POLITICAL THEORY

Political theory is the study of political ideas and values like justice, power and democracy that we use to describe,
understand and assess political practices and institutions. Political theory involves the study of the history of political
thought as well as problems in contemporary political life that have a philosophical dimension. Political Theory helps us
better understand the concepts that have shaped our politics, including freedom, equality, individuality, democracy and
justice Importantly, Political Theory is the part of Political Science that explores what a better political world would look like
and how we can create it. Political theory is concerned mainly with the foundations of political community and institutions.
It focuses on human nature and the moral purposes of political association. political theory can be classified into three
important types. Normative or Prescriptive or Traditional Political Theory. Empirical or Modern or Scientific or Descriptive
Political Theory. Contemporary Political Theory.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the common good and effect positive
change. Public administration professionals are equipped with skills to manage at all levels of government (local, state,
and federal) as well as nonprofit organizations. Approaches or Theories of public administration help us to understand the
importance and functions of public administration. Key types of public administration include; Classical Public
Administration, New Public Management, and lastly Postmodern Public Administration. What is public administration
example? This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services,
foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely
governmental in nature"Public administrators share an important role in ensuring that laws and regulations, civil rights,
municipal budgets and health and safety codes are enforced to protect the community they serve . Why do you study
public administration? A public administration degree prepares students to manage public agencies, set budgets, and
create government policies. These policies can be on diverse topics ranging from the environment to social issues. The
classes focus on how these decisions are made and the processes for making the best decision for society.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Comparative politics is the comparative study of other countries, citizens, different political units either in whole or in part,
and analyzes the similarities and differences between those political units. Comparative politics also entails the political
study of non-US political thought. To put it in another way, comparative politics is the study of the domestic politics,
political institutions, and conflicts of countries. It often encompasses comparisons among countries and through time
within single countries, emphasizing major patterns of similarity and difference. Who is father of comparative politics?
Greek thinker Aristotle (c. 384 BCE–c. 322 BCE) is often cited as the father of comparative politics and political science.
What is the goal of comparative politics? Comparativists (practitioners of comparative politics) seek to identify and
understand the similarities and differences among political systems by breaking broad topics such as democracy or
freedom down into the factors we find in individual systems. What are the characteristics of comparative politics? Key
characteristics of comparative government are mentioned below: - Stress upon the study of political institutions of
various countries. - Focus on the study of major constitutions of the world. - Emphasis upon the study of powers and
functions of various political institutions working in different countries.

Meaning and Definition of Comparative Politics:

The study of comparative politics involves conscious comparisons in studying political experience, institutions, behaviour
and processes of the systems of government in a comprehensive manner. It includes the study of even extra-
constitutional agencies having their immediate connection, open or tacit, with formal governmental organs.

It is, therefore, concerned with significant regularities, similarities and differences in the working of political institutions and
in the patterns of political behaviour. In simple words, we can say, Comparative Politics involves a comparative study of
various political systems either as a whole or through a comparative analysis of their structures and functions.
Some popular definitions of Comparative Politics:
“Comparative Politics is the study of the forms of political organisations, their properties, correlations, variations and
modes of change.” M. G. Smith

“Government is not the sole concern of students of comparative politics.

Comparative Politics, no doubt, has to be concerned with the government structure, but at the same time, it has
to take note of:
(i) Society, historical heritage and geographic and resources endowed, its social and economic organisations, its
ideologies and value systems, and its political style; and

(ii) Its parties, interests and leadership structure.” Macridis and Ward

“Comparative Politics is the study of patterns of national governments in the contemporary world.”

The term patterns of government refers to the 3 parts of study:

(i) Government structure,

(ii) Behaviour i.e. the study of how a particular political structure or institution works, and

(iii) The laws – Jean Biondel

“Comparative Politics is concerned with significant regularities, similarities and differences in the working of political
institutions and political behaviour.” M. Curtis

“Comparative politics is identification and interpretation of factors in the whole social order which appear to
affect whatever political functions and their institutions which have been identified and listed for
comparison.” Braibante
Comparative Politics involves a comparative study of not only the institutional and mechanistic arrangements of
government but also an empirical and scientific analysis of non- institutional and non-political determinants of political
behaviour such as the pattern of culture or the socio-economic environment within which the political systems operate.
Empirical study of political processes, structures and functions forms the core of Comparative Politics studies. Its aim is to
build a scientific theory of politics capable of explaining all phenomena of politics.

