Chapter 1: Part of Speech (Reference: Civil Service Exam Reviewer by Excelsio Institute)

Having a firm understanding and grasp of the basics of the English language is
essential before jumping into the many rules of grammar. We call the main categories of
words according to their functions as parts of speech. In this chapter, we’ll recap the
seven main parts of speech and theirs categories.

A. Nouns
Nouns are names of people, places, things or even ideas. When using nouns in a
sentence, they can either be the subject of a sentence or the object of a verb or
preposition. Look at the two sentences below and notice how the nouns function:
The girl listens to the music when she studies.
The noun girl is the subject of a sentence.
Abby reads one book a week.
The noun book is the object of a sentence.

There are different kinds of nouns. It’s necessary to know the different ways nouns are
used in sentences. There are common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns refer
to the common or generic names of a person, place, thing, or idea. On the other hand,
proper nouns refer of specific or particular names of a person, place, thing or idea.

Below is a sentence with a common noun and a proper noun:

Lisa went to the park with her father.
Lisa ia proper noun, while park is a common noun.

Nouns can also be categorized as a concrete or an abstract noun. A concrete noun, as

the name suggests, is something that is tangible. An abstract noun is something that
cannot be seen nor touched, such as concepts, ideas, feelings, characteristics,
attributes, and the like. Below is a list of most common abstract nouns:

Anger Beauty Charity

Annoyance Belief Childhood
Anxiety Bravery Clarity
Appetite Brilliance Cleverness
Awe Chaos Coldness
Comfort Freedom Opinion
Communication Friendship Opportunity
Compassion Goodness Pain
Confidence Gossip Patience
Confusion Growth Peace
Courage Happiness Poverty
Crime Hatred Power
Death Hope Pride
Deceit Horror Relief
Dedication Hurt Religion
Determination Inflation Satisfaction
Dictatorship Intelligence Shock
Disappointments Irritation Silliness
Divorce Joy Strength
Dream Justice Success
Education Kindness Trust
Ego Laughter Unemployment
Elegance Law Wealth
Envy Life Wisdom
Evil Love Wit
Failure Luck Worry
Faith Movement
Nouns can also be categorized as countable and uncountable nouns. Countable
nouns simply mean they can be counted, and they can either take a singular or plural
form.
The child wanted a bicycle for Christmas.
Both the words child and bicycle are countable nouns in singular form.
The mother asked her son to puck oranges in their backyard.
The word ‘oranges’ is countable noun in plural form.

Uncountable nouns are nouns that simply cannot be separated nor counted
individually. It cannot be used with an article, nor in the plural form. Take a look at the
example below:
The man ordered coffee with his cake.
The nouns coffee and cake are both uncountable.

B. Pronouns

Pronouns are words used in place of one or more nouns. The noun being replaced by
a pronoun is called the antecedent of the pronoun. Why do we use pronouns? Take a
look at his example.
Mark wanted to get a high score in Mark’s test so Mark studies all night.
If you’ve noticed, Mark is used a couple of times in the sentence, and
this makes it sound unnatural and repetitive. We use pronouns to avoid this. Just like
nouns, there are different kinds of pronouns. Each kind has a different function used in
a sentence:

Personal pronouns are pronouns used to substitute people or things. They are mainly
divided into three: the first person, or the person speaking, the second person, the
person spoken to, and third person referring to anyone or anything.

Below is a list of personal pronouns in singular and plural forms:

Singular Plural
First person I, My, Mine We, Our, Ours, Us
Second person You, Your, Yours You, Your, Yours
Third person He, His, Him, She, Her, Hers, They, Their, Theirs, Them
It, Its

Personal pronouns mainly function for three cases, or the manner a pronoun is used in
a sentence.

