefore, generally
avoided.
Screens are sometimes classified as fixed or movable, depending upon whether the screens are stationary or
capable of motion.
Fixed screens are permanently set in position. A most commonly used bar type screen is shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 Fixed bar type coarse or medium screen

Movable screens are stationary during their operating periods. But they can be lifted up bodily and removed from
their positions for the purpose of cleaning. A common movable bar medium screen is a 3-sided cage with a bottom
of perforated plates. It is mainly used in deep pits ahead of pumps.
(iii) Fine Screens have perforations of 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size.
The installation of these screens proves very effective, and they remove as much as 20% of the suspended solids
from sewage. These screens, however, get clogged very often, and need frequent cleaning. They are, therefore,
used only for treating the industrial wastewaters, or for treating those municipal wastewaters, which are associated

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with heavy amounts of industrial wastewaters. These screens will considerably reduce the load on further
treatment units.
Brass or Bronze plates or wire meshes are generally used for constructing fine screens. The metal used should be
resistant to rust and corrosion
The fine screens may be disc or drum type, and are operated continuously by electric motors. Figure 3-2 shows a
typical disc type of fine screen, which is cleaned by a cone brush.

Figure 3-2 Reinsch-Wurl screen (disc type fine screen)

2. Comminutors
Comminutors or Shredders are the patented devices, which break the larger sewage solids to about 6mm in size,
when the sewage is screened through them. Such a device consists of a revolving slotted drum, through which the
sewage is screened (Figure 3-3). Cutters mounted on the drum, shear the collected screenings against a comb,
until they are small enough to pass through 5 mm to 10 mm wide slots of the drum. These are usually arranged in
pairs to facilitate repairs and maintenance. Comminutors are of recent origin, and eliminate the problem of
disposal of screenings, by reducing the solids to a size which can be processed elsewhere in the plant. They should
always be preceded by grit chambers to prevent their excessive wear.
Such devises are used only in developed countries like USA, and generally not adopted in our country.

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Figure 3-3 Comminutor or shredder

3. Disposal of Screenings
The material separated by screens is called the screenings. It contains 85 to 90% of moisture and other floating
matter. It may also contain some organic load which may putrefy, causing bad smells and nuisance. To avoid
such possibilities, the screenings are disposed of either by burning, or by burial, or by dumping. The dumping is
avoided when screenings are from medium and fine screens, and are likely to contain organic load, as pointed out
earlier. The screenings may also sometimes be broken up by a Comminutor and then passed on to the grit chamber.
Burning of the screenings is done in the incinerators, similar to those used for burning garbage. The process of
burning is called Incineration. The screenings are first dried with sun's heat by spreading on ground or by
compressing through hydraulic or other presses, so as to reduce the moisture content to about 60%. The
incineration is carried out at temperatures of about 760 to 815°c. This will avoid bad smells.
The screenings may also be disposed of by burial. The process is technically called composting. In this process,
the screenings are buried in 1 to 1.5m deep trenches, and then covered with 0.3 to 0.45m of porous earth. In due
course of time, oxidation-reduction of screenings will take place, and the contents can be used as manure.
Another method of disposing of the screenings is by dumping them in low lying areas (away from the residential
areas) or in large bodies of water, such as sea. Dumping in sea will be suitable only where strong forward currents
do exist to take the dumped material away from the shore line. The dumping on land for raising low lying areas
is also adopted only when screenings are from the course screens and not from the medium or fine screens, and
as such not containing much organic load.
Digestion of screenings along with the sewage sludge in a sludge digestion tank has also been tried, but not found
successful.

3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins

Grit removal basins, such as Grit chambers or Grit channels or Detritus tanks are the sedimentation basins placed
in front of the wastewater treatment plant to remove the inorganic particles (specific gravity about 2.65), such as
sand, gravel, grit, egg shells, bones, and other non-putresible materials that may clog channels or damage pumps

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due to abrasion, and to prevent their accumulation in sludge digesters. Grit chambers are, in fact, nothing but like
sedimentation tanks, designed to separate the intended heavier inorganic materials by the process of sedimentation
due to gravitational forces, and to pass forward the lighter organic material. (The organic material is not allowed
to settle in this process, as otherwise, the organic matter gets entangled with the inorganic matter, causing septicity
of sewage and requiring unnecessary labor and expenses for disposal of removal.) The grit chambers may be
placed either before or after the screens. Many engineers, however, prefer to place them before the screens, as to
avoid silting of the-screen chambers.
Since the grit chambers are sedimentation or settling basins, we will discuss theory of sedimentation first, before
coming to the design of grit chambers.

1. Settling of Discrete Particles (Type 1 Sedimentation or Settling) in Wastewaters

Sedimentation is the physical separation of suspended material from water or wastewater by the action of gravity.
It is a common operation for water treatment and found in almost all waste water treatment plants. It is less costly
than many other treatment processes.
The very fundamental principle underlying the process of sedimentation is that the organic matter present in
sewage is having specific gravity greater than that of water (i.e. 1.0). In still sewage, these particles will, therefore,
tend to settle down by gravity; whereas, in flowing sewage, they are kept in suspension, because of the turbulence
in water. Hence, as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage to sewage, these impurities tend to settle
down at the bottom of the tank offering such storage. This is the principle behind sedimentation.
The design of sedimentation basins is thus, totally dependent upon the settling velocity of the sewage solids. The
design of an ideal settling basin is based on the removal of all particles that have a settling velocity greater than a
specified settling velocity.
The settling velocity of a discrete solid particle is mathematically computed and analyzed on the basis of the
theory of sedimentation, which is discussed below:

i. Theory of Type I Settling

The settlement of a particle in water brought to rest is opposed by the following factors:
(i) The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally.

The greater the flow area, the lesser is the velocity, and hence more easily the particle will settle down.
(ii) The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling. The viscosity varies inversely with temperature.
Warm water is less viscous and, therefore, offers less resistance to settlement. However, the temperature of
water cannot be controlled to any appreciable extent in "water or wastewater purification processes" and
hence this factor is generally ignored.
(iii) The size shape and specific gravity of the particle.

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The greater is the specific gravity, more readily the particle will settle. The size and shape of the particle also
affect the settling rate. For example, the weight and volume of the spherically shaped particle, varies with
πd3
the cube of its diameter (volume being equal to , where d is the diameter) or its size; and its area varies
6
πd2
with the square of the diameter (area being equal to ). Hence, very small sized particles will settle very
4
slowly. It, therefore, clearly follows that the shape and size of the particles do affect their setting velocities.

The settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by Stoke's law, which takes the above three factors into
account. The final Stoke's equation for d < 0.1mm is expressed as:

𝑔 𝑑2
𝑣𝑠 = (𝐺 − 1) 3.1
18 
[For viscous flow and small sized particles, represented by Re < 1]
Where, vs = velocity of settlement of particle (assumed to be spherical) in m/sec
d = diameter of the particle in m
G = sp. gravity of the particle
μ
 = kinematic viscosity of water in m2/sec, and is equal to ρ
w

Where, µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity of water in kg.sec/m2

w = density of water
Derivation of Stoke's Law
When a solid particle settles down in water, its downward settlement is opposed by the drag force offered by the
water. The effective weight of the particle (i.e. actual weight buoyancy) causes the particle to accelerate in the
beginning, till it attains a sufficient velocity (vs ) at which the drag force becomes equal to the effective weight of
the particle. After attaining that velocity, the particle falls down with that constant velocity (vs ).
Now, the drag force offered by the fluid is given by Newton's law, as

v2
Drag force = CD A ∗ ρw ∗
2
Where, CD = Coefficient of drag
A = Area of particle
w = Density of water
v = velocity of fall
Note: This drag force increases with the increasing velocity, till it becomes equal to the effective weight of the
particle; and at that time, v becomes equal to vs.
The effective weight of the particle
= Total weight − Buoyancy

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4 4 4
=πr 3 γs − πr 3 γw = πr 3 (γs − γw )
3 3 3
Where, r = radius of particle
s = unit weight of particle
w = unit weight of water
Eqs. (1) and (2) will become equal when v becomes equal to v s in Eq. (1).
vs 2 4 3
CD A ∗ ρw ∗ = πr (γs − γw )
2 3
2
vs 4
CD πr 2 ∗ ρw ∗ = πr 3 (γs − γw )
2 3
8 d
∗ (γs − γw ) 2
2
vs = 3
CD ∗ ρw
4 ∗ g(ρs − ρw )d
vs 2 =
3 CD ∗ ρw
4 ∗ g(G − 1)d
vs 2 =
3 CD
The coefficient of drag (CD), has been found for a viscous flow and small particles (size d < 0.1mm) to be equal
24
to R
e
𝑣𝑠 𝑑
Where, Re is the particle Reynolds number = 
Therefore, Eq. (9.3) then becomes,
4 ∗ g(G − 1)d
vs 2 =
3 24
𝑅𝑒
4 𝑅𝑒
vs 2 = ∗ g(G − 1)d ∗
3 24
g 𝑣𝑠 𝑑
vs 2 = ∗ (G − 1)d ∗
18 
2
g 𝑑
vs = ∗ (G − 1) ∗
18 
The above Stoke's equation is valid for particles of size less than 0.1mm; in which case, the viscous force
predominates over the inertial force, leading to what is known as streamline settling.
If, however, the settling particles are larger than 0.1mm, the nature of settling tends to become turbulent, with a
transition zone in between. It has been established that turbulent settling occurs for particle size greater than
1.0mm, whereas settling remains transition settling for particle sizes between 0.1mm to 1.0mm.
The relation between coefficient of drag (CD) and Re for these three types of settling are as follows:
(a) For streamline settling (d < 0.1mm) Here Re < 1; and

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24
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒
(b) For transition settling (d between 0.1mm and 1.0mm)

Here 1 < 𝑅𝑒 < 103

24 3
𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒

(c) For turbulent settling (d > 1.0mm)

Here 𝑅𝑒 < 103

𝐶𝐷 = 0.34 𝑡𝑜 0.4
For turbulent settling, the equation 9.3 reduces to:
vs = 1.8√gd ∗ (G − 1)
This equation is known as Newton's equation for turbulent settling.
The above formulas represent the theoretical settling velocities of discrete spherical particles. The actual settling
velocities in the sedimentation basins will be much less than those calculated by these formulas, because of the
non-sphericity of the particles, the upward displacement of the fluid caused by the settling of other particles, and
convection currents.
Based upon experiments, Hazen has formulated a table below.

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Table 3-1: giving the values of the settling velocities (popularly called (hydraulic settling values) for different
sized particles in still liquids at 10ºc.

Table 3-1 Hydraulic Settling Values in mm/sec in still liquids at 10ºc

Settling velocity in mm/sec

Diameter of particles
Type of material Particles of Sp. Particles of Sp.
in mm
gravity 2.65 gravity 1.20
Course sand 1.00 100 12.0
0.80 83 9.6
0.60 63 7.2
Medium sand 0.50 53 6.0
0.40 42 4.8
0.30 32 3.6
Fine sand 0.20 21 2.4
0.15 15 1.8
0.10 8 1.2
Very fine and 0.08 6 0.53
0.06 3.8 0.30
0.05 2.9 0.21
Silt 0.04 2.1 0.13
0.03 1.3 0.076
0.02 0.62 0.034
0.015 0.35 0.019
0.010 0.154 0.0084
Fine silt 0.008 0.098 0.0054
0.006 0.055 0.0030
0.005 0.0385 0.0021
Clay 0.004 0.0247 0.0013
0.003 0.0138 0.00076
0.002 0.0062 0.00034
0.0015 0.0035 0.00019
Fine clay 0.001 0.00154 0.000084
0.0001 0.0000154 0.00000084
Colloidal clay 0.0001

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At higher temperatures such as 26°c (i.e. average temperature prevailing in our country), the value of settling
velocity will be about 50% more than these values.
The above experimental values have also been expressed in mathematical form as modified Hazen's equation for
transition zone, given by:
3𝑇 + 70
vs = 60.6d ∗ (G − 1) ∗ ( )
100
for particles between 0.1 and 1mm
The above equation yields the following:
For inorganic solids, G = 2.65;
Settling velocity for inorganic solids
3𝑇 + 70
vs(in) = 60.6d ∗ (1.65) ∗ ( )
100
vs(in) = d ∗ (3𝑇 + 70)
Similarly, settling velocity for organic matter (for which G = 1.2)
3𝑇 + 70
vs(or) = 60.6d ∗ (10.2) ∗ ( )
100
vs(or) = 0.12d ∗ (3𝑇 + 70)

2. Grit Chambers
As stated earlier, the grit chambers are the sedimentation basins placed either before the screens or after the
screens, but certainly, prior to the primary sedimentation tank. The grit chamber removes the inorganic grit, such
as sand, gravel, and other mineral matter that has a nominal diameter of 0.15 to 0.20 mm or larger. Actually, grit
will also include smaller mineral particles that may settle, as well as non-putrescible organic matter, such as rags,
coffee grounds, vegetable cuttings, ash clinker, wood pieces, and tea leaves. Even though, some of the grit
components, such as coffee grounds are organic, they are essentially non-biodegradable over time spans involved
here in grit collection and disposal. The quality and quantity of grit in the sewage determine the design factors
and choice of grit removal method.
The amount of grit collected is a function of the removal device, its operation, and the quantity of grit in the
sewage, and therefore, it varies over a wider range. The grit quantity may vary between 0.004 - 0.037m3/1000m3
of sewage for separate sewage system; while this may range between 0.004 - 0.180 m3/1000 m3 for combined
sewage system.
Generally, grit chambers are designed to remove all particles with a nominal diameter of 0.02mm having settling
velocity of about 2.3cm/s (at 10ºc); although some grit removal devices are designed to remove 0.15mm sand
particles having settling velocity of about 1.3cm/s (at 10°c).

