ANALYSIS OF THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT IN

ADULT EDUCATION

BY
GROUP 1
S/N NAMES MATRIC NO
1. Adjuya Becky Oghenekevwe EDU1810632
2. Agadaga John Chukwuka EDU1802830
3. Aihebhoria Happy Ese-ose EDU1810633
4. Aitanun Happy Ose EDU1802831
5. Akinwusi Olulayo Caroline EDU1902764
6. Akue Joseph Ibhazobe EDU1902765
7. Ale Clementina EDU1802832
8. Aliu Aminat Abidemi EDU1802833
9. Amadasu Iwinosa Victory EDU1802834
10. Anene Judith Chika EDU1802835
11. Anyasi Gift Chidinma EDU1802836
12. Asaikpe Mary Joy EDU1802837
13. Ayuba Godwill Rasak EDU1802838
14. Dabin Nenrit Grace EDU1802839
15. Ebizugbe Osamudiawmen Gift EDU1802840
16. Edoghogho Stephanie Itohan EDU1810193
17. Edokpa Samuel Oseghale EDU1802841
18. Edokpayi Osazee Priscillia EDU1902779
19. Eguakun Blessing EDU1802842
20. Ehiagwina Princewill Aikheboria EDU1802843
21. Ehiogie Fracess Osazee EDU1910089
22. Ejechi Oghenefejiro Favour EDU1802844
23. Eluemunor Helen Oliseweokwu EDU1902785
24. Enaruna Osarugue EDU1802845
25. Enobakhare Bright Amadi EDU1802846
26. Ideabana Ogechi EDU1802847
27. Ifeosame Mercy Tobechukwu EDU1802848
28. Ighoiye John Destiny EDU1802849
29. Ikhana Mary Ewela EDU1802850
30. Ikheloa Omohafe Susan EDU1802851
31. Ikponmwosa Serge Frederic EDU1802852
32. Irabor Gift Emmanuella EDU1810194
33. Iserhienrhien Destiny EDU1802853
 34. Ishani Rukevwe EDU1802854

ABSTRACT

The paper investigates theories and principles of management in adult education. It

views adult education as that type of education that involves all educative and purposeful
learning activity organized for adults to enable them adjusts to their lives and society. It
also sees management as the process of coordinating work activities so that they are
completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. It went further to
define theory as a coherent group of assumptions put forth to explain the relationship
between two or more observable facts. A theory embraces a set of interrelated
definitions, and relationships that organizes our concepts of and understanding of the
empirical world in a systematic way. The paper It renders a detailed explanation of Two-
factor Theory, Theory X and Y, System Theory, Contingency Theory and Path- Goal
Theory. It went further to discuss the principles of management such as: fundamental
principle, prudential principle, Humanitarian principle, principle of change and
Bureaucratic principle. It was revealed among others that the bureaucracy principle may
not in any way provide ideal tenet for adult education administrator; this is because in
adult education the element of voluntarism is more of manifest and the adult learners
participant already have established pattern or way of living. Applying most of the tenet
of bureaucracy may send most of the adult learners parking out from the programme

Keywords: Theories, Principles, Management, Adult Education and Analysis

1
Introduction

Adult education has been defined in different ways by different scholars. This
arises from the fact that it is academic, socio-economic, political, cultural and so on.
People define it based on what prevails within their immediate environment (academic,
home, work and so on) and their accumulated life experiences.

For instance, it has been seen as literacy education in developing countries like
Nigeria where illiteracy level is high. This has affected its practices because it has
focused so much on literacy education. We divide this chapter into seven main parts
beginning with the introduction; the Concept of Adult Education, Management, Theory,
characteristics of a theory, theories of management, principles of management and
finally, conclude the chapter.

Meaning of Adult Education

According to Okedera (1981) in Ugwu and Mbalisi (2016), Adult education is a

process whereby persons who attend school on a regular and full time basics (unless full
time-time programmes are especially designed for adults) undertake sequential and
organized activities with the conscious intention of bringing about changes in
information, knowledge, undertakings or skills, appreciation and attitude or for the
purpose of identifying and solving personal or community problems.

