International Baccalaureate (IB)

History Paper 2 (SL/HL)

World History Topic 10: Authoritarian States

Case Study: Hitler’s Germany

Essay Plans
 Contents

Structure of Essay Plan Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Essay Plans: Emergence of Authoritarian States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Conditions in which Authoritarian States Emerged (4 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Economic Factors; Social Division; Impact of War; Weakness of Political System

Methods Used to Establish Authoritarian States (4 Paragraphs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Ideology; Propaganda (Persuasion); Role of Leaders; Use of Force (Coercion)

Essay Plans: Consolidation & Maintenance of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Methods Used to Maintain Power (4 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Legal Methods; Use of Force; Charismatic Leadership; Dissemination of Propaganda

Nature, Extent and Treatment of Opposition (2 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Nature and Extent of Opposition; Treatment of Opposition

Impact of Foreign Policy on Maintenance of Power (2 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Successes of Foreign Policy; Failures of Foreign Policy

Essay Plans: Aims & Results of Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Aims and Results of Domestic Policies (4 Paragraphs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Economic Policies; Political Policies; Cultural Policies; Social Policies

Impact of Policies on Women (2 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Ideology and Social Expectations; Economic and Political Rights

Impact of Policies on Minorities (2 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Religious Minorities; Ethnic and Social Minorities

Extent to which Authoritarian Control was Achieved (3 Paragraphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Security Apparatus & Terror; Popular Mobilization; Political Organization & Control

Summaries of Essay Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

___________________________________________________________________________

Disclaimer: whilst the information in the pages below is accurate and true to the best of my
knowledge, it is of course possible that there are errors. If something does not seem right, it
is your responsibility to ensure that you fact-check it before including it in an essay.

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 Structure of Essay Plan Paragraphs

All the essay plan paragraphs follow the same structure, to both make them easier to memorise and
ensure that the volume and depth of information that is learned about each dot-point of the syllabus
is roughly balanced and even. The specific structure that is used is as follows:

This section mainly contains primary evidence relating to one theme that is
Evidence 1 relevant to the syllabus dot-point. This evidence is usually quite simple
and in support of the ‘orthodox’ historiographical perspective of the topic.

This section also contains primary evidence that is usually in support of the
Evidence 2 ‘orthodox’ view. It will either focus on a different theme that is also related
to the dot-point, or will be an extension of the evidence in the first section.

This contains a brief quotation or paraphrase from a historian or academic

Perspective A who has made an argument which aligns with the evidence set out in the
first two sections. It is usually (but not always) the ‘orthodox’ perspective.

This contains a quotation or paraphrase from a historian who holds a belief

Perspective B that does not align with the ‘orthodox’ perspective (ie. a ‘revisionist’ view).
It captures a specific historiographical disagreement within the topic.

This section contains evidence relating to the historiographical clash that

Resolving Evidence 1 has just been raised. It usually supports ‘Perspective B’, and so challenges
the orthodox perspective and the evidence seen in the first two sections.

This section contains further evidence that is relevant to the clash between
Resolving Evidence 2 the two perspectives. It sometimes supports the revisionist perspective,
and sometimes counters this view (occasionally it will include both sides!).

Example of Essay Plan Paragraph Structure

2
 Conditions in which Authoritarian States Emerged

Economic Factors
E1: Germany’s economic recovery after WWI + the Ruhr Crisis was dependent on foreign loans from the US
(1924-29: US loaned Germany $2,000,000,000) → the Wall Street Crash led to these loans being withdrawn
→ businesses went bankrupt AND banks collapsed AND individuals became unwilling to invest their money
AND the German export market entirely collapsed (1929-32: value fell from £630 million to £280 million).
E2: unemployment soared as a result (1929-1932: number unemployed rose from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000)
→ government under Chancellor Brüning introduced a deflationary policy (ie. reduced unemployment benefits)
→ drastically reduced the popularity of the government → Hitler took advantage of this crisis by mocking the
inaction of Brüning + promising that the Nazi Party would restore Germany economically (eg. public works).
PA: Lynch → Hitler “would have made little progress… had not Germany… entered a period of economic crisis”.
PB: Peukert → “the republic had already been heading for the crossroads” before the Great Depression.
R1: the electoral statistics demonstrate that the Great Depression was a turning point in the success of Hitler
→ 1924-28: NSDAP barely survived (May 1928: 2.6% votes / 12 seats) → from 1929 onwards, the NSDAP
had far greater electoral success (Sep 1930: 18.3% votes / 107 seats → July 1932: 37.4% votes / 230 seats)
→ success tied to unemployment (1930-33: 55% of working-class ppl who joined NSDAP were unemployed).
R2: the economy did start to recover in late 1932 though → the NSDAP accordingly lost some of their support
(Nov 1932: 33.1% votes / 196 seats) → still the single most popular party (SDP/KPD refused to form coalition)
→ Hitler retained enough support to be appointed chancellor in Jan 1933 → other nations were harmed by GD
yet avoided authoritarianism (eg. US suffered from 25% unemployment → more stable government though).

Social Division
E1: most social classes resented the government but for varying reasons (society was fragmented + hostile) →
the working class suffered the most from WWI AND many adopted the fabricated stab-in-the-back myth →
the middle classes intensely feared the rise of communism which had taken place in Russia at the end of WWI
→ the conservative elite (landowners/industrialists/militarists) had always favored monarchy over democracy.
E2: social division encouraged political division → there were attempts from the political ‘left’ to seize power
(eg. 1919 Spartacist Uprising; 1920 Ruhr Uprising) → the political ‘right’ made similar attempts to seize power
(eg. 1920 Kapp Putsch; 1923 Beer Hall Putsch) → street violence between paramilitaries became common →
the result was political polarization (ie. shift towards either communism or fascism became increasingly likely).
PA: Lynch → “post-war Germany [was] a volatile place”, making a shift towards extremism more probable.
PB: Carsten → during 1925-28, “prosperity was restored” and so the popularity of moderate parties returned.
R1: during these years, the hyperinflation crisis was solved through the introduction of the new Rentenmark
AND highly popular social welfare programs were implemented (eg. 1927 Unemployment Insurance Law) →
this reduced social resentment and promoted unity → this translated into a decrease in political polarization
(May 1924: NSDAP/KPD gained 2,000,000 votes → May 1928: NSDAP/KPD gained only 800,000 votes).
R2: social divisions were exacerbated once again by the GD → the fear of communism of the middle classes /
conservative elite increased AND the anti-government resentment of the working class grew (unemployment)
→ extremism became more popular (July 1932: NSDAP/KPD gained 19,000,000 votes → 50% of total votes)
→ social division was responsible for the turn to extremism (actions taken by Hitler led to victory over KPD).

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 Conditions in which Authoritarian States Emerged (cont.)

Impact of War
E1: after military defeat in WWI and the subsequent armistice, Germany had to sign the Treaty of Versailles →
reparations (£6,600 million over 42 annual installments); lost 13% of its territory; lost 12% of its population;
lost all colonies; military limited to 100,000 men; navy limited to 15,000 men; no airforce; no submarines;
Rhineland demilitarized; Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; lost 16% coal production + 48% iron production.
E2: the terms were severe and had wider social/political consequences → the treaty was viewed as a ‘Diktat’
as German diplomats were excluded from negotiations → Article 231 was referred to as the ‘War Guilt Lie’ →
right-wing circles spread the ‘stab-in-the-back myth’ AND referred to the gov. as the ‘November Criminals’ →
popular resentment over lack of self-determination given to Germans → destabilized the Weimar Republic.
PA: Thurlow → “the First World War created the necessary conditions to enable the rise of Nazism”.
PB: Henig → the Treaty of Versailles was not excessively harsh on Germany (territorially or economically).
R1: Germany could have afforded the reparations if it had reformed its financial system OR raised taxation →
annual payments were even lowered by Dawes Plan AND total amount was reduced by 20% by Young Plan
→ provisions were included to allow Allied troops to be gradually withdrawn from the Rhineland each 5 years
→ the terms were overall less harsh than those imposed on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918).
R2: the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were nonetheless perceived as excessive by the majority of Germans
→ this view was supported by contemporary economists (John Maynard Keynes described them as “punitive”)
and diplomats (Harold Nicolson wrote that the reparations clauses would actually be “impossible to execute”)
→ resentment over the Treaty of Versailles was exploited by Hitler to capture popular and electoral support.

Weakness of Political System

E1: the Weimar Constitution utilized proportional representation (each party won one seat per 60,000 votes)
→ this drastically increased the number of parties that gained representation, forcing coalitions to be formed
→ coalitions were ineffective + slow due to internal disagreements → coalitions also changed very frequently
(1919-28: 14 different coalitions in power) → proportional representation also legitimized extremist parties.
E2: the power of the Reich President was vast → had a seven-year term AND appointed/dismissed chancellors
→ Article 48 gave them the power to introduce laws without Reichstag approval AND suspend civil liberties
AND intervene militarily during crises → allowed them to ‘rule by decree’ (1932: Hindenburg used it 60 times)
→ undermined the democratic institutions of Germany AND paved the way for a return to authoritarianism.
PA: Lynch → the Weimar Constitution had “serious weaknesses” which undermined it “from its beginning”.
PB: Kolb → the lack of popular support for democracy was more significant than the constitutional issues.
R1: many political groups were hostile towards the Weimar Republic → inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution,
communists in Germany sought to overthrow the newly-created government (eg. 1919 Spartacist Uprising) →
the conservative elite resented the new style of parliamentary rule (which was adhered to by President Ebert),
leading to hostility/opposition from the political ‘right’ too (eg. 1920 Kapp Putsch; 1923 Beer Hall Putsch).
R2: despite constitutional weaknesses and a lack of popular support, it is notable that the Weimar Republic
did survive until the onset of the Great Depression → during the ‘Golden Years’ under Stresemann (1924-29)
it even thrived (economic prosperity + social stability) → it was therefore the failure of specific political parties
during times of crisis rather than the political system itself that was more to blame for the emergence of Hitler.

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 Methods Used to Establish Authoritarian States

Ideology
E1: Feb 1920: Hitler founded the NSDAP and announced the National Socialist Program (‘25-Point Program’)
→ described main ideas of Nazism → nationalism, racialism, anti-Semitism, anti-immigration, anti-communism
→ early Nazism even included socialist ideas (eg. nationalization of businesses; abolition of unearned income)
→ the aim of this ideology was to attract as wide of a support base as possible (ie. across all social classes).
E2: July 1925: Hitler published his autobiographical manifesto ‘Mein Kampf’ (My Struggle) → defined Nazism
in more detail and in a more accessible format → argued that National Socialism was the only doctrine that
could defeat socialism/communism AND suitably prepare the population for war (needed to gain Lebensraum)
→ 1925-32: 240,000 copies sold (more popular after Hitler rose to power) → still helped spread Nazism.
PA: Holborn → Nazi ideology was consistent and continuous and this made it central to Hitler’s rise to power.
PB: Brustein → people voted for Hitler due to his “innovative programs that appealed to material interests”.
R1: there were pragmatic reasons for social groups to support Hitler → working class (pensions/employment);
industrialists (gov. contracts for remilitarisation); landowners/businessmen (elimination of communist threat)
→ ideology sometimes overlapped with pragmatism → the objective of autarky was an element of Nazism →
this was popular for nationalistic + material/economic reasons → gained the support of many social groups.
R2: Nazi ideology was not always consistent (eg. socialist ideas in the ‘25-Point Program’ were abandoned) →
Mein Kampf was repetitious + illogical → ideology was only effective in winning popular support after the GD
→ 1924-28: NSDAP barely survived (May 1928: 2.6% votes / 12 seats) → from 1929 onwards, the NSDAP
had far greater electoral success (Sep 1930: 18.3% votes / 107 seats → July 1932: 37.4% votes / 230 seats).

