Report Rapid Manufacturing in Facade Design

Rapid Manufacturing in façade design
Case study to an innovative shading device

Master thesis L. van Ginkel
‐ Design of Construction, Faculty of Architecture,
Delft University of Technology ‐
Graduation thesis: Rapid manufacturing in façade design

Master thesis:
Rapid Manufacturing in façade design

Case study to an innovative shading device

Author:
L. van Ginkel
Design of construction – Faculty of Architecture – Delft University of Technology

First mentors:
Prof.dr.ing. U. Knaack and Dipl.ing. M. Bilow
Design of Construction – Faculty of Architecture ‐ Delft University of Technology

Second mentor:
Ir. E.J. van der Zaag
Materialization of buildings – Faculty of Architecture – Delft University of Technology

Third mentor:
Dipl.ing. H. Strauss
Design of Construction – Faculty of Architecture ‐ Delft University of Technology

External committee:
ir. A. van Doorn
Architectural Design Mgmt – Faculty of architecture ‐ Delft University of Technology
Preface

This graduation thesis has ‘Rapid manufacturing in façade design’ as a subject. It was performed
within the chair ‘Design of construction’, which is a part of the masters’ variant Building
Technology at the faculty of Architecture (Delft University of Technology). The project started in
April 2009 and was ended in April 2010.

During this graduation thesis, I got the change to learn a lot about product development, building
technology and architecture. Although I sometimes found myself completely buried in all this
knowledge and it seemed as if there was no easy way out whatsoever, I did, in the end, find the
right direction with the help of my mentors and can now safely consider this as one of the most
valuable learning experiences I had in my university career. Therefore, I am proud to present to
you my master thesis.

This would not have been possible without the help of my mentors that guided me along the way.
Thank you: Ulrich, for guiding me through the first part; Marcel, for your enthusiastic support and
guidance; Engbert, for sharing your thoughts and your sincere commitment; and Holger, for the
critical, detailed and essential comments.

Leonie van Ginkel
Delft, April 2010

Index

Abstract .................................................................................................................................1
Research question ..................................................................................................................2
Read me.................................................................................................................................4
Part 1; Literature study: ‘Rapid Manufacturing in façade design’............................ 6
1. State of technology in façade design ...................................................................................7
1.1 Development of the façade typologies ................................................................................7
1.2 Principles of construction...................................................................................................11
1.3 Detailing, Tolerances & Interfaces .....................................................................................14
1.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................16
2. State of technology in Rapid Manufacturing......................................................................17
2.1 Introduction to Rapid Manufacturing ................................................................................17
2.2 Processes............................................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Liquid‐based systems .................................................................................................19
2.2.2 Powder‐based systems...............................................................................................19
2.2.3 Solid‐based systems ...................................................................................................20
2.3 Materials ............................................................................................................................22
2.3.1 Polymers.....................................................................................................................22
2.3.2 Metals......................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.3 Ceramics .....................................................................................................................23
2.3.4 Composites .................................................................................................................24
2.3.5 Functionally graded materials ....................................................................................24
2.4 Design methods..................................................................................................................26
2.5 Applications........................................................................................................................28
2.5.1 Engineering.................................................................................................................29
2.5.2 Rapid Tooling (RT).......................................................................................................30
2.5.3 Medical .......................................................................................................................31
2.5.4 Design ......................................................................................................................... 31
2.5.5 Architecture................................................................................................................32
2.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................36
3. Range of possibilities ........................................................................................................39
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................39
3.2 The RM’ed building ............................................................................................................40
3.2.1 Scale and production..................................................................................................40
3.2.2 Function integration ...................................................................................................40
Part 2; Implementation: ‘Towards an innovative shading device’ ..........................44
4 Concept .............................................................................................................................45
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................45
4.2 Considering daylight...........................................................................................................45
5 Research............................................................................................................................48
5.1 Light....................................................................................................................................48
5.1.1 What is light?..............................................................................................................48
5.1.2 The importance of daylight ........................................................................................49
5.1.3 Properties of daylight .................................................................................................51
5.1.4 Measuring light...........................................................................................................52
5.1.5 Comfort ......................................................................................................................52
5.2 Light incidence ...................................................................................................................54

5.2.1 Hand calculation .........................................................................................................54
5.2.2 Lux meter....................................................................................................................55
5.3 Heat incidence....................................................................................................................58
5.4 Perception ..........................................................................................................................59
5.4.1 Movement ..................................................................................................................59
5.4.2 Relation open/close....................................................................................................59
5.4.3 Frequency ...................................................................................................................61
5.4.4 Pattern........................................................................................................................ 61
5.4.5 Colour ......................................................................................................................... 62
5.5 Scale ...................................................................................................................................66
5.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................67
6 Design ...............................................................................................................................68
6.1 Design intention .................................................................................................................68
6.2 Upgrade..............................................................................................................................71
6.2.1 Context .......................................................................................................................72
6.2.2 Façade design .............................................................................................................72
6.2.3 Materialization ...........................................................................................................75
6.3 Rapid manufacturing..........................................................................................................76
6.3.1 Reinventing the wheel................................................................................................77
6.3.2 Façade design .............................................................................................................78
6.3.3 Materialization ...........................................................................................................81
6.4 Time path ........................................................................................................................... 84
6.4.1 Hybrid process............................................................................................................84
6.4.2 Integral vs. modular....................................................................................................85
6.4.3 Printed building ..........................................................................................................86
Part 3; Evaluation ..................................................................................................90
7 Evaluation .........................................................................................................................91
7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................91
7.2 Discussion...........................................................................................................................93
7.3 Recommendations .............................................................................................................93
Literature .............................................................................................................................96

Appendix A; Brainstorm results
Appendix B; Façade drawings

Abstract
Rapid Manufacturing (RM) is a relatively new discipline which offers great potential for designers in every
industry. When further developed, this new method of manufacturing, which eliminates tooling and uses
additive material processing for fabrication, could have major impact on the way we design, manufacture
and sell new products. In several industries, RM is already being developed to contribute to an
improvement in technology and for the building industry, it could also be worthwhile to explore the
possibilities in the field of façade design. The technical performance within the façade industry could
potentially be brought to a higher level by implementing the positive properties that the technique can
provide.

A façade has to integrate a lot of functions for it has to deal with thermal, visual, hygienic and acoustic
comfort, provide safety and meet the requirements for aesthetics as well. Looking into further depth to the
visual comfort of a façade, shading devices play an important role, because they are dealing with the
entering of heat and light in the room.
The production method determines the appearance and the properties for the detailing of a façade. When
RM is used as a production technique, the design will become different than when contemporary
production techniques are used. Geometric freedom, material properties and the fact that the design is
independent on production eliminates a lot of boundary conditions for the design process.

There will be intermediate steps between the façade produced with current processes, and the fully rapid
manufactured facade. During the introduction of the technique, printing shall first be introduced to produce
only parts of the façade in a hybrid or a modular approach, applied in the area where the highest profit can
be reached, and gradually be scaled up to building size.

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Research question
The subject of this master thesis is ‘Rapid manufacturing in façade design’. In this process I researched the
fields of facades and rapid manufacturing in order to find the possible impact that the relatively new
technique of three‐dimensional printing could have on façade design and how the development can be
directed.

Predefined objectives of this master thesis:
‐ Gaining knowledge about rapid manufacturing technologies and applications
‐ Evaluation of current technologies in facade design
‐ Development of a (product) design that reflects the possibilities of current and rapid technologies in
architecture

Main research question:
What is the perspective for the introduction of rapid manufacturing in future façade design?

Sub questions:
1. What is the state of technique in facade design?
Different approaches are applied in current facade design and the techniques have developed over history.
Current building systems and ways of construction are described to update knowledge about contemporary
façade design.

2. What is the state of technology in rapid manufacturing (RM)?
The technique of rapid manufacturing is still in development. In some industries, large steps have already
been taken in the improvement of techniques in specific applications. By mapping the main advantages and
limitations of the process as it is at this point in time, boundary conditions can be developed, describing the
outlines for an application in architectural design. Future developments should also be taken into account.

3. How could RM be used to define new ways of constructing facades?
The analysis to the state of technology in rapid prototyping and manufacturing on the one hand and current
technologies in facade design on the other can be combined in the description of a path for further research
and strategies on a method of working.

4. What is the influence of RM on façade design?
A case study is developed on an innovative approach for a shading device. The research covers the (sub‐)
aspects of this system and result in two designs for a facade. One shows an upgrade for a facade using
‐2‐

common production methods in a curtain wall facade. The second design is shows a future perspective by
using rapid manufacturing to produce and materialize the facade.

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Read me
This report is split in three main parts.

Part 1, Literature study: ‘Rapid Manufacturing in façade design’
In this part of the report, an analysis is done to the current state of technique in façade design as well as in
rapid manufacturing. This was performed in cooperation with another graduation student J.N. Volkers. As a
conclusion, a possible field of implementations is described, using small concept designs to illustrate the
solutions.

Part 2, Implementation: ‘Towards an innovative shading device’
Part 2 describes a research to a shading device which is inspired by rotating disks. The device and its
influence on the working environment is the main topic of this part of the report. It is divided in a section
research and a section design of a façade. In the design part, two designs are developed, the first is called
‘Upgrade’ and describes a façade design with contemporary production techniques. In the second proposal,
rapid manufacturing is used to develop the detailing and materialization of the façade design.

Part 3, Evaluation
The research question is answered in part 3 in overall conclusions, discussion and recommendations for
further research.

Appendices 1 and 2
The appendices contain additional information about the brainstorm and the design drawings.
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Part 1; Literature study: ‘Rapid Manufacturing in façade design’
‐6‐

1. State of technology in façade design
To get a grip on the possibilities which RM offers for façade design, we first have to identify the points of
improvement in the facades itself. This chapter briefly describes the history of façade developments and
results in a SWOT analysis of the current state of technology.
1.1 Development of the façade typologies
As mankind developed shelter through the ages, from clay huts to modern housing, it constantly developed
a surrounding layer to protect itself against the elements. This layer was often called ‘wall’, while it
primarily fulfilled the function of carrying the loads and only contained some holes where people could get
in or to let the smoke out. In later days people added holes in the wall for light and views to the outside.

The openings in the wall gradually transformed from basic outlets to windows. Holes were covered with
first translucent materials, like thin slabs of marble, and then with glass panes. The single glass panes
evolved into boxed windows and people began to make opening windows – this can be regarded as a first
form of an ‘intelligent’ façade, while the properties of the opening could be adjusted to the circumstances.

Figure 1 – (a) solid wall for basic shelter to (b) window to (c) maximized transparency in a modern
façade

Although primitive, those early walls can actually be seen as what we see nowadays as an ‘integral’ façade.
Aside the holes for some basic functions, functions as ‘carrying load’, ‘insulation’ and ‘sealing’ were all
fulfilled solely by the material of the wall. These could be clay (or later bricks) or a mixture of straw and
manure. The last one can be seen as one of the first composite facades. Today’s facades can be typified as
‘segregated facades’, in which functions are at least layered, stacked or solved in a total different building
part.

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Although the solid wall was the most basic

façade typology, it was not the only one.
Nomadic tribes already had to deal with a
demand for flexibility and light weight
structures. Their tents had to be light and
easy to (re‐) construct. Where the solid wall
was the ‘integral façade’, the nomadic tents
Figure 2 – (a) solid wall from manure and straw, (b)
are the early examples of a façade where
nomad tent
functions are separated – an early
predecessor of the modern type post‐and‐
beam façade.

Gradually, the openings got bigger and the glass won surface over the solid wall. Examples of this can be
found in the succeeding styles of the Romanesque style, Gothic and Baroque styles. These developments
took millennia, while the last century the developments in façade design were fast and rapid. Nowadays,
architects seem to prefer to have no walls at all; at least, this is suggested by the erection of a lot of
seemingly transparent boxes they call ‘modern architecture’. In contemporary buildings the solid wall is still
the main typology in the Netherlands especially in dwellings. But for high‐rises and office buildings a new
typology developed in the 20th century.
Figure 3 – (a) solid wall for basic shelter to (b) window to (c) maximized transparency a modern
façade

A lot of the modern façades are characterized by a maximized window and the separation of support and
covering functions1 . This brings the development of the solid wall and the previous described tent together
in the modern relatively light weight façade where there is a support frame and cladding. A parallel
development led to the post‐and‐beam façade.

1
Source: (U. Knaack, 2007)
‐8‐

Figure 4 – Post‐and‐beam typology

In post‐and‐beam systems the façade mostly hangs from the floor above and the voids in the structure can
be filled with different elements providing different functions. They could provide for example transparency
or normal cladding, but also sun shading, ventilation or other climate related functions are often integrated.
Here we find a total separation of functions. The post system is limited by the maximum (economical) size
of the infill elements. Within these system there is a variety of solutions, like suspended facades where the
bearing elements are replaced with tie rods, which makes it possible for designers to get even more
transparency in their facades.