This view of adult and non-formal education gave impetus to Combs and Ahmed’s
in Simon, Love and Costly (2011) definition of non-formal education, a term which
encompasses adult education as an organized, systematic educational activity carried out
outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to
particular sub-group in the population, adults as well as children: UNESCO, in her

2
international conference in Nairobi, Kenya (1976) as reported in Nzeneri (2010:10)
defined adult education as:

The entire body of organized educational process, whatever the

content, level and method, formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or
replace initial education in school, colleges and universities as well as in
apprenticeship whereby person regarded as adults by the society to which
they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their
technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction and
bring about changes in their attitudes or behaviour in the two fold
perspective of full personal development and participation in balanced with
independent, social, economic and cultural development
This implies that irrespective of the settings, content level and method adult and non-
formal education seeks to empower adults with requisite knowledge and skills for
personal improvement and maximum participation in the developments of their
communities. Furthermore, in different countries of the world, adult and non-formal
education programmes are designed to meet divergent needs such as well-fare and
employment oriented activities aimed at serving the needs of the economy. In
otherwords, adult and non-formal education activities should be relevant to the daily lives
of the adults according to learners readiness to learn so that these adults can be helped to
become self-reliant individuals (Knowles, 1980) cited in Simon, Love and Costly (2011).

Essentially any organized learning or educational activity outside the structure of

the formal education system that is consciously aimed at meeting the specific learning
needs of people who are considered (regarded) to be adults in the community or their
society constitutes adult and non-formal education. The contemporary emphasis on adult
learning which includes adult education must be broadly construed to refer to all learning
activities undertaking by adults throughout life. It includes non-formal learning through
which adults acquire attitudes, values, skills and knowledge, through non-formally
organized education. It also incorporates informal learning by adults from their day to
day experience through interaction with families, neighbours, colleagues at work or

3
through the mass media (Becquelaine and Raymaekers in Uche (1993) and cited in
Indabawa and Mpotu (2006:5).

Based on these conceptualizations, adult and non-formal education connotes all

educative and purposeful learning activity organized for adults to enable them adjusts to
their lives and society.

Understanding the Meaning of Management

Management has been practiced as far back as the olden days when the only
means of livelihood was Agriculture (Subsistence Agriculture). At that time people lived
in communal setting made up of father, wife or wives, sons, daughters, sons-in-law,
daughters-in-law, children etc, so there were enough farm hands or workers. Regardless
of what managers were called at that time, someone had to plan what was to be done,
organize the family members and the farming tools and other materials, lead and direct
the workers and impose some controls to ensure that everything was done well. This task
usually fell on the head of the family, the father, who organizes the men and lead the way
while the women follow after them.

Controlling a complex organization so as to achieve desired goals resulted in the

evolution of the concept of management. Management includes all those people who are
concerned with managing an organization. It is a sum of organized activities by a group
of people. Management involves decision making at various levels of organization for
getting things done by others. It is both science as well as an art, because the
fundamentals of management are same everywhere but the practices differ.

Management is the process of coordinating work activities so that they are

completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people (Smith, 2011).

Concept of Theory

A theory is a systematic review of pertinent literature provides the understanding

that a theory is a generalised statement of abstractions or ideas that asserts, explains or

4
predicts relationships or connections between or among phenomena, within the limits of
critical bounding assumptions that the theory explicitly makes (Gabriel, 2008). The
generalised statement brings together ideas, “interrelated concepts, definitions, and
propositions that explain or predict events or situations by specifying relations among
variables” (Glanz, 2008). The ideas, concepts and themes, constitute a deep and broad
base of knowledge in the discipline – which constitutes the theory. These ideas, concepts,
and themes together comprise the theory, which enables us to explain the meaning,
nature, relationships, and challenges asserted, or predicted to be associated with a
phenomenon in an educational or social sciences context, so that an application of those
attributes of the theory, enables us to understand the phenomenon and to act more
appropriately, including ability to predict. In line with this understanding, Kerlinger &
Lee (2000) define and explain the meaning of a theory very well, as follows:

A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions

that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables,
with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. This definition says three
things:

(1) a theory is a set of propositions consisting of defined and interrelated

constructs

(2) a theory sets out the interrelations among a set of variables (constructs), and in
so doing, presents a systematic view of the phenomena described by the variables, and

(3) a theory explains phenomena; it does so by specifying which variables are

related to which variables and how they are related, thus enabling the researcher to
predict from certain variables to certain other variables.

The propositions and interrelationships of a theory that are explained very well in
this quote of Kerlinger and Lee (2000) can be simplified by a metaphor. In the metaphor I
would say that the generalisation made by a theory enables you to see the forest instead
of just a single tree. However, the generalisations can occur at three levels of increasing
5
sophistication in breadth and depth, known as micro-level, meso-level, and macro-level
(Neuman, 1997). For example, at the micro level, theories explain relationships among
individuals. A specific example would be theories about how students learn, because they
make assertions about students’ learning behaviours at the micro level. At the meso-level,
theories try to explain interactions among groups at an institutional level. For example, a
theory on how an educational institution functions would make assertions and predictions
at a meso-level. Finally, at the macro-level would be theories that seek to explain
relationships at a more aggregative level, such as across gender among a particular ethnic
group, or students’ performance at a state or national level.