Propaganda (Persuasion)
E1: Hitler used propaganda to highlight the strengths of the Nazi Party AND vilify the ‘enemies’ of Germany
(November Criminals / Communists / Jews) AND promote a vision of a future Germany under the Nazi Party →
Joseph Goebbels controlled this propaganda effort → posters/leaflets/publications/radio-broadcasts all used
→ ‘People’s Observer’ newspaper was also produced (published weekly from 1920, then daily from 1923).
E2: Hitler’s most effective propaganda medium was the spoken word → Hitler was a talented public speaker
and took advantage of this by tailoring his speeches to his audience → Hitler began by speaking in beer halls
but soon advanced to delivering speeches at party ‘meetings’ → 1923/27/29: Hitler held rallies at Nuremberg
→ 1932: ‘Hitler Over Germany’ campaign (Hitler flew to cities all over Germany to give speeches + win votes).
PA: O’Shaughnessy → Hitler’s use of propaganda to shape public opinion was integral to his rise to power.
PB: Noakes → the Nazis made political gains in areas where there was little propaganda (not very influential).
R1: the scale of the propaganda machine was small in the 1920s → 1925: 9,500 copies of Mein Kampf sold →
1920: circulation of the ‘People’s Observer’ was just 8,000 (publication ceased during Nov 1923 - Feb 1925)
→ ‘rallies’ were relatively small (compared to later Nuremberg Rallies) → scale of propaganda did grow tho
(1931: circulation of the ‘People’s Observer’ reached 120,000; 1925-32: 240,000 copies of Mein Kampf sold).
R2: propaganda was also especially important given Hitler’s strategy of rising to power through the elections
→ propaganda was a vital tool that allowed Hitler to take advantage of the public discontent during the GD
(ie. illustrated a better future under Nazi rule) → NSDAP received the most votes in both of the 1932 elections
→ Joseph Goebbels later commented that “propaganda was our sharpest weapon in conquering the state”.

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 Methods Used to Establish Authoritarian States (cont.)

Role of Leaders
E1: Dec 1924: Hitler personally reorganized the NSDAP → new tactics (he would reach power via elections);
new party organizations (for women/students/youth/teachers); new symbols (brown shirts, salute, swastika) →
restructured the party based on the ‘Fuhrerprinzip’ (Hitler himself had supreme power since “he knew best”)
→ during his absence the NSDAP had split into opposing factions → Hitler was able to reunite the party.
E2: the leadership of Hitler was integral to the popularity of the Nazi Party → Hitler understood the power of
public speaking (“I know that men are won over less by the written than by the spoken word”) → his ability to
tailor his speeches to his audience won him support + votes (Albert Speer, regarding a speech given by Hitler
in 1931: “I was carried away on a wave of enthusiasm by the speech. Here, it seemed to me, was new hope.”)
PA: Hite/Hinton → “Hitler himself was central to the success of the Nazis” (intentionalist view).
PB: Kershaw → “chance events… played a much larger role than any actions of [Hitler]” (functionalist view).
R1: Hitler did benefit from widespread resentment towards the centrist parties, particularly during the GD →
unemployment peaked at 6,000,000 AND the government under Chancellor Brüning reduced welfare benefits
→ actions taken by Hitler helped channel this anger into support for the Nazi Party though → soup kitchens
for the unemployed were created by the Nazi Party AND slogans such as “Work and Bread” were spread.
R2: leaders other than Hitler were also vital → Hindenburg (appointed Hitler as Chancellor on Jan 30 1933) →
→ Röhm (led the SA from 1930 and rapidly expanded it)
Goebbels (responsible for propaganda from 1925)
→ Himmler (commander of the SS from 1929) → Göring (responsible for the exploitation of Reichstag Fire) →
Hitler’s leadership was also challenged by Otto and Gregor Strasser (Hitler defeated them in 1930 though).

