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Chapter 1
Electric Charges and Fields
Electrostatics
Electrostatics deals with the study of forces, fields and potentials arising
from static charges.
Frictional electricity
The electricity produced by rubbing suitable bodies is called frictional
electricity.
On rubbing electrons are transferred from one body to the other. The body,
which loses electrons, will become positively charged and which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.
Electric Charge
From simple experiments on frictional electricity, it is inferred that there
are two types of charges in nature-Positive and Negative .
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
• When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod becomes positively
charged and silk negaitive.
• When a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, plastic rod becomes negatively
charged and fur positive.
1. Good conductors like copper cannot be charged by friction because any
charge produced on it can easily flow through the rod through our body and
to the ground.
2. Insulators like plastic, ebonite, glass etc can be easily charged by friction
because the charges will stay on them.
3. Electrostatic experiments cannot be performed in moist climate because
moist air is slightly conducting. So the static charges will get conducted away
from the charged body.
How is frictional electrification caused?
The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number
of electrons outside the nucleus. When a body is rubbed with another, due to
friction, some electrons from one body gets transferred to the other body.
The body, which loses electrons, will become positively charged and which
gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The two bodies thus acquire
opposite charges and they are equal in magnitude. This is the reason for
frictional electricity.
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Gold Leaf Electroscope

A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is called a gold-leaf
electroscope.
Apparatus It consists of a vertical metal rod placed in a box. Two thin gold
leaves are attached to its bottom end as shown in figure.

Working
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge
flows on to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergence is an
indicator of the amount of charge.

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors
Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electricity through
them.
Eg. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are conductors.
• They have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to
move inside the material.
• When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets
distributed over the entire surface of the conductor.
▪ Metals cannot be charged by friction,because the charges transferred
to the metal leak through our body to the ground as both are
conductors of electricity.
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Insulators
The substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity
through them are called Insulators .
Eg. glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood
▪ If some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. So
insulators gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing,

Earthing (or) Grounding

When a charged body is brought in contact with
earth, all the excess charge pass to the earth
through the connecting conductor. This process of
sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing. Earthing provides
protection to electrical circuits and appliances.
Methods of Charging
A body can be charged in different ways
1)Charging by friction
2)Charging by conduction
3)Charging by induction
1) Charging by friction
When two bodies are rubbed each other, electrons in one body (in which
electrons are held less tightly) transferred to second body (in which
electrons are held more tightly)
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the electrons from the glass
are transferred to silk. Hence glass rod gets +ve charge and silk gets -ve
charge.
2) Charging by conduction
Charging a body with actual contact of another body is called charging by
conduction. If a neutral conducting body (A) is brought in contact with
positively charged conducting body (B), the neutral body gets positively
charged.
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3)Charging by induction
When a charged body is brought near to an uncharged conductor (without
touching), that end of the uncharged conductor which is near to the charged
body gets oppositely charged and the farther end is charged with the same
type of charge.

Charging a metal sphere positively without touching it

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Properties of electric charges

1.Electric charges are of two kinds – positive and negative.
2.Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3. Quantization of charge : According to quantisation of electric charge,
charge of a body is an integral multiple of a basic charge, which is the
electronic charge.
Charge on a body, q=± ne ; where, n=1,2,3.........
e is the electronic charge. e=1.602 x 10−19 C
4. Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated system
remains constant. It also implies that electric charges can neither be created
nor destroyed. If an object loses some charge, an equal amount of charge
appears somewhere else.
5.Charge is a scalar quantity.
6. Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic sum of
individual charges present on that surface.
If q1 , q 2 , q 3 ....................., q n are the charges on a surface, then total or net
charge,
𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 +.................. + 𝒒𝒏
Example 1
How many electronic charges form 1 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n=
𝑒
1
n=
1.602 x 10−19

=6.25 x1018
Example 2
A comb drawn through person’s hair causes 1022 electrons to leave the
person’s hair and stick to the comb. Calculate the charge carried by the
comb. q= ne,
q = 1022 x 1.602 x 10−19 C
= −1.602 x 103 C
As the comb gains electrons it gets negatively charged.
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Coulomb’s Law

Definition of coulomb
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐅 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐

Coulomb’s Law in vector form

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Super position principle

Force on a charge due to a number of charges is the vector sum of forces
due to individual charges.For a system of n charges.

Electric Field
Electric field is the region around a charge where its effect can be felt.
Intensity of electric field at a point is the force per unit charge.
𝐅
𝐄=
𝐪

Electric field due to a point charge

𝟏 𝐪
𝐄 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝟐
𝟎𝐫
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Electric field due to a system of charges

Electric field at a point due to a system of charges is the vector sum of the
electric fields at the point due to individual charges.

