Ayim 

et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-022-00364-7 Agriculture & Food Security

REVIEW Open Access

Adoption of ICT innovations

in the agriculture sector in Africa: a review
of the literature
Claudia Ayim1, Ayalew Kassahun1*  , Chris Addison2 and Bedir Tekinerdogan1 

Abstract 
According to the latest World Economic Forum report, about 70% of the African population depends on agriculture
for their livelihood. This makes agriculture a critical sector within the African continent. Nonetheless, agricultural pro-
ductivity is low and food insecurity is still a challenge. This has in recent years led to several initiatives in using ICT to
improve agriculture productivity. However, a systematic review of the evidence categorized by the various aspects of
the topic is lacking. This study investigates the state of the art of ICT innovations within the agriculture sector in Africa.
To achieve this, we reviewed the literature published from 2010 to 2019 in which ICT innovations were discussed. Our
search in four major literature databases yielded 779 papers, of which we selected 23 primary studies for a detailed
analysis. The analysis shows that the main ICT technologies adopted are text and voice-based services targeting
mobile phones. The analysis also shows that radios are still widely used in disseminating agriculture information to
rural farmers, while computers are mainly used by researchers. Though the mobile-based services were aimed at
improving access to accurate and timely agriculture information, the literature review indicates that the adoption of
the services is constrained by poor technological infrastructure, inappropriate ICT policies, and low level of user skills,
especially of farmers, in using the technologies.
Keywords:  ICT innovation, Africa, Agriculture, Systematic literature review

Introduction production). Agriculture, however, remains a signifi-

The agriculture sector in Africa is less developed and cant sector within the continent. It is the main source of
food insecurity is still a challenge. Though the continent income for the majority of its rural population. The agri-
has enormous natural resources, and the agricultural culture sector accounts for almost two-thirds of the total
potential is high, many countries are still net importers employment and about 75% of domestic trade [2]. With
of food. An African competitiveness report [1] revealed most of the rural population depending on agriculture
that the continent imports about US$25 billion worth of for their livelihoods, the growth and development of the
food crops annually. According to the authors, the level sector are critical.
of value addition and processing of agricultural com- The growth and development of the agriculture sec-
modities is also low and post-harvest losses are high (in tor can be achieved through the effective deployment
sub-Saharan Africa averaging about 30 percent of total of Information Communication Technology (ICT). ICT
has been a significant contributor to the growth and
socio-economic development in countries, where ICT is
*Correspondence: ayalew.kassahun@wur.nl deployed effectively [3]. The effective integration of ICT
1
Information Technology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The in the agriculture sector in developed countries has led
Netherlands to tremendous improvement in agriculture value chain
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 2 of 16

efficiency and productivity, while ICT uptake in agricul- as the main ICT innovations in developing countries
ture in sub-Saharan Africa took a sluggish start and a with the mobile phone being the preferred technology,
major transformation of the sector has yet to take place. especially in rural areas. The authors further assert that
In recent years, efforts to transform the sector have led appropriate ICT design solutions that take social, as well
to the propagation of several mobile-based applications as technical issues into account, are still scarce. Similarly,
and services. A recent digitalisation report [4] revealed the findings by Lwoga and Sangeda [10] revealed that
that 33 million smallholder farmers in Africa are cur- there is limited use of user-centred design research in the
rently reached by digital applications as of 2019 and this development of ICT applications.
is projected to reach 200 million by 2030. These applica- Previous studies, such as by Zewge and Dittrich, have
tions are diversified, targeting advisory and information addressed in detail the different theoretical underpin-
services, market linkages, financial access, and supply nings and the relevant ICT disciplines involved in the
chain management, with advisory and information ser- topic of ICT innovations in Africa. We were, however,
vices dominating the market [4]. Bilali and Allahyari [5] unable to find a systematic literature review that explic-
assert that ICT-based innovations can improve rural live- itly identified essential aspects of the topic such as the
lihoods and empower smallholder farmers in developing stakeholders, the sectors, and the challenges. This study,
counties by enhancing their connectivity and increasing therefore, aims, to assess the current state of adoption
access to accurate and timely agriculture information. of ICT innovations within the agriculture domain in
For example, Esoko (https://​esoko.​com/, accessed on 12 Africa and provide additional insights into the challenges
July 2021) which is a technology platform in a number of encountered in the adoption of ICT. To achieve this, we
African countries uses a combination of mobile and web performed a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to make
services to improve access to extension services and mar- a comprehensive and rigorous review of the existing liter-
ket information. This reduces the costs of searching for ature. The review of literature on ICT innovation within
market information and provides real-time weather and the continent is valuable to contribute to the existing
extension advice to farmers, which helps farmers to make body of knowledge.
informed decisions.
Innovative ICT solutions ranging from computers, Related work
radio, television, and mobile phones to advanced tech- ICT innovation is crucial for the agricultural sector of
nologies such as blockchain, artificial intelligence, cloud Africa and as such several studies were conducted on the
computing, Internet of Things (IoT) and big data analyt- topic over the past several years. In 2011, Aleke et al. [11]
ics are among the current trends [6]. These disruptive studied the adoption of ICT innovations (such as access
ICT trends hold the potential to contribute to sustain- to the internet, computers, and online portals) by small
ability transitions in agriculture by increasing efficiency, agribusinesses operating in indigenous communities in
enhancing transparency, and traceability [5, 6]. Remote Nigeria. They found out that social imperatives play a
sensing using satellite technologies, and geographical crucial role among indigenous communities. Thus, the
information systems can be used to increase agricultural right balance must be maintained between the effort
output [7]. For example, monitoring and timely informa- put in the design of ICT solutions and addressing social
tion gathering of soil data can help in determining the factors, such as language and traditional life, to enhance
physical and chemical properties of the soil, and hence the willingness to adopt ICT innovations. In 2012, Lee
the type of crop that can be grown to ensure maximum et  al. [12] identified co‐innovation as a new innovation
crop yield. Furthermore, data analytics can be used to paradigm, where diverse stakeholders from the busi-
provide predictive insights in farming operations, drive ness ecosystem contribute to new ideas and approaches
real-time operational decisions, and redesign business for generating new solutions. Co-innovation includes,
processes [8]. With ICT recognized as a significant con- according to the authors, engagement, shared experience,
tributor to the growth and development of agriculture, its and co‐creation. Their findings are consistent with the
application in recent years has gained increasing atten- findings of Aleke et  al. who concluded that strong gov-
tion in many developing countries. ernment support and active social networks within and
There are few literature reviews done on ICT innova- outside one’s  own circle support the adoption of ICT
tions in developing countries. A systematic mapping innovations.
study by Zewge & Dittrich [9] conducted to describe the The need for addressing concerns related to climate
state of the art of ICT for agriculture research in devel- change, food security, and rural livelihood has been found
oping countries reviewed journal and conference papers by past studies as drivers for ICT innovation in develop-
published between 2006 to 2014. The study identified ing countries. ICT innovations are considered to be part
mobile phones, computers, telecentres, and the internet of climate-smart solutions that provide improved food
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 3 of 16