Use of Force (Coercion)

E1: 1921: Hitler founded the Sturmabteilung (SA) → purpose was to win ‘street battles’ against communists
AND protect Nazi speakers/members during party meetings AND disrupt the meetings of political opponents
→ they also served a propaganda purpose (ie. demonstrated that the Nazi Party could achieve order + control)
→ under Ernst Röhm the SA expanded (Jan 1933: 2,000,000 members → 20 times larger than German Army).
E2: 1923: Hitler and General Ludendorff (supported by 2,000 Nazis) attempted a violent uprising in Munich →
whilst this putsch failed (16 Nazis killed AND Hitler was arrested), it gave the Nazi Party immense fame both
domestically + internationally → the subsequent trial lasted 24 days and was covered in depth by the media,
giving Hitler an opportunity to spread his ideology → also showed he was willing to use force to gain power.
PA: Hite/Hinton → the use of force (in particular the SA) “played a major role in Hitler’s success”.
PB: Lynch → “although [Hitler] despised democracy… he was prepared… to use Weimar’s electoral system.”
R1: after the Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler reorganized the NSDAP and chose to seek power through the elections
(Hitler: “If out-voting them takes longer than out-shooting them, at least the results will be guaranteed by
their own constitution!”) → the use of violence in elections only became widespread after Hitler rose to power
(eg. 81 KPD + 20 SPD deputies were prevented by the SA from taking their seats after March 1933 election).
R2: street violence between opposing paramilitaries (eg. Red Front Fighters’ League vs. SA) became common
(July 1932: 100 deaths from such violence) → the scale of the SA (1933: 2,000,000 members) also meant that
members of government and the convervative elite perceived it as a threat to their power → the influence that
Hitler wielded over the SA was a major reason why they supported the appointment of Hitler as chancellor.

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 Methods Used to Maintain Power

Legal Methods
E1: after Reichstag Fire, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to pass the ‘Reichstag Fire Decree’ (28 Feb 1933) →
gave Hitler the power to arrest political opponents + dissolve political organizations + suppress publications
→ March 1933: Hitler proposed the ‘Enabling Bill’ + persuaded Zentrum/DNVP/BVP deputies to vote in favor
→ ‘Enabling Bill’ was passed (444 votes to 94) → allowed Hitler to pass laws without Reichstag approval.
E2: Hitler then used this legally-acquired authority to implement the policy of Gleichschaltung (‘coordination’)
→ April 1933: all state governors replaced with Nazi Commissioners (had full legal power over local officials)
→ July 1933: Law Against the Founding of New Parties (all political entities other than the NSDAP disbanded)
→ Jan 1934: Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich (nullified Reichstrat + state Diets → centralised power).
PA: Thurlow → Hitler’s subversion of “legal processes” was a “textbook demonstration” of solidifying power.
PB: Mommsen → Hitler lazily and neglectfully created Nazi legal bodies that overlapped with each other.
R1: Hitler’s decision to create a polycratic government inherently involved a significant amount of confusion →
Hitler never developed a new constitution (simply created new departments to deal with issues as they arose)
→ jurisdictions/responsibilities of the departments were poorly defined + often overlapped with each other →
Nazi Press Chief: Hitler created “the biggest confusion in government that has ever existed in a civilised state”.
R2: Hitler’s ‘legal’ methods were also not entirely legitimate (ie. many were implemented alongside coercion)
→ voting on the Enabling Bill was done under the threat of violence towards those who voted against the bill
→ intimidation was used in March 1933 election (ie. the 81 KPD deputies were prevented from taking office)
→ elections from November 1933 onwards only included Nazis and ‘Guests of Nazis’ on the ballot paper.