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It is not at all desirable to remove any organic matter in grit chambers, because no further treatment of removed
grit is provided. The grit chamber must hence, be designed to scour the lighter organic particles, and while the
heavier grit particles remain settled.
Grit chambers or Grit channels, as they are sometimes called, are designed to have constant velocity horizontal
flow at varying discharges. The constant velocity is achieved by providing a velocity control section, such as a
proportional flow weir at the effluent end of a rectangular chamber; or a parshall flume (venturi flume) in a
parabolic (or V) shaped chamber, as discussed below:

i. Constant Velocity Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers.

Such a grit channel is an enlarged channel or a long basin, in which the cross-section is increased, so as to reduce
the flow velocity of sewage to such an extent that the heavy inorganic materials do settle down by gravity, and
the lighter organic materials remain in suspension, and, thus, go out along with the effluent of the grit basin. The
important point in the design of the grit basins is that the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause the
settling of lighter organic matter, nor should it be so high as not to cause the settlement of the entire silt and grit
present in sewage. The flow velocity should also be enough to scour out the settled organic matter, and reintroduce
it into the flow stream. Such a critical scouring velocity is, infact, given by the modified Shield's formula, which
states that
Critical scour velocity
= VH = 3 to 4.5√gd(G − 1)
For grit particles of 0.2mm (d), the above formula gives critical velocity values of 0.11 to 0.25m/sec. This fixes
the limits for optimum flow velocity for design of grit basins. In practice, a flow velocity of about 0.25 to 0.3m/sec
is adopted for the design of grit basins.
In order to prevent large increase in flow velocity at peak hours due to increased discharge, and thus, to avoid the
scouring of the settled grit particles from the bottom, it is preferable to design the grit chambers for D.W.F. (Dry
weather flow), and to provide additional units for taking increased discharge at peak hours. If, however, a single
unit is to be designed, or there are large variations in discharge, then the grit chamber is designed for generating
optimum velocity at peak discharge and a velocity control section, such as a proportional flow weir or a parshall
flume venturiflume), is provided at the lower (effluent) end of the grit channel, which helps in varying the flow
area of the section in direct proportion to the flow, and thus, helps to maintain a constant velocity in the channel
(within the permissible limits of ±5 to 10% over the designed value), even at varying discharges.

When a proportioning flow weir is used as a velocity control device, then a rectangular cross-section is required
for the grit channel; but however, when a parshall flume is used as a velocity control device, then a parabolic
cross-section is required for the grit channel, in order to keep the flow velocity constant, as shown in Figure 3-4(a)
and (b).

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Figure 3-4 Velocity control sections for horizontal grit channels

3. Design of a Rectangular Grit Chamber provided with a Proportioning Weir at Effluent End
The depth and detention time provided for a grit basin are inter dependent, and are based on the considerations of
settling velocity of inorganic particles through water. A detention time of about 40 to 60 seconds is generally
sufficient for a water depth of about 1 to 1.8m. After fixing the depth and the detention time, we can easily design
the dimensions of a rectangular chamber, as its length will then be equal to velocity * detention time.
As stated earlier, generally two to three separate chambers in parallel (as shown in Figure 3-5) should be provided;
one to pass the low flow, and the other to pass (along with the first of course) the high flow. This will also help
in manual cleaning of the chambers, as one unit can work, while the other is shut down for cleaning.

Figure 3-5 Modem rectangular grit chamber (not showing scraper arrangements)

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The grit chambers can be cleaned periodically at about 3 weeks interval, either manually, mechanically or
hydraulically Hand cleaning is done only in case of smaller plants (of capacity less than about 4.5 million liters
per day), while mechanical or hydraulic cleaning is adopted for larger plants. In manual cleaning, grit is removed
by shovels, etc., by hand; in mechanical cleaning, grit is removed with the help of machines; and in hydraulic
cleaning, grit is removed by the force of water -jet directed from a central point and removed through the pipes
in the side walls or bottom of the chamber.
The removed grit may contain some organic matter, and can be washed prior to its disposal, if necessary, by using
certain patented machines, and the wash water returned to the plant influent. Washed grit may still contain about
1 to 5% of putrescible organic matter.
The silt and grit, etc. removed by the grit chambers can be easily disposed of either by burial or burning
(incineration) or for raising law lying areas by dumping. It cannot be used for preparation of concrete, as it
contains sufficient organic matter.

Example 3-1
A grit chamber is designed to remove particles with a diameter of 0.2mm, specific gravity 2.65. Settling velocity
for these particles has been found to range from 0.016 to 0.022m/sec, depending on their shape factor. A flow
through velocity of 0.3m/sec will be maintained by proportioning weir. Determine the channel dimensions for a
maximum wastewater flow of 10,000cu m/day.
Solution
Let us provide a rectangular channel section, since a proportional flow weir is provided for controlling velocity
of flow.
Horizontal velocity of flow = Vh = 0.3m/sec.
Settling velocity is between 0.016 to 0.022 m/sec, and hence let it be 0.02m/sec.
Q = velocity ∗ crosssection = Vh ∗ A
Where, Q = 10,000cu m/day = 0.116m3/sec
Therefore,
0.116 = 0.3 ∗ A
0.116
A= = 0.385 m2
0.3
Assuming a depth of 1m, we have the width (B) of the basin as
1 ∗ B = 0.385
B = 0.385m ≅ 0.4m
Settling velocity
Vs = 0.02m/sec
Depth of the basin 1
Detention time = = = 50sec
Settling velocity 0.02

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Length of the tank = Vh ∗ Detention time = 0.3 ∗ 50m = 15m

Hence, use a rectangular tank, with dimensions:
Length (L = 15m) Width (B = 0.4m) and Depth (D = 1.0m)

Example 3-2
Design a suitable grit chamber cum Detritus tank for a sewage treatment plant getting a dry weather flow from a
separate sewerage system @400 1/s. Assume the flow velocity through the tank as 0.2m/sec and detention period
of 2 minutes. The maximum flow may be assumed to be three times of dry weather flow.
Solution
The length of the tank
= Velocity ∗ Detention time = 0.2 ∗ (2 ∗ 60) = 24m
Assuming that each detritus tank is designed for passing D.W.F,
The discharge passing through each tank
= 400𝑙/s = 0.4m3 /sec
Therefore, Cross-sectional area required
Discharge 0.4
= = = 2m2
Velocity 0.2
Assuming the water depth in the tank to be 1.2m,
The width of the tank
Area of cross section 2
= = = 1.67m ≅ 1.7m
Depth 1.2
Hence, use a Detritus tank with 24m*1.7m*1.2m size.
At the top, a free-board of 0.3m may be provided; and at the bottom, a dead space depth of 0.45m for collection
of detritus may be provided.
Thus, the overall depth of the tank = 1.2 + 0.3 + 0.45 = 1.95m.
The tank will be 1. 7m wide up to 1.5m depth, and then the sides will slope down to form an elongated trough of
24m length and 0.8m width at the bottom with rounded corners, as shown in figure below.