A theory usually emerges from a long process of research that uses empirical data
to make assertions based on deductive and inductive analysis of the data. Overtime, and
on the basis of clearly stated assumptions, the observations from the research produce
results that converge on findings about relationships, and these enable the researcher to
formulate the core propositions from which the abstract theory is then generalised. The
theory that emerges provides an intellectual, research-grounded basis for understanding,
applying, analysing, and designing new ways to investigate relationships and to solve
problems in educational and social sciences contexts. The assumptions, assertions, and
predictions of relationships postulated by a theory become an intellectual base upon
which research data can be grounded to search for meaning in future studies. The
predictions in the theory can provide reason for research into problems that hitherto have
not been investigated. They help researchers to consider what is important and critical in
understanding real-life situations, as postulated by the theory, and how our knowledge
and understanding of contexts in education and the social sciences can be used to explain
behaviour and to solve problems.

As explained by Jacard and Jacob (2010), each theory – its assumptions, tenets,
assertions, propositions, predictions – comprises a common frame of reference that can
be used by researchers in a particular discipline as to what is understood to be true or a
basis for searching for meaning and truth in our lived experiences, and a well-grounded

6
guide for research within the field. As well articulated by Glanz, (2017), “Theory,
research, and practice are part of a continuum for understanding the determinants of
behaviours, testing strategies for change, and disseminating effective interventions. The
three are inextricably interlinked. Theory enables researchers to name. What they
observe, to understand and to explain relationships and to make sense of human
interactions. This understanding increases the body of knowledge in the field and
provides a basis for further theorisation, research, and understanding.

A theory is predictive in nature and act as a set of construct that have been statistically
tested by researcher. It becomes possible to use a theory as a baseline or a foundation on
which to discuss relevant ideas or literature. According to Stoner, Freeman, and Gilbert
(2000) a theory as a coherent group of assumptions put forth to explain the relationship
between two or more observable facts. A theory embraces a set of interrelated definitions,
and relationships that organizes our concepts of and understanding of the empirical world
in a systematic way.

Characteristics of a Theory

 It has to be logical and coherent

 It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions
 It has a domain where it applies
 It has clearly described relationships among variables
 It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
 It comprises concepts, themes, principles and constructs
 It must have been based on empirical data
 It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
 It must be clear and parsimonious
 Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing
theories
 Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and in several contexts

7
  Its assertions or predictions are applicable, and if applied as predicted, will result
in the predicted outcome
 The assertions and predictions are not set in concrete, but subject to revision and
improvement as social scientists use the theory to make sense of phenomena in
their world
 Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
 Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict future
events

Theories of Management

The following are the theories of management:

1. Two-factors Theory
2. Theory X and Y
3. System Theory
4. Contingency Theory
5. Path- Goal Theory
6. Human relations Theory

Two- factors Theory

Frederick Herzberg’s well known Two-Factor Theory was designed in year 1959.
Based on two hundred engineers and accountant feedback collected in the USA regarding
their personal feelings towards their working environments, Herzberg defined two sets of
factors in deciding employees working attitudes and level of performance, named
Motivation & Hygiene Factors (Robbins, 2009).

Motivation Factors are Intrinsic Factors that will increase employees’ job
satisfaction; while Hygiene Factors are Extrinsic Factors to prevent any employees’
dissatisfaction. Herzberg furthered that full supply of Hygiene Factors will not necessary

8
result in employees’ job satisfaction. In order to increase employees’ performance or
productivity, Motivation factors must be addressed.

Two-Factor Theory is closely related to Maslow's hierarchy of needs but it

introduced more factors to measure how individuals are motivated in the workplace. This
theory argued that meeting the lower-level needs (extrinsic or hygiene factors) of
individuals would not motivate them to exert effort, but would only prevent them from
being dissatisfied. In order to motivate employees, higher-level needs (intrinsic or
motivation factors) must be supplied. The implication for organizations to use this theory
is that meeting employees’ extrinsic or hygiene factors will only prevent employees from
becoming actively dissatisfied but will not motivate them to contribute additional effort
toward better performance.