A personal pronoun can act as the subject of a sentence. In other words, it is the doer
of the sentence.
He went home because he didn’t feel well.
A personal pronoun is in the objective case when it is a direct or indirect object of a
verb, or else if it is the object or a preposition.
The woman gave him one more chance.
The possessive case changes the inflection of a personal pronoun to mark possession.
Jenny seems pretty sure that the book is hers.
Indefinite pronouns are used in place of a noun without specifying a particular person
or thing that is being represented.
all everybody nobody
each much somebody
more several anything
one anybody few
another everyone none
either neither someone
most some both
other anyone many
any everything no one

Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns used to replace nouns or noun phrases in a

sentence, representing that which is nearby or far away in space or time. The most
common demonstrative pronouns are:
this, that, these, those, none, such, neither
It should be noted that this and that are used for singular cases and these and those are
use for plural cases.

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions in interrogative sentences. They can
either be the subject or object of the question. There are five primary interrogative
pronouns:
who, whom, whose, which, what
There are also other interrogative pronouns: whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever,
whatsoever, whosoever, and whomsoever, that are used for emphatic purposes, but
they are typically used in more formal or old-fashioned English.

C. Verbs
As what we are taught, verbs are action words. However, that have more
function that simply providing actions in a sentence. They also indicate processes,
conditions, or states of being of people or things.

Just as with nouns and pronouns, there are many classifications of verbs
according to their functions and forms. A regular verb follows the regular pattern in
changing its form, which means that “-d” or “-ed” can be added to their base form to
change it to its simple past tense and past participle. For example, the past tense and
past participle of bake is baked.

In contrast, an irregular verb does not follow the regular pattern in changing its
form. There us generally no way to determine if a verb is regular or irregular, so the best
approach is to make oneself familiar with irregular verbs.
 Here is a list of common irregular verbs:
Base form Past tense Past participle
be was/were been
begin began begun
break broke broken
bring brought brought
buy bought bought
build built built
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
do did done
draw drew drawn
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
feel felt felt
find found found
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
have had had
hear heard heard
hold held held
keep kept kept
know knew known
leave left left
lead led led
let let let
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sit sat sat
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
take took taken
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
understand understood understood
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
Verbs are also classified as transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs describe an
action that is happening to someone or something. This person or thing is known as the
direct object of the verb. This answers the question “What?”

Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object for the sentence to be complete. A
prepositional phrase or an adverb comes after an intransitive verb in a sentence to add
more information to the thought being expressed.
He was reading a book until 2:00 am.
The word reading is a transitive verb, and book is its direct object.
She laughed loudly at her sister’s joke.
The verb laughed is an intransitive verb.

A helping verb, from its name, assists the main verb in a sentence. They are
sometimes called auxiliary verbs. There can be more than one helping verb in each
sentence. In a questioning (interrogative) sentence, the helping verb is usually
separated from the main verb.

There are three primary helping verbs - which are used in different tenses of verbs.
be, have, do

There are also modal helping verbs, which are used to express modality that is,
possibility, likelihood, ability, permission, obligation, or future.
Can, could, will, would, shall, should, must, may, might

A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in the predicate.
The most common linking verbs are:
the forms of the verb “to be” (is, are, was, were, been, being, am) appear,
become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn.

Verb tenses are used to show time. Verb tenses tell when events happen, happened or
will happen. There are different verb tenses and it’s important to know when to use
them.

Simple Tense
Present Tense The present tense may express an action that is repeated or
ongoing. It can also express an action that is happening at this
moment or situation that is always true.
Jane and Sarah jog every morning.
Past Tense The past tense expresses an action that has already happened. In
regular verbs, the past tense is formed by adding -ed or -d to the
base form. In irregular verbs, the past tense takes a variety of
forms.
John and Sara hiked to the top of the mountain.
Future Tense The future tense expresses an action that will take place in the
place in the future. The future tense is formed by adding will or be
going to the base form.
I will fly to Atlanta Friday evening.
 Perfect Tense
Present Perfect The present perfect tense is used to express an action that took
Tense place at some unspecified time in the past. The present perfect
tense can also be used to express an action that began in the
past and continues in the present .The present perfect tense is
formed with the past tenses of the verb and the helping verbs has
or have.
Sarah has watched the movies..
Past Perfect The past perfect tense is used to show that one action in the past
Tense began and ended before another action in the past started.The
past perfect tense is formed with the past participle of the verb
and the helping verb had.
Sarah had seen the movie before I watched it.
Future Perfect The future perfect tense is used to show that one action or
Tense condition in the future will begin and end before another event in
the future starts. The future perfect tense is formed with the past
participle of the verb and the construction will have.
By the time I finish this semester, I will have reads ten novels.