Concept of Comparative Politics:

Comparative Politics is as old as Political Science. Aristotle, the father of Political Science, used comparative method for
comprehending and analysing principles, issues and problems of Greek City States of his times. He used the knowledge
gained for building his theory of politics.

Following Aristotle, several political thinkers began using the comparative method for analysing and presenting their views
and conclusion about politics. Thus, it can be legitimately observed that comparative politics had its origin with Aristotle.

Harry Eckstein has rightly observed:

“Comparative Politics has a particular right to claim Aristotle as an ancestor because of the primacy he assigned
to politics among the sciences and because the problems he raised and the methods he used are similar to those
still current in political studies.”
In contemporary times, Comparative Politics stands recognized as a primary and essential dimension of the study of
Politics. A large number of political scientists even regard it as an autonomous discipline because of its vast scope and
importance for a comprehensive understanding of politics in all societies.

The comparative approach has emerged as a very useful and highly popular approach for the study of Politics.
Comparative study of Political Systems forms an integral part of the study of Politics.
Evolution of Comparative Politics:
Since times very ancient, Comparative Politics has been a very popular and useful subject of study within the broad ambit
of Political Science.

Aristotle observed the working of 158 constitutions and used the knowledge for answering such questions as:
Which is an ideal state? Which can be the best practicable state?

Which is the best constitution?

Aristotle’s path was followed by his admirers, and the tradition still continues.

It can be stated with certainty that right from the days of Aristotle, comparative study of political institutions, governments
and processes has been developing as a major and popular area of investigation with a large number of political
scientists. After Aristotle, several political thinkers—Cicero, Polybius, Machiavelli, Montesquieu, J.S. Mill, Bagehot and
others, used the comparative method in a highly productive way.

In the 20th century, the ancient tradition received a systematic use and development at the hands of a large number of
political scientists, particularly, Ogg, Zink, Munro, C.F. Strong, Herman Finer, Almond, Powell, Blondel, A.R. Ball,
Colelman, David Apter, S E Finer and others.

In the Western world, Comparative Politics came to be regarded as an autonomous discipline. Several scholars of the
Third World countries (New States) got engaged in Comparative Politics studies and the exercise still continues.
Comparative Politics continues to be a very popular area of study. The increase in the number of sovereign independent
states has made the task more interesting as well as challenging.

In fact, in contemporary times, the importance of Comparative Politics has increased tremendously. The existence of 193
political systems and some non-state political entities in the world has greatly enlarged the scope of Comparative Politics.
The need to build a scientific theory of politics and the potential of Comparative Method to serve this end has been mainly
responsible for its increased importance.

In the 19th century, Comparative Politics studies (Popularly designated as Comparative Government) were used by the
political scientists for arriving at correct and valid conclusions regarding the nature and organisation of state and
government through a comparative study of organisation, powers and functions of various political institutions working in
various states.

The basic objective was to enquire into the historical and legal similarities and dissimilarities among the various
forms of government and their political institutions for getting answer to two main questions:
Which form of government was the best?, and

Which types of political institutions were the best?

Comparative study was regarded as the key to the understanding of politics and consequently the key to provide answers
to these two question.

A comparative normative-prescriptive study of political institutions was conducted for answering these questions. The
features, merits, demerits, similarities and dissimilarities of political institutions were compared and an attempt was made
to identify the best political institutions. This focus continued to remain popular up till the end of the 19th century.

In the 20th century, the study underwent revolutionary changes. The traditional focus (Comparative Governments) got
replaced by a new direction. Now the study of actual behaviour of political institutions and political processes came to be
the adopted as the main area of study.
For this purpose, several new concepts and approaches were developed. The building of a scientific theory of politics
through comparative studies of politics came to the objective.