To motivate employees, organizations should focus on supplying intrinsic or

motivation factors (Robbins, 2009). According to the setting of theory, Extrinsic Factors
are less to contribute to employees’ motivation need. The presences of these factors were
just to prevent any dissatisfaction to arise in their workplaces. Extrinsic Factors are also
well known as job context factors; are extrinsic satisfactions granted by other people for
employees (Robbins, 2009). These factors serve as guidance for employers in creating a
favourable working environment where employees feel comfortable working inside.
When all these external factors were achieved, employees will be free from unpleasant
external working conditions that will banish their feelings of dissatisfactions, but remains
themselves neutral in neither satisfied nor motivated; however, when employers fail to
supply employees’ Extrinsic Factors needs, employees’ job dissatisfaction will arise.
Intrinsic Factors are the actually factors that contribute to employees’ level of job
satisfactions.

It has widely being known as job content factors which aim to provide employees
meaningful works that able to intrinsically satisfy themselves by their works outcomes,
responsibilities delegated experience learned, and achievements harvested (Wan Fauziah

9
& Tan, 2013). Intrinsic Factors are very effective in creating and maintaining more
durable positive effects on employees’ performance towards their jobs as these factors are
human basic needs for psychological growth. Intrinsic Factors will propel employees to
insert additional interest into their job. When employees are well satisfied by
motivational needs, their productivity and efficiency will improved. This theory further
proposed the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors are interdependence to each other. Presence
of Extrinsic Factors will only eliminate employees’ work dissatisfaction; however, it will
not provide job satisfaction. On the other hand, sufficient supply in Intrinsic Factor will
cultivate employees’ inner growth and development that will lead to a higher productivity
and performance; however, absent of this factor will only neutralize their feeling neither
satisfy nor dissatisfy on their jobs. Extrinsic Factors only permit employees willingness
to work while Intrinsic Factors will decide their quality of work. These two groups of
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors are not necessary opposite with each other, as opposite of
satisfaction are not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction. Similarly, opposite of
dissatisfaction are not satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction (Robbins, 2009).

Theory X and Y

This theory was propounded by McGregor in 1960. The theory famously argued
that there are two types of managers: Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X managers
assume that workers are lazy, will avoid responsibility, and prefer to just get by. Theory
X assumptions believe that workers must be controlled and threatened with punishment
(Allio, 2009). Conversely, McGregor saw Theory Y managers as those that hold
assumptions that workers care about the organization, will seek responsibility, and
exercise self-control. Bobic and Davis (2003) found that most of the population has the
ability to be innovative and creative. This finding supports the argument that Theory Y
assumptions contribute positively toward more participative decision-making, ultimately
benefitting the organization (Russ, 2011).

Contingency Theory

10
To ensure that companies run smoothly, leaders have turned to the study of
organizational behavior to help improve their employees' work environment.
Organizational behavior studies analyze the conduct of employees within the workplace
to better predict and manage their level of motivation. However, there are various
situational factors that must be taken into account when using organizational behavior
data.

The theory was developed in the 1960s by Austrian psychologist, Professor Fred Fiedler.
The contingency theory, also known as the situational approach to management theory,
states that situational factors can affect the relationships between dependent and
independent variables in the work environment, which in turn will affect employee
behavior, motivation, and effectiveness. Success in analyzing organizational data and
improving employee motivation is contingent, or dependent, on the unique contingency
variables of the particular organization. The contingency theory recognizes that an
individualized approach is necessary to successfully use organizational behavior data to
benefit employees and create a productive work environment.

Contributors to Contingency Theory

Several people contributed to the formation of the contingency theory, each conducting
their own studies that helped shape the theory as a whole. Some of the main contributors
include:

Burns and Stalker: identified two types of organizational structures (organic and
mechanistic) and two environmental categories (stable and dynamic)

John Woodward: analyzed different types of technology and how they can influence an
organization

11
Lorsch and Lawrence: proposed that organizations function in either simple or complex
environments and that more complex environments adopt higher degrees of
differentiation and integration

Fred Fiedler: proposed that matching a leader's style to situations that give the leader
control and influence leads to effective leadership and improvement in the work
environment

Contingency Theory

Companies have embraced the discipline of organizational behavior because the area of
study can help them better understand employees in a work environment. Organizational
behavior can be used to assess, manage and predict behavior of employees so that
companies can better understand how to motivate individuals. There are situational
factors that can affect the study of organizational behavior and its prediction of the
behavior of employees.

The contingency theory explains that there are specific situational factors that can affect
the direct relationships between independent and dependent variables in the study of
organizational behavior. Independent variables (x) are the cause of the change in the
dependent variable, while dependent variables (y) are a response affected by an
independent variable.