A clear division within the typology of the post‐and‐beam façade can be made if one observes the
modularity of one façade element. We can divide the curtain wall typology into ‘stick systems’, ‘component
type’ and ‘super component type’2 . The stick system is a modular system with a layer of framing and the
infill elements making the actual façade. The component types are integrated façade elements of one
storey or more (super‐component) which are highly industrialized products – for the building industry this is
as far as it goes at the moment for turning buildings into industrial products. Its use is still mainly limited to
high‐rises.

2
Source: (J. Renckens, 1996)
‐9‐

The last three decades the energy issues, and especially in the
last decade climate issues, played an important role in the
development of facades. Single glass panes became double
glazing and details got very complicated structures to prevent
thermal loss and condensation through cold bridges. Next to
double glazing, double facades were developed to further
integrate the climate (ventilation) concept of the building into the
envelope. Nowadays, more and more functions are integrated in
the façade and instead of the old core‐oriented approach a
number of essential functions are now transferred from the core
to the façade.3

The development of the facades tends towards divesting the
building itself of all functions apart from that of bearing its own Figure 5
weight and incorporating all other functions in the façade. The
question still remains where these developments are really
heading. The modern metal‐glass façade is a highly developed
typology and improving details or glass performances is providing
little progress. The trend of function integration reminds us of
Mike Davies’ concept for the polyvalent wall. This vision, of a
highly functional integrated and adaptive façade might be one
direction to head for. Current technologies and materials might
offer solutions he did not have.
Figure 6
3
‐10‐

1.2 Principles of construction
An important part of the façade is the connection between the different elements. Improvements of the
last decades focused on sealing and preventing thermal bridges. Where connections between elements
might at the moment require three connections and five materials, future technologies and design might
enable façade design where these interfaces are more integrated. This part takes a closer look on these
principles. This paragraph describes the principles of construction of a modern façade.

Figure 7 – Influences on the façade Figure 8 Basic functions of the building skin based on
Feldtkeller4

A building façade is a technical challenge while it combines a lot of functions. Figures 7 and 8 give an
impression of the variety of functions and influences a façade engineer has to take into account. The façade
can be described as the ‘adaptive interface’ between the user (‐space) and the outside world. A façade
should adapt its properties to the changing environments, inside or outside, to what the use whishes. This
adaptivity can be very basic – eg. Opening a window, or simple venetian blinds for sun shading – or very
technically sophisticated – eg. By using integrated mechanisms or smart materials. Either way, the façade
brings together a lot of different functions, which are often performed by a lot of different components.

To start with, the contemporary metal‐glass façade is taken as an example. Three main areas of
construction can be defined within the façade:
4
Source: (Feldtkeller, 1989)
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‐ Primary structure (shell of building) forming the main load bearing structure of the building.
‐ Secondary structure, which is the load bearing structure for the façade and is a connection element.
‐ Infill elements

The infill elements could be standard façade panels for opaque parts of the façade, glazing for light and
view, but could also contain multiple layered functions like sun shading inside the glass cavity.

Figure 9 – layering of the façade and affections by external loads

All façade elements have to carry their own dead load and external loads that act upon them. The different
types of loads which affect the façade5:
‐ Dead load of the façade elements
‐ Weight of snow
‐ Wind load
‐ Live loads – e.g. fall protection
‐ Stress loads – e.g. caused by deflection of components.

The loads can be transferred to the main structure of the building in several ways. They can either hang or
stand on the structure, but for almost all systems there is a differentiation in primary structure, secondary
structure and infill elements and between these levels of construction there are interfaces which need to be
able to deal with tolerances. More on detailing and tolerances will be described in chapter 1.3.

To get a grip on what facades could look like in the future we should describe them in a more general way.
Looking at the product architecture of the metal glass façade, two main areas can be defined: the system,
which is basically a grid of posts and beams, and the infill elements. A large part of the façade systems
currently used is systemized, which means that specific parts are factory proved and standardized. This
5
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productizing of the façade is driven by the ever increasing demands and complexity of the façade detail.

Above we spoke about the different systems as in stick systems, component systems and super‐component
systems. This is mainly a difference in production method, it defines where elements are put together (on
the site or in the factory). The other way to look at this topic is to make a difference in ‘integrality’ and
‘modularity’. This division is also a matter of scale. The ‘super component’ – eg. A façade element which
spans two floors – can be considered integral because all functions are integrated in the panel, but it can
also be considered as a modular element on a building scale.

The organization of functional elements, the product architecture, might be one way to change and
improve façade design. A fully modular façade could offer economical and sustainable solutions for
manufacturers to easily upgrade or re‐use façade elements, but it will require a whole new set of solutions
for the interfaces between the different components. On the other hand, a fully integral façade might offer
a solution for optimized use of materials and integrated functions.

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1.3 Detailing, Tolerances & Interfaces
In the field of detailing, tolerances and interfaces, façade technology has gotten really complex throughout
the last decades. As already described in paragraphs 1.1 and 1.2 the façade developments were driven by
new use of materials, the urge for transparency, integration of building functions and in the last years more
and more important: energy performance.

The fact that a façade has to combine a wide range of functions makes the detailing quite complex. The
composition of parts is for a part done in factories, where the circumstances can be controlled. On the
building site, still a lot of actions have to be done to construct the building. On the site, structural elements
with large tolerances have to be combined with the relatively high‐tech façade components with small
tolerances. Consisting of different materials and with different tolerances this needs careful thought
throughout the phases of design and manufacturing. This paragraph gives some examples of details,
tolerances and interfaces to highlight this complexity.

While there are a lot of factors influencing the façade, there are a lot of different functions to be fulfilled by
‘one’ object. The façade is under influence from external factors, including noise, wind, rain, heat and cold,
as well as internal factors including air humidity, heat and cold and for example a falling person.

These factors culminate in several functions like: ‘rain protecting’ or ‘water tightness’. These functions can
be fulfilled by components of the façade which are either stacked or layered in respect to each other.

Figure 10 – The complexity of façade detailing: upper left, Crown Hall Chicago, relative simple detailing; The
other images show how modern façades are build up with all functional aspects integrated.

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Between the elements a variety of possible

‘interfaces’ are placed to connect them. Think
of rubbers, glue, nuts and bolds. These
interfaces make the fabrication of the façade
elaborative and complex to design while
everything has to fit to each other during

manufacturing.

Next to the internal interfaces the connection
of the façade to the main construction is a
point of concern. The façade elements are
made of different materials with different on‐
metal and different deviations in size. Figure 11 – functions of the façade elements and
their connections (interfaces)

The interface between the construction and the façade should cope with these differences. Façade
elements itself can have deviations in size up to several millimetres; an ‘in situ’ concrete construction can
have deviations up to centimetres.

Figure 12 – Façade interfaces

The images above show examples of these interfaces, making it possible to mount the façade with its
tolerances in x‐, y‐ and z‐direction. Overall “Detailing is reduced to systematic combination of the
appropriate individual components to perform the required functions against a background of growing
overall building complexity”6

6
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1.4 Conclusions
The façade developed from pre‐historic clay shelters, to the classical architecture with massive walls and
openings, to the light weight structures with the façade as a curtain wall. Overall, this can be regarded as a
separation of functions of the former wall.

Modern buildings consist of numerous complex interlinked technical solutions for the load bearing
structure, technical equipment and the façade. Especially the façade itself is subject of increased complexity,
while the modern building envelope plays a key role in the performance of the building when it comes to
aspects as energy saving and economics.

Façade details have developed into technological complex structures which provide thermal separation,
water drainage, ventilation, sun shading, and so on. Critical design issues are often concentrated on the
connection between the façade components, and on the connection between the façade element and the
building structure. All these interfaces are complicated while they have to be air and water tight, as well as
insulating, opening, maintainable, replaceable, durable, etc.

Although changes in façade design were large and rapid when technological developments drove the façade
development in the direction of the curtain wall facades, the improvements made in the last decades are
mostly done in the field of details optimization and improved insulation values. For instance, the
improvements in the U‐values of glass are technologically advanced, but relatively small.

The ‘product sophistication’ graph in figure
13 shows the development of a product as a
cycle with rapid change at the start followed
by a phase of improvement. The modern
façade, the curtain wall, is built for about 50
years and developments that are done
nowadays can be considered as optimization.
A new discovery means a new phase of rapid
change, where fast improvements can be Figure 13 – ‘Product Sophistication’ 7
made. In this graduation project, the
purpose is to find out whether rapid
manufacturing could be this new discovery
for façade design.
7
Source: (T. Klein, 2009)
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2. State of technology in Rapid Manufacturing
The technology of rapid manufacturing is in a phase of large developments. In this chapter, the technique is
looked at in more depth to provide a basic understanding of the properties, possibilities and developments.
2.1 Introduction to Rapid Manufacturing
There is a variety of definitions used by people to describe rapid manufacturing (RM). The term is also often
interchanged by its apparent synonyms: rapid prototyping (RP) and rapid tooling (RT).

Rapid prototyping is a term which is used in many ways to describe techniques which enable designers to
make prototypes in a fast way. The purpose is mainly to make test and show models for design
development purposes. Rapid tooling describes a similar set of methods for producing tools to make the
components of prototypes or actual products8.

Noorani gives the following definition for RP: “Rapid prototyping takes information from a three
dimensional (3D) computer‐aided design (CAD) database and produces a solid model (prototype) of the
design.”9 While RP is primarily used for design and show models, RM opens up a new world of opportunities.
New and improved techniques make it possible to process different materials like metals, polymers,
ceramics or even graded components. This makes it possible to manufacture actual ‘end’ components and
products for all kind of industries.

Although different by definition and purpose, RT, RP and RM have a basis in the same techniques and are all
controlled by computers. This requires the use of computer aided design (CAD) and therefore requires the
designers to be skilled in the necessary technologies to produce the right digital files for rapid processes.

To narrow down to a set of technologies which have to be researched for this master thesis project, the
following definition is used for rapid manufacturing:

“Rapid manufacturing is defined as ‘the use of a computer aided design (CAD)‐based automated additive
manufacturing process to construct parts that are used directly as finished products or components’.”10

RM technologies have some clear benefits, which can be summarized by:

8
Source: (N. Hopkinson, 2006)
9
Source: (R. Noorani, 2006)
10
Source: (N. Hopkinson, 2006)
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Geometric freedom
The freedom in design is unbounded. All mind twisting geometries made with CAD software can be
produced. The main difficulty in comparison to conventional techniques is now not to produce the actual
product but to design it with the software.
Materials
Different materials can be used, with properties that can be compared to the common properties of the
processed material. The development in RM provides the possibility to print multiple materials in one
process and it is also possible to control the meso‐ and micro‐structure of the printed material, in this way
properties of the material can be optimized.
Elimination of tooling
The CAD file is directly processed into a solid‐state material in the right shape; tooling is in theory not
necessary for the production. This is resulting in a saving of time and money and creates the possibility to
produce parts with design parameters, which were not possible otherwise.
Mass customization
Products can be designed by and for individual consumers, in this way it is expected that the consumer
needs can be satisfied more precisely.
2.2 Processes
Fabrication processes, manual or automated, can be classified as either subtractive, additive or formative,
depending on the way they operate on their raw material.
In a subtractive process, material is carved away from a solid block, until the desired shape is reached.
Examples are milling, turning, sawing or grinding.
An additive process successively adds material into place to build up the desired object. Processes which are
used are stereolithography, selective laser sintering and fused deposition on‐metal.
The last typology is the formative process, where mechanical forces are applied to material to form the
desired shape. For instance this is done by bending, forging and plastic injection molding.

The rapid prototyping process uses layered manufacturing and is therefore a part of the additive processes.
With additive fabrication, the machine reads in data from a CAD drawing and lays down successive layers of
liquid, powder, or sheet material. In this way the model is build up from a series of cross sections. The
layers, which correspond to the virtual cross section from the CAD model, are joined together or fused
automatically to create the final shape.

Rapid manufacturing systems can be classified according to the state of the raw material they use, in one of
the following categories; liquid‐based systems, powder‐based systems and solid‐based systems.
These categories will each be discussed separately with their corresponding processes.
‐18‐

2.2.1 Liquid‐based systems
These systems start with the build material, photosensitive polymers, in liquid state. The liquid is converted
into a solid state through a curing process. Liquid‐based technologies were the first processes in the
development of Rapid Prototyping and have some distinct properties. This process is very accurate, but the
material properties are poor compared with other processes.

Stereolithography (SLA)
This process can be seen as the basic technique for
rapid manufacturing, other systems are derived from
this system. It is based on parts that are built from a
photo curable liquid resin that solidifies when exposed
to a laser beam. The product is built layer‐by‐layer,
controlled by an elevation mechanism that lowers at
the completion of each layer. Exposure to the UV laser
light cures, or, solidifies the pattern traced on the
resin and adheres it to the layer below. The laser is
driven by a CAD file. After one layer has been traced,
the platform is lowered, typically by 100 µm, to allow
the liquid polymer to be swept over the part to begin
the next layer.
In some areas where overhangs are created, a support
structure is automatically generated by the machine’s
software. This needs to be removed once the final
part is made. Figure 14 Stereolithography (SLA)
Once the product is finished, the parts are removed
from the machine and the platform, the supports are
removed and post curing is performed to solidify the
part completely. The post curing is required because
some liquid regions can remain in each layer, due to
the finite size of the laser beam.

2.2.2 Powder‐based systems
This system uses powder in granular form as a base material and notwithstanding that powder is
considered a solid, this process forms a special category. It is possible to use a wide range of materials like
polymers, metals and ceramics. Furthermore, it is possible to produce functionally graded materials.

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Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
The powdered raw material is sintered or melted by a
laser that selectively scans the surface of the powder
bed to create a two‐dimensional solid shape. A fresh
layer of powder, typically 100 µm, is added to the top of
the bed when the elevation is lowered after the
completion of the preceding layer. A two‐dimensional
solid shape can again be created by the laser,
automatically bonding it to the layer below. The un‐
fused powder acts as support material, which should be
removed after completion of the product.
The powder bed is preheated during the selective laser
sintering process, to bring the temperature of the
powder to a few degrees below sintering temperature.
This prevents thermal gradients to occur between
sintered and non‐sintered material and reduces the
required energy of the laser. Figure 15 Selective Laser Sintering
Polymers with a high crystalline structure are used, (SLS)

notably nylons, because they lead to good contact
between particles and result in parts with relatively
good mechanical properties.

2.2.3 Solid‐based systems
Solid‐based systems start with the build material in a solid state. This solid form may include the material in
the form of a wire, a roll, laminates, or pallets. The systems have already been commercialized for some
time, but improvements are still made.

‐20‐

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Material is added layer by layer through a temperature
controlled head. The head deposits the material in
place, where each layer bonds to the previous layer and
solidifies.
The materials that can be used are mostly
thermoplastics, but also wax or metal can be used.
Semi‐liquid material is extruded in layers of typically 100
µm.
This process does, most of the time, not need any post
curing. Because the material cools very quickly into a
solid, overhangs can be created without support
structure.
Figure 16 Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM)

‐21‐

2.3 Materials
The essential properties of fabricated models are caused by the material chosen to work with and the
process that is used to shape the model; properties like the shape, dimensions and durability are all directly
related to this. Fabricated materials can be divided in three main categories; polymers, metals and ceramics.
The fourth category is composites, which can be described as any combination of materials of the three
main categories. RM is able to process materials from each of these categories, an overview will be given in
this section.
2.3.1 Polymers
In Rapid Prototyping polymers are mainly used because of their low electrical and thermal conductivity and
high strength‐to‐weight ratio. Another advantage of polymers is that they can be processed at lower
temperatures.

There are three categories of polymers; thermosets, thermoplastics and elastomers (figure 17) which can
be used for different purposes because of their specific properties.

Figure 17 Categories in polymers and specific properties

Polymers can be processed using different techniques:
‐ Stereolithography can process thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers and in general acrylates and
epoxies.
‐ Polymers are used in the form of thermoplastics, such as polyamide (nylon) and polycarbonate. The
powders are heated by a laser to a temperature just below the melting point of the material. The
temperature is high enough to sinter or bond the individual powder particles together and afterwards the
post processing is used to increase the density of the part.
‐ The polymers that are used in fused deposition molding are polycarbonate, ABS, polymethyl,
methacrylate thermoplastic, wax and elastomers.
‐22‐

2.3.2 Metals
The main properties of metals are their resistance to high temperatures, the good combination of strength
and toughness and ease in machinability. Other physical properties are good electrical and thermal
conductivity and good ductility. In many applications, metal alloys are used to improve the physical
properties. Alloys are composed of two or more elements, in which at least one is a metallic element. Two
general categories:

Ferrous metal alloys are based on iron, where steel and cast iron are most common. The alloying element
that is most often used is carbon. Other alloying elements are chromium, manganese, nickel and
molybdenum.
Nonferrous metal alloys include all other metallic elements and their alloys. The base metals include on‐
metal, nickel, copper, gold, magnesium, silver, tin, zinc and titanium. Super alloys are produced for high‐
temperature performance, where nickel and cobalt are used as a base metal.

From selective laser sintering, different ways to process metals have been derived using powder as a base
material.
‐ The first process is ‘Álumide’, which uses a CO2 laser. This laser is not capable to sinter the metal
particles together, it can only heat the metal powders to half their melting point. A thermoplastic binder is
used to coat the metal particles and the binder of the powder is sintered together to form green, fragile
parts.
‐ Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) consolidates metal powder to nearly full density. This process
does not require liquid infiltration and the surface finish of the materials is very good. The metals that used
are steel, bronze and nickel.
‐ Direct metal deposition is a process that injects metal powders into a melted pool on a substrate
surface as the laser scans the shape of each layer of the part. This method of powder fusion results in
improved material properties, due to the uniform grain structure.
2.3.3 Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds that contain metallic (or semi‐metallic) and on‐metallic elements.
Metallic elements (cation): Al, Mg, Si, Zr.
Nonmetallic elements (anion): oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, boron.

The general properties are the very high strength, brittleness and high melting points. Ceramic materials
have low electrical and thermal conductivity, reasonably low density and high hardness. Because of these
properties, the common use is in rapid tooling.
‐23‐

2.3.4 Composites
Composites are non‐homogeneous mixtures of the three main types of manufactured materials in order to
improve the properties of the host matrix. The lower modulus matrix adds greater elasticity and strain‐to‐
failure to the composite. The reinforcing phase can improve the fracture toughness of the matrix.
Properties are the high strength‐to‐weight and stiffness‐to‐weight ratio.

2.3.5 Functionally graded materials
“Functionally graded materials (FGM’s) are a form of composite where the properties change gradually
with position.”11
Figure 18 Typologies in Functionally Graded Materials (FGM)

There are three types that can be distinguished. The first type is a composite, where materials are
homogeneously mixed to enhance the specific properties of the main material. Second type enhances the
surface properties of an object, the most common examples are coatings. Last are the FGM’s that have a
gradually graded composition between different elements. The properties are engineered over the
structure to fulfil various requirements.

The research is connected to the production methods
using the technique of laser sintering or laser fusion
of powders.
The STL file format, used in common RP technologies,
cannot be used to contain information about the
gradients. Therefore a research is done to new
12
Figure 19 – Functionally graded material formats that can provide a link between the
computer and the RP machine.

At TNO in The Netherlands, such a system is being developed to fulfil this vision, it is called InnerspaceTM.
11
Source: (Hopkinson, 2006)
12
Source: (TNO, 2010)
‐24‐

This CAD‐ program can define materials in a 3 dimensional product and translate this to data suitable for a
RP machine. The machine itself is also developed at TNO and has three printer heads that can print
different UV curable materials selectively next to each other on a moveable table. The accuracy and speed
is still in development.
‐25‐

2.4 Design methods
Rapid prototyping is fabricating a model from three‐dimensional data in a CAD file. This process involves the
following steps in order to make physical prototypes:

1. Create a CAD model of the design
The CAD model should completely consist of solids, which can be defined as a volume completely bounded
by surfaces: each surface edge must be coincident with one, and only one, other surface edge. In this model,
the complete geometry of the object is shown and also the inner and outer side of the space of the
geometry is defined. A wide range of programs can be used to build this model. Examples are AutoCAD,
Pro/Engineer, CATIA, Solid Works and Rhinoceros.

2. Convert the CAD model to STL file format
The next step is the conversion to a STL (Standard Triangulation Language) file format. This STL file
originated from 3D systems, which developed this file format to support the first rapid prototyping process,
Stereolithography.

In the file a 3‐dimensional surface geometry is represented. The surface is tessellated into a series of small
triangles, also referred to as facets. Each facet is described by a perpendicular direction and three points
representing the vertices, corners, of the triangle. The tolerance defines the accuracy of the model, which
can be adjusted to the desired values.

3. Slice the STL file into 2D cross‐sectional layers
The information from the STL file is electronically sectioned into layers of predetermined thickness. The
more complex the file is, the more triangles are required. The file will become bigger according to the
difficulty of the file. The STL file is now a format the Rapid prototyping computer recognizes.

4. Making the prototype
The machine receives the information from the STL format from the RP computer and runs the process until
completion. The model is built one layer at the time from the base material with the specific process. Little
human intervention is needed.

‐26‐

5. Post processing
The post processing consists of three steps; cleaning, post curing and finishing. Depending on the process
that is used for the rapid prototyping, a combination of post processes is used. The removal and cleaning
refers to taking the prototype out of the machine and remove the excess material and/or support material.

The post curing process is only necessary for the Stereolithography process and for Selective Laser Sintering.
This is because the laser scans each layer along the boundary and only hatches the lines. This can result in
side portions of the layers, which have not completely solidified. The post curing process uses UV radiation
to improve the mechanical properties of the prototype. The finishing is done as a final step. The model is
cleaned and for example sanded for the visual of the outer surface.

‐27‐

2.5 Applications
The possibilities of rapid manufacturing with its different processes and materials cause the applications to
vary widely. This chapter gives a short overview of the range of possibilities and developments of RM.

The technique provides the possibility to design products on a micro scale. Models in the size of a red blood
cell have been printed with large accuracy in the shape of a bull as well as a model of the Venus of Milo on a
human hair (Figure 20).

The customized sports shoe design (Figure 21), adapted to the specific properties of an individual foot, is
playing up to a mass customization possibility that the technique offers. Each product will be the exact
optimal solution for the client.

On a larger scale, the Monolite technique has been created, which is able to print a monolithic sandstone
structure with a printer in a freeform design (Figure 22). The technique, developed by dr. Ing. Enrico Dini,
uses as a main material sand, dust or gravel, from the direct environment, which is mixed with an inorganic
binder to reach properties exceeding Portland cement. The process used is Stereolithography, with a printer
able to print layers of 10‐200mm.

Possibilities: From micro to macro design
Figure 20 Venus on a human Figure 21 Customized shoe Figure 22 Building structure in
hair design sandstone

‐28‐

Because of the basic intent of the processes, designs can be made with turning parts integrated and from
one material, printed in one time. A graded structure, with colours or different materials can be
manufactured from the process and because of the range of materials; it is possible to print rigid as well as
flexible products with varying properties.

Prototyping

Figure 23 Moving/rotating Figure 24 Colour variation Figure 25 Flexible

2.5.1 Engineering
In engineering, the technique is developed especially in the application of metal printers, constructing
prototyping parts or optimized parts for manufacturing. The techniques are used in aerospace and
mechanical engineering.

In the U.S. army, Rapid Manufacturing techniques are used in Iraq to produce replacement parts on
demand on location. In this way the logistic burden is reduced during operations. The ‘mobile parts
hospital’ is able to print plastics, rubbers, metals and ceramics and prepared to produce parts from a variety
of machine and metallic elements for military vehicles, to generator sets.

Figure 26 Engine exhaust Figure 27 Propeller prototype Figure 28 Turbine blade

‐29‐

Figure 29 Aerospace parts Figure 30 Aerospace parts

2.5.2 Rapid Tooling (RT)
Rapid Tooling is an application of Rapid Prototyping which is often used. There are two ways to use Rapid
Tooling, either direct or indirect:

Direct tooling; Selective Laser Sintering or Stereolithography is used to produce products with specific
applications and material requirements for moulding and casting.

Indirect tooling; the model that is produced by RM is transferred into another material, using the actual
product as a pattern or a mould. This is done because the material properties of products produced with
RM are mostly not up to the high level which is required and because the process is not suitable to produce
for series production. The mould can be produced from different materials, like silicone rubber.

For mass production purposes, moulds are produced with conformal cooling channels that make it possible
to reduce the internal stresses within the mould (figure 36). Next to the original advantage that moulds
could be produced much faster, the conformal cooling channels actually increase the quality of the moulds
because they provide 40% faster cycles than is possible with conventional technologies.

Figure 32 Printed mould with conformal cooling

Figure 31 Indirect tooling
channels
‐30‐

2.5.3 Medical
In the medical field, the technique of Rapid Prototyping has been adopted in a wide variety of applications.
In dental care, artificial teeth are printed as an exact fit for the patient. First the jaw is scanned, in order to
produce a three dimensional computer model that forms the input for the RP process. For other parts of
the human body the same technique is used, based on the possibility RP gives for mass customization.
Research is done to the production of a jaw bone made from polymers with bone grow stimulating tissue
printed on top. In this way, the bone tissue will grow back and the prototype will disappear gradually over
time.

Another application in the medical field is in the hearing industry. For hearing‐aid apparatus the technique
is able to produce an exact fit for each individual ear. This stimulates the performance of the product,
because of the exact connection.

Figure 34 Skull implant
Figure 33 Tooth cappings
Figure 35 Artificial teeth

Figure 36 Jaw implant Figure 37 Study model hand structure

2.5.4 Design
Artists have seen the development of a new computer‐controlled technique as a possibility to create shapes
‐31‐

that were unable to be produced with the existing techniques.

The bone chair for example, created by Joris Laarman, is inspired on the bone structure in nature. Material
is only added where it is needed in order to increase the strength. The design has been made with an
optimization computer program, but has not been printed.

Light designers make special shapes to play with the light falling through the geometry and the properties
of material. This is for example the case with the AI light designed by Assa Ashuach, the light is spread
fluently adapting to the circumstances in the room and is able to react on light and sound. The movement is
created by anticipating on material properties that are flexible in one direction and stiff in the other.
The shoes designed by United Nude are first made as a prototype made from cardboard, scanned in to
produce a computer model and than processed by a RP machine to create the actual shoe.

Figure 38 Bone chair Figure 39 Shoe design by Melissa & Zaha Hadid

Figure 40 Light design by Assa Ashuach ‘AI Light‘ Figure 41 Shoe design by United Nude ‘Mies van
der Rohe’

2.5.5 Architecture
In architecture the technique of Rapid Prototyping is used in different applications and with different
intentions.

‐32‐

‐ Blob/hyperbody design
A relatively new vision on architectural design is Blob design or hyperbody design. In the process, CAD
software is used to produce the difficult shapes of the geometry and the components, while the actual
production is done with conventional techniques. The illusion of a freeform is approached as close as
possible. The design done in this way is asking for a method to produce the actual shapes without
compromises done because of the current state of technology.

Figure 42 Iweb pavilion Kas Oosterhuis

Figure 43 Interior Blob Pavilion Studio

Jurgen Bey

Figure 44 Blob Paviljoen Studio Jurgen Bey

‐ Display models
Another application is also the most common one in architecture at this moment; a CAD model is produced
to visualize the design and with the RP technique, a display model is produced to communicate with the
client. The machines used have commercialized very fast, because the properties do not have to be of a
very high quality.

The prize of the printers will be in the close future under a 1000 euro’s, available for a wide market. Already
it is possible to create models with different colours and close details.

‐33‐

Figure 45 RP model Figure 46 RP model
Figure 47 Model design‐ Onitsuka Tigers

‐ Macro design
Contour crafting was developed at the University of Southern California. It is a technique by which large
scale parts can be fabricated layer by layer. It pours and shapes a clay‐like material, producing the designed
shape. An extrusion nozzle pours the material and two trowels create a smooth finishing. It combines
techniques from the field of robotics with rapid prototyping technologies and is the first step in rapid mass
customized cheap housing projects.

A concept which is almost the same as the contour crafting is used with the Monolite structure, developed
by Enrico Dini. This process uses gravel or sand, whatever is available on the site, and combines this with an
inorganic binder to produce freeform structures. The printer is able to produce inner structures as well in
one line, like stairs and partition walls. At this moment it is possible to produce products of 2 meters in
height, but this will increase during the development.

‐34‐

Figure 48 Contour crafting
Figure 49 Monolite construction
Figure 50 Contour crafting process

‐35‐

2.6 Conclusions
The analysis of Rapid Manufacturing shows a wide range of applications in several very different industries.
This gives rise to the question how rapid manufacturing can find its implementation in future façade design.
Looking at the literature, a SWOT analysis can be made, where the strong and weak opportunities and
threats are mapped in one table to give an overview of the values of the technique for façade design.

SWOT analysis of the current state of technology in Rapid Manufacturing for a use in façade design
Testing of unique products/certification Geometric freedom
Costs per piece Printing ceramics
Production time Printing polymers
Mass production File to factory
No tooling
No inventory/labour costs
Sustainability
Freeform design
Minimum waste
Strong
Mass customization

Properties of materials/anisotropy Metal printing
Accuracy Glass printing
Finishing Graded materials/Micro structures
Limited size/Macro scale Printing composites
Weak
Hybrid structures
Threats Opportunities

Looking at the opportunities, a clear advantage of the technique is the large geometric freedom in design
and the decrease of mistakes during construction because of the process from file to factory. The range of
materials is still developing, with ceramics and polymers as current possibilities with good material
properties and the metals, which have an ever increasing performance. The glass printing is still at the
starting point of its development, with only opaque glass produced up until now produced at the University
of Washington’s Solheim Rapid Manufacturing Laboratory in a process called Vitraglyphic. Prof. Mark
Ganter created an open 3D printing forum [Open3DP] to make the technology accessible for everyone13. To
stimulate a fast improvement he publishes in this forum the recipes for the glass powder he uses in his
laboratory.
13
Source: (open3dp.me.washington.edu, 2010)
‐36‐


As weak threats, there are the properties of materials, caused by the process of layered manufacturing. This
results in anisotropy within the material; the properties will be better in horizontal direction than in the
vertical printing direction.

The limited sizes that are commercially available are very limited. There are some processes which have
been scaled up to a size of a dashboard (Volvo, Materialize), or entire building structure14 (Contour crafting,
California). Especially the processes used for building construction have not been optimized yet. Each
building is approached as a unique project, with a very tight budget, therefore the development of new
techniques are mostly adopted from other industries. The building industry prefers to wait for others to
develop techniques for them.

A strong threat is the costs per piece. This will obviously be reduced by the commercialisation of the
techniques. The machines will drop their prices and be available for a wide range of applications. The
material will follow with the opening of the technique for the free market. The Reprap is a printer which
costs 350 Euros and is able to reproduce and upgrade itself15.

Because this technique is now in a phase of strong development, the assumption can be made that in 20 or
maybe 50 years from now, the possibilities of the technique will be changed. This development can partly
be foreseen through the current research that is done and the market situation.
A strong focus for this graduation project on the current state of technology is therefore not enough. It is
more rational to already anticipate on the development and maybe in this way stimulate technology ever
further. The SWOT analysis that we can make for the near future situation will be as follows.

SWOT analysis of the near future state of technology in Rapid Manufacturing for a use in façade design
14
Source: (www.contourcrafting.org, 2010)
15
Source: (reprap.org, 2010)
‐37‐

Mass production Geometric freedom
Printing ceramics
Printing polymers
File to factory
No tooling
No inventory/labour costs
Metal printing
Glass printing
Properties of materials/anisotropy
Mass customization
Printing composites
Sustainability
Hybrid structures
Strong
Freeform design
Minimum waste
Testing of unique products/certification Micro /Macro scale
Production time Accuracy
Weak
Finishing
Costs per piece
Threats Opportunities

‐38‐

3. Range of possibilities
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a field for the possible implementations of Rapid Manufacturing in façade design is set out,
building on the literature study in the preceding chapters and the brainstorm session.

The possibility to introduce rapid manufacturing is in a wide range of applications, but these are limited by
the specific properties of the materials and techniques in comparison to the current processes that are
available. The difficulty is to separate the useful from the useless implementations.

Additive manufacturing builds up a product layer by layer and has therefore in fact all the geometric
possibilities that other techniques can provide and even a lot more, because it is possible to create internal
structures and different scales can be easily handled, because of the computer generated products. On the
other hand, the comparison should always be made to current ‘contemporary’ techniques, whether they
are faster, more optimized or better suited for the circumstances. Per project can be decided if the extra
features that rapid manufacturing can provide, add up to extra costs, etc. It is difficult to assign specific
rules for rapid manufacturing and make a comparison when it is useful or useless to apply; this should be
done per project and will differ over time while the technique develops.

The main advantages of printing applied in the building industry can especially be found in:
‐ Unique or series production/elements
‐ Small tolerances
‐ Combination of techniques and materials
‐ Small scale; material design on nano‐scale
‐ Large scale; endless printing
‐ Internal structures and function integration
‐ To limit the amount of parts and producers

The position that is taken by printing directly from the 3D file can vary widely between applications and
scales. A careful deliberation should be made in relation to the other existing techniques to produce a
product. While printing has some extensive advantages in comparison to other techniques, it also has some
disadvantages which should be taken into account. Where is it useful to introduce printing and what are the
consequences for the design; where is extra value created compared to a ‘normal’ production technique
and/or how does it use the main benefits of RM?

‐39‐

3.2 The RM’ed building
3.2.1 Scale and production
The implementations can be on a very big level (building size) to very small components, like a door handle
or even screw size.
Figure 51 Component scale

Current rapid prototyping machines are able to print with a maximum at about 30 x 30 x 30 centimetres,
because of the size of the machines and the factories.
If the market develops a request for products on a larger scale, the producers will anticipate and try to solve
the difficulties that are coherent to the up‐scaling of a process. In the building industry, already some
experiments have been done with the production of printed structures at a building size. Contour Crafting is
experimenting with concrete printing in America and in Italy an initiative resulted in a printed Monolite
structure with gravel as a base material. The development in scale for printed objects will take years, which
means for the application path of RP in the building industry that probably first parts of components can be
printed, before the actual façade elements are ready for production.

A future vision, though, is the possibility to create an entire building in one go. No additional handlings,
except for an on‐site printer which is able to print everything, from the main structure to the window frame
and interior finishes. The share of building mistakes would decrease, which is a problem in the building
industry. In current building projects, about 30% of the investment costs are caused by mistakes during
construction. A print file can be checked easily and mistakes can be foreseen and diminished.
3.2.2 Function integration
When we think about future buildings, the free formed shapes are popping up in every architect’s brain.
The geometric freedom is able to step away from the mass production of façade component types to make
a project feasible, because for RM it does not matter if each component is the same or totally different.
Nowadays all the free formed structures have had a lot of compromises for structural reasons, but also for
‐40‐

production reasons.

Façade components would not need to be assembled anymore; the manual labour is decreased by the
printing process which means a decrease in investment costs for mistakes at the building site. All the
functional elements can already be integrated in the printed component in one continuous process.
Figure 52 The integral wall: Material has the required composition differing over the cross section.

The entire structure is acting as a fool proof element, where over the section each function is provided at
the exact correct spot and the desired materials are used.

Figure 53 Function arrangement

The façade operates as a barrier between inside and outside and therefore needs to adjust itself
continuously to the current situation. The preferences of the user are also of great importance. In modern
office buildings, more and more installations are integrated in the building skin; a de‐central instead of a
central approach. The complicated structures can be easily printed instead of installed on site, where the
chance of mistakes and broken parts can be avoided.

‐41‐

The building skin could be build up from a continuous graded material, which has only the properties that
are needed at the place where they are needed by influencing the density and composition of the material.
The section is optimized for its purpose considering f.e. structure and climate aspects.

Figure 54 Integral façade

The possibility to create internal structures makes it possible to add these functions to the desired place in
the cross section. Not only the density of the material can be changed, but also other parameters that
shape the façade. For example overhangs can be created and the section of the material. By influencing
these, different properties can be designed to be placed where necessary, with the expression that is
wanted by the designer, leaving the design totally free from material properties.

Figure 55 Material design on nano‐scale
‐42‐

‐43‐

Part 2; Implementation: ‘Towards an innovative shading device’
‐44‐

4 Concept
4.1 Introduction
The conclusions from the preceding part of this report are giving a direction for the following research and
design part. The goal is to see how rapid manufacturing could influence the architectural design by
rethinking current systems.
In this part, the treatment of daylight is taken as a research topic. At first, the properties of daylight are
analysed and an approach is described. The subcategories are examined in more detail and conclusions are
drawn.
The design for a façade is made from these conclusions. This is done in two ways. First the common
techniques are used to design a façade system. In the second design, one more step is taken in a futuristic
approach for rapid manufacturing. The extra value of printing this system will be evaluated and the
research question is answered in the final conclusions. To give a perspective on the development of the
technique a time path is made to show what steps are in between the current way of building and the
introduction of the integral printed façade.

Figure 56 Pantheon, Rome Figure 57 Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut,

Ronchamps

4.2 Considering daylight
‘No space, architecturally, is a space unless it has natural light.’ Louis Kahn16
16
Source: (www.schoon‐licht.nl, 2010)
‐45‐


The development of facades from pre‐historic clay shells to the current mostly light weight structures with
the façade as a curtain wall, turned the building skin into an adaptive interface between the user (‐space)
and the outside world. The target to perceive a total state of transparency in the façade resulted in large
glass filled surfaces, where it is the role of the envelope to control over levels of connection and separation
to the outdoors for the comfort of occupants for privacy, security, and control of indoor conditions.

Light enables us to see architecture and is able to make architecture. Daylight has some distinct, beneficial
properties, which are important for a good indoor environment. It has, for example, a very high quality in
comparison to artificial lighting, because it contains the entire light spectrum with a very high intensity.
Another property is that it is a dynamic light source, it changes continuously over day and year and the light
of the sun is essential for the human metabolism as well. The influence on the efficiency of people in a
working environment is substantial in the way that it helps them to concentrate and perform better when
enough daylight is available.
And also not of the least importance; it is for free. In utility buildings, approximately 22% of the total energy
consumption is used for lighting17 . This amount could easily be diminished with the current state of
technique.