Electric Field Lines

An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at
each point is in the direction of the net field at that point.
▪ Electric Field lines tart from positive charge, end at negative charge.
▪ Electric field lines of a positive charge are radially outwards and
that of a negative charge is radially inwards
▪ Electric field lines do not form closed loops.
▪ In a charge free region field lines are continuous.
▪ Two field lines never intersect.( Two directions for electric field is
not possible at a point)
▪ Field lines are parallel ,equidistant and in same direction in
uniform electric field.

Positive Charge Negative Charge

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Two positive Charges

Dipole - Positive and Negative charge

Electric Flux

𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⋅ ⅆ𝐒
𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⅆ𝐒 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 ( 𝛉 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐄 𝐚𝐧ⅆ 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 ⅆ𝐒)
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Electric Dipole
An electri dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance

The total charge of the system is +q + -q =0

⃗)
Electric Dipole moment (𝐩
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Electric Field duo to a Dipole along the Axial Line

The electric field at P due to +q

1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2
(in the direction of dipole moment 𝑝)
0

The electric field at Pdue to -q

1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑎)2
(opposite to the direction of dipole moment 𝑝)
0
Toal field, E =𝐸+𝑞 − 𝐸−𝑞
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2
− (𝑟+𝑎)2
0 4𝜋𝜀0

Thus the total electric field at P is

𝑞 1 1
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟−𝑎)2 − (𝑟+𝑎)2 ]
0

Simplifying
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 ]
0

For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get

1 4𝑞𝑎
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 3 ]
0

2qa=𝑝 (dipole moment)

𝟏 ⃗
𝟐𝒑
⃗𝑬
⃗ = [ 𝟑]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
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Electric Field duo to a Dipole along the Equatorial Line

The magnitude of electric field at P due to +q

1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 ----------------(1)
0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
The magnitude of electric field at P due to -q
1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 ------------------(2)
0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
The vertical componennts cancel each other and horizontal components add up
Total electric field at P,
E =𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But , 𝐸+𝑞 = 𝐸−𝑞
E =2𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 --------------(3)
𝑎 𝑎
Cos𝜃= = 1 -----------------(4)
√𝑟 2 +𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2

Substituting eq(1) and (4) in eq(3)

1 𝑞 𝑎
E =2 𝑥 𝑥 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2
p=2qa (dipole moment)
1 𝑝
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )3/2 ]
0
For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get
𝟏 ⃗
𝒑
⃗𝑬
⃗ = [ 𝟑]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
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Relation connecting Axial field and Equatorial field of a Dipole

1 2𝑝
Axial field, 𝐸⃗ = [ 3]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

1 𝑝
Equatorial field , 𝐸⃗ = [ 3]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Axial field = 2 x Equatorial field

Dipole in a Uniform External field

In a uniform electric field there will be a net torque on the dipole, but the net
force will be zero. Due to the torque ,the dipole rotates. There will be no
translatory motion as the net force is zero.

Torque on a Dipole in a Uniform External field

Torque, τ = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them.

τ = qE x 2a sinθ
τ =pE sinθ
𝛕=𝐏 ⃗ ×𝐄 ⃗
• When p and E are in the same direction or opposite direction( θ=0 or180 )
τ =pE sin0 =0

• Torque is maximum , when p and E are perpendicular. (θ=90)

τ =pE sin90 =pE
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Dipole in a non uniform electric field

In a non uniform electric field the dipole experiences a net force as well as a
net torque in general .
Case 1 -when p is parallel to E

when p is parallel to E, the dipole has a net force in the direction of

increasing field.
But the net torque will be zero τ =pE sin0 =0

Case 2-When p is antiparallel to E.

When p is antiparallel to E, the net force on the dipole is in the direction of

decreasing field.
But the net torque will be zero, τ =pE sin 180 =0
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Continuous Charge Distribution

Linear charge density

The linear charge density λ of a wire

is defined as
𝛥𝑞
𝜆=
𝛥𝑙
𝒒
𝝀= 𝒍
The unit of λ is C/m
Line charge q = 𝝀𝒍

Surface charge density

The surface charge density 𝜎 of a area

element is defined as
𝛥𝑞
𝜎=
𝛥𝑆
𝒒
𝝈=𝑺
The units for σ is C/𝑚2
Surface charge, q= 𝝈𝑺

Volume charge density

The volume charge density ρ of a volume

element is defined as
𝛥𝑞
ρ=
𝛥𝑉
𝒒
𝛒=𝑽
The units for ρ is C/𝑚3
Volume charge , q= 𝛒𝑽
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Gauss’s Theorem
Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
𝟏
equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜺𝟎
𝒒
𝝓 = ∮ 𝑬 ⋅ ⅆ𝑺 = 𝜺
𝟎
The surface over which we calculate the flux is called Gaussian surface.

Proof

𝒒
𝝓=𝜺
𝟎
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c) field inside the shell

ϕ = ES (1)
Inside the shell q=0

ES=0 (S≠ 𝟎)
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Example
Find the electric field due two plane sheets of charge in regions I ,II and III

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur