EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER!!!

Lesson 1-6

Earth is considered as a special planet because only in it exist lives. Only earth has a perfect location
that can support and nurture life.

Earth Science is defined as study of Earth. It includes rocks, mineral, water, air and other things that see
on Earth.

Four Branches of Earth Science:

 Geology it is a study of geosphere which composed by Earth’s rocks and mineral
 Oceanography a study of large body of water. Including, seas, rivers, and lake.
 Meteorology, study of Earth’s atmosphere and weather. In this branch, weather, climate and
storms and typhoon are the main focus
 Astronomy study of heavenly bodies. The eye on this branch is the planets the near on earth
and their effects.

James Hutton is considered as father of geology

Earth is 4.5 Billion years old, the only planet not named after a god and has one natural satellite and it
is the Moon

Universe came from the Latin word universum which means all together, whole, entire, collective,
general, literally turned or combined into one. Universe is all time and space including, stars galaxies and
planet. Beforehand, universe is not the same as we look today. Universe got bit different in today’s era.

Here are some believes on the origin of the universe.

 In Christian view, God created everything including stars, planets and all living creatures. In the
book of Genesis shows how God created everything in six days.
 In Hindu text Rigveda, universe is a cosmic egg or “Brahmanda” which containing the sun,
moon, planets and space.
 Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus describe universe as an atomic universe. Atomic
Universe was composed of very small, indivisible and indestructible atom.
 Geocentric universe earth is the center of universe proposed by Ptolemy. Heliocentric Universe
earth is not the center but the sun. Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
 Isaac Newton described universe as static and steady state.
 French philosopher Rene Descartes outlined a Cartesian vortex model of the universe. Descartes
said, the vacuum of the space was not empty at all but was filled with matter.
 Einstein’s theory is anchored by his theory, Theory of Relativity.

These are different theory on the origin of the universe.

 Based on Big bang Theory universe is expanding through time. It came from nothing called
singularity and it expand.
Proponent of Big Bang Theory is Georges Lemaitre
 There are three evidences of Big bang theory.
1. CMB or Cosmic Microwave background. This is a left over radiation cause by an
explosion.
2. Star’s explosion
3. Hubble’s Law. Edwin Hubble explains universe is moving and expanding.

 Oscillating Universe (Proposed by Albert Einstein)

This curvature results in the expansion of the universe for a time and then to its contraction due
to the pull of gravity in perpetual cycle of big bang and big crunch.

 Steady State Theory (Proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi)
Universe did not expand and not change anything. Universe is the same yesterday, today and
tomorrow

 Inflationary Universe (Proposed by Alan Guth)

Exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve the uncertainties of standard of big bang theory.

 Multiverse (Proposed by Andrei Linde)

This theory sees the universe as just “one” of the many bubbles that grew as part of a
multiverse.

Solar system is where the planet Earth belongs.

Sun is the center of the solar system in which the planets revolves around it.

Solar system is composed today of eight planets namely, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.

Terrestrial planet which have a characteristics of solid and rocky surface. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars

Jovian planets has a characteristic of gas and icy planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

Theories on the origin of Solar System

Encounter Hypothesis explains, a Roque star passed close to the sun and stripped materials (hot gases)
from both the sun and the Roque star. The hot gases continued to spin in the same direction as the sun,
and unite into smaller lumps which formed the planets.

Nebular hypothesis states that the entire Solar system starts as a large cloud of gas that contracted due
to self-gravity. Conservation of angular momentum requires that rotating disk form a large
concentration at the center, which starts as the protosun, while planets began forming within the disk.

Protoplanet Hypothesis according to this hypothesis, the solar system began with a fragment from
interstellar cloud composed mainly of hydrogen, helium and trace amount of light. The fragments of the
interstellar cloud the formed the dense central. It is improved version of the nebular hypothesis. It is
also the most popular hypothesis on the origin of solar system.

Earth is rich in Biodiversity which means that many life forms exist in Earth.
Water – H2O plays a great role in existence of life. First, photosynthesis will never able to perform by
plants. Photosynthesis is ability of plants make their own food if without water plants will die and foods
of for animals will be run out. Also water, makes earth habitable for life or also known as Goldilocks
zone. Scientist believes that water on earth came from volcanism and icy meteors from outer space hits
the earth.

Heat – sun is the main source of heat and energy that planets need. In fact, earth has a perfect location
where heat is just enough to sustain life. Earth is not too close nor too far from the sun which leads to
life can be supported on this planet. Also, earth has own heat came from earth’s beneath, it is called
geothermal energy.

Atmosphere – Earth also has a perfect atmosphere that supported by different gas that can preserve
life in earth. This is oxygen gas, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas that essential cycles of life.

Minerals are the building blocks or rocks. Scientist defines mineral as a naturally- occurring chemical
compound, it is solid in nature and it is inorganic without carbon element.

General characteristics of Minerals

 Naturally-occurring- it should have been formed by geologic processes without any human
intervention.

 Inorganic- a mineral is inorganic if it is formed by inorganic processes and does not contain any
organic compounds.

 Solid- it should exhibit stability at room temperature.

 Definite chemical composition - all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical composition
that varies within a specific limited range and the atoms that make up the mineral must occur in
specific ratios.

 Ordered internal structure - the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating
pattern.

Luster – is the ability of mineral to reflect light from the its surface. Most minerals have metallic luster
and are described as either glassy, dull or earthy, pearly, silky or greasy.

Color – it is the most obvious and most seen property of minerals but color of minerals is not reliable
because of impurity that may change the color of minerals.

Streak – this is the color of mineral in powdered form

Cleavage – is the ability of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding.

Fracture – can be an irregular fracture when a mineral breaks and exhibits uneven surface

Crystal shape - refers to the common or characteristics shape of a crystal or combination of crystal.
Hardness – is the resistance of minerals to abrasion or scratching.

Rocks are naturally solid aggregates of one or more minerals. Rocks came from the Greek word lithos
which means stone. Rocks have a lots of useful function especially to the house and building.

Three classification Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed by fire since they originated from magma produced by the melting of rocks in
the hot mantle. It is crystalline when they formed from cooled magma, lava and pyroclastic.
 Crystalline Texture – how fast and slow the cooling took place.
 Intrusive or Plutonic rocks – form from slowly cooled magma
 Extrusive or volcanic rocks – form from rapidly cooled magma.

Pyroclastic – is derived from Greek word pyro which means fire and klastos which means shattered.
This texture is the result of lithification of eruption of erupted materials, these types of rocks are
distinguished from each other size of its particle components.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by compacted and cemented sediments. It can be also bioplastics
when it forms as the result of the accumulation of organic material or biological activity. It may
even contain remnants of plants, corals, shells or fossil fragments.
 Metamorphic rocks / Metamorphism means transformation or change in form. It is originate
from pre- existing igneous, sedimentary or even metamorphic rocks. Every metamorphic rock
has a parent or the rock form which it originated. It is also created by the physical or chemical
alteration by heat and pressure of an existing igneous or sedimentary material into a denser
form.

Rock Cycle – is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks are formed, modified,
transported, decomposed, melted, and reformed. These process occur both on earth’s surface and
underneath. Essentially it is a dynamic process and product.

 When the magma cooled it became Igneous rock.

 When the Igneous rock melted it became magma.
 When the sediments compact it became sedimentary rock.
 When sedimentary rocks undergo through erosion and weathering it became sediments.
 When Igneous rocks undergo in heat and pressure it became Metamorphic rock.
 When sedimentary rocks undergo heat and pressure it became metamorphic rocks.
 When metamorphic rocks melted it became magma.
 When metamorphic rocks experience weathering and erosion it became sediments.

ORE is a solid material from which valuable minerals can be profitably extracted.
Mining refers to a set of processes through which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock of any
non- renewable resources.

There are two types of mining. Surface Mining and Underground Mining

Surface Mining – it is done to extract ores that are near the earth’ surface. Surface mining can be
categorized by:
  Open pit Mining - This surface mining technique is used when mineral or ore deposits are found
relatively close to the surface of the earth. Open-pits are sometimes called ‘quarries’ when they
produce building materials and dimension stone.
 Quarrying - refers to extracting materials directly from the surface. The mining and quarrying
sector includes mining of fossil fuels (coal and lignite mining, oil and gas extraction), mining of
metal ores, quarrying of stone, sand, and clay, and mining of phosphate and other minerals
 Strip Mining - is employed in coal reserves where the overburden is removed in rectangular
blocks in plain view called pits or strip.
 Placer Mining - ancient method of using water to excavate, transport, concentrate, and recover
heavy minerals from alluvial or placer deposits. Placer mining takes advantage of gold's high
density, which causes it to sink more rapidly from moving water than the lighter siliceous
materials with which it is found.
 Dredging - is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbors, and
other water bodies. It is a routine necessity in waterways around the world because
sedimentation the natural process of sand and silt washing downstream gradually fills channels
and harbors.