For an indoor environment, it is not about the
quantity of daylight entering the room, but
about the condition of incoming daylight: the
quality. Especially in office buildings, working
behind a computer screen is a known fact. The
inconvenient reflection, also called glare, on the
screen or too strong contrasts within a room
causes people to adjust their working
environment by clinging papers to the windows
and turning on the artificial lighting. An
approach only focussing on the quantity of
incoming daylight therefore does not work. But
Figure 58 Protecting the work environment amongst other aspects, attention should be
from the sun with cardboard
paid to colour rendering, differences in
brightness and glare.

The art project Flow 5.0 by Studio Roosegaarde 18 shows a totally different approach concerning
17
Source: (E. Melet, 2006)
18
Winner of the Dutch Design Award, best autonomous spatial design (2007‐2009)
‐46‐

translucency and transparency than we are used to. Hundreds of fans were placed in the city hall of The
Hague, with as a main goal for the visitor to create an illusive landscape of transparencies and winds. The
ventilators are reacting on the movement of the passenger who walks along the 10 meter long wall, causing
it to change from translucent to transparent by the actuation of the fans.

Figure 59 Flow 5.0 by Studio Roosegaarde19

This combination of a tempering of light incidence while a clear view is maintained is taken as an inspiration
for the design of a façade shading device. In this case, the device can either stand still or be turned on,
while the light and heat incidence remain the same; the view drastically increases over the two states.

Figure 60 Light incidence disk standstill Figure 61 Light incidence disk rotating

19
Source: (www.studioroosegaarde.net, 2010)
‐47‐

5 Research
5.1 Light
5.1.1 What is light?
Light is electromagnetic radiation, with those frequencies that it’s able to be seen by the human eye, in
general including ultra‐violet light and infrared light. Light can be described by its properties. The four basic
properties are intensity, wavelength of frequency, polarization and phase.

If the atoms are heated enough or end up in an excited state, the outer electrons get to a higher, also
excited, energy level. When an electron returns to a lower energy level, the released energy will be emitted
as a photon. This amount of energy determines the frequency and the wavelength and therefore the colour
of the light.

Figure 62 Electromagnetic spectrum20

Sunlight is the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Before sunlight reaches
the earth, it will be filtered through the atmosphere. Solar radiation is only present when the sun is above
the horizon.

Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. This includes the visible
spectrum, infrared and ultra‐violet light.
20
Source: (G.D. Ander, 2003)
‐48‐

Figure 63 Power density vs. wavelength21

5.1.2 The importance of daylight
The world is concerned about global warming, carbon emissions and sustainable design, whereby the
planned use of natural light in non‐residential buildings has become a very important strategy to reduce the
energy consumption by minimizing lighting, heating and cooling loads.

Daylight is acknowledged to be very important for people. In architecture it is not only used for art, but also
because of the scientific studies about the dependency of people on natural light. Since the era of
Enlightenment, architects began to see the importance and started to interweave daylight‐design as a part
of architecture22. Nowadays, the façade is often as transparent as possible allowing daylight inside the
working space and reference to and view of the outside world. But there is also a counter side to the light of
the sun; overheating and glare form serious threats for the working environment. Light controlling systems
protect people from inconvenient light and artificial lighting is added.

The unique properties of the light of the sun can not easily be replaced by artificial lighting. Daylight has the
complete light spectrum with high intensity, which artificial light cannot copy. In the light schemes of
artificial light you will notice missing wavelengths. Test results prove that people need the complete light
spectrum for mental and health reasons. Artificial light is very monotone, daylight changes over the day
because of the rotation of the earth and the differing weather conditions; changing angles and intensity.
The human metabolism requires sunlight, because the blue part of the spectrum slows down the bodies’
production of Melatonin, the hormone responsible for day and night rhythm. The morning light therefore
carries relatively much blue light, while in the late afternoon the light turns red activating the hormone
production again. When there is too little light, the human body will interpret this as being night, so the
body keeps on releasing melatonin and the person will feel sleepy. This can even cause depression or sleep
21
Source: (perswww.kuleuven.be, 2010)
22
Source: (N. Baker, 2002)
‐49‐

disorders.

Inside an office room in the Netherlands there are certain requirements when it comes to lighting. All
working places need to have a certain glass surface. This is defined in the Dutch Building Decree, NEN 2057.
For unobstructed non‐residential buildings, this legislation requires 0,03 m2 glass surface for each m2 user’s
area, unless the room will be used more than two hours; then the requirement will be 0,05m2 glass/m2
user’s area. The glass window will provide occupants of view and will improve their health. In some
exceptional cases, it is not possible to make a window in the room, because it will give a conflict to other
requirements of the Building Decree.

Another requirement of the Dutch Building Decree is the luminance in the offices. In general this required
luminance is 500 Lux on each working space. Some very detailed work requires 1000lux. Most perfect will
be when the sun provides this amount of Lux, but unfortunately in practice this is not often the case.
Therefore additional artificial light is needed.

Figure 64 Possibilities to influence Figure 65 Commercial electricity use24

daylight in buildings23

The role of sun shading in an adaptive façade is to be able to react on different thermal requirements
during the year. The complete different angles of the sun and weather conditions in the summer and the
winter require a system that can be optimized for the occurring situation. Where the energy gain of the sun
is preferred to enter the room in the winter; in summer it is better shut out to prevent overheating. Sun
protection could be in the connection to the urban environment (protection by neighbouring buildings) as
well as in passive or active shading devices on the building itself.

23
Source: (M. Hegger, 2008)
24
Source: (G.D. Ander, 2003)
‐50‐

5.1.3 Properties of daylight
The human eye can only perceive wavelengths of daylight in the range of 380‐780nm without auxiliary
equipment. The radiation lengths silicate glass permits are in the range of 315‐3000nm. Only parts of this
range of light falling on the glass surface are transmitted; another part will be reflected and the last part will
be absorbed.

Figure 66 Specular, scattered and diffuse reflection25

There are three different types of reflection: specular reflection, diffuse reflection and scattered reflection.
Specular reflection is the reflection of the radiation in the same angle. Diffuse reflection is the reflection of
the radiation in all angles (diffuse). And scattered reflection is when both types of reflection happen
simultaneously. The quantity of reflected light can be expressed in the light reflection factor RL. For
comparison:
‐ exterior light reflection of single glass: 8%
‐ exterior light reflection of insulated glass: 14%
‐ exterior light reflection of glass with Low‐E coating: 11‐12%

A part of the incident light will be absorbed by the material. Light will then be transferred into heat. Each
material has its own absorption coefficient. The amount of absorbed light is determined by the colour, the
structure and the density of the material.

Important for view and sight is the transmission of light through a glass pane. The transmission is influenced
by the refractive index of light. Refraction of light is the change in direction of ray of light due to change in
its speed. The quantity of transmitted light can be expressed in the light transmission factor TL. For
comparison:
‐ TL value of single glass: 89%
‐ TL value of insulated glass: 82%
‐ TL value of glass with Low‐E coating: 74%
25
Source: (J. Renckens, 1996)
‐51‐

5.1.4 Measuring light
There is a difference between daylight and sunlight, which should be separated in use. Sunlight can be
defined as the light flux (the measure of the quantity of light) supplied by direct solar radiation. Daylight, on
the other hand, is the light flux jointly delivered by direct and diffuse solar radiation. This is used for the
available quantity of natural light. In a room, the quantity of daylight is dependent on the how the light is
guided into a space. The daylight cannot be influenced, but the lighting of a space by daylighting can be
determined by the design of a building.

A light source is defined by its luminous flux, which is the measure of the perceived power of light, adjusted
to the sensitivity of the human eye for different wavelengths of light and is measured in lumen. The human
eye can only see light in the visible spectrum and has different sensitivities to light of different wavelengths
within the spectrum. The eye is most sensitive to greenish‐yellow light at 555 nm. Light with the same
radiant intensity at other wavelengths therefore has a lower luminous intensity.
The luminous intensity (cd) is used to define the power emitted by a light source in a particular direction
per unit solid angle and is also adjusted for the different wavelengths. The luminous flux on a surface is
measured in the illuminance (lux).
The brightness that is experienced by the human eye is measured in the luminance to characterise the
emission or reflection from flat, diffuse surfaces. It defines the intensity per unit area of light travelling in a
given direction.

1. Luminous flux (lumen)
2. Luminous intensity (cd)
3. Illuminance (Lux)

4. Luminance (cd/m2)
Figure 67 Defining light

For daylight, a daylight factor is used to define the relation between the density of light on any surface and
the intensity of light measured in the free field on a horizontal surface with a cloudy sky (CIE sky). In office
rooms, a daylight factor of at least 3 to 5% is needed at 1,5m distance from the façade.

5.1.5 Comfort
The luminance necessary for a specific function differs. For a school, 300 Lux is required, while this is 500
Lux for an office space. For a museum, the requirements are more difficult and change over the collection,
because the art pieces should not be damaged in any way and in the same time, the view should be optimal.
Whether a situation is comfortable for the eye depends on the amount of luminance and on the contrasts
‐52‐

within the room. Depending on the adaptation level, the eye adapts its sensitivity so that a limited range of
luminance is perceived (perhaps 1:100). In the graph below, the luminances lying below the lower bound
are perceived as black shadows and, on the other hand, luminances lying above the upper level appear as
glaring. These are no sharp boundaries, but are experienced gradually.

Figure 68 Effect of visual adaptation26

Within the direct visual field, the contrasts in luminance may not exceed 1:10, as a rule of thumb, while in a
wider range 1:30 is the maximum. This means that a computer in front of a window is in fact always a
problem, because the large differences in luminance lead to excessive fatiguing and loss of perception.

Figure 69 South oriented class room Figure 70 North oriented class room27

In the example in figure 69 and 70, two classrooms are shown with the luminance indicated in number over
the picture. The first picture shows a classroom at the south side of the building, in the second the room is
at the north side. The contrast differences make the southern room very difficult to work in, while on the
north side diffuse light incidence diminishes the contrasts within the room, but additional artificial lighting
is required.
26
Source: (N. Baker, 2002)
27
‐53‐

5.2 Light incidence
Developing the concept, the assumption was done that the total amount of incoming light would stay the
same for rotating and non‐rotating elements. When there is no rotation, the contrast between where the
light can fall through freely and where the disk hinders this incidence, is quite large. When the disk is
rotating, there is no contrast; the penetrating light gives an even surface for the eye. The assumption is that
the intensity is the average of the intensities in standstill.
In this section, this assumption is checked by using hand calculations and a Lux meter to measure the
quantities of light incidence.

Figure 71 Light incidence 50% closed disk, off Figure 72 Light incidence 50% closed disk, on
Figure 73 Light incidence 95% closed disk, off Figure 74 Light incidence 95% closed disk, on

5.2.1 Hand calculation
The LTA value is a property that describes the amount of light that is falling through an element. It can be
calculated as follows:
‐54‐


(a) Off (b) On
Figure 75 Light flow through a glazing Figure 76 Example disk, 50% closed surface
unit with in‐between shading device

For a 50% closed disk (figure 76), there are two conditions: off and on (standstill and rotating).
As a factor for the reflection is taken: r1=r2=r3=0.1
As a factor for the absorption is taken: a1=a2=a3=0.1

Off:

Average LTA = 0.26
On:

LTA = 0.26
In the hand calculation, the LTA value is 0.26 for both situations.
5.2.2 Lux meter
The measuring compilation includes a Lux‐sensor

attached to a Lux‐meter, a completely closed black
box with exception of the size of a disk and a
transformer to drive the motor attached to the
window that is able to carry the disk. The Lux‐sensor is

placed parallel (vertical) to the façade to assure that
only the direct light is measured. The diffuse
reflection of the surfaces in the box does, in this way,
not interfere with the results. Figure 77 Measuring compilation
‐55‐


One measurement is done following three steps: 1. Reference situation, there is no disk in the compilation;
2. the disk is placed in the compilation; 3. the disk is placed and driven at a speed of 250 Hz. A second test is
performed directly after the first following the same process. The entire test (1 and 2 combined) is
considered valid if the intensity of measurement 1. (reference situation) does not deviate more than 10%
between the first and second test result 28 . If the measurement is valid, the average of the two
measurements is taken as a starting point and is normalized over all the measurements to make them
comparable.
The firmament can be considered a CIE overcast sky which is a cloudy sky where the luminance division is
not dependent on the orientation29.