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4. Design of Parabolic Grit Chamber provided with a Parshall Flume

i. Parshall Flume
A parshall flume, also called a venturi-flume, is a horizontally constricted vertical throat in an open channel, as
shown in Figure 3-6. Such a venturi-flume, as we know, can be used as a discharge measuring device, and also
as a velocity control device. This device is made use of for its latter purpose in a grit channel. .
The venturi-flume, as a velocity control device, is preferable (to the proportional flow weir, etc., as it involves
negligible head loss, and can also work under submerged conditions for certain limits.

Figure 3-6 Parshall flume

These limits of submergence are: 50% in case of 0 .15m throat width, and 70% for wider throat widths up to 1m.
Another advantage of a venturi-flume is, that: one control section can be installed for 2 to 3 grit chambers.
Moreover, the venturi-flume is a self cleaning device, and there is no problem of clogging.
The discharge passing through a parshall flume of the type shown in Figure 3-6, is related to the water head (i.e.
upstream water depth) by the formula:
Q = 2.264 W ∗ (Ha )3/2
Where, W = the width of the throat in m
Q = Flow in m3/sec
Ha = Depth of flow in upstream leg of flume at one third point in m.
The above equation is applicable to flumes of 0.3m to 3m in width.
Typical design dimensions for parshall flumes are given in

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Table 3-2 Standard dimensions for parshall flumes (with respect to Figure 3-6) in cm

Flow range
Throat
maximum in A A1 C C1 F G K N
width W
106 l/sec
Up to 5 7.5 46.0 45.0 17.5 25.5 15.0 60.0 2.5 5.6
5 - 30 15.0 61.0 60.0 31.5 39.1 30.0 60.0 7.5 11.3
30 - 45 22.5 86.5 85.0 37.5 56.6 30.0 75.0 7.5 11.3
45 - 170 30.0 135.0 132.2 60.0 83.1 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
170 - 250 45.0 142.5 139.7 75.0 101.0 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
250 - 350 60.0 150.0 147.2 90.0 118.8 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
350 - 500 90.0 165.0 161.9 120.0 154.7 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
500 - 700 120.0 180.0 176.6 150.0 190.6 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
700 - 850 150.0 210.0 206.0 210.0 262.5 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
850 - 1400 240.0 240.0 235.3 270.0 334.4 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5

ii. Parabolic Grit Channel

In order to maintain a constant horizontal flow velocity (𝑉ℎ ) through a grit channel, we have to ensure that the
cross-sectional area of the channel changes with the changed discharge in direct proportion to the change in
discharge. Thus, if x is taken along the width side and y is taken along the depth side of a channel x-section, then
the cross-section must be such that
Q
Vh = y = constant = C1
∫0 xdy
Also, the discharge through the velocity control section, placed at the down end of the grit channel, in general, is
given by the equation
𝑄 = 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑦 𝑛
Where, n is the discharge coefficient of the control section; 1.5 for venturi-flume, and 1 for proportional flow
weir (also called Sutro weir).
Equating Q from equations (9.4) and (9.5), we get
y
C1 ∫ xdy = C2 ∗ y n
0
C1 xy = C2 ∗ y n
C1 x
y n−1 =
C2
y n−1 = C′ ∗ x

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For a parshall flume, n = 1.5,

𝑦1.5−1 = 𝐶 ′ ∗ 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑥2
Hence, when parshall flume is used as the velocity control device, then the channel section should be governed
by equation 𝑦 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑥 2 (x representing width, and y representing depth); which is a parabolic section.
Hence, a parabolic channel section has to be designed, when we provide a parshall flume as a velocity control
device. The method of designing the dimensions of a parabolic grit channel is explained in example 9.4.
If a rectangular channel is used instead of a parabolic channel, then its width is constant:
i.e. x = k. Then, using equation (9.6),
𝑦 𝑛−1 = 𝐶 ′ ∗ 𝑥 = 𝐶 ′ ∗ 𝑘
𝑦 𝑛−1 = 𝐶 ′′
𝑛−1=0
𝑛=1
Hence, for a rectangular channel section, we need a control section, such as a Sutroweir, whose discharge
equation is of the form 𝑄 = 𝐾 ′ ∗ 𝑦 where K is a constant.

Example 3-3
Design a grit chamber for a horizontal velocity of 25cm/sec and a flow which ranges from a minimum
of 25000cum/day to a maximum of 100,000cu-m/day. Average flow is 62500cu-m/day.
Solution
Let us adopt 4 grit channels, each designed to carry discharges as:
25000
(i) Minimum discharge = = 6,250cu m/day
4
1,00,000
(ii) Normal maximum discharge = = 25,000cu m/day
4
62500
(iii) Average discharge = = 15,625cu m/day
4
(iv) Let each unit be designed to carry a peak discharge of 1.33 times the normal maximum discharge,=
1.33 ∗ 25000 = 33,325 cu. m/day
Let a vertically controlled flume be used to maintain constant velocity. The flow in the control section is
assumed to be at critical depth.
Let us now design the parabolic channel X-section:
For a parabolic channel,
2
Area of cross-section = 𝐴 = 3 𝐵 ∗ 𝐷
Where, B = Top width and D = Depth.
𝑄
Since 𝐴 = ; and Vh = 0.25m/sec,
𝑉ℎ

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(For all discharges), we can easily work out, A values corresponding to peak, maximum, average, and
minimum discharges.
Therefore,
Q peak
A for Q peak (Apeak ) =
0.25
33325 1 0.386
= ∗ = = 1.54m2
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
Similarly,
Q max
A for Q max (Amax ) =
0.25
25000 1 0.289
= ∗ = = 1.16m2
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
Q ave
A for Q ave (Aave ) =
0.25
15625 1 0.181
= ∗ = = 0.72m2
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
Q min
A for Q min (Amin ) =
0.25
6250 1 0.072
= ∗ = = 0.29m2
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
At maximum discharge
Let us limit the maximum width of the channel to 1.5m at Qmax
Then,
2 2
Amax = 𝐵 ∗ Dmax = ∗ 1.5 ∗ Dmax
3 3
Equating eqn. (ii) and (v), we have
2
1.16 = ∗ 1.5 ∗ Dmax
3
1.16 ∗ 3
Dmax = = 1.16𝑚
2 ∗ 1.5
The total energy upstream of control section is given by:
𝑉12
𝐸1 = 𝐷 +
2𝑔
(Neglecting velocity of approach in the channel)
𝐸1 = 𝐷
Hence at maximum discharge
𝐸1 = Dmax = 1.16𝑚