There is no one best way to structure a corporation and solve employee problems. It all
depends on the situation. Cheapo Toys has been trying to perfect their organization by
studying different variables that affect employees. Companies need to use trial and error
to see what variables provide the results needed.

12
Motivation and leadership are just two examples of many independent variables of the
contingency theory, while productivity, turnover and absenteeism are some examples of
dependent variables. Let's take a look at a real corporate example of how the contingency
theory is significant to organizational behavior

System Theory
The Systems theory was propounded in the 1940's by the biologist Ludwig von
Bertalanffy. This theory is of the opinion that organizational management systems consist
of many internal subsystems that need to be continually aligned with each other. As
companies grow, they develop more and more complex subsystems that must coordinate
with each other in the process of transforming inputs to outputs (McShane & Von
Glinow, 2003). These interdependencies can easily become so complex that a minor
event in one subsystem may amplify into serious unintended consequences elsewhere in
the organization. Every organized enterprise does not exist in a vacuum. It is rather
known to depend on its external environment – which is a part of a larger system, such as
the industry to which it belongs, the economic system and the society (Weihrich, 2008).
In system theory, the managers or the proprietors must depend on the efforts and
knowledge of the facilitators. Again, the facilitator must be able to understand the
characteristics of the learners. To do this effectively, both managers and the facilitators
must be able to have linkage with the community.

Path- Goal Theory

The term “Path goal” means that a facilitator must illuminate the path to the goal
and explain how to make the journey successful to the adult learners through out
the adult education programme. This theory indicates that the facilitator is in
charge of clarifying adult learners about the actions and behaviour which if they
follow will lead to goal attainment during the course of the adult education
programme.

Path goal theory states that the facilitator is responsible for providing the adult
learners with the information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve their

13
goals in the adult education programme. Which means, the facilitator must
properly set a goal to the success of the adult learners.

This path goal theory consist of 4 components and they are

1:Directive Facilitator

A Directive Facilitator let’s the adult learners know what is expected of them,he
gives guidance and direction and also schedules work to the expectation

2: Supportive Facilitator

A supportive Facilitator is one who is friendly and easily approach. He is

concerned with learners welfare and treats them as equals

3: Participative Facilitator

A participative Facilitator always consults with the adult learners,he asks for
suggestion and allows participation in decision making.

Then lastly but not the least, we have

4: Achievement Oriented Facilitator

An Achievement oriented facilitator sets challenging goals and expects the adult
learners to perform at high levels.

Human Relations Theory

Human relations are the interactions that take place within a business setting. The
human relations concept also revolves around the study of people's issues arising
from organizational and interpersonal relations. This encompasses any form of
interactions between the clients, suppliers, workers, and management, all of which
are geared toward achieving the organization's goals, and objectives. In a business,
human resources are knowledgeably managed through a focus on the in
14
organization events, attitudes, opinions, and the interrelationships of different
stakeholders.
The proponents of the human relations theory posit that the theory emphasizes
personalized needs along with the resultant habits of teams and persons. This is
done by focusing on an interpersonal approach rooted in controlling human beings.
The formal elements of the theory include variables such as the structure of the
business while the informal elements of the theory include the nature of the
interrelations among the individuals within an enterprise. The key elements of the
human relations

Principles of Management
Principles of management are guides for managerial action.

Fundamental Principle.
This principle consists of three (3) elements
(a) Responsibility
(b) Delegation of authority
(c) Communication
(a) Responsibility: This principle holds that at all time, each person in his own area
and capacity must act responsibly. Each person whether a supervisor, facilitator or
adult learners, must know exactly the task to perform and must do it well, to the
attainment of the specify goal of the programme (Peretomode, & Peretomode,
2008)
(b) Delegation of Authority: In this principle, functions and responsibilities are
entrusted to a group of persons on the basics of expertise, position or roles. In
adult education, functions are supposed to be delegated to the adult learners, so
that they can be active participants in the learning process. Delegation of authority
ensure ease of administration and encourage the use of expertise as well as
ensuring participation and supporting the leaners (Daft, 1997)
15
(c) Communication: An organization cannot function without effective
communication. Communication helps to tie together the components parts of an
organization and help propel people to action within an organization.
Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information
and common understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011). It is the
creation or exchange of thoughts, ideas, emotions, and understanding between
sender(s) and receiver(s). It is essential to building and maintaining relationships
in the workplace. Although administrators spend most of their time
communicating (sending or receiving information), one cannot assume that
meaningful communication occurs in all exchanges (Eisenberg, 2010). Once a
memorandum, letter, fax, or e-mail has been sent, many are inclined to believe that
communication has taken place. However, communication does not occur until
information and understanding have passed between sender and the intended
receiver. To make oneself understood as intended is an important part of
communication. A receiver may hear a sender but still not understand what the
sender’s message means. Being constantly engaged in encoding and decoding
messages does not ensure that an administrator is an expert in communication.
Understanding is a personal matter between people, and different people may
interpret messages differently. If the idea received is not the one intended,
communication has not taken place; the sender has merely spoken or written.
Communication serves several functions such as:
There is no denying the importance of communication in the workplace,
considering the fact that in an organisation people belonging to different social and
professional backgrounds come together to work for the same goals. Often it is
seen that administrators do not realise the importance of communication at work
and thus do not convey their ideas, organisational goals, vision, etc. very clearly.
When administrators in an organisation are unable to create an environment which
promotes open and clear communication, it can have negative repercussions on the