1. Without disk 2. With disk, no rotation 3. With disk, rotating at 250 Hz

For a disk with 50% closed surface and a disk with 95% closed surface, the following results were found
from the measurements:

600
500
400
Illuminance (Lux)
No disk
300 Disk, 0Hz
Disk, 250Hz

200
100
0
1 2
Figure 78 Light incidence; (1) 50% closed disk, (2) 95% closed disk

The measurement shows that in case of standstill and in case of rotation, the light incidence is the same.
28
Verbal agreement H. Hellinga (2010)
29
‐56‐


This procedure was followed for a range of measurements for varying purposes. The results of these
measurements are added in the relevant sections.
‐57‐

5.3 Heat incidence
The shading device is implemented in between glass sheets. In this case, the heat incidence into a room is
caused by the heat that is transmitted directly through the device and another part is the heat that is
absorbed by the device and radiated to the glass sheets. Radiation and convection transport the heat into
the room.
An in‐between shading device (Figure 61c) blocks a part of the heat that is travelling with the daylight into
the room. While the device can be turned on or off, the amount of heat incidence by the sun is not
changing. Even when the device is turned on, creating a clear view outside, the heat is still blocked.

(a) No shading (b) Outside shading façade In between (d) Inside shading
device device shading device device
Figure 79 Working principles of shading devices

The ZTA value of glass indicates the sun entry factor of the façade. This value is calculated as follows:

To draw a comparison, a double glazing unit has a ZTA value of approximately 0.7 and an outside shading
device has a ZTA of 0.1. An in‐between shading device will have a ZTA value of approximately 0.3.30

30
Source: (van der Linden, 2005)
‐58‐

5.4 Perception
5.4.1 Movement
A movement can be defined as a change of location and time. Each movement can be described as either a
translation or a rotation or as a combination of the two (figures 80 and 81).

Figure 80 Translation Figure 81 Rotation

A movement can be divided in a uniform or a non‐uniform motion. In the first situation, the speed of the
movement does not change over time or direction. There can be different kinds of uniform movement; the
movement can be a uniform consistent movement, a uniform acceleration, or a uniform circular movement.
A non‐uniform movement accelerates its speed, the acceleration is not constant.
A rotating movement starts with an acceleration from standstill and than stabilizes in a uniform motion.
This situation costs less energy than a non‐uniform movement and is therefore more economic than a side
wards translation.
5.4.2 Relation open/close
When using disks as a facilitator of sun introduction into a room, it is important to know the maximum rate
of closed surface. The main interest is to preserve the quality to see through. The objects behind the disk
should be clearly visible in order to be able to serve as a transparent sun shading device.
The disk with 98% closed surface is not transparent enough, because the objects behind the disk cannot be
recognised. With 95% closed surface over the disk, on the other hand, the objects outside can be
recognised. A 50% closed surface gives a totally clear vision on the environment outside.

‐59‐

Figure 82 98% closed surface divided over 1 Figure 83 95% closed surface over 1 opening

opening
Figure 84 95% closed surface divided over 4 Figure 85 50% closed surface divided over 4
openings openings

Two disks with the same percentage of openness, in this case 95%, are compared. The first disk has only
one opening; the second disk has its opened surface spread over four openings. Measuring the intensity of
the light intensity behind the disks, the conclusion can be drawn that the amount of openings is not
important for the light flux (figure 86).
600
500
400
Illuminance (Lux)
No disk
300 Disk, 0Hz
Disk, 250Hz

200
100
0
1 2 3
Figure 86 Measurements comparing light incidence (1) 95% closed disk, 1 opening; (2) 95% closed
disk, 4 openings; and (3) 50% closed disk, 4 openings
‐60‐

5.4.3 Frequency

Figure 87 Low frequency Figure 88 High frequency

The human eye is able to process 24 images per second. This is something that can be experienced when
looking at car wheels during acceleration; they appear to spin backwards instead of forward at first,
because the brains are processing the images they receive faster than the actual movement.
The frequency in which the disks are rotating has an influence on the perception of the human eye. This can
be compared to the refresh rate of a computer screen or a television screen. Early television screens had a
refresh rate of 50 Hz, which means that the screen refreshes 50 times per second. Nowadays, it is possible
to buy modern CRT screens that are flicker‐free which are able to produce up to 100 Hz.
For a computer display, the size of the screen also has an influence on the perception. A 15’’ display can be
comfortable with a rate of 60‐72 Hz, while a 17’’ display needs a 85 Hz refresh rate in order to be
comfortable. Again 100 Hz gives a very good quality and is comfortable for the eyes, but there are even LCD
monitors which operate around 200 Hz.
The power of the motors, the transformer and the weight, width and materialization of the disks are factors
that determine the speed and therefore the perception of the device. The faster the rotation, the less the
brain can detect any movement at all, which results in a steady image.
5.4.4 Pattern
In the first tests, symmetrical divisions from the centre with linear wings have been used to determine the
transparency rates. The pattern could also be arranged in a different way, creating a different façade
appearance. The level of transparency over the cross section determines a pattern in the transparency even
if it rotates. The disk will show darker and lighter rings over the section where the transparency changes
when it is in motion.

‐61‐


Figure 89 Chess board pattern Figure 90 Dots

There is a large freedom in the design of the disks; some experiments are shown in the figures 89 and 90.
The chess pattern is changing from high to low transparency and shows three rings where the density is
higher. The dots show a gradient from completely transparent to a higher density.
Combining the two approaches, a symmetrical division with changing transparencies, result in designs as
shown in figures 91 and 92, where the wings are composed in a non‐linear way. When in motion, the disks
show a gradient over the cross section, which changes gradually from less to more transparency.

Figure 91 Varying transparency from in‐ to Figure 92 Varying transparency from in‐ to
outside disk outside disk

5.4.5 Colour
The perception of an architectural space is mainly done by light reflecting from surfaces. It is therefore an
architectural task to design texture, reflectance and colour as properties of a room. The colour of the disks
also has an impact on the perception and the view outside. The picture shows an example of subtractive
colour mixing, which is the result when different pigments are mixed. The primary subtractive colours are
red, yellow and blue, from which all other colours are derived. In the picture can be seen that each
individual colour has a different influence on the perception of the behind laying surroundings.

‐62‐

Figure 93 Subtractive colour

Black and white both have their own specific properties that can be used for the design. White reflects the
light that falls on its surface for a large part. In Mediterranean countries, the houses are often painted in
light colours to keep the heat out for the largest part. For a sun shading device it would also be an
advantage if it could reflect the heat outside.

Figure 94 Contrast

Contrast is defined as the difference in brightness. What happens for example to the colour of the middle
square in the picture above? Because the eye takes a reference image, the grey square seems to become
darker from left to right.
With the disks something comparable is happening. The black disks appear to brighten up the colours of the
environment, while the white disks seem to make the colours lighter. The brain processes the image with
the reference colour of the disk and relates the other colours to this. This is why, the behind laying colours
seem brighter to the human eye as if it were stronger colours, because of the interaction of the hues of disk
and environment.

‐63‐

Figure 95 Black_50% openings Figure 96 White_50% openings

Figure 97 Black_95% openings Figure 98 White_95% openings

The colours seem brighter, but the light that is entering the room is the same as with a white disk as can be
seen in the graphs (figures 99 and 100).

Influence of colour
600
500
400
Illuminance (Lux)
No disk
300 Disk, 0Hz
Disk, 250Hz
200
100
0
1 2
Figure 99 Measurements comparing light incidence (1) 50% closed disk, white; (2) 50% closed disk,
black

‐64‐

600
500
400
Illuminance (Lux)
No disk
300 Disk, 0Hz
Disk, 250Hz
200
100
0
1 2
Figure 100 Measurements comparing light incidence (1) 95% closed disk, white; (2) 95% closed disk,
black

‐65‐

5.5 Scale
The scale of the shading device is not defined by technical impossibilities, because if we look at examples of
rotating devices we can find a scale range from a micro fan to the Ferris wheel in London. If we consider the
building scale, we can find some restrictions. In an office building, for example, it is necessary to have an
acoustic and fire barrier between floors to provide a good working environment. A disk for this building
typology would therefore probably not exceed about 3 meters.
The smallest motor that can be produced defines the minimal size that can be used nowadays. The disk
should be transparent enough to guarantee sufficient view.
Another restriction is the depth of the motor. The bigger the power, the bigger the depth of the motor. The
detailing of the façade package will therefore change with the depth of the drive. Where a small motor can
be integrated in a double glass unit, a large motor should probably be designed to be placed in between a
double skin façade.

Figure 101 Sepa micro fans31 Figure 102 The London Eye Ferris Wheel32
Dimensions: 10x10x2 mm Diameter: 120.000 mm

31
Source: (www.sepa‐europe.com, 2010)
32
Source: (www.londoneye.com, 2010)
‐66‐

5.6 Conclusions
From the research to the sub‐aspects of using rotating disks as a shading device, the conclusions show a
wide range within solutions, that represents the freedom for design. The implementation of the devices can
be adapted within certain boundaries to the creativity of the architect.
The conclusions from the aspects are shortly described here.

Light and heat incidence
‐ The heat and light incidence in the room remains the same in standstill or rotation, while the view
increases over the two states.

Transparency
‐ 98% Closed surface does not provide enough transparency to see through, 95% does.
‐ The number of openings does not have an influence on the light penetration or view when the disk is in
motion.
‐ A 50% closed disk gives a very clear view.

Pattern
‐ A non‐symmetrical division of the infill of a disk results in rings with more and less transparency when the
disk is in motion.
‐ This effect can also be reached more gradually by using wings with a varying section other than linear.

Colour
‐ A white or reflective surface outside is able to reflect heat.
‐ A dark colour of the disk make the colours of the environment appear stronger in comparison to a white
disk, because the brain processes the image using the colour of the disk as a reference.

Scale
‐ The building design and function is defining restrictions for the scale of the disks.
‐ The size of the drives too defines the detailing of the façade, whether it can be implemented in a double
glazing unit or should be incorporated in a double façade.

‐67‐

6 Design
6.1 Design intention
The design intention is to research possibilities to implement the concept of rotating disks in a façade as
light adapting elements to improve the office climate.
The disks have a major influence on the architecture to be built up from or with a circle mesh. The
application is able to vary widely from additional element to architectural tool.

Figure 103 Technical solution as additional elements Figure 104 Technical solution as an architectural
tool33

The consideration to make technique superior or inferior in the architectural design process, determines
the overall performance of a building regarding energy use, comfort parameters and architecture. The
integration of technical solutions should be leading in the façade design from the early start of the project.

Architectural firms over the world use circular meshes to design their facades and distinguish their design
from others. To interweave the shading devices in an architectural design for facades, these projects are
taken as a source of inspiration.
33
J. Nouvel, Institute du Monde Arabe, Paris
‐68‐

Figure 105 Circular mesh Figure 106 BIG Architects, Peoples Building Shanghai

Figure 107 Façade mesh Figure 108 Foster, World expo, Shanghai

Figure 109 BIG Architects, Tivoli retail shop, Figure 110 BIG Architects, Tivoli retail shop,
Copenhagen interior, Copenhagen

‐69‐

It is possible to apply the shading devices in a random project even for existing buildings. The devices can be
incorporated in between a double glazing unit and function as a shading device. The design in size and
layout is done according to the preference of the architect, users and/or function of the building. This can
be regarded as an update for each building which has a big impact on the building design and performance.

When Rapid Manufacturing is considered as a production technique, the implementation of this shading
concept in a façade could lead to a different design, because of changing variables. The advantages that RM
brings cause a different view into the production and integration in a façade design. A futuristic RM‐inspired
approach explores the impact of technical developments on design, with a focus on the drive of the
components; combining maximum flexibility with minimal power to drive the elements. The use of RM for
the production of a façade panel with an integrated shading device anticipates on a certain development of
the technique because of the problems that should be solved. In a time path, the development towards the
fully printed integral façade is shown.

‐70‐

6.2 Upgrade
In this section, one variant is developed as an architectural design for a contemporary façade that uses the
rotating elements as a shading device.

Figure 111 Façade design ‘Upgrade’, interior view, standstill

Figure 112 Façade design ‘Upgrade’, interior view, rotating

‐71‐

6.2.1 Context
The design for a façade proposed in this section is made for a building with an office function. The literature
study showed that the modern way to build facades is by using a curtain wall system. This system is also
taken as a starting point for the design in this section, where contemporary methods are used for
production.
The name of this variant is ‘Upgrade’ because it is possible to apply the design even for buildings that are
already build. The shading device can be used as an additional element in the design; in fact in any building.
The design can be integrated as an addition to a glass façade or window with elements placed in between
two glass sheets and sealed like a normal double glass unit.

The proposed façade design uses a climate design with a central controlled air inlet. The air is preheated
when entering the room. The outlet is done via the light armatures. For additional heating, a convector unit
is placed in the floor slab close to the façade. Ventilation with fresh air can be done by opening parts of the
façade.

Figure 113 Climate concept office

6.2.2 Façade design
From the research done to the shading devices, a contrast was found between the disks when they are
rotating and when they are standing still. A radial organized variant, with 50% transparency over the surface
provides the biggest contrast between rotating and standing still.