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The dissatisfaction with the traditional approach and scope of Comparative Government due to its lack of comprehensives
in scope, unrealistic nature and unscientific methodology led to the birth of the need for developing a new science of
Comparative Politics capable of explaining all phenomena of politics in all parts of the globe as well as for building a
scientific theory of politics.

The increased opportunity for comparative politics provided by the rise of several new political systems in Asia and Africa,
and the increased necessity for building a scientific theory of politics capable of guiding the path of the organisation of
political institutions in the new states, gave an added importance to the attempts at the development of the new science of
Comparative Politics, Political Scientists now adopted Comprehensiveness, Realism, Precision and use of scientific
methods as the new goals for the study of Comparative Politics.

With the passage of time, the experience and knowledge gained helped the development of Comparative Politics as a
vitally important and popular subject of study. Several developments of the post-war era greatly revolutionized this area of
study. Consequently, it came to be regarded as an autonomous subject, of course, within the broad ambit of Political
Science.

The traditional objective of deciding the best forms of government came to be replaced by the objective of systematic and
comparative politics studies for comprehensively, realistically and precisely analysing and explaining all the processes of
politics.

From a legal- institutional study Comparative Politics came to be transformed into a behavioural, process- oriented,
functional and scientific study of all political systems in terms of their structures, functions, environments and development
processes. This attempt continues even today and Comparative Politics continues to be a popular and highly productive
area of the study of politics.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

What is the meaning and nature of international relations? International Relations is the study and practice of political
relationships among the world's nations, especially their governments. International relations mean interactions
between nongovernmental groups, such as multinational corporations or international organizations such as the OIC or
the United Nations (UN). International Relations is an important branch of Social Science. The Scope of International
relations is the complex relations existing among the sovereign states of the world. It is mainly concerned, among
other things, with the study in depth of all events and situations affecting more than one state. Who is the father of
international relations? As the father of the realist theory of international relations, Hans Morgenthau consistently argued
that international politics is governed by the competitive and conflictual nature of humankind. Meaning and Definition
International Relations as a separate curriculum discusses international events and world issues between states are
discussed in the context of the international system.
Its main topics are the role of the state, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational
corporations. It is both an academic and government policy field, and it can be either empirical or normative, as this
branch of knowledge is used in both foreign policy analysis and formulation.

Nature of International Relations

The nature of a subject refers to the characteristics of that subject. In that sense, the natures of International relations are
in the following –

Changing Nature of International relations

The nature of international relations Is dynamic. International relations is a thorough analysis of what is happening in
world politics.

The post-World War II period saw a huge shift in world politics. World politics was divided into two poles, such as the
NATO led by the USA and the Warsaw Pact led by the USSR. The collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to a kind
of single polarity in world politics.

However, economically growing Asian countries such as China, India, Singapore, Vietnam and various South American
countries such as Brazil are all significantly influencing world politics. So it is clear that international politics is moving
towards multi polar again.

Then growing importance of non-state actors like NGO (Non-Governmental Organization), MNC (Multinational
Companies) etc, are also discussed in the field of International relations. 

International Relations as an academic discipline discusses the changing pattern of contemporary world.

As an Interdisciplinary Subject
All social science subjects are interdisciplinary in nature. International Relations also is an interdisciplinary field of study in
which other disciplines in social science such as history, economics, political science, philosophy, geography, culture, etc,
are interconnected.

State is the primary actor in IR

In the field of international politics State is the sole and unitary actor. The state has always been a major player in
international relations. The state’s behavior as a major driving force in international politics is also studied in international
relations.

National Interest and power are the core of IR

The protection of national interests is the main goal of the state. With this goal in mind, the state engages in relations with
other states and the national power of the state will be able to satisfy its national interests.

Thus, it is seen that the issues of national interest and the role of national power in fulfilling those interests are considered
as the core of IR.

Struggle for Power

According to Morgenthau, International politics is the struggle for power. I have already said that power is the means of
national interest. So power politics is the key theme of IR.