16
work culture and the employee productivity. The importance of effective
workplace communication is discussed below:
 Creates job satisfaction- Organisations which encourage an open and easy
correspondence between seniors and subordinates face lesser employee turnover.
If the work environment is friendly where the subordinates are encouraged to
communicate their ideas to their administrators regarding work-related issues, and
their feedback is given due consideration, it motivates the employees to work
better and makes them feel valued in the organisation. Thus, effective
communication in the workplace helps in building loyalty and trust which
eventually attributes to greater job satisfaction.
 Lesser conflicts- Open communication in the workplace can help prevent and
resolve many conflicts. Workplace conflicts are easily resolved through open and
clear communication and mutual discussions; this can lead to personal and
professional growth.
 Increases productivity- Effective communication at work is the most important
issue for the success and failure of an organisation. Every organisation has a set of
clearly defined goals, objectives and vision. If an administrator is clear in his/her
communication, the subordinates will know exactly what the organisation wants
and thus, will be able to deliver the same to the best of their abilities. Thus, the
importance of communication skills can be judged from the fact that it leads to
better deliverance of work, increasing workplace productivity.
 Formation of relationships-Open communication, whether between the
employees and administrators or between the management and employees, leads to
the formation of better personal and professional relationships. This makes the
employees feel genuinely cared and valued for, and they are more likely to remain
loyal to the organisation. This creates a friendly environment and promotes a
better working relationship which is conducive to the work.
 Proper utilisation of resources- If an organisation faces problems, crisis and
conflicts due to miscommunication between the staff members, it causes
17
 unnecessary delays in the daily work. This leads to wastage of resources and
lowers the overall work productivity. So an environment of good communication
is a must for any organisation to better utilise its resources and increase
productivity

Humanitarian Principle

Humanistic management came out early in the 20th century as another alternative to
management theory to balance bureaucratic and scientific management theory that
concerned so much on productivity and profit. It is an alternative to mechanistic
management. It focuses more on people and not on the technique or the procedures
(Mele, 2016). Humanistic management is in contrast with the view of Taylor who saw
management as a science but the proponent of humanistic management viewed
management as an art (Lilienthal, 1967). This is a new development in management to
break the monotony created by scientific and bureaucratic management. Instead of
mechanizing business, humanistic management humanizes the business operation. This
was somehow the answer to the call of Pope Leo XIII in the late 19th century. The Pope
called the business owners or the capitalist to respect the dignity of human beings (Leo
XIII, 1891, n. 20, cited by Mele, 2016).

The call of the Pope strengthens the idea to humanize the business world. If Weber's
bureaucratic management focuses on rules, processes, procedures, and the hierarchy of
command to achieve efficiency and Taylor's scientific management focuses on a
scientific approach to achieve efficiency and productivity, however,humanistic
management proponents such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Clark Moustakas Mary
Parker Follett, and Elton Mayo called for human-centered approach. They got away from
the strong focus on rules, procedures, processes, and the scientific method to achieve
efficiency and productivity which consequently to achieve profit through the
instrumentalization of man as a human resource (Adaui, & Habisch, 2013), humanistic

