PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR

INDUSTRIAL MARKETING:
A CASE STUDY
Steven A. Sinclair

Edward C. Stalling

Perceptual mapping, a consumer-based mod-

eling technique, is shown to have diagnostic and Introduction
strategic applications for industrial products Many companies in mature, old-line manu-
and product classes. The technique is especially facturing industries such as steel, forest prod-
useful for evaluating the threat of substitute ucts and metal mining, see their future in
products and in developing strategies for suc- switching from basic commodities into higher
cessful competition. This can be accomplished margin, "value-added" products and moving
through new product developments and product into faster growing and less cyclical market
positioning with information gained from the segments. 3, 15 For these industries, require-
perceptual map. Information displayed on a ments for success are typically noted as tech-
perceptual map can be easily translated into nological skill, scale economics, and produc-
actions by managers. tion know-how.9, 11 But in the "value-added"

Steven A. Sinclair is Professor of Forest Products Marketing at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He
is on the Editorial Policy Board of Wood and Fiber Science and serves as contributing editor to the Forest Products
Research Society's Marketing and Economics Newsletter. Dr. Sinclair is currently writing a forest products marketing text
for McGraw-Hill.
Edward C. Stalling is Project Manager at Weyerhaeuser Forest Products Company. He holds a B.S. in Forestry from
Colorado State University and an M.S. in Wood Products Marketing from Virginia Tech. Dr. Stalling's graduate work in
residential siding products won him the prestigious Wood Award from the Forest Products Research Society in June of
1988 in Quebec City, Canada.

Vol. 5 No. 1 Winter/Spring 1990

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 THE JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL MARKETING

markets, success more often depends on cre- Customer perceptions do not always corre-
ating a package of products and services bet- spond to what manufacturers believe about
ter tailored to the customers 2 . Others have their own products, yet it is precisely these
noted that firms in basic, mature industries perceptions that determine success in the mar-
can prosper only by embracing a marketing ketplace. Perceptions result in beliefs about
approach, as opposed to the production orien- products (or materials), which combine as the
tation that has historically characterized basis for an attitude, which ultimately directs
many of these industries. 13, 27 buying behavior.
Analyzing these perceptions in an objective
Information displayed on a percep- manner for informed decision making can be
tual map can be easily translated difficult. A modeling technique which has
received wide use in consumer-related fields,
into actions by managers. but much less use in industrial marketing, is
available to solve this problem—perceptual
The classic article "Marketing Myopia" dis- mapping. Perceptual mapping has been used
cussed the importance of viewing an industry in new product design, promotional strategy
as a customer-satisfying process rather than a decisions, and many other marketing applica-
goods-producing process, and it related the tions where the marketing manager wants to
failures of many mature industries to their know: (1) the basic attributes customers use to
being overly product-oriented instead of cus- evaluate the products and (2) the comparative
tomer-oriented.16 Catering to customer prefer- positions of current and potential products
ences has more recently become popularized with respect to these attributes. 10 Perceptual
by many writers. Many of these pundits, how- mapping has received considerable use in
ever, are less able to translate the need to cater examining the relative position of competing
to customer preferences into usable informa- brands of consumer products, such as beer and
tion for executive decision making, and unfor- autos. However, it can also be used in industri-
tunately, skills in analyzing customer desires, al markets to develop a map showing the com-
market segmentation and product positioning petitive position of competing product classes
are rarely present in old-line manufacturing on key dimensions or attributes.
industries. 7 This ability is especially critical
because product positioning, segmentation, We will explore the usefulness of perceptual
and promotional strategies are key marketing mapping in industrial marketing through a
variables necessary to successful competition case study of the residential siding market, but
in a mature industrial market. these same methods can be used to evaluate
other product classes and markets. This article
Many manufacturers of mature industrial will not serve as a primer on the
goods face strong competition from substitute statistical/mathematical techniques used to
products. Substitute products have been noted generate a perceptual map. There are numer-
as one of five competitive forces that deter- ous methods available to the analyst (multidi-
mine the ultimate profit potential of an indus- mensional scaling, factor analysis, discrimi-
try.21 Even if not directly stealing market share, nant analysis, etc.); some now even come in
substitutes can limit profit potential by placing software packages for personal computers.
a ceiling on prices.
In order to evaluate the threat that a substi- The Real World Problem
tute poses to a given product, it is necessary to Siding demand, like other industrial goods,
understand how customers perceive a given is a derived demand. Because siding is a com-
product vis-a-vis its competitors. Too frequent- ponent material for residential homes, demand
ly, assessments of strengths and weaknesses of is derived from the demand for housing and
competing products are limited to tangible remodeling. Siding comprises only a small
characteristics such as price and physical component of the final product; home buyers
attributes, and they disregard the intangibles purchase a home, not pieces of cedar siding,
such as customer perceptions and attitudes 5 . hardboard, bricks, or vinyl.