security and rural livelihoods. Scherr et al. [13] describe phones and their role in delivering timely, convenient,
various large-scale programs that were supported by and cost-effective (in comparison to using traditional
international organizations, such as the Great Green Wall agricultural extension services) weather and market
Initiative, which used comprehensive regional land use information to farmers in Ghana is conducted by Etwire
management information systems. The authors described et  al. [16]. They found, however, that farmers’ decisions
the use of ICT solutions such as remote sensing technol- to adopt mobile phone-based weather and market infor-
ogy and diverse databases (such as land use and other mation is significantly influenced by their contacts with
social, economic, and ecological information) to support agricultural extension agents and farmer-to-farmer
multi-stakeholder planning, governance, spatial targeting extension services, which supports Aleke et  al. observa-
of investments, and monitoring. tion that social imperatives play an important role. Simi-
More recently, Zewge and Dittrich [9] performed a sys- larly, and more recently, Mujeyi et  al. [17] have studied
tematic mapping study of journal and conference papers the impact of the adoption of personal ICT gadgets, such
published between 2006 and 2014 and observed that the as radios, phones, and televisions in relation to the adop-
rapid proliferation of ICT in the developing world has tion climate smart agriculture. Their findings indicate
been considered as an opportunity for supporting rural that the adoption of climate smart agriculture and access
communities. Besides, the authors also observed that to information through radio, TV, and mobile phones,
only a few of the scientific publications are related to ICT have a positive impact on the welfare of farmers and rec-
for agriculture though some African countries (such as ommend that access to timely information and forecasts
Kenya and Uganda) have achieved a good level of adop- as an essential aspect of ensuring the welfare of house-
tion of ICT innovation among their farming communi- holds. The adoption of ICT innovations is also found to
ties. This fact contrasts significantly with the fact that be crucial in maximizing farm-level uptake and diffusion
more than 80% of the labor force is engaged in agricul- of other innovations such as biological control innova-
ture. In a similar study, Lwoga and Sangeda [10] reviewed tions [18].
existing SLR studies published on ICT and development The effects of policy related issues, particularly those
between January 1990 and July 2017. Their review of related to tariffs, on the trade of African agricultural food
reviews indicates that there is limited evidence on the products were studied by Santeramo and Lamonaca [19,
long‐term contribution of ICT use on livelihoods, inclu- 20]. Policy choices imposed by importing countries, such
siveness, wellbeing, and freedom in developing countries, as tariffs, require African exporters to use ICT systems
suggesting the need for further study on the appropriate that enable them to provide the required transparency
and sustainable use of ICT for development. A review information. The authors describe how the lack of such a
study that attempted to address the lack of a robust theo- capacity has a trade-impeding effect.
retical basis is done by Molina-Maturano et al. [14]. They Bahn et  al. [21] and Klerkx et  al. [22] did extensive
studied constraint-based innovations used for promoting reviews of the literature on the potential of digital tech-
sustainable development among the poor by reviewing nologies to address major social challenges related to
the relevant literature from 2007 to 2019. They high- agriculture and food systems. Bahn et  al. reviewed the
lighted the importance of ICT innovations for sustain- role of digital solutions in improving sustainability in the
able development and the need for further research on Middle East and North Africa. They found out that at the
the integration of the diverse popular frameworks used time of their research the adoption of digital agriculture
for studying this topic. is led by high-value agricultural products targeting the
Less recent than the works of [9] and [10] is the sur- domestic and export markets to nearby countries. The
vey conducted in 2010 across many countries (and across general rate of adoption of digital agriculture was found
2095 households, 108 villages spread over 15 sites in 12 to be at an early stage. Clearly, the main drivers for the
countries of West and East Africa and South Asia) by adoption of digital technologies turned out to be eco-
Förch et al. [15]. The research survey focused on identi- nomic sustainability. The authors proposed that policy
fying adaptation and mitigation practices, technologies, makers need to foster the adoption of those technologies
and policies for food systems that are pro-poor. They that support social environmental sustainability.
shared important “lessons learned” on how to obtain Klerkx et  al. reviewed several social science scientific
baseline data for rural populations in agricultural sys- articles to study the effect of the latest ICT technolo-
tems, which indicates that the study of innovations in gies, such as big data, the internet of things, augmented
general faces the lack of usable and quality data. reality, robotics, AI, and blockchain on social, economic,
As newer technologies appear, the research on ICT and institutional dynamics in the agriculture sector.
innovations targeted the latest developments. An exam- They identified grouped the literature on the adoption of
ple of such a study targeting the rapid growth of mobile digital technologies in agriculture around the following
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 4 of 16