18
management focuses on the man, his needs and values, as the measure of all things and
become the center of management, as Drucker (1950, cited by Adaui, & Habisch, 2013)
argued that management is a management of man and not the management of things. In
other words, humanistic management concerns persons and the human aspect of
managing a business or a corporation (Mele, 2016). It recognizes that human beings have
needs and values and therefore giving attention to human needs and his/their values will
help the organization reaches its objectives (Drucker, 1990).
Humanistic management is thus centered on the idea that it is human beings who are
responsible for the ups and downs of the organization and it is human beings who carry
out rules, procedures, processes, and scientific tools. Giving attention to their needs is
critical to improving efficiency and productivity. The humanistic management called for
a revisit to human treatment or employee treatment. The workers must be treated as
human beings. Human beings must be seen not only as economic assets that are
recognized because of their contribution to economic productivity but they are persons
with dignity together with needs and values (Thompson, 2019). They are not means to an
end but they are the ends in themselves and they possess dignity and should be treated
with respect as human beings (Wright, 2002, Kerstein, 2019).
Though humanistic management centers on human needs and values, it also recognizes
profits, but profit is not the ends but the human is still the ends, in the sense that profit is
used for the welfare of human beings. Unlike other concepts of management such as
bureaucratic and scientific management sees profit as the end of efficiency and
productivity. These two management theories are seeing profit as the end and seeing
human beings as the means toward achieving such an end (Mele, 2016). Humanistic
management is criticizing bureaucratic and scientific management which focused on one-
dimensional management objective which is to maximize profits. Humanistic
management sees human beings as the center of management and the end of economic
activities (Humanistic Management Center, 2018). Humanistic management takes human
needs, values, desires, and emotions as the center of the management approach and
focuses on employees’ motivation. The basic consideration of humanistic management

19
theory is that productivity and organizational goals can only be achieved through
motivated and satisfied employees (Swart, 1973).

Therefore, issues such as motivation, satisfaction, working relationship, and productivity

become a new way of how to improve productivity. It is along with this basic concept,
humanistic managers place people first above economic objectives (Von Kimakowitz,
et.al., 2011) and this concept also leads us to the concept of unconditional respect which
is to treat human beings with dignity in economic activities. Respect for human dignity
demands the recognition of human freedom and at the same time, it demands human
participation in decision making (Gabelli School of Business, n.d). In the sense that
management should not use human beings merely as the means toward achieving the
economic goals but treat the human being as a subject, as a person with dignity
(Humanistic Management Center, 2018) as Pirson (2017) argued that the focus of
humanistic management is the protection of human dignity and the promotion of well-
being.

Humanitarian principles define what humanitarian aid is: delivering life-saving

assistance to those in need, without any adverse distinction. They distinguish
humanitarian aid from other activities.

This principle has three components:

(a) Democratic
(b) Justice
(c) Human Relation

(a) Democratic: In adult education, the democratic principle demands that all those
who are affected by decision, must have a say in the development and for initiation
of the decision. Therefore, even the adult learners should and must have a say in
decision as regard their programme of study

20
(b) Justice: It involves the application of good norms, justice, demand, equity,
fairness, and impartiality. It enjoins the administration the norms and regulation on
the individual
(c) Human Relation: In adult education, the administrator must learn to relate
effectively with the needs, expectation, background, feelings, emotion and interest
in dealing with learners and other staffs. The administrator must show respect,
kindness, consideration, truth and sincerity (Oribabor, 2000).

Prudential Principle
This is the ability to anticipate, calculate, regulate, utilize, function and resources
consciously and expeditiously. Prudent administrator relies on the following:
Responsibility, loyalty and proper method of staffing. The resources available in
adult education is very thin, and most usually not enough to implement the
programmes. Therefore, the available resources must be use maximally and
judiciously.
Bureaucratic Principle:
Bureaucracy is a management approach that emphasizes a structured organization
in which positions and authority are defined according to formal rules. Weber's
concept of bureaucracy did not include a lot of red tape (as bureaucracy is usually
viewed) as inefficiency: rather his aim was to develop a set of rules and
procedures to-ensure that all employees were treated fairly. Weber approached
bureaucracy from ideal perspective.
Max Weber identified six bureaucratic principles:
1. Authority Hierarchy
2. Formal Rules and Regulations
3. Division of Labour (Specializations)
4. Impersonality
5. Career Orientation