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 PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL MARKETING: A CASE STUDY

Siding is most often purchased by the builder ized by many substitute products and strong
or contractor. Rarely does the final consumer competition. Competition for market share
(the home buyer) purchase siding and only among wood products is intense, but the
slightly more often do they specify which siding strong gains of aluminum in the 1970's and
product to use. Since most decisions are in the then vinyl siding in the 1980's have raised the
hands of the builder or contractor, a company ante in this market.
that wants to develop a customer orientation to The projected slowing of growth or even
the siding market must understand the percep- decline in this market26 coupled with advance-
tions and attitudes of the residential ments in plastics technology has recently creat-
builder/contractor. This type of information was ed a rapid shifting of market shares and
gathered for the study (see Appendix for details) increased competition. The Vinyl Siding
and the data used to develop perceptual maps. Institute calls its industry's dramatic growth
"one of the biggest success stories in the history
Overview of Wood-Based Siding of the building products industry," 1 and one
Residential siding has been and continues to study predicts that vinyl will increase its market
be an important product for the forest products share from 13 percent in 1983 to more than 30
industry, in the form of hardboard, plywood, percent in the mid-1990's.26 Advertisements for
lumber, shakes, shingles and the newer prod- vinyl directly attack wood with copy such as
ucts such as oriented strandboard. Wood-based "doesn't flake or blister and never needs paint-
siding manufacturers, especially producers of ing." Wood-based siding producers, particularly
plywood and hardboard panels, are typically hardboard manufacturers, are under increasing
large-scale, mature producers of commodity competitive pressure. From 1984 to 1986, hard-
products and have traditionally relied on a board lost a 1.4 percent share of the siding mar-
production-oriented marketing approach com- ket (22.9% to 21.5%) while vinyl gained 3.7
bined with a widely accepted system of volun- percent (15.1% to 18.8%). 23 Measured from
tary product standards, low degree of product 1983 to 1986, vinyl has gained an additional 5.8
differentiation and an auction-like manner of percent of the residential siding market.
pricing.24 Most siding materials for use in the
residential market are sold through whole- Perceptual Mapping
salers of building materials to construction
contractors, and price bargaining takes place Perceptual mapping results in a geometric
within these limits.29 comparison of how competing products are
perceived. It has been used to assist in the
development of product positioning strate-
Substitute products have been noted gies and as a tool to generate new product
ideas. 8 - 23 Product positions are typically rep-
as one of five competitive forces resented by a circle or dot placed on a two-
that determine the ultimate or t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l grid. The d i m e n -
profit potential of an industry. sions/axis of the geometric grid represent
key attributes of the product. An example is
shown in Figure 1, where pain relievers are
Wood-based siding products, along with brick, positioned on attributes of gentleness and
historically held the lion's share of the residential effectiveness. A product's position on the
siding market. In 1986, for example, wood prod- grid is determined by the amount of the key
ucts accounted for 51 percent of the 4.7 billion attribute it possesses. In Figure 1, Tylenol is
square feet of residential siding consumed. 18 the gentlest of the pain relievers. Empty
However, recent technological advances in new spaces on the grid can represent opportuni-
products have caused an erosion of the wood- ties for new products that possess the correct
based products' market share. amount of attributes to be positioned in that
area. Clearly, in Figure 1 there is an opportu-
Increase in Nonwood Substitute Siding nity for a product that is gentle and effective.
Products The closer products are positioned to each
The residential siding market is character- other, typically the more intense the compe-

