Ingestion

The large molecules found in intact food cannot pass through the cell membranes. Food
needs to be broken into smaller particles so that animals can harness the nutrients and
organic molecules. The first step in this process is ingestion. Ingestion is the process of
taking in food through the mouth. In vertebrates, the teeth, saliva, and tongue play
important roles in mastication (preparing the food into bolus). While the food is being
mechanically broken down, the enzymes in saliva begin to chemically process the food
as well. The combined action of these processes modifies the food from large particles to
a soft mass that can be swallowed and can travel the length of the esophagus.
Digestion and Absorption
Digestion is the mechanical and chemical break down of food into small organic
fragments. It is important to break down macromolecules into smaller fragments that
are of suitable size for absorption across the digestive epithelium. Large, complex
molecules of proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids must be reduced to simpler particles
such as simple sugar before they can be absorbed by the digestive epithelial cells.
Different organs play specific roles in the digestive process. The animal diet needs
carbohydrates, protein, and fat, as well as vitamins and inorganic components for
nutritional balance. How each of these components is digested is discussed in the
following sections.
Carbohydrates
The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. The salivary enzyme amylase
begins the breakdown of food starches into maltose, a disaccharide. As the bolus of food
travels through the esophagus to the stomach, no significant digestion of carbohydrates
takes place. The esophagus produces no digestive enzymes but does produce mucous for
lubrication. The acidic environment in the stomach stops the action of the amylase
enzyme.
The next step of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the duodenum. Recall that the
chyme from the stomach enters the duodenum and mixes with the digestive secretion
from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Pancreatic juices also contain amylase, which
continues the breakdown of starch and glycogen into maltose, a disaccharide. The
disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by enzymes called maltases
, sucrases, and lactases, which are also present in the brush border of the small
intestinal wall. Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. Other disaccharides, such as
sucrose and lactose are broken down by sucrase and lactase, respectively. Sucrase
breaks down sucrose (or “table sugar”) into glucose and fructose, and lactase breaks
down lactose (or “milk sugar”) into glucose and galactose. The monosaccharides
(glucose) thus produced are absorbed and then can be used in metabolic pathways to
harness energy. The monosaccharides are transported across the intestinal epithelium
into the bloodstream to be transported to the different cells in the body. The steps in
carbohydrate digestion are summarized in Figure 15.16 and Table 15.5.
Figure 15.16.  Digestion of carbohydrates is performed by several enzymes. Starch and glycogen are broken
down into glucose by amylase and maltase. Sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) are broken down by
sucrase and lactase, respectively.

Digestion of Carbohydrates

Site of Substrate Acting

Enzyme Produced By End Products
Action On

Disaccharides
Salivary Polysaccharides
Salivary amylase Mouth (maltose),
glands (Starch)
oligosaccharides

Disaccharides
Pancreatic Small Polysaccharides
Pancreas (maltose),
amylase intestine (starch)
monosaccharides

Lining of the
Monosaccharides
intestine; Small
Oligosaccharidases Disaccharides (e.g., glucose,
brush border intestine
fructose, galactose)
membrane

Table15.5

Protein
A large part of protein digestion takes place in the stomach. The enzyme pepsin plays an
important role in the digestion of proteins by breaking down the intact protein to
peptides, which are short chains of four to nine amino acids. In the duodenum, other
enzymes— trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin—act on the peptides reducing them
to smaller peptides. Trypsin elastase, carboxypeptidase, and chymotrypsin are produced
by the pancreas and released into the duodenum where they act on the chyme. Further
breakdown of peptides to single amino acids is aided by enzymes called peptidases
(those that break down peptides). Specifically, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase,
and aminopeptidase play important roles in reducing the peptides to free amino
acids. The amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestines.
The steps in protein digestion are summarized in Figure 15.17 and Table 15.6.

Figure 15.17
Protein digestion is a multistep process that begins in the stomach and continues through the intestines.

