Period of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto

The Rise of Bhutto and Evolution of the Pakistan People’s Party

1. Bhutto was a typical Pakistani politician after power
a. Had a feudal background himself – father was a landholder turned politician
b. Was educated in the US and UK, became a lawyer and practiced for a while in Karachi
c. Joined politics during the time of Iskander Mirza
2. Bhutto’s Early Years in Politics
a. Mirza’s wife approached Bhutto’s wife (both were Persian) with an offer from Mirza
b. Joined Mirza’s government despite Mirza’s anti and non-constitutional role in the 1950s
c. Did not feel the need to resign when Ayub ousted Mirza – he continued with Ayub’s government
d. Rose to power and held important positions under Ayub including that of Foreign Minister
3. The Need to Approach the Leftists
a. Bhutto first tried to rise within the ranks of ML and become its spokesman
b. But the party’s General Secretary, Malik Khuda Bux Bucha blocked his rise
c. So Bhutto turned to the leftists who were already in a crisis
i. The state had cracked down on the Communist Party after the Rawalpindi Conspiracy in 1951
ii. Ayub himself had targeted the left
1. Leftist media organizations such as Pakistan Times were targeted
2. Traditional leftists like Faiz Ahmad Faiz were targeted
3. Unions were also targeted
iii. But four groups of the left still remained though leaderless and were not organized
1. Traditional left – remnants of the Communist Party e.g. Faiz
2. Rural left – wanted the collectivization of agrarian land
3. Socialist industrial labour – aimed to bring industry under workers’ control
4. Urban ultra-left – the intelligentsia working to restructure the society + economy
4. Beginnings of Bhutto the Socialist
a. Resigned from the government in 1967 when he knew that Ayub’s power was on the decline
b. His role was instrumental in the anti-Ayub agitation in 1967 – 69
c. He and Wali Khan toured all over Pakistan, campaigning against Ayub
d. He also built his credentials as a leftist when he favored Mujib initially during Agartala trials
5. Organization of the PPP as a Revolutionary Party
a. Was founded in 1967 at Mubashar Hasan’s residence in the presence of veteran leftists
b. The main aim of the party was declared to achieve a classless society through socialism
c. Bhutto associated himself with the laborers and peasants more and more
d. He even dressed up like a common man and delivered fiery speeches full of rhetoric
6. Deal with Yahya Khan
a. By the time Yahya took over, the situation was quite out of control
b. Yahya needed to coopt as many politicians and parties as possible from the left and the right
i. Mujib had proven himself unfit
ii. In Ayub’s RTCs, Mujib had proclaimed the 6-points to be non-negotiable
iii. So Yahya turned to Bhutto and asked him for conditions, which Bhutto laid down
1. Independent foreign policy (probably meant wrt civ-mil dynamics)
2. Dissolution of One Unit
3. General elections within a year (Bhutto was popular at that time)
iv. Yahya accepted Bhutto’s terms due to which the two clashed rarely
7. PPP’s Shift from Revolutionary to Electoral Mode: Enter the Feudals and Collateralization of the Left
a. Coopted the “influential conservatives”
i. ML leaders backed Bhutto’s PPP as they went with the flow
ii. Bhutto knew he would need the support of these notables
iii. This was because they could rein in a large number of votes due to their clientelism
b. Left wing of PPP was alarmed and they passed a resolution to keep PPP free of feudals
i. Bhutto suspended the leader of PPP’s left wing
 ii. This leader showed greater tolerance for the feudals in the future
8. PPP’s Performance in the 1970 Elections
a. Did not field any candidate in the Eastern wing
b. Won a majority in the West Pakistan, and secured a large number of seats in Punjab (ML’s backing)
c. Unfortunate events transpired in 1970 and 1971, prolonging Yahya’s martial law

Democratization of the Regime: From Martial Law to Constitutional and Civilian Supremacy
1. Bhutto as the Civilian CMLA
a. Yahya was asked by the military to resign and hand over power to Bhutto
b. This was done on 20 December 1971 and Bhutto took over as the only civilian CMLA of Pakistan
c. Nur ul Amin was appointed the Vice President – the only one Pakistan had – on 20 December 1971
2. Asma Jillani Case: Challenging the Martial Law
3. End of the Martial Law and Enforcement of an Interim Constitution
4. The Constitution of 1973
5. Civilian Supremacy