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 THE JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL MARKETING

tition, and the further apart, the less the the case study, customers gave their percep-
competition. tions of eleven siding attributes and the dif-
Perceptual mapping is a useful tool in pre- ferences in these attributes among seven sid-
dicting which products customers regard as ing p r o d u c t s (Figure 2). MDA finds the
potential and actual substitutes and why.-4 weighted combination of attributes which dis-
Substitute products usually show up on a per- criminates most among products based on
ceptual map as being very close to each other. customer perceptions.
Competition can be very intense on certain
attributes, such as price, if the products rate For the perceptual map to be pragmatically
similarly on the attribute. useful to management, perceptions must be
linked to behavior or intended behavior. This is
Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA) was often accomplished by super-imposing onto the
used to generate the perceptual map in this model "ideal points," which represent the posi-
case study. This technique has been widely tion on the model that an "ideal" product would
used in consumer behavior research for this occupy, should such a product exist.12 Ideal
purpose 8 , 14, 20 and to identify differences points serve as a reference point, indicating how
among various marketing segments.19, 17, 27 In much of an attribute is desired, since "more" of

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 PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL MARKETING: A CASE STUDY

any given attribute is not necessarily better. slightly less Appearance/Status than cedar, but
In this case study, the product ratings for the has much more of the Maintenance/
customer's preferred product were used as an Weathering attribute.
indirect measure of the ideal point. When mul- As was noted earlier, distance between two
tiple preferences were indicated, the average products may be loosely interpreted as mea-
rating for each attribute was used. The func- sures of perceived substitutability. Though the
tions derived in the discriminant analysis were eventual decision must necessarily be judg-
then used to fit the ideal points into the same mental, the perceptual map facilitates that
space as the products.12 judgment.4 Further, the closer a product is to
an ideal point(s), the larger its market share
Case Study Discussion should be.
Figure 3A and 3B show two two-dimension-
al perceptual maps of siding products. On Ideal points in Figure 3 are fine-tuned to
Figure 3A, products are positioned vertically four home price categories and are represented
on the attributes of Appearance/Status and by the numerals 1 to 4 connected by lines. By
horizontally on Maintenance/Weathering. In comparing the relative position of the siding
Figure 3B, the vertical and horizontal axes rep- products to the ideal points, much information
resent Application Economy and Dent about the competitive situation in the siding
Resistance, respectively. The axes are scaled market can be gained. Vinyl and aluminum in
from 0 in the center to +2 at the outer arrows. Figure 3A are clearly substitutes and are close
Positioning of a product along an axis to the to the ideal points. In Figure 3B, however, alu-
right or up (positive direction) indicates that it minum is clearly perceived as performing
possesses more of the attributes represented by poorly in Dent Resistance. Confirming this per-
the axis. For example, in Figure 3A brick has ception, Figure 4 shows the market share of

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 THE JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL MARKETING

vinyl increasing and aluminum decreasing. positive half of the Application/ Economy
Similarly, Figure 3A shows plywood and hard- dimension (Figure 3B). Builders feel these prod-
board to be substitutes while Figure 3B shows ucts are economical to apply but lack a status
plywood in an advantaged position compared image and thus are most competitive in the
with hardboard on the Application/Economy lower home price ranges.
attribute. Again, Figure 4 confirms a decline in
hardboard share and an increase in the market What is the competitive advantage of the
share of plywood. wood composite products? Plywood and hard-
board occupy the undesirable negative-negative
Wood Composites* *Wood composites are wood-based siding materials made
Hardboard, plywood, vinyl, and aluminum by manufacturer's forming veneer, wood chips, flakes, or
occupy the negative half of the Appearance/ fibers into the final shape of the siding product using
heat, pressure and glue.
Status dimension or axis (Figure 3A) and the

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 PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL MARKETING: A CASE STUDY

position (lower left quadrant) in Figure 3A. The relative clustering of vinyl, hardboard,
Vinyl and aluminum both occupy a position and plywood around the lower price ideal
much closer to the ideal points, and their mean points in Figure 3B indicates that these prod-
scores on both dimensions are higher. Vinyl's ucts lack strong differentiation in terms of
score in the Appearance/Status dimension is Application/Economy and Dent Resistance. In
higher than that of hardboard and plywood. considering the total model, the closeness of
vinyl, hardboard, and plywood indicates that
The competitive strengths of the wood com- they are substitutes. Vinyl's position relative to
posites appear to be Application/Economy and the ideal points is more favorable than that of
Dent Resistance (Figure 3B). Hardboard's only the wood composites (and aluminum) and thus
perceived advantage over aluminum is Dent should be considered a serious threat to wood
Resistance. The location of ideal points and composite's market share. While this is true of
the data in Figure 4 indicate that this advan- both hardboard and plywood, vinyl's position
tage may be important. Plywood shares hard- relative to hardboard, and hardboard's lack of
board's Dent Resistance advantage and is addi- competitive advantage, should be particularly
tionally perceived as being faster/easier to alarming to hardboard producers.
apply. This differentiation appears minor but
is clearly evident in the market share data in Solid Wood
Figure 4. Customers placing a higher value on The solid wood sidings fell together into
Application/Economy should prefer plywood. their own niche (Figure 3A). Their competitive