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Total energy at critical point i.e. at the point of jump formation:

vc2
= Ec = yc + + HL
2g
Where, HL is the energy or head loss in jump
Assuming that the head loss in control section (HL) is 10% of the velocity head in the control section, we have
vc2
HL = 0.1
2g
vc2 vc2
Ec = yc + + 0.1
2g 2g
But, in the control section, at critical depth,
vc2
yc =
g
vc2 vc2 vc2 vc2
Ec = + + 0.1 = 1.55
g 2g 2g g
Using Bernoulli's theorem,
Total energy at upstream point in channel
= Total energy at critical point in control section
vc2
E1 = Ec = 1.55
g
From equation 6.9, E1 = D
Hence,
vc2
D = 1.55
g
Using the value of Dmax, as equal to 1.16 at maximum discharge,

1.16 ∗ 9.81
Vc at Q max = √ = 2.71m/sec
1.55
Vc 2 at Q max 2.712
yc at Q max = = = 0.74m
g 9.81
The discharge through the control section is:
Q = (W ∗ yc ) Vc
Where, W is the throat width; and W*yc is the flow area of the throat.

Q
W=
yc ∗ Vc

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Qmax 0.289
W= = = 0.144m ≅ 1.5m
yc ∗ Vc (both at Qmax ) 0.74 ∗ 2.71
Let us use throat width W = 0.15m.
For other flow conditions:
Using the above used two formulas,
vc2
yc =
g
Q = W ∗ yc ∗ Vc
Q
Vc =
W ∗ yc
2
Q
(W ∗ y )
c
yc =
g
3 Q2
yc = √
gW 2
Knowing Q and W, we can find yc at different discharges.
From eqn. (9.13) derived above,
vc2
D = 1.55 = 1.55yc
g
Knowing yc at different discharges, we can find D at different discharges.
Then finally, for a parabolic section,
2
A= B∗D
3
A
B = 1.5
D
Knowing A at various discharges, already computed, we can find B at different discharges, because D is known
at different discharges.

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The values of B are, thus, calculated for other discharges, as shown in table below.

-
A
Q 3Q2 B = 1.5
Condo 3
Q in m3/sec A m2 yc = √ 2 D = 1.55yc D
m /day gW
where W = 0.15
Peak 33,325 0.386 1.54 0.88 1.36 1.70*
Average 15625 0.181 0.72 0.53 0.82 1.32
Minimum 6250 0.072 0.29 0.29 0.45 0.97
Maximum 25000 0.289 1.16 0.72 1.12 1.56
In place of 0.74
calculated earlier due
to adoption of 0.15m
as the value of W
instead of 0.144)
*Limited to 1.55 m.
With B and D values, computed in col. (6) and (7) of the above table, we can draw the parabolic section, which
is approximated to a practical trapezoidal section, as shown in Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7 Grit channel section

5. Detritus Tanks
Detritus tanks are nothing but rectangular grit chambers, designed to flow with a smaller flow velocity (of about
0.09m/sec) and longer detention periods (about 3 to 4 minutes) so as to separate out not only the larger grit, etc.,
but also to separate out the very fine sand particles, etc.

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Due to this, a large amount of organic matter will also settle out along with the inorganic grit, sand, etc. This
organic material is then separated from the grit by control of currents in the tank through baffles, or by controlled
aeration of the flow through the tank. The rising air bubbles will then separate the lighter organic matter from the
descending grit. The grit is removed continuously by means of scraper mechanism. All other details of detritus
tanks remain the same as those of a rectangular grit chamber.

3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease

1. Skimming Tanks
Skimming tanks are sometimes employed for removing oils and grease from the sewage, and placed before the
sedimentation-tanks. They are, therefore, used where sewage contains too much of grease or oils, which include
fats, waxes, soaps, fatty acids, etc. These materials may enter into the sewage from the kitchens of restaurants
and, houses, from motor garages, oil refineries, soap and candle factories, etc. They are, thus, normally present in
large amounts in the industrial wastewaters.
If such greasy and oily matter is not removed from the sewage before it enters further treatment units, it may form
unsightly and odorous scums on the surface of the settling tanks, or interfere with the activated sludge treatment
process, and inhibit biological growth on the trickling filters.
These oil and greasy materials may be removed in a skimming tank, in which air is blown by an aerating device
through the bottom. The rising air tends to coagulate and congeal (solidify) the grease, and cause it to rise to the
surface (being pushed in separate compartments), from where it is removed.
The typical details of a skimming tank are shown in Fig. 9.10. It consists of a long trough shaped structure divided
into two or three lateral compartments by means of vertical baffle walls (having slots in them) for a short distance
below the sewage surface, as shown. The baffle walls help in pushing the rising coagulated greasy material into
the side compartments (called stilling compartments). The rise of oils and grease is brought about by blowing
compressed air into the sewage from diffusers placed at the bottom of the tank.
The collected greasy materials are removed (i.e. skimmed off either by hand or by some mechanical equipment.
It may then be disposed of either by burning or burial.
Sewage enters the tank from one end, flows through longitudinally, and finally goes out through a narrow inclined
duct, as shown. This is so narrow that the suspended heavier particles are carried up its slope and out of the tank.
A detention period of about 3 to 5 minutes is usually sufficient, and the amount of compressed air required is
about 300 to 6000m3 per million liters of sewage. The surface area required for the tank can be found out by
using the formula:
𝑞
𝐴 = 0.00622 ∗
𝑉𝑟
Where, q = Rate of flow of sewage in m3/day
Vr = Minimum rising velocity of greasy material to be removed in m/minute
= 0.25m/minute in most cases

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The efficiency of a skimming tank can be increased considerably (three to four times) by passing chlorine gas
(2mg/liter of sewage) along with the compressed air. Chlorine may also be added as a solution with the sewage
discharge, just ahead of the air diffuser plates. The action of chlorine is to destroy the protective colloidal effect
of protein, which holds the grease in emulsified form.