thematic clusters: use and adaptation, farmer identity RQ1. What are the main ICT technologies used within
and skills, power and ethics, knowledge, and econom- the agriculture domain?
ics and management. They identified four thematic areas RQ2. Who were the agriculture stakeholders identified
that they consider as poorly which include the conceptu- in the studies?
alization of digital agriculture from broader social, cyber- RQ3. Which African countries have applied ICT
physical and ecological systems, and policy processes of technologies?
the digitalization of agriculture. RQ4. What are the agricultural domains considered for
The results of these studies indicate that more detailed ICT innovation?
research is needed that target the various aspects of the RQ5. What are the frameworks used in the studies?
adoption of ICT innovations in the agricultural sectors of RQ6. What are the challenges in ICT adoption?
Africa.
Search strategy
Materials and methods The search strategy was defined by explaining the search
The review protocol proposed by Kitchenham and Char- scope, search method, and search string. The search
ters [23] was followed in this study as shown in Fig.  1. scope constitutes the year of publication and the venue
The remainder of this section discusses our methodology of publication. In terms of publication year, the search
in more detail. focused on papers published from 2010 up to the time
the research was conducted, which is February 2019;
Research questions however, this scope was applied at the study selection
In this paper, we are interested in investigating empirical criteria stage. In terms of the venue of publication, the
studies on the current state of adoption of ICT innova- following well-known databases were used to search for
tions within the agriculture sector in Africa. We reviewed the targeted research papers: Scopus, ScienceDirect, IBI/
the existing literature per specific aspects such as where Inform, and Wiley online. We searched for literature
the ICT innovations were applied, the agricultural using both automated and manual methods. The auto-
domains for which the ICT innovations were used, and mated search was conducted by searching in the selected
what challenges were encountered, and thereby address databases using a pre-defined search string. The search
the current gap in the existing reviews of the literature. string was constructed using keywords from the research
To achieve this objective, the following research ques- questions and the synonyms of the keywords. The search
tions were defined: string was then improved by conducting a pilot search.
The resulting search string is as follows: (ICT OR digitali-
zation OR digitalisation) AND (Africa OR "Sub-Saharan
Africa") AND (agriculture OR "agri-food") AND ("inno-
vation model" OR "innovation framework"). Since Wiley
online and ABI/INFORM provided limited results, we
adapted the search string slightly by adding farming in
the third group of keywords to retrieve potentially rele-
vant papers. The manual search was performed using the
snowball method. We looked at papers referenced by and
papers that refer to the primary studies selected through
the automated search.
The result of the overall search process after applying
the search queries is given in Table 1.

Study selection criteria

We detailed our study selection criteria to serve as a
way of reducing the number of studies while retaining
relevant studies of interest. A set of criteria (exclusion
criteria) was applied to the identified papers to exclude
the papers that do not correspond to the purpose of the
study. The exclusion criteria used in the study are pre-
sented in Table 2. The exclusion criteria were applied to
Fig. 1  Review protocol used in our study ( Adapted from the 779 papers obtained from the automatic and man-
Kitchenham and Charters [23]) ual search. This was done by first reading the title and
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 5 of 16

Table 1  Overview of literature search results main categories based on the factors that could bias the
Source Retrieveda Includedb Selectedc Method
results, namely: reporting, relevance, rigor, and cred-
ibility. First, the quality of the reporting was analysed
Scopus 106 12 7 Automatic based on the aim, clarity, and coherence of the studies.
ScienceDirect 132 5 4 Automatic Then, the issue of rigor was judged based on the extent to
Wiley Online 206 5 5 Automatic which the studies provide value for research and practice.
ABI/INFORM 322 4 4 Automatic The relevance of the studies was also assessed according
Other channels 13 3 3 Manual to how thorough and complete all the aspects that the
Total 779 28 23 paper promised to answer were answered. Finally, cred-
a
Papers retrieved through automated and manual search ibility is assessed according to the extent to which the
b
Papers remaining after applying the exclusion criteria findings and the conclusions of the studies are meaning-
c
Papers remaining after applying both the exclusion and the quality assessment ful and logical. The answers to the quality checklist ques-
criteria tions were deployed on a numerical scale numbered with
0 for "no", 0.5 for "somewhat" and 1 for "yes" with regards
to how well the paper answers the questions asked. After
Table 2  Exclusion criteria reading the full text of the 28 papers and applying the
No. Criteria quality checklist, 23 papers were extracted based on their
good quality scores. The detailed scores of the quality
SC1 Paper is published before 2010
checklist are presented in Appendix A.
SC2 Paper is not written in English
SC3 The full text of the paper is not available
Data extraction
SC4 Paper does not relate to the agriculture domain
The selected primary studies that we reviewed are listed
SC5 The abstract does not discuss any ICT innova-
tions and/framework in Table  4. At this stage, a data extraction form was
SC6 Duplicate publication from multiple sources developed to accurately extract data from the primary
studies. Pilot data extraction was performed and all the
fields relevant for addressing our research questions were
Table 3  Quality assessment criteria for identified primary studies agreed upon. The data extraction form is available in B.
This form contains 15 elements, which include standard
No. Question
information such as authors, title, publication year, docu-
Q1 Is the aim of the study clearly stated? ment type, and data repository. It also contains elements
Q2 Is the scope and context of the research clear? needed for answering the research questions like the con-
Q3 Is the reporting clear and coherent? sidered ICT domain, the considered agriculture domain,
Q4 Are the theories used clear? and the challenges in ICT adoption. A record of the
Q5 Is the research methodology well presented? extracted information was kept in a table (see Appendix
Q6 Are all study questions answered? C) to support the process of synthesizing the extracted
Q7 Is the research process adequately documented? data.
Q8 Is there a comprehensive description of ICT inno-
vation and/frameworks? Data synthesis
Q9 Does the conclusion relate to the aim of the study? The purpose of the data synthesis is to summarize and
Q10 Are the limitations of the research clearly stated? present the findings of the primary studies in a manner
suitable for answering our research questions. Based on
the research objective and findings from the primary
abstract of papers and second going through the entire studies that were selected, this paper fits in a qualitative
paper. After applying the criteria, 28 papers were kept for study, and hence a descriptive synthesis of the extracted
further assessment. data was performed. We analysed the individual studies
and the set of studies as a whole. Studies with a similar
Quality assessment criteria or same meaning were identified and grouped under one
The 28 papers remaining after applying the exclusion cri- concept. For instance, the challenges in the adoption of
teria were further assessed according to a well-defined ICT’s, we analysed and grouped them into four main
quality checklist presented in Table  3. This was done to concepts.
provide a more detailed exclusion criterion. The quality
assessment instruments used in the studies were based
on [23] criteria. This criterion was divided into four
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 6 of 16

