Lecture 4 Forearm, Wrist & Hand-2
Lecture 4 Forearm, Wrist & Hand-2
Lecture 4 Forearm, Wrist & Hand-2
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The shapes of the articular surfaces of the distal radioulnar joint contribute little to the
stability of the joint
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+ The capsule of the distal radioulnar joint attaches to the periphery of the sigmoid
notch, the seat of the ulna, and the borders of the fibrocartilaginous disc.
+ It may play a part in decreased pronation and supination ROM in some patients.
Treatments to stretch or release the capsule may prove beneficial in some patients.
+The adhesions are probably similar to those that can form in the folds of the
glenohumeral joint in adhesive capsulitis
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Triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) • Articular disc (triangular fibrocartilage) •
Distal radio‐ulnar joint capsular ligaments • Palmar ulnocarpal ligament (Ulnotriquetral •
Ulnolunate) • Ulnar collateral ligament • Fascial sheath that encloses the tendon of the
extensor carpi ulnaris
Stabilizing the distal radioulnar joint
Cushioning the ulna on the carpus
Allowing axial loading of the ulnar aspect of the forearm
Increasing the articular surface for the carpus
Stabilizing the ulnar side of the carpus itself
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The extrinsic ligaments have attachments to the radius, ulna, or the TFCC, as well
as to the carpal bones. The intrinsic ligaments are contained entirely within the
carpus
The palmar ligaments are thicker, stronger, and more critical to the stability
Proximal and distal ligaments
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Extrinsic ligaments of the wrist. A. Dorsal extrinsic ligaments of the wrist. The
dorsal radiocarpal ligament arises from the dorsal surface of the distal border
of the radius. It projects distally onto the lunate and triquetrum, although
attachments to the scaphoid are also described. B. Palmar extrinsic ligaments
of the wrist. The palmar radiocarpal ligament extends from the radius to the
proximal row of carpal bones including the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum
and onto the capitate in the distal row. The radial and ulnar collateral
ligaments project from the radial and ulnar styloid processes, respectively. The
radial collateral ligament extends to the radial aspect of the scaphoid and onto
the capitate as part of the radioscaphocapitate ligament. It lies more on the
palmar surface and sometimes is described as part of the palmar radiocarpal
complex. The ulnar collateral ligament projects to the triquetrum and the
metacarpal of the little finger and sends a slip to the pisiform.
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The interosseous ligaments are thick, strong, horseshoe‐shaped ligaments that run
between adjacent carpal bones of each row.
The proximal portions of the interosseous ligaments of the proximal row consist mainly
of fibrocartilage rather than fibrous material, giving them unique mechanical properties
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Scapholunate interosseous ligament, producing a scapholunate dissociation. Such an
injury, if left untreated, allows a progressive separation between the lunate and
scaphoid. pinning the lunate to the scaphoid and immobilizing it for 6 weeks.
Early identification of disruption of the scapholunate interosseous ligament is important
to prevent significant functional impairment of the wrist.
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Criteria for determining normal ROM: comparison with the uninvolved limb, when
possible, and to norms. Additional criteria whether the desired ROM is pain‐free and
achieving efficient function. personal hygiene activities 50° of flexion and 40° of
extension, using a fork, holding a newspaper, opening a jar, pouring from a pitcher—
typically use up to 35° to 40° of extension, typing at a standard computer terminal, 10°
of wrist extension , Rising from a chair with upper extremity assistance uses 50° to 60°
of extension, higher spinal cord injuries use more wrist extension (>40°). Wrist function
in diagonal patterns: dart thrower’s motion, is used to throw a dart is common to many
tasks performed in daily life.
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Opposition, which is a combination of flexion, abduction, and medial rotation.
Flexion and extension are coupled with adduction and abduction, respectively. Similarly,
medial rotation is coupled with both flexion and abduction and lateral rotation with
extension and adduction. Independent medial and lateral rotation appear possible only
during passive motion.
The thumb appears to have a large amount of rotation when positioned in full
opposition, as in a closed fist.
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The inherent incongruency at the CMC joint of the thumb may help explain why the
CMC joint is so commonly affected by osteoarthritis, especially in women
Less congruent articular surfaces may lead to areas of high stress (force/area) in the
joint surface.
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The metacarpal of the index finger articulates with the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,
and metacarpal of the long finger. Consequently, it is wedged in securely and is the least
mobile of all CMC articulations. The mobility of the CMC articulations of the fingers
increases from radial to ulnar sides of the hand
The metacarpal of the little finger articulates only with the hamate and the adjacent
metacarpal of the ring finger.
The CMC articulation of the little finger exhibits considerable mobility, second only to
the thumb’s CMC joint.
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Measured wrist flexion or extension ROM may vary depending upon whether the
metacarpal to the long or little finger is used.
Wrist flexion ROM values are likely to be greater when using the metacarpal of the little
finger than when using the long finger’s metacarpal
When possible, use of the metacarpal bone of the long finger as the reference is
recommended to assess wrist motion, particularly for flexion and extension.