Progressive Tense
Present The present progressive tense is used to show an ongoing event
Progressive that is happening at the moment of speaking or writing. The
Tense present progressive tense is formed by using am, is, or are with
the verb form ending in -ing.
The children are sleeping.
Past Progressive The past progressive tense is used to show a past event that was
Tense happening when another event occurred. The past progressive
tense is formed by using was or were with the verb form ending in
-ing.
The children were sleeping when we arrived.
Future The future progressive tense is used to show an ongoing or
Progressive continuous event that will take place in the future. The future
Tense progressive tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the
verb form ending in -ing.
The children will be sleeping when we arrived.

Perfect Progressive Tense

Present Perfect The present perfect progressive tense is to show an event that
Progressive began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue in
Tense the future. The present perfect progressive tense is form by using
has been or have been with the present participle verb form
ending in -ing.
The children have been sleeping.
Past Perfect The past perfect progressive tense is used to show a past,
Progressive ongoing event that was completed before another past event. The
Tense past perfect progressive tense is formed by using had been with
the present perfect verb form ending in -ing.
The children had been sleeping when we arrived.
Future Perfect The future perfect progressive tense is used to show a future,
Progressive ongoing event that will happen before a specified future time. The
Tense future perfect progressive tense is formed by using will have been
and the present participle verb form ending in -ing.
The children will have been sleeping.
D. Adjectives
Adjectives are modifiers of nouns and pronouns. This means they describe or
provide more information. Adjectives can be in the form of phrases, which are aptly
called Adjective phrases.

An adjective phrase is an adjective and any additional information linked to it that work
together to describe a noun or pronoun in an sentence. This additional information can
include determiners or adverbial modifiers. The adjective around which an adjective
phrase is formed is known as the head word or head adjective of the phrase.
She has a very lovely voice.
The head word is lovely, the determiner is a, and the word very is
an adverbial modifier.

The degree of comparison tells us if an adjective is offering a comparison. There are

three degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Comparative Adjectives
Use a comparative adjective + than to compare two Lydia is taller than Alex
people, places, or things. You can also use more + Gorillas are more intelligent
adjective in some cases. than cows.
The opposite of more is less. Not as… as and less have My old car was less efficient
the same meaning. than my new car. My
apartment is not as big as
yours.
Superlative Adjectives
Use a superlative adjective to compare three or more Ali is the tallest student in
people, places, or things. Add -est to the end of most our class. Prague is the
one-syllable adjectives to form the superlative. We also most beautiful city I’ve ever
use the before superlative adjectives. In some cases, we seen.
use the most + adjective.
The opposite of the most is the least. This is the least expensive
phone in the store. All the
other phone cost a lot more.
E. Adverbs
An adverb refers to any element in a sentence used to modify a verb,
adjective, another adverb, or even an entire clause.
He swiftly walked towards the bus.
Swiftly is used as an adverb.
She ran very quickly because she didn’t want to be late.
Very quickly is an adverbial phrase.
She looked sick, as if she would vomit any moment.
The clause ‘as if she would vomit any moment’ is used as an
adverbial clause to modify the independent clause’ she looked.

There are many different categories of adverbs, which provide specific kinds of
descriptions and which behave slightly differently in a sentence. The table below
provides a quick breakdown of the different categories and how they are used to
describe something in a sentence.