Table 4  List of primary studies selected for review

Study Authors Title Year Method

[24] Owusu A.B., et al. Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use: Gender perspectives and implications 2017 Survey
for agricultural market development
[25] Hudson H.E., et al. Using radio and interactive ICTs to improve food security among smallholder farmers in Sub- 2017 Survey
Saharan Africa
[26] Kante M., et al. Influence of perception and quality of ICT-based agricultural input information on use of ICTs by 2017 Survey
farmers in developing countries: Case of Sikasso in Mali
[27] Barakabitze A.A., et al. The use of participatory approaches in developing ICT-based systems for disseminating agricultural 2017 Survey
knowledge and information for farmers in developing countries: The case of Tanzania
[28] Mugwisi T., et al. Access to and Utilization of Information and Communication Technologies by Agricultural 2015 Survey
Researchers and Extension Workers in Zimbabwe
[29] Mwombe S.O.L., et al. Evaluation of Information and Communication Technology Utilization by Small Holder Banana 2014 Survey
Farmers in Gatanga District, Kenya
[11] Aleke B., et al. ICT adoption in developing countries: Perspectives from small-scale agribusinesses 2011 Survey
[30] Misaki E., et al. Technology for small scale farmers in Tanzania: A design science research approach 2016 Survey
[31] Barakabitze A.A., et al. New technologies for disseminating and communicating agriculture knowledge and information: 2015 Survey
Challenges for agricultural research institutes in Tanzania
[32] Kabbiri, R., et al. Mobile phone adoption in agri-food sector: Are farmers in Sub-Saharan African connected? 2018 Survey
[33] Jere N.J., et al. Evaluating the influence of information and communications technology on food security 2017 Survey
[34] Beza, E., et al Exploring farmers’ intentions to adopt mobile Short Message Service (SMS) for citizen science in 2018 Experiment
agriculture
[35] Wyche, S., et al. Why Don’t Farmers Use Cell Phones to Access Market Prices? Technology Affordances and Barriers 2015 Case study
to Market Information Services Adoption in Rural Kenya
[36] Kante M., et al. An ICT model for increased adoption of farm input information in developing countries: A case in 2018 Case study
Sikasso, Mali
[37] Mtega, W. P., et al. Using Information and Communication Technologies for Enhancing the Accessibility of Agricultural 2013 Case study
Information for Improved Agricultural Production in Tanzania
[27] Kiambi, D The use of Information Communication and Technology in advancement of African agriculture 2018 Case study
[39] Meijer, S.S., et al. The role of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions in the uptake of agricultural and agroforestry 2015 Case study
innovations among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa
[40] Maredia, M.K., et al. Can mobile phone-based animated videos induce learning and technology adoption among 2017 Experiment
lowliterate farmers? A field experiment in Burkina Faso
[30] Freeman, K. et al. ICT use by smallholder farmers in rural Mozambique: a case study of two villages in central Mozam- 2017 Case study
bique
[42] Aleke, B., et al. Social networks among small agribusiness in Nigeria 2011 Case study
[43] Otene, V.A., et al Assessment of Mobile Phone Usage Among Farmers in Keana Local Government Area of Nasarawa 2018 Survey
State, Nigeria
[44] Magesa, M.M., et al. Towards a framework for accessing agricultural market information 2015 Survey
[45] Awuor, F., et al. Building E-Agriculture Framework in Kenya 2016 Survey

Results
Overview of selected studies
As previously stated, the review spelled out the time
boundary of the search to include papers from 2010 until
the literature review was conducted in 2019. The year-
wise distribution of the primary studies selected is shown
in Fig. 2.
The selected primary studies were published in diverse
journals. While some journals were broad in terms of the
country scope, others were context specific. The “Elec-
tronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing
Countries” is an example of a context-specific journal Fig. 2  Yearwise distribution of the 23 primary studies
that looks for publication only in developing economies.
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 7 of 16

In addition, the highest number of primary studies (6)

were retrieved from this journal. The second most popu-
lar publication channel was "Information Technology for
Development” with 3 primary studies (see Table 5).

Methodological quality
The overall methodological quality scores of the selected
23 primary studies are summarized in Fig. 3. All the four
criteria (reporting, relevance, rigor, and credibility) were
taken into account, and 13 of the studies (57%) have
scores greater than or equal to 8 which can be said to be
of good quality while 10 (43%) of the remaining primary Fig. 3  Overall quality of the 23 selected studies
studies with scores less than 8 is of medium quality.