Bhutto’s Progressivism
1. Civilian Supremacy Restored: Collateralization of the Military
a. Gul Hassan Khan and Tikka Khan: Nominal Musical Chairs of the Military?
i. Bhutto appointed General Gul Hassan Khan as the C-in-C on 20 December 1971
1. Gul Hassan accepted the post contingent on non-interference in military matters
2. By Bhutto and his ministers
ii. But Bhutto was quick to assert his mastery and suspended Gul Hassan a few months later
1. A total of 29 military officers were suspended
2. Due to their role in the 1971 debacle
3. This was supposedly revealed by Hammod ur Rehman Commission Report
4. But the suspensions preceded the submission of the report
5. And the suspensions were selective – not all involved in fall of Dhaka were suspended
6. Their selectivity was natural – Bhutto himself was also probably mentioned in the report
iii. General Tikka Khan was appointed and he remained loyal to Bhutto
b. C-in-C renamed to COAS
i. Tikka Khan was essentially the first COAS appointed on 3 March 1972
ii. Change in title was accompanied by change in powers as well
1. Civilians became in charge of defense strategy though the COAS oversaw + coordinated
2. PM and COAS jointly decided transfers and promotions for Brigadier-Gen & higher ranks
c. Appointment of Tikka (a Bhutto loyalist) and the change in powers of COAS paved the way for
i. Rectification of ethnic imbalance in the military
1. Had been dominated by the Pashtuns and Potowaris of Punjab
2. Bhutto sought to change this
ii. PM’s Decision Making Power
1. PM’s decision in matters of defense and nuclear policies was to be the final decision
2. Civil-military committees such as the DCC were formed to assist the PM
d. Articles 6 and 245 of the Constitution of Pakistan 1973
i. Article 6 stipulated that any person would be found guilty of high treason if:
1. He abrogated or subverted or conspired to abrogate or subvert the constitution
2. By use of force or any other unconstitutional means
ii. Article 245 had two effects:
1. Made the military subordinate to the civil federal government
2. Restricted its role to the defense of Pakistan and to maintain law and order
iii. Essentially, it made military’s interference in politics, unconstitutional
e. Why the military went along with this?
i. The army had been discredited by the separation of East Pakistan
ii. Defense budget eroded but was still at 44% in 1977
 iii. Size of the military also grew to more than 500,000 troops
f. Alternative Institutions: FSF and FIA (vs. Army and ISI)
i. These are what irked the military
ii. Federal Security Force (FSF) was formed in October 1972
1. It was a security force that answered to the central government personified by Bhutto
2. Was created to assist the police in its law enforcement duties
3. But the military saw it as a rival organization, as its numbers grew to 18,500 men
iii. Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) was formed in January 1975
1. Was formulated primarily for criminal investigation
2. Started taking corruption cases especially those involving Bhutto’s political opponents
3. ISI saw the FIA as a rival organization with a purpose to contain its growing influence
4. Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) had been created in 1948
a. This was done due to the dismal performance of MI in the 1948 Kashmir War
b. Initially it was an apolitical organization but Ayub established its political cell
c. It was then used to keep an eye on politicians
d. ISI played a vital role in East Pakistan in 1970 – 71
2. Restoring the Military’s Self-Confidence
a. A strong and confident military that answered to civilian authority was essential
b. Bhutto had achieved the latter part right in the beginning, but he also took steps for the first part
i. Set Pakistan on the nuclear path with a sense of militaristic nationalism in January 1972
ii. Created an Internal Security wing of the ISI
iii. In the 1970s, ISI came to be headed for the first time by a Lieutenant General (3 star General)
3. Supremacy of Representative Elected Civilians: Collateralization of the Bureaucracy
a. The “Naukarshahi” (bureaucratic rule) system was also blamed for the 1971 disaster
i. Thus the “steel frame” fell in disfavor with the general public, allowing Bhutto to subordinate it
ii. 1300 civil servants were removed from service initially by Bhutto
b. Statutory guarantees given to the civil servants were no longer there in the 1973 Constitution
i. Thus far they had been the untouchables so far as it came to civilian representatives
ii. Civil servants were immune to democratic accountability and responsibility
iii. This was changed by Bhutto
c. Civil Service Act 1973 was promulgated to regulate issues related to the civil service
d. Elected representatives were made supreme over the appointed bureaucrats
4. Restoring the Nation’s Self-Confidence: Foreign Policy Measures
a. Simla Agreement 1972 – a remarkable diplomatic success
i. No great concessions on Kashmir as such besides bilateral discussions
ii. Cease-fire line became the LOC
iii. Return of the 90,000 POWs – recognition of Bangladesh was contingent on this
b. OIC Summit 1974 held at Lahore – a show of strength within the Muslim world
c. Bangladesh was recognized as an equally sovereign and independent state at the OIC Summit
5. Defusing the Language Crisis in Sindh, 1973
6. Labour Export Policy
a. With burgeoning relations with the Muslim world, the regime encouraged export of labour to the ME
b. B/w 1971 and 1977, almost 1 million Pakistanis got work in Middle Eastern countries
c. This had two large impacts:
i. Remittances served the country well (trade deficit and debts were increasing)
ii. Rural workers brought back money and technology, changing rural socio-economic structures
1. Common man in rural areas emerged out of abject poverty and dependence
2. The rural patron-client relations weakened (not eliminated, they still exist)
7. Economic Reforms Order 3 January 1972: Nationalization of the Economy
a. Nationalization agenda though leftist/socialist in nature, had multiple aims
i. Bring to heel, the “22 families” and to reduce the wealth gap
ii. Revive the economy and finances after the 1971 crisis
iii. Gain political support of the feudals by turning them into “rurban capitalists”
 1. They had supported Bhutto in the 1970 elections
2. To ensure their support in the 1977 elections, Bhutto had to make concessions
3. So he allowed them to manage industrial and financial sectors, allowing urban influence
4. Damage done to their influence by Labor Export Policy had to be compensated for
b. The policy, initiated with industry, was extended to the financial sector
c. What the policy entailed:
i. Industry and financial institutions were still privately owned
ii. But the owners could not sell their companies or its shares
iii. Management was appointed by the government – so Bhutto came to depend on bureaucrats
iv. Unions were strengthened and reorganized on representative line via better electoral system
v. 2 – 4% of the profits had to be distributed among the laborers
d. However, he was able to bring inflation which had been at 25% in 1971, down to 6% in 1976
e. But this was not to last as the Rupee had to be devalued later on
8. Nationalization of Education