Category Function Example Adverbs Example Sentence

Describe when or for now, tomorrow, They will go to the
Adverbs of how long something yesterday, still, yet, park tomorrow
Time happens or is the later
case.
Describe how always, usually, I often eat breakfast
Adverbs of frequently something sometimes, often, before taking a
Frequency happens or is the rarely, daily, weekly, shower.
case. monthly
Describe the above, behind, below, They walked under
Adverbs of direction, distance, downstairs, here, the bridge to keep
Place movement, or inside, nearby, there, warm.
position involved in under, up
the action of a verb.
Describe how beautifully, The man shockingly
Adverbs of something happens wonderfully, slowly, bought his wife a
Manner or how someone deliberately, happily new car.
does something. It is
usually formed from
adjectives.
Describe the undoubtedly, truly, The students
Adverbs of intensity, degree, or very, quite, pretty, performed pretty well
Degree extent of the verb, somewhat, fairly despite not being
adjective, or adverb able to practice
they are modifying. much.
F. Prepositions
Prepositions are used to express the relationship of a noun or pronoun to
the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun that is connected by the preposition
known as the object of the preposition.
Prepositions can be broadly divided into eight categories: time, place,
direction, or movement, agency, instrument, or device, reason, or purpose,
connection, and origin. The following table highlights the most common categories of
prepositions and how they are used to form adjectival or adverbial prepositional phrases
in a sentence:

Category Function Example Adverbs Example Sentence

Describe when or for at, in, on, for, during, We are going to
Time how long something since, by, until, watch a film at noon.
occurred or will occur before, after, to, past
The woman has a
meeting in an hour.
Describe where at, in, on, The building next to
something is located by/near/close to, the hardware store is
Place in reference to next, to/beside, my dad’s coffee
something else, or between, behind, in shop.
where something front of, above/over,
occurred or will occur below/under Below the desk are
my old notebooks.
Describe how, where, o, from, over, under, His wallet fell out of
Direction or or in what way along, around, his pocket when he
Movement something moves across, through, into, was cycling.
out of, toward(s),
away from, onto, off, She threw the rock
up, down across the lake.
Describe a person or a by, with The book was
Agency thing that has caused signed by the author.
or is causing
something to occur He called me with
his personal number
to cancel the
meeting.
Used when describing by, with, on We went to the
Instrument or certain technologies, nearby beach by car.
Device machines, or devices
She accidentally hit
him with her shoe.
Describe why for, through, because Because of the
Reason or something has of, on account, of, storm, we couldn’t
Purpose occurred or will occur from go out.

We had to prepare a
dance number for
the party.
Describes possession, of, to, with He went to the
Connection relationhips, or cinema with his
accompaniment friends.
Used to describe a from, of The professor was
Origin person’s or thing’s from Egypt.
origin
 You might have noticed that many prepositions fall under two or more
categories. To determine what type of preposition is being used in a sentence, you
must look closely at the context and what the prepositional phrase is modifying.
Remember that prepositional phrases can be used with verbs, with nouns, and with
adjectives.

G. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to express relationships between things in a
sentence, link different clauses together, and to combine sentences. Without
conjunctions, we would be forced to use brief, simple sentences that do not express the
full range of meaning we wish to communicate. Only using simple sentences would
sound unnaturally abrupt and disjointed.

By using different kinds of conjunctions, however, we are able to make more complex,
sophisticated sentences that show a connection between actions and ideas. There are
three main types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two or more words, phrases, or

independent clauses. The two elements being joined must be grammatically equal or
similar in both importance and structure . There are seven coordinating conjunctions in
English, which can be remembered using the acronym FANBOYS:
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

Correlative conjunctions, or paired conjunctions, are sets of conjunctions that are

always used together. Like coordinating conjunctions, they join words, phrases, or
independent clauses of similar or equal importance and structure.
Unlike coordinating conjunctions, they can only join two elements together, no more.
Some of the most common correlative conjunctions are:
both … and not … but
either … or not only … but also
just as … so whether … or
neither … nor

When we use correlative conjunctions, it’s important to use parallel structure. Parallel
structure requires both elements that are joined by the correlative conjunction to be
equal. Consider the two sentences below:
 This house is both large and cozy.
Correct. Large and cozy are both adjectives.

It was both a long movie and boring

Incorrect. The first part of the sentence is a noun phrase,
while the other was an adjective

Subordinating conjunctions are used to create complex sentences containing one

independent clause, or main clause , and one dependent, or subordinate, clause.

The subordinating conjunction does two things: it introduces and subordinates the
dependent clause, and it explains what relationship it has to the independent clause.