‐72‐

Figure 114 Disk with 50% closed surface in a radial Figure 115 Disk with 50% closed surface in a radial
pattern, not rotating pattern, rotating

When standing still, the pattern caused by the light incidence is very specific, while when in rotation; the
surface becomes totally clear, providing a clear view outside. The shading device acts as an ornament for
the light introduction into the space. This can be seen in figures 128 and 129 from the research above.

Figure 116 Interior view; sun shading as an ornament34

Measurements show that the pattern does not interfere with the amount of light that is penetrating the
disk, as it is the same for the linear pattern as for this radial organized variant (Figure 131).

34
‘Dubbel en dwars’‐house, Berger Barnett Architecten
‐73‐

600
500
Illuminance (Lux)
400
No disk
300 Disk, 0Hz

Disk, 250Hz
200
100
0
1 2
Figure 117 Measurements comparing light incidence (1) 50% closed disk, linear; (2) 50% closed disk,
radial

Figure 118 Façade view
‐74‐

6.2.3 Materialization
The façade uses double glazing units. In these units, the disks are integrated in between the glazing. The
motor is attached to a glass panel and carries the disk that is glued to its surface. The motor and its wiring
would look messy if it is kept in sight. Therefore there are two foils on both sides glued to the glass that
cover the technical equipment necessary for the drive of the devices.

Figure 119 Exploded view double glazing unit; layers from left to right (1) glass, (2) foil, (3) disk, (4) motor,
(5) foil, (6) glass

The double glazing panels are prepared in a factory, where the devices and the foils are placed in between
the glass sheets. After this is done, the glass unit can be sealed. The wiring is lead to a central point, where
the wiring comes out of the unit through the layer of silicon. At this point, the wiring can be transported to
a point in the office where power and a switch is attached. This can for example be done via the posts.
‐75‐

6.3 Rapid manufacturing
By stepping aside the current techniques that are used and try to involve a new technique, which is not yet
fully developed, totally new inspirations come to mind. A free choice in materials and large freedom in
geometry will cause the façade to become different than a contemporary design would be.

Figure 120 Façade design ‘RM’, interior view, not rotating

Figure 121 Façade design ‘RM’, interior view, rotating
‐76‐

6.3.1 Reinventing the wheel
The contemporary drive that is used in the design with motors could be reconsidered here. Magnetism is a
more sustainable way to drive the shading devices and by activating the outer ring instead of the central
axis, the device would have a total freedom in design.

Figure 122 Peugeot concept bicycle

The wheel had for ages and ages the same principle with the drive from the central axis. But this year the
designers of Peugeot launched a concept bicycle where the back wheel is totally spoke less, creating a
freedom in design which was not possible before.

Figure 123 Magnetic train (Transrapid) Figure 124 Exploded view Transrapid

The Transrapid train is a magnetic driven train which can catch very high speeds. The drive used for this
method is called a linear induction motor (LIM) and is based, just like an electromotor, on a changing
magnetic field. A LIM consist of a row of electromagnets. The object that should be driven, in this case the
train (or the disk), carries magnets with a permanent polarity. By driving the magnets along the trail in a
way that they change polarity at the correct moment can drive a vehicle on a magnetic wave.
‐77‐


Figure 125 Concept Transrapid drive

If we consider the LIM as a solution for the drive, the moving parts can be totally unconnected from each
other. This means that there is no wear because of the rotation and using RM, it is possible to print a fool‐
proof element that does not need to be maintained.

6.3.2 Façade design
The concept bicycle with a spokeless back wheel is an inspiration for the design of the printed façade. The
technique provides total freedom in design, where solutions like different driving mechanisms can be easily
implemented. The principle of the magnetic driven Transrapid train can be used to deduct the main
principle of the linear motor for the drive of the shading device. By activating the outer ring instead of the
middle axis, the design for the disks can be totally free for an overall façade design.
For the lighting in a building, it is considered more valuable to have interesting daylight incidence into a
room than just as much as possible. When the disks are in motion, the experience is totally different than
when standing still.

The change from a central drive to a perimeter drive gives a range of design possibilities.

Figure 126 Design variants

‐78‐

For this design, only one variant has been developed into further detail. As a basic principle, the freedom in
design, caused by the perimeter drive, and the light incidence is taken.

Figure 127 Light incidence in forest

Jean Nouvel also played with this principle of light incidence in a room in his design for the Louvre in Abu
Dhabi.

Figure 128 Interior render, Louvre, Abu Dhabi, Jean Nouvel

The size of the windows does not have to be repeatable over the façade, because the design can be
independent of the production when RM is used.

‐79‐

Figure 129 Façade view
Figure 130 Rotating device (using motor drive)
‐80‐

6.3.3 Materialization

Figure 130 Principle render RM façade Figure 131 Principle of the rapid

prototyped façade, with integrated
structures (disk and magnetic trail)
and graded material (metal, glass,
insulation)

The shading device is integrated in an integral façade design. The rotation that is needed to activate the
device requires internal structures. Because RM is able to produce internal structures, the disk can be
implemented in between two glass sheets that protect it from outer influences and wind.
In the detailing there is some tolerance between the disk and the outer ring, to make the rotation possible.
Once power is added to the device, a magnetic field occurs and the disk is ‘floating’ inside the casing. During
rotation, the parts will not be in contact with each other so no wear occurs because of friction.

If we look in general at the material design for the realization of the functions in a building skin, we find that
the cold bridges should be solved by an insulating material, the transparency by a glass material while the
load bearing function of a façade requires a metal material and the conducting trail can also be printed
from a metal. The insulation can be printed from glass fibre.

Glass and metal have a material behaviour that could be compatible for printing at the same temperatures
in one process. Metals have a crystalline structure, which cause it to melt above the temperature Tf and
become a liquid. When this happens, the volume increase stops. Because glass does not have a crystalline
structure, it does not have a melting temperature, but it continuously softens under temperature rise and
‐81‐

its volume will increase until the same amount of a liquid crystalline structure in melted state above Te.
Figure 132 Glass; ratio of volume and temperature35

While metal printing has already developed quite far, with very high qualities as a result, glass printing is
more in the start of its development. There are already examples of glass printing available. One technique
is developed by TNO for the Institute of sound and vision in Hilversum. In the printing process, coloured
glass powder is applied on the glass panes, which is then heated in an oven until the glass powder melts
together with the pane. Using this technique, not only the durability becomes better, the colours more
intense, but also the perception of the façade is intensified.

Figure 133 Dutch Institute for Vision and Sound, Hilversum

Another way of printing glass is developed at the University of Washington’s Solheim Rapid Manufacturing
Laboratory and is called Vitraglyphic. The projects are printed using a 3D printer where powder is bonded
by a liquid binder material. This technique is still in development, trying to work on the level of
transparency and dealing with the enormous shrinkage during the baking process. The responsible
35
Source: (Lohmeyer, 1979)
‐82‐

professor Mark Ganter created an open 3D printing forum to make the technique accessible for everyone in
order to speed up the development.
Figure 134 Vytraglyphic glass printing

‐83‐

6.4 Time path
RM has production properties that can enable the development of façade design with a large freedom,
because of, amongst others, internal structures, function integration and the use of materials. But the
development of the technique cannot be completely foreseen. To produce a fully integral façade with RM
some developments are necessary that cannot be expected on a short notice.

The façade design for a shading device shows that materials should be combined into one graded material.
The functions insulating, load bearing, conducting and transparency are solved with a design using fibre
glass material, metal and glass.

Before it is possible to print a fully integral façade as is suggested in the case study design for a shading
device, there will be some steps in between. The printing of an integral façade requires printing on a large
scale in combination with a very high detail level, which is at this moment not yet possible. The
development could take probably about 50 more years and in the mean time, the technique can be used as
a part of the solution for façade building.

6.2 6.4.1 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.3 6.4.336

Figure 135 Time path for the introduction of RM in façade design

6.4.1 Hybrid process
It is interesting to look into further depth to the actual extra value that is created by using RM and what
36
Paragraphs where the design descriptions can be found
‐84‐

parts could be better produced with a different technique in a hybrid production process. In the case study
design, the advantages of RM are very useful to create moving parts with small tolerances and internal
structures. The drive is another part that can be integrated in the structure. The combination of metal and
glass is an extra value because of the combination of the solid metal part of the disk and the glass that
protects the shading. The insulating part can be questioned, because of the cheap and numerous existing
production techniques.
A combination of techniques is considered in the following two variants.

Figure 136 Variant 1. Using provisions in the Figure 137 Variant 2. Combining the integrated

design to add insulation afterwards to the shading device with a sandwich panel.
façade.

A façade design could require the use of rapid manufacturing for specific applications. It can in this case be
advantageous to produce the entire façade using only one production process. The possibility to produce
with several production techniques and combine RM with another process (or other processes) is also
thinkable.

6.4.2 Integral vs. modular
Karl Ulrich describes his vision on product development in the article Product Architecture37 using two main
approaches; integral and modular. In these approaches, the arrangement of functional elements differs as
can be described using the example of the design for a tea cup.
37
Source: (Ulrich, 1995)
‐85‐


Figure 138 Modular product design based on Karl Ulrich

Figure 139 Integral product design based on Karl Ulrich38

In the case study, the integral approach was used to produce a
façade completely from RM, with the shading device and other
functions integrated.

The shading device can also be considered to have only the
property of shading, while the load bearing and insulating is done
in a separate layer.

In the integral approach, RM solves all the functions in the
façade, while in a modular approach RM is only used for a specific
part of the façade.
Figure 140 Modular approach; (1)
shading, (2) insulating, (3) load
bearing

6.4.3 Printed building
The RM façade should be printed on site and connected to the main structure. RM is able to handle very
small tolerances. If only the façade would be printed, the connection to the main structure should still use
the tolerances for in situ concrete, which are centimetres.
To gain full profit from the small tolerances, the entire building, including main structure, façade and
finishing, could be designed and produced with RM at once.
38
Source: (Heesbeen, 2010)
‐86‐

Figure 141 Printing façade and building structure

‐87‐

‐88‐

‐89‐

Part 3; Evaluation

‐90‐

7 Evaluation
7.1 Conclusions
What is the perspective for the introduction of rapid manufacturing in future façade design?

The goal of this master thesis was to find an answer to the above stated question by investigating the
separate subjects into depth and perform a case study to a functionally integral façade produced with rapid
manufacturing. This case study was done to the integration of an innovative moving shading device in the
façade that influences the quality of the incoming daylight. The results of both parts can be interpreted to
find an answer to the research question.

Theory
From the literature study can be concluded that facades have evolved over history towards the modern
curtain walls. The detailing of the curtain walls has become very complicated with the optimization over the
last 50 years. From the field of product development can be found that during product sophistication, there
is a phase of rapid change at the start, which levels out to a phase of improvements, where the façade
design of the curtain wall is assumed to be in nowadays. In this thesis study, research has been done
whether a new technology in the form of rapid manufacturing (RM) could mean a new boost for façade
design.

Rapid manufacturing is an additive process which builds up a product layer by layer. It has therefore in fact
all the geometric possibilities that other techniques can provide and even a lot more, because it is possible
to create internal structures and different scales can be easily handled. The design is independent on
production, which can be explained by the comparison to a normal inkjet printer; it is not more economical
to print 100 sheets with the same print or 100 sheets with a unique print.

The main advantages of printing applied in the building industry can especially be found in:
‐ Unique or series production/elements
‐ Small tolerances
‐ Combination of techniques and materials
‐ Small scale; material design on nano‐scale
‐ Large scale; endless printing
‐ Internal structures and function integration
‐ To limit the amount of parts and producers

Whether RM is beneficial for a specific project as a production technique should be weighed out against the
‐91‐

other existing production techniques. Where is it useful to introduce printing and what are the
consequences for the design; where is extra value created compared to a ‘normal’ production technique
and/or how does it use the main benefits of RM? These are important questions that should be considered
for each project.

Implementation
As a case study, an innovative shading device was developed, where the incidence of daylight into a room is
the central focus. With a rotating device, a level of transparency can be combined with a block of heat and
light incidence. For the disk, the amount of open surface, the division of the open surface in a pattern and
the colour rendering are important parameters that determine the properties of the device concerning
appearance, light and heat incidence. The perception of the disks in a room differs over standstill or
rotation, because when turned on, the transparency increases and the contrasts in the incident light
pattern fade.

The current method of executing a rotating shading device in a curtain wall façade would be by using
motors as a drive for the disks. These motors are placed in between two glass sheets and sealed as a double
glazing unit. In this way the devices can be integrated in each building project, it is even possible to upgrade
an existing building with the shading devices by replacing the glazing. Difficulty will be maintenance and
replacement in case of failure, because there is no easy possibility to reach the motors or the disks inside
the glass unit.