What are the main ICT technologies used

within the agriculture domain? (RQ1) processing, climate, and market information through the
The main ICT technologies reported in the primary stud- medium of a mobile phone [35].
ies are shown in Table  6. Most of the studies identified Studies [25, 27, 29, 30, 37, 38, 41, 44] also highlighted
mobile phones as being the widely used ICT tool within the importance of radio in disseminating agriculture
the agriculture sector. According to most of the studies information to rural farmers. According to one study
reviewed [11, 24–45], the proliferation of mobile phones [25], the radio remains the most widely used medium in
within the African continent has led to the development rural areas in four African countries. The study cited an
of mobile-based applications and services within the sec- example of an interactive radio project that was designed
tor. These services and applications are mostly targeted at to help small-scale farmers to increase their production
farmers and provide a range of agricultural information in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and Ethiopia. The radio
such as market prices of farm produce, weather, agri- programme included regular radio broadcasts on agri-
culture input, and improved agriculture techniques. For cultural information to farmers. The programme allowed
instance, Ken Call is a farmer’s helpline service in Kenya farmers to ask questions through SMS or by calling and
that provides agricultural advice and information to sup- the responses are disseminated via the radio. Studies [25,
port smallholder farmers. Farmers are provided with 27, 29] explained that the use of radio by most farmers is
information on improved agricultural production, inputs, because the programmes are broadcasted on community
radios in the local language of the farmers allowing them
to understand the content of the information better.
Table 5  Publication channel and the number of occurrences of
According to studies [11, 28, 31, 37] computers are
the selected studies mostly used by researchers and agribusiness experts
within the agriculture sector. Furthermore, remote sens-
Publication channel #
ing technologies were also recognized by [31, 38, 45] as
Progress in Development Studies 1 being accessible by researchers and agribusinesses. These
Telecommunications Policy 1 technologies were identified to be inaccessible to farm-
Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries 6 ers due to a lack of technical know-how and financial
Information Technology for Development 3 constraints.
Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 1
Journal of Enterprise Information Management 1
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 1
South African Journal of Information Management 1
Table 6  ICT technologies identified from primary studies
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 1
Information Processing in Agriculture 1 ICT tools Studies
African Journal of Agricultural Research 1 Mobile phone [24–30, 32, 34–41, 43–45]
International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 1 Radio [25, 27, 29, 30, 37, 38, 41, 44]
Journal of Rural Social Sciences 1 Television [29, 37, 38, 41, 44]
Society and Business Review 1 Computer [11, 28, 31, 37]
Journal of Agricultural & Food Information 1
Journal of Agricultural Informatics 1
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 8 of 16

Whom were the agriculture stakeholders identified Which African countries have applied the ICT
in the studies? (RQ2) technologies? (RQ3)
This research question aims to identify the stakeholders Classifying the primary studies based on geographical
under investigation in the selected primary studies and location within which the studies were conducted, it was
the resulting outputs are summarized in Table 7. A con- evident that the research was undertaken in 12 different
siderable proportion of the studies investigated the use countries, namely: Ghana, Ethiopia, Mali, Tanzania, Zim-
of ICT tools among farmers. According to the studies, babwe, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, South Africa, Malawi,
farmers use ICT tools such as mobile phones for contact- Mozambique, and Burkina Faso (see Fig. 4). As shown in
ing extension workers, and accessing prices of agriculture Table  7, Tanzania is mentioned most (in 6 studies), fol-
inputs and commodities. Studies [11, 28, 31, 42] discuss lowed by Kenya (in 4 studies) and Nigeria (in 3 studies);
the use of ICT by researchers, extension workers, and the remaining countries are mentioned in either two
agribusinesses. Here the focus is on the use of ICT in studies or only one study.
agriculture research. One study [28] examines the access
and utilization of ICT among researchers and exten- What are the agricultural domains considered for ICT
sion workers. Studies [11, 42] discuss social factors that innovation? (RQ4)
contribute to the adoption of ICT among agribusinesses The agricultural domains encountered in the 23 selected
operating in rural areas. In one study [31], socio-tech- primary studies are summarized in Fig.  5. Most of the
nical factors that limit the usage of ICT by agriculture primary studies (52%) emphasized the agriculture sec-
researchers are discussed. tor in general in studying the ICT innovations; 39% of the
studies emphasized on crop cultivation; the focus on the
livestock and agroforestry sub-domain constituted only
Table 7  Identified agriculture stakeholders 4% and 5% of the primary studies, respectively. Though
Study Farmers Researchers Extension Agri- Country the results of the generic studies may apply for the live-
workers businesses stock and agroforestry sectors, the low number for these
sectors indicates the low level of attention these sectors
[24] X Ghana
received from the scientific community studying ICT
[25] X Ethiopia,
Malawi, innovations in rural Africa.
Tanzania,
Uganda What are the frameworks used in the studies? (RQ5)
[26] X Mali This research question aimed to identify the various
[27] X X Tanzania frameworks used in the studies. The study identified four
[28] X X Zimba- main theoretical frameworks from the primary studies as
bwe
presented in Table 8.
[29] X Kenya
As shown in Table  8, we identified four theoreti-
[11] X Nigeria
cal frameworks. These are the Technology Acceptance
[30] X Tanzania
Model (TAM), the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI),
[31] X Tanzania
the Social Network Theory (SNT), and the Unified The-
[32] X Uganda
ory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT).
[33] X South
Africa The DOI and TAM theories were the dominant theo-
[34] X Ethiopia
ries used in the selected studies. For instance, studies [33,
[35] X Kenya
39] used the DOI and TAM in providing a conceptual
[36] X Mali
foundation for their studies. Study [32] applied the TAM
[37] X X X Tanzania
to investigate the factors that determine the adoption of
[38] X Kenya
mobile phones among Uganda farmers. Similarly, study
[39] X
[33] used TAM and DOI to explore the adoption of ICT
[40] X Burkina
innovations by small-holder farmers.
Faso The TAM postulate that perceived usefulness (PU)
[41] X Mozam- and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are the predictors of
bique the intention of a user to use technology. PU denotes
[42] X Nigeria the extent of an individual’s belief that using technol-
[43] X Nigeria ogy would enhance his or her performance while PEOU
[44] X Tanzania is the measure of the extent to which an individual
[45] X Kenya believes that using technology would require less effort.
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 9 of 16