Digestion of Protein

Substrate
Enzyme Produced By Site of Action End Products
Acting On

Pepsin Stomach Stomach Proteins Peptides

 Digestion of Protein

Substrate
Enzyme Produced By Site of Action End Products
Acting On

chief cells

 
Small
 Trypsin Pancreas Proteins Peptides
intestine
 Elastase
Chymotrypsin

Small Amino acids and

Carboxypeptidase Pancreas Peptides
intestine peptides

 
Lining of Small
Peptides Amino acids
 Aminopeptidase intestine intestine
 Dipeptidase

Table 15.6.

Lipids
Lipid digestion begins in the stomach with the aid of lingual lipase and gastric lipase.
However, the bulk of lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine due to pancreatic
lipase. When chyme enters the duodenum, the hormonal responses trigger the release of
bile, which is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile aids in the
digestion of lipids, primarily triglycerides by emulsification. Emulsification is a process
in which large lipid globules are broken down into several small lipid globules. These
small globules are more widely distributed in the chyme rather than forming large
aggregates. Lipids are hydrophobic substances: in the presence of water, they will
aggregate to form globules to minimize exposure to water. Bile contains bile salts, which
are amphipathic, meaning they contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. Thus, the
bile salts hydrophilic side can interface with water on one side and the hydrophobic side
interfaces with lipids on the other. By doing so, bile salts emulsify large lipid globules
into small lipid globules.
Why is emulsification important for digestion of lipids? Pancreatic juices
contain enzymes called lipases (enzymes that break down lipids). If the lipid in the
chyme aggregates into large globules, very little surface area of the lipids is available for
the lipases to act on, leaving lipid digestion incomplete. By forming an emulsion, bile
salts increase the available surface area of the lipids many fold. The pancreatic lipases
can then act on the lipids more efficiently and digest them, as detailed in Figure 15.18.
Lipases break down the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides. These molecules can pass
through the plasma membrane of the cell and enter the epithelial cells of the intestinal
lining. The bile salts surround long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides forming tiny
spheres called micelles. The micelles move into the brush border of the small intestine
absorptive cells where the long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse out of the
micelles into the absorptive cells leaving the micelles behind in the chyme. The long-
chain fatty acids and monoglycerides recombine in the absorptive cells to form
triglycerides, which aggregate into globules and become coated with proteins. These
large spheres are called chylomicrons. Chylomicrons contain triglycerides,
cholesterol, and other lipids and have proteins on their surface. The surface is also
composed of the hydrophilic phosphate “heads” of phospholipids. Together, they enable
the chylomicron to move in an aqueous environment without exposing the lipids to
water. Chylomicrons leave the absorptive cells via exocytosis. Chylomicrons enter the
lymphatic vessels, and then enter the blood in the subclavian vein.

Figure 15.18. 
Lipids are digested and absorbed in the small intestine.

Vitamins
Vitamins can be either water-soluble or lipid-soluble. Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed
in the same manner as lipids. It is important to consume some amount of dietary lipid to
aid the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins can be directly
absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestine.
Figure 15.19.  Mechanical and chemical digestion of food takes place in many steps, beginning in the mouth and
ending in the rectum.
 

Elimination
The final step in digestion is the elimination of undigested food content and waste
products. The undigested food material enters the colon, where most of the water is
reabsorbed. Recall that the colon is also home to the microflora called “intestinal flora”
that aid in the digestion process. The semi-solid waste is moved through the colon by
peristaltic movements of the muscle and is stored in the rectum. As the rectum expands
in response to storage of fecal matter, it triggers the neural signals required to set up the
urge to eliminate. The solid waste is eliminated through the anus using peristaltic
movements of the rectum.
 The Small Intestine

The small intestine is where the food is absorbed into the blood
to be taken to the body cells. The small intestine is about 6
metres long. It is made up of 3 parts. The duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.

1.    The duodenum- The main function of the duodenum is to

finish the digestive process. The cells lining the duodenum
produce digestive enzymes. Also, products from the pancreas
and the liver enter the duodenum to do their work.

The lining of the small intestine consists of many folds called villi. Each villus has
about 600 microvilli. These foldings and microvilli increase the surface area of the
small intestine for increased digestion or absorption.