There are several subordinating conjunctions categorized in their functions:

Purpose Subordinating Conjunctions

To show time Before, While, When, After, Until, Whenever, As soon, as, As
long as, Once
To show cause and Because, In order to, Since, So that, Now that, Provided that,
effect or purpose AS much as, Even if, Just as, Whoever, Consequently, For, Due
to, As a result, Hence, Unless
To show a condition If, Whenever, Whether, Only if, Supposing
To show a contrast Though, Although, Even though, Whereas
To show similarity As thought, As if
To show place Where, Wherever
 Chapter 2: Rules of Grammar

1. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

The subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number (singular vs plural)
and person (first, second, or third person). Pronouns need to agree with their
antecedents in number and person, too.
-Subject and verbs must agree.
Incorrect: The books in the box is for sale.
Correct: The books in the box are for sale.
The subject in the sentence is “books”. “Books” is plural and the verb in the sentence is
“to be”.

-Pronouns must agree with their antecedents

Incorrect: Each student collected their library card.
Correct: Each student collected his or her library card.
Correct: All the students collected their library card.

-Pronouns must agree with each other

Incorrect : Once one has read the article, you have to answer the
questions.
Correct: Once one has read the article, one has to answer the
questions.

2. Comma Splices
Joining two independent clauses with only a comma creates a comma splice.
-Adding periods, semicolons, a comma and a coordinating conjunction, or
a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb can fix a comma splice.
Incorrect: The politician gave his speech, the crowd cheered and
applauded.

“The politician gave his speech” and “The crowd cheered and
applauded” are independent clauses.

*Using a period (.)

Correct: The politician gave his speech. The crowd cheered and
applauded.

*Using a semicolon (;)

Incorrect: The politician gave his speech, the crowd cheered and
applauded.
Correct: The politician gave his speech; the crowd cheered and
applauded.

-Fix a comma splice using a comma and coordinating conjunction.

Incorrect: The politician gave his speech, the crowd cheered and
applauded
Correct: The politician gave his speech, and the crowd cheered and
applauded.

-Fix a commaa splice using a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb. There

are some conjunctive adverbs are also, therefore, then, consequently, finally,
furthermore, however and otherwise.
 Incorrect: The book was interesting, the conclusion was very abrupt.
Correct: The book was interesting; however, the conclusion was very
abrupt.

3. Misplaced Modifiers
A modifier is a word that describes or limits another word. A misplaced modifier
is placed incorrectly in a sentence. It changes the meaning of a wrong word and alters
the author’s meaning.
-Squinting Modifier - A squinting modifier affects more than one word in the
sentence.
Incorrect: The student being taught carefully listened to the professor.
Is the student being taught carefully? Is the student listening carefully.

Fix the squinting modifier by changing its position:

Correct: The student being taught listened carefully to the professor.
Correct: The student being carefully taught listened ti the professor.

-Danging Modifier - A danging modifier affects a word that does not appear in
the sentence.
Incorrect: Watching the sunset, the sky was breathtaking.

What is “watching the sunset?” Fix this dangling modifier by adding a subject:

Correct: Watching the sunset, I thought the sky was breathtaking.

Correct: I watched the sunset and thought the sky was breathtaking.

4. Possessive Case

Apostrophes are often added to the end of a word to show possession. However,
this is not always the case. Check out each of these examples for the different ways
possession can be shown.

-Words that do NOT end with “s” - add “apostrophe s” (‘s) to the end of the
noun.
Incorrect: This is Johns house.
Correct: This is John’s house.

-Singular nouns that end with “s” - add an apostrophe(‘) or “apostrophe s”

(‘s’ to the end of the noun.
Correct: The bus’ tire is flat.
Correct: The bus’s tire is flat.

-Plural nouns - Add an apostrophe (‘) to the end of the word.

Correct: These are the boys’ shirts.
The above sentence means that the shirts belong to many boys.

Incorrect: The company held it’s annual party in June.

This sentence actually says: The company held it is annual party in June.
Correct: The company held its annual party in June.

5. Pronoun Reference

The word that pronoun replaces is called an “antecedent”. For example:

“Jester” can be the antecedent for “he” or “him”.

“Shahad” can be the antecedent for “she” or “her”.
“The table” can be the antecedent for “it”.
 “The books”can be the antecedent for “they” or “them” .