Continuous Interaction among Nation States

No state in the present world is self-sufficient. Every state is dependent on each other. Hence the need for
interconnectedness and that is possible only because of the interaction among different states.
International Relations also discuss the foreign policies of different states and how they behave each other.

Analytical and Empirical Study for Theory Building

International Relations uses analytical and empirical method as well for the theory building.

There are several theories in IR. For example, Idealism and Neo-Liberalism is the result of the analytical study, and
Realism and Neo-Realism are the result of an empirical study.

Scope of International Relations

The international community is the instrument of international relations. The unimaginable changes in the international
community over the past seventy years have drastically changed inter-state relations.

International relations as a distinct curriculum has followed that trend in international society since the 1930s. For this
reason, it is not possible to draw a permanent line on the scope of international relations.

In the discussion of the nature of international relations, you already get the idea that what the scope of international
relations. The scope of international relations are mentioned below-

Study of the behavior of States in International Politics

Just as when a nation builds good relations for the sake of its overall development, it becomes the subject of international
relations, just as when there is a conflict of interest, bitterness develops among itself and that too becomes part of
international relations.

Thus international relations consist of both cooperation and conflict. International relations are also a matter of forming
alliances and dealing with the crisis.

Role of Non-State Actors in International Field

The content of international relations does not revolve only around the activities of the state and its formal institutions. The
state is not the only active actor in the international community. There are many non-state actors whose activities affect
international relations.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs), European Economic Community, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, NATO,
SEATO, WARSAW PACT, ASEAN, Organization of American States, different terrorist organizations, Religious
Organizations are the examples of the non-state elements in international relations.

Question of War and Peace

Today, international relations are not free from the discussion of the determination to save mankind from war. What was
utopian in the past is becoming more and more realistic today.

The main purpose of establishing the United Nations is to ensure world peace and security. Large, and regional powers
are often exchanging views to create an atmosphere of peace and security. All kinds of contacts for the welfare of various
exchanges and globalization process in cultural and other fields are Gradually increasing. All this has become the subject
of international relations.

PUBLIC LAW

Public Law is concerned with the analysis of the actual behavior of legal decision-makers and the law-related
behavior of citizens, as well as with the study of legal and constitutional doctrine . It seeks to develop an
understanding of the role of law, legal theory and legal practice in the governmental process. The body politic, or the
people of a state, nation, or municipality. The word derives from the Latin publicus, meaning “pertaining to the people,
state, or community.” 2) Under the authority of the government or belonging and available to the people; not private. It
may refer to an entity, agency, or activity. What are the three primary types of public law? Public law consists of:
(1) constitutional law, (2) administrative law, (3) international public law

Public law refers to the relationship between individuals and the government. In the UK, public law is made up of
constitutional/administrative law, tax law and criminal law.

Why is public law important? What does it involve?

Public law is important because of the unequal relationship between the government and the public. The government is
the only body that can make decisions on the rights of individuals and they must act within the law. A citizen can ask for
judicial review if they are unhappy with a decision of an authoritative body.

Lawyers who are concerned with public law can specialise in various areas of law including constitutional/administrative
law, tax law and criminal law. These areas of law are slightly different. For example, if you worked in
constitutional/administrative law, you could be working alongside the NHS, local council or other governmental bodies.

Criminal lawyers work on all aspects of a case including investigation, liaising with police and appeals. There’s usually a
lot of paperwork involved with criminal law!

Break it down for me a little bit!

There are several theories as to why public law is different to private law. These have evolved over time, but it’s widely
regarded as a combination of the subjection theory and subject theory. The subjection theory suggests that public law
governs the relationship between the person and the state and private law governs relationships of individuals. The
subject theory suggests that if a person finds themselves in membership of a public body, public law applies.

The combination of these two theories results in public law being defined as a field where an actor is an authority with the
power to act unilaterally. If this authority is acting as a public entity, public law applies.

Some areas of law do not seem to fit into either public or private law. For example, employment law falls into both—the
employment contract is a private law matter, whereas health and safety in the workplace is a public law issue.