The Narrow Limits of Progressivism

1. Adverse Effects of the Policy of Nationalization
a. Instead of stimulating demand at a time of crisis, the government took over the supply
i. Inefficiency due to a lack of profit motive led to low productivity and stagnation
ii. Private investments decreased in absolute (25 – 30%) and proportional terms (1960s)
b. Many business owners chose exile and others invested their capital abroad
i. Regime had to ensure that foreign investments were not discouraged
ii. So a bill was passed by the NA, guaranteeing that returns on them would not be nationalized
c. Such a socialist leaning policy was incompatible with the need of time
i. Regime had to turn to the IMF due to the debt crisis
ii. Under the US pressure, Rupee had to be devalued by 13%
2. Half Hearted and Land Reforms, 11 March 1972
a. Ayub had placed a ceiling of land holdings of 500 and 1000 acres of irrigated and non-irrigated land
b. Agrarian advancements had allowed productivity to increase, so Bhutto brought the ceiling lower
i. 250 acres of irrigated land
ii. 500 acres of non-irrigated land
c. Surplus land was to be sold to other smaller farmers so that more people could benefit
d. Furthermore, tenants were given the first right of purchase by these reforms
e. However, a few loop holes (probably left deliberately) were exploited fully by the feudal land holders
i. Only poor quality land was redistributed
ii. Tenants were evicted before the reforms were passed into law
iii. Surplus land was then transferred to members of extended family
iv. At times, land was transferred to tenants and then leased back on extremely long-term leases
v. Ownership of tractor and tube wells etc. allowed land in excess of the ceiling limits to be held
f. The reforms were used as a political tool
i. It was used against Khan Abdul Wali Khan of NAP in NWFP
ii. Only place where reforms were implemented: 3 districts of Charsadda, Mardan & Swabi (NWFP)
g. Land Reforms of 1972 were less effective than those of 1959
i. 0.6 million acres of land were redistributed as compared to almost 1 million acres
ii. 60,000 people benefitted as compared to almost 180,000 people
3. Conservative Policies and Rifts within the PPP
a. A number of leftists left the PPP due to
i. Half-hearted nationalization that was later abandoned
ii. Bhutto’s pro-feudalism policies to gain votes
b. Nationalization also worked to the feudals’ advantage
i. Previously, their interests were limited to rural areas mostly
ii. Nationalization made them in charge of high value addition economic activities
c. The New Labour Policy of 1972 allowed greater control of labour: repressive brutal tactics were adopted
 d. This was exemplified by the Feroz Sultan incident on 7 June 1972
4. From Civilian Supremacy to a Personalized and Centralized Authoritarian Rule
a. His speeches made this clear early on
i. Admired explicitly, the “free administration” of Dubai and Singapore
ii. And expressed hate for Westminster style debate oriented democracy
b. Bhutto also desired for a Presidential constitution
i. Had advocated for it during Ayub’s time
ii. Seemed that he would use victory in 1977 elections to revise the 1973 constitution
c. Containment of provinces and provincial parties: strong center over provincial autonomy
i. First, he had coopted the religious elite mainly, the NAP and JUI in the Tripartite Agreement
1. Consent of the concerned PA was necessary for NA’s appointment of Governors
2. NAP and JUI would have a free hand in their provinces, for their support for PPP in NA
3. PPP would form a government at the center and in Punjab and Sindh
4. NAP-JUI governments would be formed in NWFP and Balochistan
ii. But then there was a falling out and an operation was launched in Blaochistan
1. Clashes on socio-economic issues led to dismissal of both NAP-JUI govts. In 1973
2. An uprising started in Balochistan, while Wali Khan on NAP was arrested and imprisoned
3. Bhutto called in the military, thus reinforcing its role in political issues
4. The military operation in Balochistan lasted for 5 years and ended in 1978
d. Tendencies for a personalized authoritarianism
i. Collateralization of the military and civil service showed this
1. Civil Service Act 1973 allowed politicians to exert pressure on the civil servants
2. This laid the ground for a politicized civil service with a propensity for red tape
ii. Concentration of power within the PPP also showed this
1. He used the leftists to rise to power initially
2. Then he coopted the influential conservatives at the expense of the leftists
iii. He used the PPO 1960 as harshly against the media as Ayub had and also targeted English press