Fig. 4  Distribution of primary studies by location

trialability. Relative advantage is the degree to which an

innovation is perceived as being useful. Compatibility
talks about the degree to which an innovation is per-
ceived as consistent with the existing values and needs of
potential users. Simplicity is the degree to which an inno-
vation is perceived as relatively less complex and easy to
understand and use. Observability on the other hand is
the degree to which the results of an innovation are vis-
ible to others. Trialability describes how easily the inno-
vation can be explored.
Fig. 5  Considered agriculture domain of the primary studies
Studies [11, 42] used the SNT theory to identify the
social imperatives that impact the adoption of ICT
by agribusinesses. The SNT refers to the social struc-
ture of relationships and links between individuals, and
The DOI postulates five main characteristics of innova-
organizations within a particular context that can influ-
tion that determine the rate of adoption, namely: relative
ence ICT adoption behaviour. According to the studies,
advantage, compatibility, simplicity, observability, and
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 10 of 16

Table 8  Theoretical frameworks identified from SLR

Type of theory Construct Studies

Technology acceptance model (TAM) Perceived usefulness [11, 32, 33, 39, 42]
Perceived ease of use
Diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) Relative advantage [11, 26, 28, 29, 33,
Compatibility 34, 36, 39, 42]
Simplicity
Observability
Trialability
Social network theory (SNT) Social influence [11, 42]
Network externalities
The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) Performance expectancy [34]
Effort expectancy
Facilitating conditions
Social influence

communication, networking, and active participation Table 9  Identified challenges from primary studies
among agribusinesses influence the awareness and diffu- Challenges Description of challenges Studies
sion of ICT innovation among agribusinesses.
Study [34] adopted the UTAUT theory in identify- Poor infrastructure Unreliable electricity supply [27, 28, 31, 38, 43–45]
Network connectivity
ing the drivers of mobile SMS adoption by farmers. problem
The UTAUT incorporates social influence in determin- Low capacity Low illiteracy rate [27, 28, 31, 38, 43–45]
ing behavioural intention. The UTAUT postulates that Lack of ICT knowhow
behavioural intentions are determined by four key con- Poverty
structs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, Poor ICT policies Lack of appropriate ICT [27, 28, 31, 38, 43–45]
policies
social influence, and facilitating conditions. Performance
Poor monitoring of ICT
expectancy is the degree to which using technology will projects
provide benefits to users in performing certain activi- Poor funding of ICT initia-
tives
ties. Effort expectancy is the degree of ease associated
with farmers’ use of technology. The underlying concept Inefficiencies in Weak network between [31, 45]
agriculture institu- agriculture institutions
of social influence is that individuals can be influenced tions Poor incentives to motivate
by the perceived social pressure of important others. stakeholders
Facilitating conditions are also perceived enablers or bar-
riers in the environment that influence a person’s percep-
tion of ease or difficulty of performing or using an ICT of the farming population live in rural communities, the
technology. absence of these technological infrastructures poses a
barrier to ICT adoption.
What are the challenges in ICT adoption (RQ6)?
The identified challenges are summarized in Table  9. Low capacity
The challenges are classified into four categories: poor The adoption of ICT is constrained by poverty, lack of
infrastructure, low capacity of the intended users of ICT ICT know-how, and illiteracy as discussed in studies [27,
innovations, poor ICT policies, and inefficiencies in agri- 28, 31, 38, 43–45]. One important aspect identified in the
culture institutions. Each of these challenges is further studies is the illiteracy rate among farmers. According to
discussed in detail. the studies, the illiteracy rate is very high amongst small-
holder farmers which affects their ability to effectively
Poor infrastructure understand and manage the use of ICT tools. In addition,
Study [27, 28, 31, 38, 43–45] discuss poor infrastructure farmers are unable to afford the cost of servicing mobile
as a challenge to the adoption of ICT. According to the phones and paying for extension advisory services ren-
studies, infrastructure development is still in its infancy dered by ICT innovators because of their low standard of
in most African countries. This is, however, prevalent living. Furthermore, studies [28] and [34] highlights the
in most rural communities. Most rural communities in role of gender in ICT adoption. According to the studies,
Africa are characterized by poor road network, no access women are not equally able to access and use ICT due to
to electricity, and poor network connectivity. As most their unequal access to opportunities such as income and
education.
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 11 of 16