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Weakness in the intrinsic muscles of the hand, severe scarring of the skin on the dorsal
surface of the hand subsequent to a severe burn, and ligamentous tightening following
immobilization with a flattened arch.
If the skin or ligaments are allowed to tighten enough to prevent the formation of the
transverse arch, the patient may be unable to perform a powerful grasp.
The clinician must take care to maintain the arches of the hand during immobilization
and healing, to preserve function.
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The supporting structures of the MCP joint of the thumb include the capsule, collateral
ligaments, and the volar plate.
ulnar collateral ligament of the thumb’s MCP joint are common, FOOSH,
If the skier keeps the strap of the ski pole wrapped around the thumb, the fall and the
pull on the pole strap can apply an extension and valgus stress to the thumb’s MCP joint,
loading the ulnar collateral ligament.
A rupture of the ligament produces valgus laxity, making it difficult and painful to
stabilize the thumb during lateral pinch
Lateral pinch applies a valgus stress on the thumb’s MCP joint that is resisted by the
ulnar collateral ligament.
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The collateral ligaments are the primary support of the MCP joints of the fingers
If a patient’s hand is immobilized with the MCP joints extended, the collateral ligaments
may shorten over time, thus preventing MCP joint flexion mobility once immobilization
is discontinued
Immobilization must be positioned with the MCP joints flexed to maintain adequate
length of the collateral ligaments.
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The condyles of the proximal phalanges are slightly asymmetrical creating what some
describe as a slight carrying angle at the PIP joints of all the fingers except the long
finger and at the IP joint of the thumb
The axes of motion are slightly tilted, and the resulting flexion and extension motions
occur at a slight angle with respect to the long axes of the digits leading to convergence
of the fingers and thumb toward the thenar eminence during hand closure
The DIP joints are more symmetrical, and motion at these joints occurs in planes parallel
to the long axes of the fingers.
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During functional activities, the wrist commonly moves on a diagonal path from wrist
extension with radial deviation to wrist flexion with ulnar deviation
Flexor carpi ulnaris has a larger physiological cross‐sectional area than does the flexor
carpi radialis
the combined physiological cross‐sectional area of the extensor carpi radialis longus and
extensor carpi radialis brevis is larger than that of the extensor carpi ulnaris.
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The extensor pollicis longus and other snuff box muscles can assist in wrist extension
and may substitute for weak dedicated wrist.
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Active insufficiency is defined as the inability of a muscle to shorten enough to pull the
limb through its complete available ROM
Passive insufficiency is defined as the inability to move through the entire available
range because of passive restrictions from opposing soft tissue.
A. Full closure of the fingers with the wrist fully flexed is prevented by active
insufficiency of the finger flexors and passive insufficiency of the finger extensors.
B. Full opening of the fingers with the wrist fully extended is prevented by active
insufficiency of the finger extensors and passive insufficiency of the finger flexors.
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The dedicated wrist muscles are essential in preventing the active and passive
insufficiencies that can occur with contraction of the extrinsic muscles of the
fingers.
Synergists for finger flexion and extension. A. The wrist extensors are the
synergists to finger flexion. B. The wrist flexors are the synergists to finger
extension.
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An individual who lacks active finger flexion is able to grasp an object by using
wrist extension, which passively flexes the fingers.
Patients who rely on tenodesis for grasp require sufficient passive tension in the finger
flexors to curl around an object securely. Careful instruction to the patient to avoid
stretching the finger flexors is essential to the maintenance of a functional grasp.
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Muscles required for tip‐to‐tip pinch include the dedicated wrist extensors,
extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL) and brevis (ECRB), the flexor digitorum
profundus (FDP), the flexor pollicis longus (FPL), the abductor pollicis longus
(APL), the abductor pollicis brevis (APB), the opponens pollicis (OP), the adductor
pollicis (AP), and the first dorsal interosseous muscle (DI).
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Tip‐to‐tip pinch with inadequate web space between the thumb and index finger
exhibits altered positions of both digits, with less abduction of the thumb’s CMC
joint and less flexion at the finger’s MCP joint
Long fingernails alter the positions of the thumb and index finger in pinch.
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Compensation in pinch pattern resulting from limited ROM in the thumb.
Different pinch patterns can result from inadequate abduction and extension at
the thumb’s CMC joint. Both photos reveal limited abduction at the thumb’s CMC
joint; however, the positions of the MCP and IP joints differ. A. Pinch is
characterized by hyperextension of the thumb’s MCP joint and excessive flexion
of the IP joint.
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B. Pinch is characterized by hyperextension of the thumb’s IP joint with flexion of
the MCP joint
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Powerful grasp compresses the object into the thenar eminence where the
object is covered by the thumb.
Powerful grasp without wrist extension. In some powerful grasps, the wrist is in
ulnar deviation and neutral flexion, thus aligning the hand with the long axis of
the forearm.
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