The Fall of Bhutto

1. The 1977 Elections: Bhutto vs. Establishment backed PNA
a. Bhutto’s repressive measures earned him much opposition from multiple circles
i. The Islamists were against him due to the ANP-JUI issues and due to his socialism
ii. The business class was also against him due to their sufferings under nationalization
1. This business class included Nawaz Sharif and Ch. Shujat Hussain
2. The threw their support behind the PML led by Pir Pagara
iii. The murder of Ahmad Raza Khan Kasuri led to opposition from even within the PPP
1. Ahmad Raza Kasri was among the founders of PPP
2. It was alleged that Bhutto had used the FSF to target him
3. But his father got killed in the crossfire
4. Kasuri named Bhutto as a suspect in the FIR at Ichra thanna Lahore
iv. The leftists were against him due to Bhutto’s pro-feudalism policies
b. However, the PPP drew wide support as well from all types of socio-political groups
i. The leftists were not all against the PPP specially after two “emergency” measures
1. Labor reforms of 4 January 1977
2. Land reforms of 5 January 1977
a. Ceiling on irrigated land: 100 acres
b. Ceiling on non-irrigated land: 200 acres
ii. He drew support from the influential conservatives as well
c. Bhutto announced elections earlier than they were scheduled
i. This was done on 7 January 1977 to give no time to the opposition to organize itself
ii. Elections were announced for 7 March 1977
iii. But by 11 January, the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) had been formed
iv. PNA was an alliance of 9 parties, most likely backed by the security establishment
 d. Elections were held on 7 March 1977
i. PPP secured 155 out of 200 seats in the NA while PNA secured only 36
ii. From Punjab alone, the PPP won 107 seats which accounted for 93% of the Punjabi seats in NA
iii. Results for provincial elections were no different
e. PNA’s Allegations of Rigging
i. It was assumed that Bhutto has sought a 2/3 majority to revise the constitution
ii. Revision to make it Presidential
iii. PNA called for a general strike on 11 March 1977 that paralyzed major cities
2. Bhutto’s Reaction: From Appeasement to Martial Law
a. Appeasement of the Islamists
i. The process that began in 1974 with the second amendment, came to the forefront
ii. Bhutto announced on 17 April 1977 that Sharia would be the law of the land
1. Alcohol would be banned
2. Gambling would become illegal
3. Friday would replace Sunday as the weekly day off
iii. But this was too little too late o he had to resort to authoritarian tactics
1. Section 144 of CrPC was implemented to prohibit the gathering of more than 5 people
2. Opposition leaders were arrested
3. Emergency was declared and martial law was imposed on 19 April 1977
iv. Judiciary declared the martial law illegal on 2 June 1977, forcing Bhutto to negotiate with PNA
v. Bhutto also asked the military for its help to reign in the opposition
3. Operation Fairplay: Zia’s Coup and Martial Law
a. When Bhutto and PNA were about to agree on a settlement, the military intervened
b. 11 PPP leaders including Bhutto and 9 PNA leaders (to show neutrality) were arrested on 5 July 1977
c. Two days later, Zia proclaimed emergency, dissolved the assemblies and imposed martial law
d. He promised nonetheless, that it was a temporary situation and elections would be held within 90 days