21
6. Formal Selection Process
Principle of Authority Hierarchy
Bureaucratic structures can be traced back to medieval and Roman law, which
rested upon hierarchy and authority principles. A bureaucratic organization has
two fundamental components:
1. Chains of command, and
2. Positional roles or functions in an organization
These two components form what’s called an Authority Hierarchy.
The importance of the Authority Hierarchy comes from the fact that it provides
formalized rules for who gets to give orders to whom within an organization.
Naturally, this creates power dynamics with those at higher levels giving
commands to those lower down in rank within formalized channels.
Principle of Formal Rules and Regulations
The Formal Rules and Regulations in an ideal bureaucracy are the guidelines that
dictate how things should be done. The documents on which these rules and
regulations rest include manuals, directives, handbooks, instructions, policies, etc.
They provide a clear definition of what needs to happen for an organization to
function appropriately.
Principle of Division of Labour (Specializations)
Labor expert Adam Smith was the first to theorize about specialization. He wrote:
It is the great multiplication of the productions of all kinds which occasions, in a
well-governed society, such a plentiful addition to the general stock of the
community.
Max Weber argued that a well-functioning bureaucracy that was been designed
with the division of labor in mind will be more efficient and productive than one
without it.
Without labor division, people would have to do many tasks that they are not
equipped for, and everything becomes incomplete or unorganized because there
isn’t enough time to complete them all simultaneously as another task begins.

22
This makes productivity difficult and decreases efficiency. With specialization
(division), quality improves and costs decrease as only those qualified perform the
tasks.
Principle of Impersonality
Bureaucracy should be autonomous, impersonal, and impartial to achieve the goals
of a bureaucracy. According to Weber, the relationship between employees must
be professional. The impersonal bureaucratic atmosphere is structured to foster
decision-making solely on evidence and critical thought.
The rules are well defined, clear and are applied in the same way to everyone
across the board. The rules are there to prevent favoritism, nepotism and the
participation of outsiders or political interference with the organization’s purpose.
Principle of Career Orientation
The principle of Career Orientation in ideal bureaucracy is that every employee
has a unique set of skills. It’s the employer’s responsibility to match their
employees with the jobs that best suit them.
In other words, employees should be given career paths
where they can grow into different roles over time, while still getting opportunities
to try new things. This way, everybody wins!
Principle of Formal Selection Process
Another key concept in an ideal bureaucracy is that management can inspire
workers to develop a long-term career in the company by providing them with job
security and performance-based rewards.
The five steps of the formal selection process in an ideal bureaucracy are:
1. Bureaucratic jobs available which one should be applied to
2. Applying for these positions.
3. Interviewing for those openings
4. Selecting someone from this pool of applicants to
get hired
5. Finding replacements as needed when there is a vacancy

23
Elements of Bureaucracy
Hierarchy: The organisation is highly structured by a hierarchy of authority. Each
position covers an area for which it has complete jurisdiction. Each position is
responsible for the activities that it can best perform or supervise
Record keeping: Complete records are kept of all rules, standards, and results to
ensure continuity and uniformity.
Systems of rules: In a bureaucracy, decisions are governed by a consistent system
of abstract rules, regulations, arm procedures. Behaviour is subject to systematic
discipline and control. These rule systems apply universally to everyone in the
organization in an impersonal fashion
Impersonality of organizational processes: Interpersonal relationships are
carried out through structure. Extra organizational influence is minimal
Professional qualification: Employees of an organization are hired for their
competence to perform the requirements of a position. The fitness for office is
determined only by the candidate's technical expertise. Nepotism, and favouritism
are not allowed (Bartol & Martin ,1994)
The bureaucracy principle may not in any way provide ideal theory for
adult education administrator; this is because in adult education the element of
voluntarism is more of manifest and the adult learners participate already having
normal pattern or way of living. Applying most of the tenet of bureaucracy may
send most of the adult learners parking

Principle of Change
This principle recognizes that there are enumerable forces that are uncountable,
which demand change in adult education. The problem of adult administrator is
how to determine and implement necessary change without upsetting the stability
of adult education. However, elements of adaptability, flexibility and stability
should be taken into consideration.

24
Conclusion
Theory as a coherent group of assumptions put forth to explain the relationship between
two or more observable facts. A theory embraces a set of interrelated definitions, and
relationships that organizes our concepts of and understanding of the empirical world in a
systematic way. While, the principles of management provides the necessary guide for
managerial action. The knowledge of theories of management such as: Two-factor
Theory, Theory X and Y, System Theory, Contingency Theory and Path- Goal Theory
will enable the administrators of adult education to have a better understanding regarding
while people behave the way they do. In the same vein, the knowledge of the
fundamental principle, prudential principle, Humanitarian principle, principle of change
and Bureaucratic principle will help to provide the required information’s for adult
education administrators for effective decision making. For instance, the system theory
revealed that, the managers or the proprietors of adult education must depend on the
efforts and knowledge of the facilitators. Again, the facilitator must be able to understand
the characteristics of the learners. To do this effectively, both managers and the
facilitators must be able to have linkage with the community as this will help to ensure
success of the programme

25
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