Intestinal glands are located between the villi. These glands produce numerous
enzymes, which are collectively called intestinal juices.
                                     

The intestinal gland is at the arrow, which is at the base of a

villus.

The Pancreas

          The Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice for the digestive

system. It consists of:
 1.                  The salt sodium hydrogen carbonate which neutralises
chyme in the stomach.

2.                  The digestive enzymes:

A.    Amylase which changes starch to maltose

B.    Lipase which changes lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.

These enzymes enter and do their digestive work at the

duodenum. They enter the duodenum through
the pancreatic duct.  

The Liver

            There are many functions of the liver. Some of the most important are:

1.                  The production of bile

2.                Detoxifying the body, i.e. breaking down alcohol and drugs

3.                Breaking down excess amino acids to form urea

4.                Converting glucose to glycogen for storage

5.                Converting excess carbohydrates to fats

 6.                Storing vitamins

7.                Storing minerals such as Iron, Copper, and Zinc.

8.                Making plasma proteins such as fibrinogen which is used

in blood clotting

9.                Making cholesterol which is used to form many hormones

10.           Producing heat for the blood and body

BILE

        Bile is a yellow-green liquid that is produced in the liver and

stored in the gall bladder. Bile enters the duodenum through
the bile duct. Bile has the following functions:

1.    Emulsifies lipids- It breaks down large fat and oil molecules

into tiny droplets. In this way, the surface area of the lipids is
increased and enzyme action is more efficient.

2.    Helps neutralise chyme in the stomach with its sodium

hydrogen carbonate.

3.    It excretes the pigments biliverdin and bilirubi which are

made from dead red blood cells.

Jejunum/Ileum

    By the time the food enters this part of the small intestine it is
fully digested. The job of the jejunum and ileum is to absorb the
food. The lining of these sections of the small intestine contain
many villi.The walls of the villi are only 1 cell thick. There is a
rich supply of blood located inside each villus. The capillaries of
each villus absorb nutrients from the food and, in this way, the
food gets into the blood supply. Foods such as glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed into the blood here.
The food is then taken to the hepatic portal vein which  takes it
to the liver. Here the food is stored and released when needed
by the body. Amino acids are not stored but, those not used by
the body, are broken down by the liver and form urea. This
process is called deamination. Wastes created at the liver go
from the liver to the hepatic vein and then to the kidneys. Here
they are excreted.

Fats (fatty acids and glycerols) are absorbed into the

villis’ lacteals. The lacteals have lymph fluid in them. (see
diagram below) From the lacteal the fats are transported by the
lymph and carried to the bloodstream at the subclavian veins
near the base of the neck.    

The Large Intestine

      The large intestine is the last part of the alimentary canal. Here is where the

final phase of the nutrition process occurs.
 The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. That is why it
is called “large”.  It has a diameter of about 6 cm. As compared to the small
intestine’s diameter of about 3 cm. It’s length is about 1.5 metres long while the
small intestine is about 6 metres long. Food stays in the large intestine for varying
lengths of time from 10 hours to as long as a few days.

The Caecum and Appendix

            The caecum is right below the junction of the large and small intestine.
The appendix is at the end of the caecum. The function of them in humans is not
known. In herbivores they serve as an area where bacteria exist and aid in the
digestion of cellulose. The organs are said to be vestigal organs. They have lost
their prior use. If bacteria do grow in the appendix or there is a faecal blockage
pain is produced in the appendix. If not treated the appendix may burst and cause
infection the the abdominal lining. This condition is called peritonitis. Usually the
appendix is removed to avoid this serious condition.

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The Colon

The colon absorbs water from the remaining food that has past through the
alimentary canal.  The waste then becomes a semi-solid called faeces. Faeces
are  stored in the rectum and then egested through the anus.

Symbiotic Bacteria
             Bacteria that live in the colon feed on the waste and produce some B
vitamins as well as Vitamin K. These vitamins are absorbed into the blood stream
at the colon. There are other bacteria in the digestive system that help break down
food, especially cellulose. This is a symbiotic relationship. The bacteria obtain
nourishment and we obtain vitamins and digested food.