2. Vacuators
Grease can also be removed from the sewage by vacuum floatation method, by subjecting the aerated sewage to
a vacuum pressure of about 0-25cm of mercury for 10 to 15 minutes in a vacuator. This causes the air bubbles to
expand and move upward through the sewage to the surface. The rising bubbles lift the grease and the lighter
waste solids to the surface, where they are removed through skimming troughs. Heavier solids settle to the tank
bottom, where they are collected and carried away for sludge treatment and disposal.

3. Disposal of Skimmings
The oil and greasy material removed as skimmings from the skimming tanks or vacuators can be disposed of
either by burning or burial. It is generally too polluted to be of any economic use. However, it may sometimes be
converted in to soap lubricants, candles and other non-edible products. It may sometimes be digested in digesters,
which prove beneficial only if the mineral oils are less in amount, and vegetable and organic matters predominate.
The latter digest easily, and produce gases of high fuel value.

3.2 Primary Wastewater Treatment

Primary treatment consists in removing large suspended organic solids. This is usually accomplished by
sedimentation in settling basins.
The liquid effluent from primary treatment, often contains a large amount of suspended organic material, and has
a high BOD (about 60% of original).
Sometimes, the preliminary as well as primary treatments are classified together, under primary treatment.

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The organic solids which are separated out in the sedimentation tanks (in primary treatment) are often stabilized
by anaerobic decomposition in a digestion tank or are incinerated. The residue is used for landfills or soil
conditioners.

3.2.1 Sedimentation

1. Necessity of Sedimentation in Treatment of Wastewaters

As discussed in the previous pages, the screens and the grit chambers do remove most of the floating materials
(like paper, rags, cloth, wood, tree branches, etc.) and the heavy inorganic settleable solids from the sewage.
However, a part of the suspended organic solids which are too heavy to be removed as floating matters, and too
light to be removed by grit chambers (designed to remove only the heavy inorganic solids of size more than 0.2
mm, and of sp. gravity 2.65), are generally removed by the sedimentation tanks. The sedimentation tanks are thus
designed to remove a part of the organic matter from the sewage effluent coming out from the grit chambers.
In a complete sewage treatment, the sedimentation is, in fact, carried out twice; once before the biological
treatment (i.e. primary sedimentation) and once after the biological treatment (i.e. secondary sedimentation).
When chemical coagulants are also used for flocculating the organic matter during the process of sedimentation,
the process is called chemical precipitation or sedimentation aided with coagulation. This is generally not used in
modern days, as discussed, later.
Other sewage treatment units which work on the principle of sedimentation are: Septic tanks, Imhoff tanks, etc.
Septic tanks and Imhoff tanks combine sludge digestion with sedimentation, whereas the sludge deposited in
primary as well as in the secondary settling tanks, is separately digested in the sludge-digestion tanks.

2. Sedimentation Tanks
The clarification of sewage by the process of 'sedimentation' can be affected by providing conditions under which
the suspended material present in sewage can settle out. This is brought about in specially designed tanks called
sedimentation tanks.
Out of the three forces which control the settling tendencies of the particles (enumerated earlier), the two forces
i.e. the velocity of flow, and the shape and size of the particles, are tried to be controlled in these settling tanks.
The third force i.e. the viscosity of sewage or the temperature of sewage is left uncontrolled, as the same is not
practically possible.
The velocity of flow can be reduced by increasing the length of travel, and by detaining the particle for a longer
time in the sedimentation basin. The size and the shape of the particles can be altered by the addition of certain
chemicals in water. These chemicals are called coagulants, and they make the sedimentation quite effective
leading to the settlement of even very fine and colloidal particles. However, their use is not made in "Plain
Sedimentation" (or generally called "sedimentation"), but is being made in the process called "chemical
precipitation" or "sedimentation with coagulation". This will be discussed later.

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Sedimentation basins are thus designed for effecting settlement of particles by reducing the flow velocity or by
detaining the sewage in them. They are generally made of reinforced concrete and may be rectangular or circular
in plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow (Figure 3-8) are generally preferred to the circular
tanks with radial or spiral flow (Figure 3-9).

Figure 3-8 Rectangular sedimentation tank

The capacity and other dimensions of the tank should be properly designed, so as to affect a fairly high percentage
of removal of the suspended organic material. A plain sedimentation tank under normal conditions may remove
about 60 to 65% of the suspended solids, and 30 to 35% of the BOD from the sewage.

i. Types of Sedimentation Tanks

Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.
The Intermittent settling tanks called quiescent type tanks are simple settling tanks which store sewage for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest. After giving it a rest of about 24hours, during which the suspended
particles settle down to the bottom of the tank, the cleaner sewage from the top may be drawn off and the tank be
cleaned off the settled silt. The tank is again filled with raw sewage to continue the next operation. This type of
tank, thus, functions intermittently as a period of about 30 to 36 hours is required to put the tank again in working
condition. This necessitates the commissioning of at least two tanks. Such tanks are generally not preferred,
because a lot of time and labor is wasted and more units are required. They have, therefore, become comp1etely
obsolete these days.
In a continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank, which is generally used in modem days, the flow velocity is
only reduced, and the sewage is not brought to complete rest, as is done in an intermittent type. The working of
such a tank is simple, as the water enters from one end, and comes out from the other end. The velocity is
sufficiently reduced by providing sufficient length of travel. The velocity is so adjusted that the time taken by the
particle to travel from one end to another is slightly more than the time required for settlement of that particle.
The theory and design of such a tank is discussed below in details.

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Figure 3-9 Circular sedimentation tank

ii. Design of a Continuous Flow Type of a Sedimentation Tank

In the theory which is applied to the design of such sedimentation basins, it is assumed that the sediment is
uniformly distributed as the sewage enters the basin. In Figure 3-10, let the water containing uniformly distributed
sediment, enters the rectangular tank with a uniform velocity V. If Q is the discharge entering the basin, the flow
velocity V is given by:
Q
V=
BH
Where, B = Width of the basin, and
H = Depth of sewage in the tank

Figure 3-10 Elevation of a rectangular sedimentation tank

Now, every discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity V and a downward vertical velocity VS. The
resultant path is given by the vector sum of its flow velocity (V) and its settling velocity (Vs).