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strength (and only positive score) rests on the User/NonUser Variations

most intangible dimension of the four: Product positions change not only in time,
beautiful appearance and a high-status image. but among market segments. The model pre-
Cedar sidings rated the highest of all seven sented in this case study is based on all
products in this dimension. Consumers also regions and types of builders, but a separate
perceived the cedar sidings to be easier to model could be constructed for specific seg-
maintain and more weather-resistant than pine. ments to facilitate market segmentation strate-
Brick, an important competitor for solid gies. Though separate models are beyond the
wood sidings in the higher home price ranges, scope of this paper, variations in product
is the lone occupant of the most desirable positions between users and nonusers of each
quadrant (upper right) (Figure 3A). Brick is product are explored to show an enhance-
perceived as having a beautiful appearance/ ment in the interpretation and usefulness of
high-status image, yet being easy to maintain perceptual mapping.
and weather-resistant. Brick's disadvantage is
its low position on the Application/Economy
dimension (Figure 3B). One positioning strategy is
to increase the salience of a
Solid wood sidings, particularly cedar,
appear to hold a niche for those seeking a high- dimension on which the firm's
status, quality image over easy maintenance, product rates well.
and they remain competitive against brick
because of brick's weak rating on For each product, respondents were classi-
Application/Economy. Pine is not as free from fied as users or nonusers and separate positions
competitive forces as cedar. The ideal points on the perceptual map were calculated (Figure
for the midprice homes are located between 5A and 5B) For each product, the "users" were
pine, vinyl, and aluminum. Which product is represented by the more favorable location
used is determined by which dimension the (upper right quadrant).
customer places a higher value on.
Considering the total model, the variation
between users and nonusers was relatively
Through marketing communica- small for plywood, brick, and solid wood sid-
tions, a firm can make consumers ings. Solid wood variation was minute, so only
means are plotted in Figure 5B. The position of
aware of an attribute that has previ- these products is stable, and thus repositioning
ously not been considered salient or could be difficult (i.e., more expensive).
may not even have existed. Hardboard and vinyl, on the other hand,
have unstable positions. Wide discrepancies
While vinyl's position doesn't indicate between users and nonusers exist in both the
much of a threat to solid wood today, the com- Maintenance/Weathering and Appearance/
petitive situation is far from stable. As prod- Status dimensions, though the difference was
ucts are repositioned through product changes not enough to remove hardboard from the
or promotional campaigns, the threat of substi- undesirable quadrant (Figure 3A). While
tution changes. Products repositioned toward vinyl users and nonusers agreed in terms of
the upper right quadrant of Figure 3A should vinyl's superior Maintenance/Weathering
enjoy increased competitive advantages and characteristics, there were strong discrepan-
increased market shares. By determining why cies in both the Appearance/Status and Dent
consumers perceive vinyl as low in Ap- Resistance dimensions. Users placed vinyl
pearance/Status, vinyl manufacturers could alongside the wood composites in Figure 5B
potentially alter its product and/or the percep- and almost into the desirable quadrant in
tion of it through advertising to reposition Figure 5A. Aluminum also showed a wide
vinyl more positively on Appearance/Status. discrepancy in the Appearance/Status dimen-
This type of repositioning would increase sion, though its negative Dent Resistance
vinyl's threat to solid wood, particularly pine. image remained the same.