Absorption is the process by which simpler nutrients (monosaccharide, amino acids, fatty acids
etc.) pass from alimentary tract into blood and lymph. It can be occur by simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis and active transport. 
Absorption starts from stomach but it is poor absorptive area because here junction between
epithelial cells are tight junction and villi are absent on its inner wall. Little amount of water, salts,
alcohol, few drugs and moderate amounts of sugar are absorbed through stomach. Absorption of
nutrients mainly occurs in small intestine. Vitamins produced due to bacterial digestion and water
absorbed in large intestine.

Intestines absorbs collective amount of ingested fluid and fluid secreted in gastrointestinal
secretions. Throughout the inner wall of small intestine many folds called valvulae conniventes (also
known as folds of kerckring) present, which increase the surface area for absorption. The valvulae
conniventes covered by small protrusions known as villi (singular ‘Villus’). Figure 12.4 shows the
longitudinal section of the villus.
 Figure 12.4: Longitudinal section of the villus.

Absorption of Monosaccharides: Absorption of glucose and galactose occur through active

transport. Sodium pump on the cell membrane helps in its active transport. Fructose is absorbed by
facilitated diffusion. Glucose, galactose and fructose are absorbed into the blood capillaries.
Galactose is the most rapidly transported monosaccharide.
Absorption of amino acids: Amino acids are absorbed by active transport coupled with active
sodium transport. They also enter the blood stream.

Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol: Fatty acids and glycerol are insoluble in water thus they
can’t enter in blood stream directly. In intestinal lumen, bile salts and phospholipids incorporates
fatty acids and glycerol into small, spherical water soluble droplets known as micelles. Fat soluble
vitamins and sterols along with fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by diffusion by the help of
micelles into intestinal cells, where they are resynthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and are
converted into small droplets known as chylomicrons. Latter most of them released into lymph
present in lacteals (lymphatic capillaries).

Control of Pancreatic Exocrine Secretion

As you might expect, secretion from the exocrine pancreas is regulated by
both neural and endocrine controls. During interdigestive periods, very little
secretion takes place, but as food enters the stomach and, a little later, chyme
flows into the small intestine, pancreatic secretion is strongly stimulated.

Like the stomach, the pancreas is innervated by the vagus nerve, which
applies a low level stimulus to secretion in response to anticipation of a meal.
However, the most important stimuli for pancreatic secretion comes from three
hormones secreted by the enteric endocrine system:

 Cholecystokinin: This hormone is synthesized and secreted by enteric

endocrine cells located in the duodenum. Its secretion is strongly
stimulated by the presence of partially digested proteins and fats in the
small intestine. As chyme floods into the small intestine, cholecystokinin
is released into blood and binds to receptors on pancreatic acinar cells,
ordering them to secrete large quantities of digestive enzymes.
 Secretin: This hormone is also a product of endocrinocytes located in
the epithelium of the proximal small intestine. Secretin is secreted (!) in
response to acid in the duodenum, which of course occurs when acid-
laden chyme from the stomach flows through the pylorus. The
 predominant effect of secretin on the pancreas is to stimulate duct cells
to secrete water and bicarbonate. As soon as this occurs, the enyzmes
secreted by the acinar cells are flushed out of the pancreas, through the
pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
 Gastrin: This hormone, which is very similar to cholecystokinin, is
secreted in large amounts by the stomach in response to gastric
distention and irritation. In addition to stimulating acid secretion by the
parietal cell, gastrin stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to secrete
digestive enzymes.

Stop and think about this for a minute - control of pancreatic secretion makes
perfect sense. Pancreatic secretions contain enzymes which are needed to
digest proteins, starch and triglyceride. When these substances enter
stomach, and especially the small intestine, they stimulate release of gastrin
and cholecystokinin, which in turn stimulate secretion of the enzymes of
destruction.

Pancreatic secretions are also the major mechanism for neutralizing gastric
acid in the small intestine. When acid enters the small gut, it stimulates
secretin to be released, and the effect of this hormone is to stimulate secretion
of lots of bicarbonate. As proteins and fats are digested and absorbed, and
acid is neutralized, the stimuli for cholecystokinin and secretin secretion
disappear and pancreatic secretion falls off.