Underground Mining – it is way used to extract ores that are found beneath earth’ surface.
 Shaft mining - is the process where miners dig straight down, or almost straight down, until
they reach their desired depth. Then the mine begins to branch out in all directions
 Pipe mining - is used when the primary sources of pipe deposits are found. Once the pipes
and presence of diamonds are discovered, shanks are inserted into the earth at ore-bearing
pipes and a large amount of soil are extracted

There are three process to extract rocks or minerals from the ore.
Heap leaching – this is the addition of chemicals like cyanide and acid to separate ore from rock.
Flotation – putting a substance that produces air bubbles to make ore or important minerals float.
Smelting – placing the ores into high temperature resulting to the rocks separate into layers to get the
minerals or the ore.

Mining follows a certain process or step.

Here are the steps that need to follow.
 Prospecting or exploration – it is looking for ore substance
 Drilling – a little part of the ore is remove to determined ore’s quality or grade.
 Modeling – identifying the ore’s size, shape and grade distribution throughout the deposit. This
is to apply specific mining technique, methods and to plan safety precaution.
 Identifying and assessing potential impacts – thinking the possible result of the mining.
Considering if the area can be back into original state or at least lessen the damage.
 Designing and constructing the mine – engineer and scientist must work hand in hand to create
perfect design. All papers must have approved by government and local communities.
 Ore extraction – high grade ore separated from the rest of the deposit.
 Milling – the ore is crushed and concentrated. Tailings are release.
 Mine site decomposition – closure of mining site. Mine site must be cleaned and rehabilitated.

Good and Bad Effects of Mining

  Mining has good benefits in the country, it may improve economically. It can offer lots of job
opportunity to the people. Those minerals are useful for manufacturing gadgets, jewelry and
can be used in electricity. Also, rare ore and minerals gives a lot of money.
 The waste product that can cause destruction of habitat of mans and animals. Deforestation,
people tend to cut trees to make way in digging the mountains for its precious gem
 It can hazard the health of the miners because of the extraction of ores. Mining company should
be responsible in mining. It should be permitted by the government and must follow the
protocols.

Philippines ore and minerals

 Baguio and Palawan is the main contributors of minerals in the country.

Renewable resource can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.

Nonrenewable resource cannot be regenerated on a human time scale, it is limited and has an ending.
 Nonrenewable energy and its effect
- It has a lots of contribution to human. It is uses for heat, electricity and transportation. Despite
of having good contribution nonrenewable energy produces negative effects to environment.
One of those is pollution, air water, soil and noise pollution is the consequences of using
nonrenewable energy. Next is global warming, that can cause climate change and melting of
polar ice. As the result of these stronger typhoons and tornados in different part of the world.

Fossil fuel are formed from living plants and animals that existed 500 million years ago. It also
considered as world’s primary energy resource. It gives most of the energy that support human
transportation, electricity production, heating and cooling of buildings and industrial works.

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is black or brown in color and composed of carbon. Coal is a combustible
substance. It is made of dead plants that found at the bottom of pre- existing swamps. Coal is the largest
source of energy for electricity in the world.
There are types of coals:
 Peat – it is soft substance that is made of plant fiber. It has 50% of carbon.
 Lignite – brown coal that is soft and has woody texture, has 70% carbon.
 Bituminous coal – dark brown or black and soft, it is a sedimentary rocks contains impurities like
sulfur, it is mid- rank coal that has 70% carbon.
 Anthracite – most common type of coal. It is hard and brittle, due to high temperature shiny
black and high- rank coal that has 95% carbon.

Oil and Natural Gas

Oil is a liquid form of fossil fuels which known as petroleum or crude oil. It is made of small organism
that lived in the surface of sea and sunk on the sea floor where they died. The dead organism was kept
away from the oxygen by layers of sediments and other creatures. As heat and pressure increased, the
remains of the organism became liquid.
Gasoline and diesel used for vehicle while kerosene is used as source of heat. Oil is also used for making
plastics, fertilizers and other products.

Nuclear energy can be acquired into two ways.

Nuclear fusion is combining light atom to form heavy atom.
Nuclear fission is splitting heavy atom into lighter atoms.