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 PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL MARKETING: A CASE STUDY

These discrepancies between users and

nonusers indicate that misconceptions may Perceptual mapping results in a
exist in these dimensions. Manufacturers geometric comparison of how
attempting to expand their customer base competing products are perceived.
could develop marketing strategies aimed at
correcting these imbalances. If user positions
represent potential positions, vinyl's potential One positioning strategy is to increase the
should cause concern for manufacturers of all salience of a dimension on which the firm's
wood sidings, particularly wood composites. product rates well. This strategy attempts to
reposition ideal points instead of products. For
the wood composite products, this strategy
Managerial Implications and would reposition the ideal points for the
Recommendations Application/Economy dimension further from
the center. The message could emphasize the
To this point, the model has been used as a "time is money" theme.
diagnostic tool rather than a strategic one.
After the competitive positions of siding prod- Another strategy is to change the perception
ucts are diagnosed, perceptual maps can be of a product on an attribute in order to reposi-
used to guide new product and promotional tion the product itself. The objective is to pro-
strategies. While discussion of all possible vide a better "fit" between the ideal point and
repositioning strategies for each product is not the product. While marketers should never
possible, general guidelines can be suggested. attempt this strategy if the product does not
Manufacturers of siding products have several possess an adequate quantity of the attribute in
strategies available.22 question, the strategy is ideal when miscon-

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 THE JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL MARKETING

ceptions about the product exist, as is explored keting a p p r o a c h . In an e a s y - t o - u n d e r s t a n d

in Figure 5A and 5B. If the product lacks the visual format, tools like perceptual mapping
attribute, repositioning through new product can h e l p managers to u n d e r s t a n d h o w well
development might be possible. Wood-grained their products meet customer needs in com-
patterns on vinyl to enhance appearance and p a r i s o n w i t h c o m p e t i n g p r o d u c t s . Tech-
alterations designed to increase application nological or service improvements can then be
speed are past examples of this strategy. i m p l e m e n t e d to r e p o s i t i o n a p r o d u c t to a
m o r e favorable p o s i t i o n (i.e., b e t t e r m e e t
A third strategy is to alter the perceptions customer needs), increasing the product's
of competing products, boosting the position competitiveness in the marketplace.
of the firm's product while pointing out the
fallibility of competitive claims. This tech-
nique must be used carefully, since the cam- Appendix
paign may boomerang by giving s u p p o r t to
competitive products. Case Study Methodology
A final strategy is to add characteristics to Data Collection
those considered in the model. Through mar-
keting communications, a firm can make con- Data for the development of the perceptual
sumers aware of an attribute that has previ- maps was obtained through a mail survey, the
ously not been considered salient or may not m o s t efficient a n d cost-effective m e a n s of
even have existed. T h i s type of strategy is securing data from a dispersed p o p u l a t i o n .
most often attempted when a product is at the Determining which attributes to include on the
mature stages of its life cycle, and it is fre- questionnaire is critical, for if evaluative fac-
quently combined with actual product modifi- tors important to the customer are overlooked,
cations. One example of this is 1/8-inch wood- the usefulness of the results will be severely
g r a i n - e m b o s s e d h a r d b o a r d s i d i n g w i t h an l i m i t e d . To m i n i m i z e t h i s l i m i t a t i o n ,
insulating foam on the back. The additional exploratory research was conducted prior to
insulation is a new attribute. questionnaire development. An open-ended
q u e s t i o n n a i r e was sent to 163 professional
b u i l d i n g contractors d u r i n g the s u m m e r of
Summary 1987, a n d the r e s u l t s were u s e d to n a r r o w
The introduction of aluminum and especially down the list of attributes to the 11 included
vinyl siding has eroded the market share of tra- on the final questionnaire. To ensure that the
ditional wood-based siding products and dra- final questionnaire was effective and under-
matically increased competition in the siding standable, researchers pretested it by mailing it
market. The wood products producers respond- to 114 randomly selected building contractors.
ed to the challenge using marketing tools such Pretest responses were used to improve the
as p e r c e p t u a l m a p p i n g a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l final questionnaire.
improvements. For example, plywood siding is
now available in lap siding to look more like
cedar (repositioned for Appearance/Status) and Customer perceptions do not always
with a weather-resistant overlay to reduce main- correspond to what manufacturers
t e n a n c e ( r e p o s i t i o n e d for M a i n t e n a n c e / believe about their own products.
Weathering). Hardboard siding producers are
also fighting back with maintenance-free over-
lays and coatings guaranteed to go 15 years The "customers" questioned for this study
before painting (repositioned for Maintenance/ consisted of professional building contractors
Weathering) and with embossed wood grain in every state, a d v e r t i s i n g in t h r e e y e l l o w
surfaces (repositioned for Appearance/Status). page categories: (l) Home Builders, (2) Repair
and Remodeling Contractors, and (3) Siding
Mature, old-line manufacturing industries Contractors. These categories represent the
can fight back against strong substitute prod- major market segments for siding p r o d u c t s .
uct competition with a customer-oriented mar- Contractors w e r e accessed t h r o u g h a stan-