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Assuming that all those particles, whose paths of travel are above the line BD, will pass through the basin, we
have from geometric considerations:
𝑉 𝐿
=
𝑉𝑠 𝐻
𝑉∗𝐻
𝑉𝑠 =
𝐿
From equation (9.25)
𝐻 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑠 = ∗ =
𝐿 𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐿
Q
It shows that all those particles with a settling velocity equal to or greater than will settle down, and be removed.
BL
Q
In other words, no particle having a settling velocity more than or equal to will remain suspended in such a
BL
tank.
Q
It was mentioned above, that a particle having settling velocity greater than or equal to will be removed. In
BL
fact, it was the case when the particle entering at full' height H of the tank was considered. Truly speaking, even
Q
the smaller particles having settling velocities lower than BL will also settle down, if they happen to enter at some
other height h of the tank. In that case, when the particles are entering at some other height h of the tank, all those
h Q
particles having their settling velocities  H BL will settle down.
If yo represents the number of particles of a given size that are settled out, and y being the total number of particles
y0 h
of that size, then the percentage of that particular sized particles which shall be remove is ; and is equal to H
y

for an assumed uniform distribution of particles. Hence, if 70% of particles of a given size are proposed to be
70 Q
removed in a settling tank, then the settling velocity of that sized particles must be kept  100 ∗ BL. In other words
Q 100
must be kept less than equal to 70 * settling velocity of that sized particle.
BL
Q
It, therefore, follows that the quantity BL i.e. the discharge per unit of plan area is a very important term for the
design of continuous flow type of settling tanks; and is known as over flow rate or surface loading or overflow
velocity.
Normal values of overflow rates ranges between 40,000 and 50,000 liters/sq.m/day for plain primary
sedimentation tanks; and between 50,000 and 60,000 liters/sqm/day for sedimentation tanks using coagulants as
aids and about 25,000 to 35,000 liters/sqm/day for secondary sedimentation tanks.
Decreasing the overflow rate will lead to the settlement of even those particles which are having lower values of
their settling velocities. Hence, smaller particles will also settle down, if the overflow rate is reduced. Further,
with a given Q, the overflow rate can be reduced by increasing the plan area of the basin. It therefore, follows that
an increase in the plan area (i.e. width x length) will increase the efficiency of sedimentation tank; and

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theoretically speaking, depth does not have any effect on the efficiency of sediment removal. However, it is
important for practical considerations, and also for making allowance for deposition of sludge and silt.
Usual values of effective depth (i.e. depth excluding the bottom sludge zone) range between 2.4 and 3.6m
(generally not exceeding 3m).
Another important term, which is used in connection with the design of sedimentation basins, is its detention time
or detention period or retention period. The detention time (t) of a settling tank may be defined as the average
theoretical time required for the sewage to flow through the tank. It is, this, the time that would be required for
the flow of sewage to fill the tank, if there was no outflow. In other words, it is the average time for which the
sewage is detained in the tank. Hence, it is the ratio of the volume of the basin to the rate of flow (i.e. discharge)
through the basin.
Therefore,
Detention time, t, for a Rectangular tank
Volume of the tank B∗L∗H
= =
Rate of flow Q
Similarly, the detention time for a circular tank
d2 (0.011d + 0.785H)
=
Q
Where, d = Diameter of the tank
H = Vertical depth at wall or side water depth.
The detention time for a sewage sedimentation tank usually ranges between 1 to 2 hours. The lower value of
detention period (i.e. 1 hour) is generally adopted when the activated sludge treatment is used in secondary
treatment after the sedimentation; and the higher and more normal value (i.e. 2 hours) is generally adopted when
the trickling filters are used as the secondary treatment.
Larger detention periods will result in higher efficiency; but too long a period induces septic conditions, and
should be avoided. However, if the secondary sedimentation is to be avoided, a longer detention period of about
1
2 2 hours to 3 hours may be adopted.
The width of the tank is normally kept at about 6m, and not allowed to exceed 7.5m or so. The length of the tank
is generally not allowed to exceed 4 to 5 times the width. The cross-sectional area of the sedimentation tank is
such as to provide a horizontal flow velocity of about 0.3m/minute. The total amount of flow from the tank within
24 hours generally equals the maximum daily flow of sewage.
The maximum diameter of a circular tank may be kept 60m or so.

iii. Short Circuiting in the Sedimentation Tanks

For the efficient removal of sediment in the sedimentation tanks, it is necessary that the flow is uniformly
distributed throughout the cross-section of the tank.

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If currents, on the other hand, permit a substantial portion of the water to pass directly through the tank without
being detained for the intended time, the flow is said to be short circuited. Properly designed inlets and outlets
near the entrance and the exit may reduce the short circuiting tendencies, and distribute the flow more evenly.
Moreover, relatively narrow tanks are less affected by inlet and outlet disturbances, and by currents caused by
breezes.
But however, in actual practice, certain amount of short circuiting will always exist, and, therefore, the actual
average time taken by a batch of water in passing through a settling tank (called flowing through period) will
always be less than the detention period, which is the corresponding theoretical time. The ratio of the 'flowing
through period' to the 'detention period' is called the Displacement efficiency.
Flowing through period
Displacement efficiency (%) =
Detention period
Note: In order to counteract the effects of short circuiting, it may be necessary to keep a high detention period or
a smaller surface loading than that obtained from the theoretical considerations for obtaining the desired results.

iv. Constructional Details of the Sedimentation Tanks

The following features of such tanks need special attention:

a. Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

In order to reduce short circuiting, and to distribute the flow uniformly, proper arrangement must be made
for smooth entry of water. A most suitable type of an inlet for a rectangular settling tank is in the form of a
channel extending to full width of the tank, with a submerged weir type baffle wall, as shown in Figure 3-12.

Figure 3-11 Section of a submerged type or a weir type inlet

A similar type of outlet arrangement is also used these days. It consists of an outlet channel extending for full
width of the tank and receiving the water after it has passed over a weir, as shown in Figure 3-12.

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Figure 3-12 Section of a submerged type or weir type outlet

b. Baffles
Baffles are required to prevent the movement of organic matter and its escape along with the effluent; and
to distribute the sewage uniformly through the cross-section of the tank, and thus to avoid short circuiting.
Both inlets and outlets are, therefore, protected by hanging baffles, 0 to 90 cm in front of them, and
submerged 45 to 60 cm below the flow line, as shown in Figure 3-8. Some other arrangement of placing
baffles may be designed, but it should not be too complicated. Moreover, too many baffles may result in
concentration of currents and is as bad as too fewer baffles are.
c. Skimming Troughs
When the amount of oils and greasy matter present in sewage is small, it is generally uneconomical to
provide a separate skimming tank. In such cases, a skim trough is generally provided in the sedimentation
tank itself, near its outlet end, as shown in Figure 3-8.
In manually operated tanks, the skimming that float to the surface may be pushed into the trough by
squeezes with hand. Whereas, in mechanically operated tanks (such as in Figure 3-8), the skimming may
be pushed by the same scraper blades which collect the sludge while moving along the bottom, and push
the skimming into the end trough, when they move near the surface along with the endless chain to which
they are attached.
d. Cleaning and Sludge Removal
The suspended organic solids contained in sewage, settle down at the bottom of the sedimentation tank,
and have to be removed periodically. The removal of the deposited sludge before it becomes stale and
septic is necessary not only because it reduces the capacity of the tank and its detention period, but also
because it leads to the evolution of foul gases formed due to the anaerobic decomposition of the settled
organic matter. The sedimentation tanks are, therefore, cleaned from time to time at frequent intervals,
either manually or they are provided with mechanical arrangements for cleaning.

