The Immune System

The immune system:
Immunity has been defined by Sir Macfarlane Bernel as: The capacity to recognise the intrusion
of material foreign to the body and to mobilise cells and cell products to help remove that
particular sort of foreign material with greater speed and effectiveness.
The importance of the immune system:
To defend the body against disease causing agents
Basic definitions.
An antibody is a molecule synthesised by an animal in response to the presence of foreign
substances for which it has a high affinity. Each antibody is a protein molecules called
immunoglobulin (formerly globulin).
The name antigen or immunogen is given to the foreign material that causes antibody
formation. Antigen may a protein or polysaccharide structure of surface of microbial organism
or as a free molecule.
Types of immune systems
1. Cell mediated immune system

It carried out by T-cell produced in bone marrows and mature in thymus where they undergo a
complex “education” process without which they cannot take part in the immune response.
Cell mediated immunity performs the following functions

- the destruction of infected cells by cytotoxic T cells, or the destruction of intracellular
pathogens by macrophages
- Activation of macrophages
- Stimulation of B-cells to produce antibodies
The activation of naive T cells in response to antigen, and their subsequent proliferation and
differentiation, constitutes a primary immune response.
Here if an antigen is recognised by a T cell, the T cell divided to form a clone of cells, all of
which can identify and react with the antigen
2. Hormonal response
It is carried out by B-cell that produce antibodies
The antibodies adhere to the surface of bacteria and speed up their phagocytosis, or combine
with and neutralise toxins produced by microorganisms.
Types of immunity:
(a) Natural passive immunity.
Preformed antibodies from one individual are passed into another individual of the same
species. For example, protective antibodies from a mother pass into the fetus through the
placenta or to the baby through the colostrum.
(b) Acquired passive immunity.

Here antibodies which have been performed in one individual are extracted and then injected into
the blood of another individual which may or may not be of the same species. For example,
specific antibodies used for combating tetanus, and diphtheria are cultured in horsed and later
injected into humans. This type of immunity is again short lived.
(c) Natural active immunity.

The body manufactures its own antibodies when exposed to an infectious agent. Because
memory cells produced on exposure of the first infection, are able to stimulate the production of
massive quantities of antibody when exposed to the same antigen again, this type of immunity is
most effective and generally persists for a long time, sometimes even for life.
Acquired active immunity:

This is achieved by injecting (or less commonly administering orally) small amounts of antigen,
called the vaccine into the body of an individual.
The whole process is called vaccination or immunisation.
If the whole organism is administered it should be safe because the organism is either killed or
attenuated. This ensures that the individual does not contact the disease itself, but is stimulated
to manufacture antibodies against the antigen. Often a second, booster injection is given and this
stimulates a much quicker production of protects the individual from the disease for considerable
time. Several types of vaccine are currently in use.
(1.) Toxoids:
Exotoxins produced by tetanus and diphtheria bacilli are detoxified with formaldehyde, yet their
antigen properties remain unimpaired. Therefore vaccination with toxoid will stimulate antibody
production without producing symptoms of the disease.
(2.) Killed organism:
Some dead viruses and bacteria are able to provoke a normal antigen - antibody response and are
used for immunisation purposes.
(3.) Attenuated organism:
Modified but living organism are infected into the body. They are able to multiply without
producing disease. Attenuation may be achieved by culturing the organism at higher
temperatures than normal or by adding specific chemical to the culture medium for long period
of time. Attenuated vaccines for tuberculosis, measles, rubella and poliomyentis are now is
general use.
Problems arising from the immune system:
Occasionally, the immune system over react to a harmless foreign substance that enters the body,
and sometimes it responds when we don’t want it to, such as when foreign tissue is introduced
into the body in transplant surgery.
(i) Allergy:Allergies such as hay fever are caused by excessive immune response or
hypersensivity to a variety of agents such as grass pollen, cat for fungus spores and certain
drugs or as a result of an insect bite.
(ii) Rejection of tissues in transplantation surgery occurs when the body immune system treats
the transplanted organ as foreign
(iii) For success the tissues of the donor and recipient must be as genetically similar as possible,
which is why rejection is never seen between identical twins.
(iv) Fatal reactions when blood of incompatible blood groups or rhesus factors are transfused.
Chemotherapy and antibiotics.

This is the administration of chemicals, substances, natural or synthetic, that kills or prevents the
reproduction of microorganism. They include antibiotics, and fungal and antiviral agents
AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Aids is a disorder which impairs the body’s T lymphocyte cell immune system in humans, in that
the virus replicates within the T4 or “helper” cells. Thus these cells can no longer “help” or
induce other T cells celled killers, to fight the invader. The body’s immune system breaks down,
leaving the patient exposed to a variety of diseases.
It is important to realise, however, that infection with the virus (HIV) does not necessarily results
in AIDS. As with other diseases, some people remain symptomless and are therefore termed
carrier.
Causative agent:
AIDS is caused a RNA virus now known as human immune deficiency virus, HIV.
Transmission:
1. Intimate sexual contact.
(a) Homosexuality.
(b) Heterosexuality.
2. Infected blood entering the blood streams.

(a) AIDS can be contracted by intravenous drug users practising self-injection by means of
unsterilized needles.
(b) Transfusion of injected blood.
(c) Close contact between infected and non-infected people through cuts and open
wounds has been known to pass on the virus.
(d) Other ways: An infected pregnant woman can pass on virus to her baby through the
placenta, at birth or through breast feeding during sucking.
Signs & symptoms and nature of the disease

The signs and symptoms of HIV are those due to opportunistic infections, such as tuberculosis,
cough, fungal infections, etc.
Test for the disease.

Testing for presence of antibodies against the virus in blood.
Treatment.
By use of antiviral drugs
Prevention.
There are some abviuos precautions which can be followed in trying to prevent the disease.
1. The use of barriers (condoms) during intercourse can prevent the virus from infecting
sex organs through blood or semen.
2. The use of one sexual partner and the absence of promiscuity will clearly reduce the
risk of infection.
3. Screening of blood for transfusion purpose.

4. Use of sterilised syringes and needles when delivering parental drugs.
5. Education, about the disease has an important part it play; particularly in reassuring
the public at the real risks.

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The immune system:

The importance of the immune system:

To defend the body against disease causing agents

Types of immune systems

1. Cell mediated immune system

Cell mediated immunity performs the following functions

It is carried out by B-cell that produce antibodies

(b) Acquired passive immunity.

(c) Natural active immunity.

Acquired active immunity:

The whole process is called vaccination or immunisation.

(2.) Killed organism:

(3.) Attenuated organism:

Problems arising from the immune system:

Chemotherapy and antibiotics.

AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

2. Infected blood entering the blood streams.

Signs & symptoms and nature of the disease

Test for the disease.

By use of antiviral drugs

3. Screening of blood for transfusion purpose.

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