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 PERCEPTUAL MAPPING: A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL MARKETING: A CASE STUDY

d a r d i z e d m a i l i n g l i s t firm ( A m e r i c a n Responses
Business Lists). Because yellow page-based A total of 412 usable questionnaires were
lists t e n d to be b i a s e d t o w a r d the s m a l l e r returned. In addition, 441 were returned as
firms, home builders listed in The Blue Book undeliverable, a function of the high turnover
of Major Homebuilders were included in the in the construction industry, and 25 returned
sample frame. questionnaires were unusable. A good cross-
section of respondents was obtained in terms
of builder type and region.
A systematic r a n d o m sample was used to
select 2,700 firms from the yellow page list and Because late respondents tend to be more
571 firms from The Blue Book. Sample sizes like nonrespondents, researchers studied non-
were calculated to be sufficiently large to allow a r e s p o n s e bias by c o m p a r i n g the i m m e d i a t e
95 percent confidence interval with an absolute responses (first 70) to those w h o r e s p o n d e d
error of 5 percent or less in overall survey results. after the follow-ups (last 70). The chi-square
Equal sample sizes were obtained from each of test of i n d e p e n d e n c e showed no significant
the three yellow page categories (900 each). This differences (at the .05 level) in terms of four
systematic procedure ensured that geographic demographic characteristics: Type of Builder,
regions appeared in the sample proportionately R e v e n u e , G e o g r a p h i c Region, and Average
to their occurrence in the same frame. The 3,271 Home Price. In light of no differences between
questionnaires were mailed in the Fall of 1987. A early and late respondents on these key vari-
follow-up letter and randomly selected phone ables, concerns over potential n o n r e s p o n s e
follow-ups were used. bias were set aside.

End Notes
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Marketing Management, 16 (February 1987), 9-18.
3. Bingham, C. W., "Market Trends from a Producer's Prospective," Forest Products Journal, 36
(October 1986), 11-13.
4. Day, G. S., A. D. Shocker, a n d R. K. Srivastava, " C u s t o m e r - O r i e n t e d A p p r o a c h e s to
Identifying Product-Markets," Journal of Marketing, 43 no. 4, (1979), 8-19.
5. Dickson, J., "Use of Semantic Differentials in Developing Product Marketing Strategies,"
Forest Products Journal,, 24, no. 6, (1974), 12-16.
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Strategies," Journal of Advertising Research, August/September 1986, pp. 29-35.
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Markets," Journal of Marketing, 49 (Spring 1985), 24-32.
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Product," Management Science, 29, no. 11) (1983), 1277-1297.
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(September 1980), 75-85.
10. Hauser, J. R., and F. S. Koppelman, "Alternative Perceptual Mapping Techniques: Relative
Accuracy and Usefulness," Journal of Marketing Research, 16 (November 1979), 494-506.

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 THE JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL MARKETING

11. Hayes, R. H., and W. J. Abernathy, "Managing Our Way to Economic Decline," Harvard
Business Review, 58 (July 1980), 67-77.
12. Hooley, G. J., " P e r c e p t u a l M a p p i n g for P r o d u c t P o s i t i o n i n g : A C o m p a r i s o n of Two
Appraches," European Research, January 1979, pp. 17-23.
13. "How Japan Manages Declining Industries, Fortune, January 10 1983, pp. 58-63.
14. Johnson, R. M., "Market Segmentation: A Strategic Management Tool," Journal of Marketing
Research, 8, no. 1, (1971), 13-18.
15. Larson, E. D., M. H. Ross, and R. H. Williams, "Beyond the Era of Materials," Scientific
American, 254, no. 6, (June 1986), 34-41.
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17. Lumpkin, J. R., B. A. Greenberg, and J. L. Goldstucker, "Marketplace Needs of the Elderly:
Determinant Attributes and Store Choice," Journal of Retailing, 61 (Summer 1985), 75-105.
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Enterprises, Inc., Middletown, N.J.
19. Perreault, W. D., D. N. Behrman, and G. M. Armstrong, "Alternative A p p r o a c h e s for
Interpretation of Multiple Discriminant Analysis in Marketing Research," Journal of
Business Research, 7 (June 1979), 151-173.
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