-Don’t overuse the pronoun “this”

Incorrect: Most of the class earned a passing grade on the exam; however, only
a few students did well on the essay. This caused concern for the professor.

You can’t tell what “this” is referring to. Is the professor concerned that most of the class
passed the exam or that only a few students did well on the essay?

Correct: Most of the class earned a passing grade on the exam; however, only a
few students did well on the essay. This inconsistency caused concern for the professor.

-Ensure the pronoun only refers to one antecedent

Incorrect: Doris told Shirley that her watch was broken.
Whose watch is broken? Is it Doris’ or Shirley’s?
Correct: Doris told Shirley, “My watch is broken.”

-Don’t overuse the pronoun “it”

Incorrect: In the report, it states that the reign of King George III was a
prosperous time for England.
Correct: The report states that the reign of King George III was a prosperous time
for England.

6. Punctuation

The Comma

A comma is a mild separator used to separate words, phrases, and clauses from
each other when no heavier mark is required.

-We use to separate items in a series of three or more.

Incorrect: I love to eat pineapples apples oranges and raspberries.
Correct: I love to eat pineapples, apples, oranges, and raspberries.

-Use commas between two coordinate adjectives that modify the same
noun.
Incorrect: The speaker delivered an insightful dynamic speech.
Correct: The speaker delivered an insightful, dynamic speech.

-Use commas between independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunctions and, but, so, nor, for, yet, and or.
Incorrect: The sun was shining but the air was very cold.
Correct: The sun was shining, but the air was very cold.

-Use commas after an introductory element such as clauses, phrases,

and transitional expressions.
Incorrect: In the spring I will plant my garden.
Correct: In the spring, I will plant my garden.

-Use commas for non-restrictive elements in a sentence that provide

additional non-essential information.
Incorrect: My friend who has brown hair called me last night.
Correct: My friend, who has brown hair, called me last night.

-We do not use commas to separate a verb from its subject.

Incorrect: The dogs, are jumping over lazy foxes.
 Correct: The dogs are jumping over lazy foxes.

-We also do not use commas with restrictive elements in a sentence.

Restrictive elements are descriptors that provide essential information. In the example
below, you need to specify the type of driver because not all of them are re-tested.
Incorrect: Many provinces re-test drivers, who are over sixty-five, to
check their driving competency.
Correct: Many provinces re-test drivers who are over sixty-five to check
their driving competency

The Semi-colon
This is heavy separator, often equivalent to a period. Semi-colons are used to
connect independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
-Use semi-colons between independent clauses closely related in
meaning
Incorrect: The sky turned grey, the wind died suddenly.
Correct: The sky turned grey; the wind died suddenly.

-Use semi-colons between independent clauses when the second one

starts with a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression.
Incorrect: The man entered the shop however, he did not buy anything.
Correct: The man entered the shop; however, he did not buy anything.

The Colon
This is a full stop that draws attention to the words that follow. Colons commonly
introduce a list or a quotation. They can only be used at the end of an independent
clause.
-Use colons to introduce a list after an independent clause
Incorrect: There are three parts to this essay an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion.
Correct: There are three parts to this essay: an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion.

-Use colons to introduce a quotation after an independent clause

Incorrect: Hamlet’s speech in the graveyard speaks to the fragility of life
“Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio”.
Correct: Hamlet’s speech in the graveyard speaks to the fragility of life:
“Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio”.

7. Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments look like sentences, but they are actually incomplete. Often
sentence fragments are missing a subject or a verb, or they begin with a subordinating
word that turns them into a dependent clause.
-Sentence fragment: Missing a subject
Incorrect: Went out to play.
Correct: The child went out to play.
-Sentence fragment: Missing a verb.
Incorrect: The girl in her house.
Correct: The girl stayed in her house.
-Sentence fragment: Dependent clause
Incorrect: Because it was raining very hard.
Correct: Because it was raining very hard, the car skidded on the road.
8. Parallelism
Parallelism is a similarity of grammatical form for similar elements of meaning
within a sentence or among sentences.
-Balance parallel ideas in a series - Readers expect items in a series to
appear in parallel grammatical form. When one or more of the items violates readers’
expectations, a sentence will be needlessly awkward.
Incorrect: Abused children commonly exhibit one or more of the following
symptoms: withdrawal, rebelliousness, restlessness, and they’re depressed.
Correct: Abused children commonly exhibit one or more of the following
symptoms: withdrawal, rebelliousness, restlessness, and depression.