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Modern sedimentation tanks, however, are generally provided with mechanical cleaning devices. For example, in
Figure 3-8, the sludge is scraped by scrapers and brought to the hopper at the outlet end, and is removed daily or
often. The scrapers can work either continuously or at any desired intervals of time. Similarly, in a circular tank
(Figure 3-9), the sludge is scraped and brought to the centre, and likewise removed. For tanks without mechanical
sludge removing equipment, an additional minimum depth of about 0.8 to 1.2 m should be provided for storage
of settled materials, and is called sludge zone.

Example 3-4
Design a suitable rectangular sedimentation tank (provided with mechanical cleaning equipment) for treating the
sewage from a city, provided with an assured public water supply system, with a maximum daily demand of 12
million liters per day. Assume suitable values of detention period and velocity of flow in the tank. Make any other
assumptions, wherever needed.
Solution
Assuming that 80% of water supplied to the city becomes sewage, we have the quantity of sewage required to be
treated per day (i.e. maximum daily).
= 0.8 *12 million liters = 9.6*106liters
Now assuming the detention period in the sewage sedimentation tank as 2 hours,
The quantity of sewage to be treated in 2 hours i.e. the capacity of the tank required
9.6
Q= ∗ 2 ∗ 106 litres = 0.8 ∗ 106 litres = 800cu. m
24
Assuming that the flow velocity through the tank is maintained at 0.3m/minute;
The length of the tank required
= Velocity of flow ∗ Detention period = 0.3 ∗ (2 ∗ 60)m = 36 m
Cross-sectional area of the tank required
Capacity of the tank 800
= = = 22.2 m2
Length of the tank 36
Assuming the water depth in the tank (i.e. effective depth of tank) as 3m,
The width of the tank required
Area of cross section 22.2
= = = 7.4 m
Depth 3
Since the tank is provided with mechanical cleaning arrangement, no extra space at bottom is required for sludge
zone.
Assuming a free-board of 0.5m,
The overall depth of the tank
= 3 + 0.5 = 3.5m
Hence, a rectangular sedimentation tank with an overall size of 36m * 7.4m * 3.5m can be used.

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Note: This satisfies the requirements like: length not more than 4 to 5 times the width; and the width not more
than 7.5m or so; the depth between 2.4 to 3.6m, etc.
Alternatively,
Instead of assuming the depth, we may assume an overflow rate as 40,000 liters/m2/day.
Q
= 40,000 liters/m2 /day
BL
Q 9.6 ∗ 106
BL = = = 240m2
40,000 40,000
240 240
B= = = 6.67m2
L 36
Area of cross section 22.2
The depth required = = = 3.3m
Width 6.67

Hence, we can alternatively use a tank of dimensions 36m * 6.7m *(3.3 + 0.5m) overall depth i.e. 36m * 6.7m *
3.8m size.

3.2.2 Sedimentation Aided With Coagulation (Type II Sedimentation)

1. Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation

Very fine suspend particles, present in wastewaters, which cannot be removed in plain sedimentation, may
sometimes, be settled by increasing their size be changing them into flocculated particles. For this purpose, certain
chemical compounds (like ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, alum, chlorinated copperas, etc.) called coagulants, are
added to the wastewaters, which on thorough mixing, form a gelatinous precipitate, called floc. The fine mud
particles and other colloidal matter present in wastewaters get absorbed in these floes, forming the bigger sized
flocculated particles. The process of addition and mixing of chemicals is called coagulation. The coagulated
sewage is then made to pass through sedimentation tank, where the flocculated particles settle down, and get
removed.

The characteristics and efficiency of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment are given in

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Table 3-3 Properties of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment

B.O.D. SS removed
pH value
removed as Dosage
Name of required
.No. as percentage percentage required Remarks
coagulant for proper
of total of total in ppm
functioning
present present
80 - 90 90 - 95 25-35 5.5 to 7.0 This coagulant is widely used for
Ferric
l. sewage treatment, wherever,
chloride
coagulation is adopted.
60 80 35-40 8.0 to 8.5 Ferric sulphate has been found to be
more effective than chlorinated
Ferric
copperas, if used in conjunction with
2. sulphate
lime. Hence ferric chloride and
with lime
ferric sulphate are mainly used, as
coagulants in sewage.
60 80 40-90 6 to 8.5 It is generally not used in sewage
3. Alum although used for treating water
supplies on a large scale.
70-80 80--90 35-80 5.5 to 7.0 This coagulant is effective for
Chlorinated
4. and producing sludge for activated
copperas
9.0 to 9.5 sludge process.

2. Merits and Demerits of Coagulation Process in Sewage Treatment

As pointed out earlier, the coagulation process is generally not adopted in modern sewage treatment plants, mainly
because of the following reasons:
1. More advanced methods of sewage treatment based on biological actions are available these days, and
they are preferred to coagulation.
2. The coagulation process has various disadvantages, such as discussed below:
Disadvantages or Demerits of Coagulation in Sewage Treatment
(i) The biological secondary treatments used these days for treating sewage is complete in themselves, and
do not require coagulation. Moreover, coagulation rather makes some of these processes more difficult.
(ii) The chemicals used in coagulation react with sewage, and during these reactions, they destroy certain
micro-organisms, which are helpful in digestion of the sludge, thus creating difficulties in sludge
digestion.
(iii) Cost of chemicals is added to the cost of sedimentation, without much use, and thereby making the
treatment costlier.
(iv) The process of coagulation and subsequent sedimentation produces larger quantities of sludge than that
produced in plain sedimentation, and thus adding to the problems of sludge disposal.

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(v) The process of coagulation requires skilled supervision and handling of chemicals.
In view of all these disadvantages, the coagulation of sewage has become obsolete these days. It may still,
however, be adopted in certain special cases, such as:
(a) For treating sewage from industries, using some specific chemicals in their processes.
(b) It is particularly advantageous, where there is large seasonal variation in sewage flow or as an emergency
measure to increase the capacity of an overloaded plain sedimentation tank.
The various advantages offered by the coagulation process are:
(i) Sedimentation aided with coagulation produces better effluent with lesser BOD and suspended solids, as
compared to plain sedimentation.
(ii) Coagulated settling tank requires less space than that required by an ordinary plain settling tank.
Coagulation process may also remove the phosphates from sewage, which may help in controlling eutrophication
(the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants in a river stream. The nitrogen and phosphorous present
in the sewage and industrial effluents being discharged into the rivers, serve as fertilizing elements, which in the
presence of sun-light, stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic plants) of river, into which the effluent is
being discharged

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