Poor ICT policies empirical evidence to demonstrate the robustness of the

Furthermore, poor ICT policies is discussed in studies identified constructs. Several gaps were identified in the
[27, 28, 31, 38, 43–45]. Agriculture development in most various theories. The TAM model for instance focuses on
African countries has been undermined by poor policies attributes such as ease of use and perceived usefulness in
that constrain market entry and the effective allocation of determining factors that affect the adoption of technol-
resources. According to the studies, poor prioritization ogy. This theory tends to focus on the technical feasibility
of ICT initiatives, weak monitoring, and poor implemen- of the technology without taking into consideration other
tation and integration of ICT within the sector are due socio-economic factors that might impact adoption.
to poor ICT policies. This affects the adoption of ICT in Similarly, the DOI also falls in line with the proposed
agriculture, especially those targeting rural communities construct in TAM and thereby lacks a social–cultural
and rural development. In addition, the adoption of ICT context. The SNT, however, discusses only social dimen-
is constrained by uncoordinated and scattered ICT initia- sions that affect adoption. These individual theories do
tives as discussed in the studies. not fully explain the factors that affect ICT adoption or
usage. This confirms the findings of Zewge and Dittrich
Inefficiencies in agriculture institutions [9]. According to the authors, an appropriate design
According to studies [31, 45], ICT adoption is hindered solution that takes social, as well as technical issues into
by inefficiency in agricultural research institutions in account, is lacking in most literature. To prevent a mis-
Africa. Diversity among agriculture stakeholders, lack match between deployed technologies and the ecosystem
of commitment and accountability of policymakers and of the local community, it is important to understand all
agriculture experts, and lack of incentives to undertake the possible factors including usage-context factors that
ground-breaking ICT research affect the effective adop- might impact adoption. The UTAUT model addresses
tion of ICT. In addition, weak institutions, lack of infor- the shortcoming by combining the TAM and seven other
mation sharing, and lack of awareness of existing ICT models into a unified user adoption model. This model is
facilities and resources affect ICT adoption is discussed. developed for the specific goal of exploring the willing-
ness to adopt mobile SMS technology by smallholder
Discussion farmers. It was also evident that literature on generic
This systematic review presented the findings of the 23 frameworks for guiding the development of new ICT
selected primary studies on the adoption of ICT within solutions is lacking as most of these theories focus on
the agriculture domain in Africa. We identified that high- assessing the feasibility of already existing ICT solutions.
quality papers have been published on the topic over the Regarding threats to the validity of our study, a review
past years. In this study, we summarized the findings of protocol was adapted in the study which helped in ensur-
the selected primary studies using a qualitative research ing a rigorous review. In ensuring that an adequate num-
approach. The analysis of the primary studies showed the ber of relevant studies are retrieved, different databases
proliferation of technological innovations such as televi- were searched and both automatic and manual search
sion, radio, computer, and mobile phone in the agricul- approach was employed. We were, however, unable to
ture sector. ICT innovations, particularly mobile phones, exhaust all available databases. Moreover, our review
were identified as the predominant innovative tools used was restricted to English language publications, making
within the sector, which is in line with the findings of [9]. it a possibility that some relevant studies were missed.
Apps and services on mobile phones which are mostly Furthermore, our study mainly focussed on published
targeted at farmers allow farmers to access financial and scientific literature. Grey literature, such as reports and
extension-advisory services such as weather, market, non-scientific journals were not included in the study.
and agriculture advice. The use of remote sensing tech- This exclusion may have excluded relevant information.
nology which is one of the enabling ICT technologies is To ensure that the keywords used were related to
also available within the sector but mostly accessible to the research topic, pilot searches on search engines of
researchers and agribusinesses only for research-related selected electronic databases were conducted before
purposes. Despite the proliferation of ICT technologies, constructing the keyword list. Data extraction form was
usage and accessibility are still constrained by poor infra- also developed and the necessary fields that answer the
structure, poor policy environment, and low ICT skills research questions were outlined in consultation with
and competencies of farmers. fellow authors which helped in ensuring a detailed data
The study also identified various theories underpinning extraction. In ensuring that bias at the reporting phase
the primary studies. The theoretical approaches tend to is reduced, evaluation by fellow authors was highly val-
be narrowly focussed, identifying specific constructs ued. The findings and conclusions were evaluated by
that affect the adoption of technology and then using
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 12 of 16

individual authors and areas for improvements were empowerment of smallholder farmers to enhance their
identified and improved. ability to interact with new agriculture technologies.
There is also the need for the development of a favoura-
Conclusions ble policy and business environment that favours the use
In this study, we have provided a systematic review of of ICT’s and other digital technologies. Strong commit-
the state of the art of ICT innovations within the agri- ment, trust, and collaborations are also needed among
culture sector in Africa. The results of the study will the different actors in the agriculture value chain.
contribute to the scant literature on the state of the art The theoretical frameworks identified from the primary
of ICT innovation in Africa. In addition, this study uses studies tend to be predominantly focused on assessing
theoretical insights to make recommendations and policy the technical feasibility of the ICT tools that can impact
suggestions. adoption. We were unable to find a generic framework
The review followed a detailed protocol and included that took into account the social and cultural dimensions
primary studies from 2010 to 2019. We identified 779 of the local context. In addition, while the challenges in
papers after applying our search string and selected adopting ICT innovations have attracted the focus of
23 primary studies that are relevant for addressing our researchers, the advantages and disadvantages of adopt-
research questions. The analysis of the primary studies ing the technologies are important areas of study that
revealed mobile-based services and platforms as the pre- need to be explored. This study, therefore, recommends
dominant ICT innovations within the agriculture sector a more holistic framework for guiding the development
in Africa. Applications and services on mobile phones of ICT initiatives. The limited number of primary stud-
allow farmers to access extension advisory services such ies found indicates that the number of publications avail-
as weather and market price information. Radios are still able on the topic is not extensive. There could be a larger
widely used in disseminating agriculture information to number of publications available as reports and non-sci-
rural farmers. entific publications that could be included in such analy-
Several challenges that were found to impede the adop- sis. Future studies could expand the scope of the research
tion of ICT include poor policy environment, low capac- to include publications both on scientific and grey litera-
ity, and poor technological infrastructure within the ture to provide further insight.
continent. The study thus recommends the training and

Appendix

A. Quality assessment checklist

Study Quality of Rigour Relevance Credibility Quality of Rigour Relevance Credibility Total
Reporting reporting
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10