-Balance parallel ideas presented in pairs - When pairing ideas, underscore their
connection by expressing them in similar grammatical form. Paired ideas are usually
connected in one of three ways.
- With a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, yet
- With a pair of correlative conjunctions such as either … or … not only … but
also
- With a word introducing a comparison, usually than or as

Incorrect: At Lincoln High School, vandalism can result in suspension or

even being expelled from school.
Correct: At Lincoln High School, vandalism can result in suspension or
even expulsion from school.

Essential Grammar Rules in a Nutshell

Correlative Conjunctions “Neither … nor” and Either …or”

- When using “Neither …or” and “Either …or” or simply “Or” and “Nor”, the verb
must be singular if both of the subjects are singular. The verb must be plural if both of
the subjects are plural.
Incorrect: Neither the students nor the teachers was in the room.
. Correct: Neither the students nor the teachers were in the room.

- When correlative conjunctions join sentences with one singular and one plural
subject, the verb used must agree to the noun or subject it is placed closest to in the
sentence.
Incorrect: Neither my husband nor my kinds likes reading books.
Correct: Neither my husband nor my kinds like reading books.
Incorrect: Neither my kinds nor my husband like reading books.
Correct: Neither my kinds nor my husband likes reading books.

Indefinite Pronouns
- We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly
who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and
pronouns ending in
-thing for things.

- The following pronouns are always singular grammatically, even though it might
seem . they should be plural: each, anybody, some, body, nobody, everybody, one,
anyone, everyone, someone, neither, either, nothing, anything, everything, and
something. They have to have a singular verb.
Incorrect: Everybody are here for the party.Noun
Correct: Everybody is here for the party.
- There are also plural indefinite pronouns, such as both, few, many, others,
and several.
Incorrect: Both of the children has homework to do.
Correct: Both of the children have homework to do.
 - There are some indefinite pronouns that can be singular and plural according
to their usage:
All - This may refer to something as a whole, or it can refer to individual people
or things.
All information is included in the test.
All have to pass their reports tomorrow.
Any - This may refer to one or unstated numbers of people things.
The woman is looking for any present to give her sister.
She did not get any nice presents this Christmas.
More - This may refer to a greater quantity of something
I’d like some coffee. Is there any more?
There are more activities to be done.
Most - This may refer to almost all of something
Most desserts are sweet.
Most information found in the book was useful.
None - This many refer to ‘not one’ or ‘not any’. We use it as a pronoun to replace
a countable and uncountable nouns.
None of their projects were passed on time.
None of what he was saying was making sense.
Some - This may refer to indefinite quantities that might indicate a limited quantity.
Some guests have already left the venue.
Some water was spilled by the kid.
Such - This may refer to mean ‘of this or that kind’.
Such course is not easy to take.
Such trips are not allowed these days.

- Indefinite pronouns can be used in singular or plural form if the noun used in
the sentence is countable or uncountable. If the noun is countable, a plural verb may be
used. If the noun is uncountable, a singular verb may be used.
Some of the cake was eaten by the children.
Some of the cookies were bought by the lovely woman.

Collective Nouns
- Collective nouns can either be used with a singular or plural verb. We can use
singular verbs if the collective noun acts as a single unit. If the members of the
collective noun do not have one action or are acting differently from each other, we use
the plural verb.
The group of students is going to present their project to their adviser.
The group of students are doing their individual tasks.

Here are some examples of collective nouns:

Circle House Group
Party Gang Tribe
Series Staff Troop
Horde Pack Audience
Panel School Crew
Set Team Flock

Prepositional phrases
- Prepositional phrases such as coupled with, as well as, along with, together
with, not to mention, in addition to, and besides are sometimes used together with the
subject of a sentence.