Using RM to print the rotating shading device provides different boundary conditions. The problem of
replacement and maintenance because of wear of the devices can be solved by designing a device where
the moving parts totally don’t connect to each other, using the geometric freedom of the process. This is
done by implementing a magnetic trail in the perimeter of the disk. When turned on, the disk floats in the
casing. Each disk can be different in scale and pattern, because the design is independent on the production.
Printing this device means that transparent, load bearing and insulating material in the shape of glass, metal
and glass fibre should be printed in one process. The material behaviour of these materials makes it
reasonable to presume the development of this graded product.

There will be intermediate steps between the current facade with rotating shading devices and the fully
developed rapid manufactured facade. At this moment it is not possible to print a large range of graded
materials, the scale of a product is limited and the costs of the specialized equipment and the materials can
in most cases not yet compete with current production methods. For the introduction of the technique,
printing can be introduced to process a part of the façade in a hybrid or a modular approach, applied in the
area where the highest profit can be reached.
After an integrally printed facade, the next step will probably be a fully printed building. The tolerances of
tenths of millimetres that the printing process is able to work with are undone when the printed façade
‐92‐

should be connected to a main building structure produced from in situ concrete, with tolerances of
centimetres.

Combination
The printing technique can be considered to have a major influence on façade design. New inspirations and
concepts can be developed which were unthinkable before. The technique should especially develop its
property to print graded materials and printing on a large scale with minor tolerances to become
interesting for the fully integral façade.

In a design process the use of RM has to be considered from the concept phase on, in order to develop a
design where the technique is used to its utmost advantage. The architect should be well aware of the
possibilities of the technique and the state of development; what is possible and what not. Besides, it is
important to change the way of designing from thinking in materials that become elements that are
connected in a finished product, to a RM approach where a material is immediately processed into the final
product using the data in a CAD‐file.

7.2 Discussion

The printing of facades requires the building industry to operate in a different manner than it does at this
moment; therefore some difficulties exist for the introduction in the architectural world.

‐ In order to produce a fully integral façade with installations and structure integrated in one building skin,
the collaboration during the design process should be very close between architect and the climate and
structural designers. Nowadays, in the collaboration of the different parties within a building project,
responsibilities are extensively secured in contracts. RM provides the possibility to integrate all functions,
including installations, in the façade, produced in one process. Who carries the responsibility for which part
of the façade when all parts intersect in the design?

7.3 Recommendations

‐ The shading device shows large freedom in design for architects to implement the devices. The current
production method implements the devices between a double glass unit, therefore maintenance and
replacement in case of failure becomes difficult. More research can be done on these specific aspects of the
system.

‐ A rotating shading device will need constant power in order to work. The combination with a sustainable
‐93‐

approach should be considered. The façade could generate its own power that is needed to drive the
devices (and maybe even more).

‐ The design made in the case study only covers the integration of a sun shading device in the façade, which
also has the properties of insulating and transparency. It is interesting to do further research on an integral
façade that covers more or different combinations of functions.

‐ The design assignment could be extended to see how the façade connects to the main structure. The
tolerances of several centimetres for the main structure from in situ concrete does not compare to the tight
tolerances of tenths of a millimetre used in rapid manufacturing.

‐ In this thesis, the choice was made to perform a case study to find the perspective of rapid manufacturing
in façade design. The design process has been evaluated into conclusions about the perspective of the
technique. A more overall approach could give more general results about how architects can specifically
use the technique for a design.

‐94‐

‐95‐

Literature
Books:

Ander, G.D.; Daylighting performance and design. New Jersey, 2003. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ashby, M. F. (2008). CES Edu Package. Cambridge, UK.

Baker, N.; Steemers, A.. Daylight design of buildings. London, 2002. James & James Science publishers Ltd.

Dini, Dr. Ing. E.; D_shape Mega Scale 3DPrinter, Monolite UK LTD/London, 2007

Feldtkeller, C. (1989). Der Architektonische Raum: eine Fiktion. Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH.

Heesbeen, C. Materializing the life cycle of the façade. A strategy for sustainably materialized facades. Delft,
2010. Master thesis.

Hegger, M.; Fuchs, M.; Stark, T.; Zeumer, M. Energy manual: sustainable architecture. Birkhäuser, 2008.

Hopkinson, Neil; Hague, Richard; Dickens, Phill. Rapid Manufacturing ‐ An Industrial Revolution for the
Digital Age. Chichister, England 2006, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.

Knaack, U.; Bilow, M.; Strauss, H. Imagine / 04 Rapids. 2010. 010 Publishers.

Knaack, U.; Klein, T.; Bilow, M.; Auer, T.. Facades – Principles of Construction, Basel, 2007: Birkhauser Verlag
AG

Kolisch, S.; Army to produce replacement parts in the field, IIT research institute, AMPTIAC quarterly,
volume 6, number 3.

Kwon, H.; Experimentation and analysis of Contour Crafting (CC) process using uncured ceramic materials,
PhD thesis report, University of Southern California, 2002

Linden, A.C. van der; Zonwering. Mogelijkheden en thermische rekenmethoden. Kennisbank Bouwfysica,
leerstofmodulen thermische consequenties van zonlicht en daglicht. TU Delft, 2005.
‐96‐


Mensink, M.; Harsta, A.; Boon, M. den; Boeijenga, J. Living daylights 01 – Daglicht in de architectuur.
Stichting Living Daylights. Boxtel, 2006. Uitgever Aeneas.

Noorani, R.I. Rapid Prototyping. Principles and applications. Wiley, 2006. Hoboken.

Nygaard, J.V.; Lyckegaard, A.. Sandwich Beam with a Periodical and Graded Core Manufactured Using Rapid
Prototyping. Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials 2007; 9; 365

O’Connor, J. Tips for daylighting. The integrated approach. California, 1997.

Rammig, L. IFDC. Direct glass fabrication. 2010‐03‐08

Renckens, J. Gevels & Architectuur: façades in glas en aluminium. Delft, 1996. Delft University of Technology.

Ruck, N. Daylight in Buildings. A source book on daylighting systems and components. Berkeley, 2000.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

TNO. High viscous material inkjet printer. Inkjet as manufacturing process. www.tno.nl, 2010

Ulrich, K. The role of product architecture in the manufacturing firm. Research Policy , 419‐441. 1995.

Unknown. ‘BPO ontwikkelt analysemethode voor Rapid Manufacturing’. Kunststof magazine, number 2,
February 2008 (www.bpo.nl)

Presentations:

Klein, T.; Presentation: Integrated Façade Components, Spring 2009, Delft University of Technology.

Houben, R.; Presentation: From inkjet printing to Rapid Manufacturing, Eindhoven, 2006, TNO

Strauß, Holger; Presentation: Vorstellung der Rapid‐Technologien | WPF „Bewegte Hülle“, Summer 2009,
Hochschule Ostwestfalen‐Lippe

‐97‐

Websites :

URL – http://www.tno.nl/..., visited May 2009

URL – http://www.prototypezone.com/...‐development‐information , visited December 2009

URL ‐ http://www.alphaform100.de/rps_seite/vergleich/index.php , visited December 2009

URL – www.bpo.nl , visited December 2009

URL ‐ http://blog.mindtribe.com/usercontent/2008/03/bed_of_aerospace_parts.jpg , visited December
2009

URL – www.3trpd.co.uk/dmls/formula‐1‐aerospace.htm , visited June 2009

URL – http://www.hkpc.org/html/eng/.... /...PCTC_service_4_1.jpg , visited december 2009

URL – http://www.3trpd.co.uk/dmls/medical.htm , visited June 2009

URL – http://www.bright.nl/upload/06/12/061207‐bonechair‐2.jpg , visited December 2009

URL – http://www.papermag.com/blogs/zahahadidmelissa.jpg , visited December 2009

URL – http://no‐retro.com/home/wp‐content/uploads/2008/08/ai‐light‐1.jpg , visited December 2009

URL – http://www.paulsmithok.com/images/un016/cc.jpg , visited December 2009

URL – http://www.polyned.nl/images_up/polyned.nl/gevels/gevels_05b_iweb.jpg, visited December 2009

URL – http://www.skor.nl/artefact‐1521‐nl.html, visited December 2009

URL – http://fast.mediamatic.nl/f/rqqp/image/2380‐465‐349.jpg, visited December 2009

URL – http://www.3dparts.nl/afbeeldingen/nieuwekleurenfoto6.jpg, visited December 2009

URL – http://www.utalkmarketing.com/Pages/.., visited December 2009

URL – http://binyamin.net/test/3dshape‐Radiolaria2.jpg , visited December 2009
‐98‐


URL ‐ http://www.arbobondgenoten.nl/arbothem/fysisch/daglicht/lichtwetenschap.htm, visited January
2010

URL ‐ http://www.solg.nl/, visited January 2010

URL ‐ http://www.nsvv.nl, visited January 2010

URL ‐ http://open3dp.me.washington.edu/?cat=1, visited January 2010

URL ‐ http://www.contourcrafting.org/, visited January 2010

‐99‐


Appendix A; Brainstorm results

After the literature study a brainstorm was performed to come to a first vision on the future of the use of
RM in façade design. In this brainstorm, the members of the Façade Research Group of the Delft University
of Technology were invited to join.

This section describes the process of the brainstorm, gives an overview of the results and describes how the
results can be interpreted and used in the process after this initial research.

Figure 142 – Photos of the Façade Research Group Brainstorm

A.1 Ideation in General

Ideation is the term used for the process of idea generation. People practice ideation all the time, every
time when we generate ‘new’ ideas – at least ‘new’ for ourselves – we use techniques to generate them,
whether these are our own personal tactics or proven methods is most of the time not clear.

Creative processes have a common course: (Osterwalder, 2009)
Figure 143 – Divergent and Convergent Thinking, after: Osterwalder, 2009.

For this brainstorm the focus laid on the first half: the divergent thinking process. The aim of this part is to
get ‘out‐of‐the‐box’ ideas and develop concepts as broad as possible. The selection criteria and synthesis of
the different ideas is reserved for the individual graduation project.

Figure 144 – Photo of the convergent process during the brainstorm

A.2 Brainstorm Process

The creative session was done in a short time span of approximately 1.5 hours and consisted of three basis
steps.

1. Analogies (force‐fit*)
Function: energizer / warming up – Quick exercise of making analogies with different industries
where RM is already used more often. Participants got an image from an application and had to
write down (1) the technical principle and (2) an application in façade or building design.
Example: Jaw implant Principle Application

Print structure, grow Print a 3D complex mold
tissue for a building / façade,

with all wholes and tubes
etc. in it and then fill with
concrete.

2. Problem mapping (mind mapping)
Function: analysis – this part made an overview of the problems regarding modern façade
design and the opportunities of RM in general. The group created two mind maps of these
issues.
3. Accidental combinations (force‐fit*)
Function: create on fore seen solutions – From the two mind maps which were filled with post‐
its, the participants blindly took a problem from the façade side and an opportunity from the
RM side of the wall. Combined the had to form a concept, with keywords and a small sketch.
Imagine… [Sketch] Description [name, keywords]
… …

Aspects Indicators
(‐) Negative façade post‐it Material:…
(+) Positive RM Opportunity Requirements:…
Scale:…

* The ‘force‐fit’ is a procedure used in creative thinking to make connections between some analogy and
the original issue: clean textiles. It comes forth from the Synectics procedure (Tassoul: Gordon, 1961).

A.3 Results and Interpretation

An overview of the ‘raw’ results of the different steps in the brainstorm is presented in the appendices. As
mentioned above the results form the start of the ideation process for both the students performing their
graduation projects.

Depending on the purpose, the raw results can be categorized in several ways. They can be categorized by
for example ‘façade problem’, ‘RM opportunity’ or any other way. Next to that there is an overview of
which aspects are actually used and combined from step 2 into concepts for step 3. This could be a reason
to extend this process in a further stage of the graduation project to be more complete or to focus on a
specific aspect. The results from the different steps are presented as follows:

1. Analogies
Per analogy the input is described. All the results, also with scans of the input can be found in the
appendices.

2. Mind maps of problem finding (This input is used in step 3)

3. Combinations




Appendix B; Facade drawings

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Although the solid wall was the most basic

Between the elements a variety of possible

Figure 23 Moving/rotating Figure 24 Colour variation Figure 25 Flexible

Figure 26 Engine exhaust Figure 27 Propeller prototype Figure 28 Turbine blade

Figure 32 Printed mould with conformal cooling

Figure 43 Interior Blob Pavilion Studio

Figure 56 Pantheon, Rome Figure 57 Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut,

Figure 64 Possibilities to influence Figure 65 Commercial electricity use24

The measuring compilation includes a Lux‐sensor

1. Without disk 2. With disk, no rotation 3. With disk, rotating at 250 Hz

Figure 82 98% closed surface divided over 1 Figure 83 95% closed surface over 1 opening

Figure 130 Principle render RM façade Figure 131 Principle of the rapid

6.2 6.4.1 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.3 6.4.336

Figure 136 Variant 1. Using provisions in the Figure 137 Variant 2. Combining the integrated

Example: Jaw implant Principle Application

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