[24] 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 3 2 1.5 1 7.5

[25] 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 1 1 0 2.5 1.5 2 1 7
[26] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 3 3 1.5 1.5 9
[27] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 9
[28] 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 0 2.5 2.5 1 1 7
[29] 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 0 3 3 1.5 1 8.5
[30] 1 1 1 0 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 3 2 1 1.5 7.5
[32] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 2.5 2 1.5 2 8
[34] 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 3 2 1.5 2 8.5
[35] 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2.5 2.5 2 2 9
[36] 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5 8.5
[37] 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 0 2.5 2.5 1.5 1 7.5
[38] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 0 2.5 2.5 1.5 1 7.5
[40] 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 3 2 2 1.5 8.5
[41] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 3 2.5 1.5 1 8
[43] 1 1 0.5 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 2.5 2 2 1 7.5
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 13 of 16

Study Quality of Rigour Relevance Credibility Quality of Rigour Relevance Credibility Total
Reporting reporting
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
[44] 1 0.5 1 0.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 2.5 1.5 1 1.5 6.5
[45] 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 0 2.5 2 1 1 6.5
[11] 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 3 2 1.5 2 8.5
[31] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 3 2.5 1.5 2 9
[33] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 2.5 2.5 1 1.5 7.5
[39] 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 0 3 2.5 1.5 1 8
[42] 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 2.5 2.5 1.5 2 8.5

B. Data extraction form

Extracted element Contents

General information
ID Unique ID for the study
Authors
Title Full title of the paper
Year The publication year
Source Title The Publication channel
Document Type  + Journal + Article
Repository Scopus,
ScienceDirect,
Wiley Online,
Abi/Inform,
Taylor and Francis
Study description
Study design  + Survey + Case study + Experiment
Considered ICT domain
Unit of analysis Targeted agriculture stakeholders
Country scope
Considered agriculture domain
Identified theoretical framework  + Yes + No
Identified challenges  + Yes + No
Evaluation
Quality assessment Quality, Rigour, Relevance, Credibility

C. Data extraction table

Ref Authors Year Study RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 RQ5 RQ6 RQ7
design

[24] Owusu A.B., 2017 Survey Mobile phone Farmers Ghana Crop Access Not speci-
et al agriculture fied
market
information
[25] Hudson H.E., 2017 Survey Radio and mobile phone Farmers Ethiopia, Crop Increase Not speci-
et al Malawi, adoption of fied
Tanzani, proper farm
Uganda practices
[26] Kante M., 2017 Survey Mobile phone Farmers Mali Crop Access Diffusion
et al agriculture of innova-
market tion theory
information ( DOI)
Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 14 of 16

Ref Authors Year Study RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 RQ5 RQ6 RQ7
design
[27] Barakabitze 2017 Survey Mobile phone and radio Researchers Tanzania Crop Improve Not speci- Yes
A.A., et al and farmers business fied
operations
[28] Mugwisi T., 2015 Survey Computers,telephone and Researchers Zimbabwe Generic Improve DOI
et al mobile phone and extension business
operations
[29] Mwombe 2014 Survey Radio, television, mobile Farmers Kenya Crop Access DOI
S.O.L., et al phone agriculture
market
information
[11] Aleke B., et al 2011 Survey Computer Agribusinness Nigeria Agriculture Enhance TAM, DOI,
in general business SNT
operations
[30] Misaki E., et al 2016 Survey Radio and mobile phone Farmers Tanzania Agriculture Access Not speci- Yes
in general agriculture fied
market
information
[31] Barakabitze 2015 Survey Computer, Video recorder, Researchers Tanzania Agriculture Improve Not speci- Yes
A.A., et al remote sensing, GIS in general business fied
operations
[32] Kabbiri, R., 2018 Survey Mobile phone Farmers Uganda Livestock ( Access Tech-
et al dairy) agriculture nology
information accept-
ance
model
[33] Jere N.J., et al 2017 Survey ICT in general Farmers South Agriculture Improve Tech-
Africa in general production nology
accept-
ance
model
[34] Beza, E., et al 2018 Experi- Mobile phone Farmers Ethiopia Crop Access UTAUT​
ment agriculture
information
[35] Wyche, S., 2015 Case Mobile phone Farmers Kenya Agriculture Access mar- Not speci-
et al study in general ket price fied
[36] Kante M., 2018 Case Mobile phone Farmers Mali Crop Access DOI
et al study agricultural
information
[37] Mtega, W. P., 2013 Case Mobile phone, radio, televi- Farmers, Tanzania Agriculture Access Not speci-
et al study sion, computers and internet extension, in general agriculture fied
researches information
[38] Kiambi, D 2018 Case Radio, television, mobile Farmers Kenya Agriculture Access Not speci- Yes
study phone, GIS, web portal in general agriculture fied
information
[39] Meijer, S.S., 2015 Case ICT in general Farmers Generic Agrofor- Access TAM, DOI
et al study estry agricultural
information
[40] Maredia, M.K., 2017 Experi- Mobile phone Farmers Burkina Crop Access Not speci-
et al ment Faso agricultural fied
information
[41] Freeman, K. 2017 Case Mobile phone, Farmers Mozam- Crop Access DOI
et al study radio,television bique agricultural
information
[42] Aleke, B., et al 2011 Case e-commerce agri-busi- Nigeria Agriculture To improve Social
study nesses in general business network
operations theory
[43] Otene, V.A., 2018 Survey Mobile phone Farmers Nigeria Agriculture Access Not speci-
et al in general agriculture fied
information
 Ayim et al. Agriculture & Food Security (2022) 11:22 Page 15 of 16

Ref Authors Year Study RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 RQ5 RQ6 RQ7
design
[44] Magesa, 2015 Survey Radio, mobile,TV Farmers Tanzania Agriculture Access Not speci- Yes
M.M., et al in general agriculture fied
market
information
[45] Awuor, F., 2016 Survey Mobile, sensors Farmers Kenya Agriculture Access Not speci- Yes
et al in general agriculture fied
market
information

Acknowledgements
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