Use of Force
E1: Hitler used force to eliminate threats to his power from inside the NSDAP in the ‘Night of the Long Knives’
→ Hitler ordered the SS to execute Ernst Rohm and over 400 others → won the respect of the army generals
(whose power was threatened by the increasingly large SA) → this earned Hitler the support of the army in
becoming President after Hindenburg died → after his death, Hitler merged the roles into the title of ‘Fuhrer’.
E2: Schutzstaffel (SS) served as the de facto national police force AND ran camps (1939: 250,000 members)
→ Gestapo was as a secret police force known for their use of torture + extralegality (1944: 32,000 members)
→ those who were arrested were sent to camps → 1933-45: built 27 main camps AND 1,100 sub-camps →
imprisoned 1,650,000 people, of which nearly 1,000,000 died (excluding prisoners in extermination camps).
PA: Thurlow → the Nazi terror apparatus “monitored and controlled all expressions of dissent/resistance”.
PB: Evans → “violence and intimidation rarely touched the lives of most ordinary Germans” (selective terror).
R1: scale of the Gestapo was limited (eg. 281 officers responsible for Lower Rhine region = 4,000,000 people)
→ Gestapo relied heavily on informants (eg. Wurzburg, 54% of race-related charges initiated by other citizens)
→ scale of camps was limited during 1933-39 (1937: only 4 total camps; 1939: only 25,000 total prisoners)
→ most targets of the SS/Gestapo/SD were active resistors or minorities (most people were indeed left alone).
R2: Hitler’s domestic policies also gave him much public support, lessening reliance on his use of force/terror
→ his economic policies reduced unemployment (1934: 2,300,000 unemployed; 1938: 200,000 unemployed)
→ his social policies benefited workers (1933-38: 10,300,000 ppl took a Strength Through Joy (KdF) holiday)
→ his cultural policies democratised some art forms (1938: over 2,500,000 attended KdF orchestra concerts).

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 Methods Used to Maintain Power (cont.)

Charismatic Leadership
E1: the NSDAP (most notably the Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda under Goebbels)
built a ‘cult of personality’ around Hitler → photos/posters/newspapers were commonly used to glorify him →
Hitler was equated to the nation of Germany (eg. army/judiciary swore an oath of allegiance to Hitler himself)
AND was portrayed as a defender of the German people (eg. open denunciation of the Treaty of Versailles).
E2: Hitler was also a talented orator, and he took advantage of this by speaking at rallies + in radio broadcasts
→ Hitler was famous for tailoring his speeches to his audience and their perceived interests and vulnerabilities
(Speer: “Hitler knew how to penetrate through to the instincts of his audiences”) → this gained him support
from those not won over by Nazism (Speer: “I was not choosing the NSDAP but becoming a follower of Hitler).
PA: Kershaw → the charismatic leadership of Hitler was “a crucial integratory force in the Nazi system of rule”.
PB: Evans → “self-preservation” drove the supposed popular support for Hitler (not genuine intrinsic support).
R1: the culture of informing on fellow citizens AND the unfairness + harshness of the supposed legal system
(98% of verdicts were life imprisonment or death) led to many conforming despite secretly resenting Hitler →
Hitler’s public speaking ability has also come under scrutiny in recent scholarship (eg. content of his speeches
has been described as repetitive/erratic) → his charisma has thus perhaps been slightly exaggerated over time.
R2: even more credible are the claims that Hitler’s actual leadership became increasingly superficial and weak
→ Hitler: “a moment of genius is worth a lifetime of office work” (justified his lack of direct involvement in gov)
→ from 1934 Hitler became less involved in the Reich Cabinet meetings AND these ended altogether in 1937
→ Hitler was known as lazy (late riser + would often fail to read/sign documents that required his approval).

Dissemination of Propaganda
E1: March 1933: Hitler set up the Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda under Goebbels
→ Goebbels believed that regular exposure was key to the effectiveness of propaganda (hence many different
departments were created to disseminate propaganda in all forms, such as films/posters/books/radio/photos)
→ objectives were: deification of Hitler; defining the enemy and justifying their treatment; rallying the masses.
E2: Eher Verlag (the Nazi publishing house) took over the press (1933-39: ownership rose from 3% to 66%)
→ the Reich Broadcasting Corporation took over radio (listening to foreign radio stations was strictly banned)
→ mass events were also held (annual ‘Nuremberg Rallies’ were attended by hundreds of thousands of ppl)
→ propaganda films were created (eg. 1935 ‘Triumph of the Will’, which glorified the 1934 Nuremberg Rally).
PA: Pauley → the use of propaganda was the most successful and unique aspect of the Nazi regime.
PB: Welch → “propaganda alone could not have sustained the Nazi Party” (policies were equally responsible).
R1: many of the policies implemented by Hitler won him popular support (reducing reliance on propaganda)
→ his economic policies reduced unemployment (1934: 2,300,000 unemployed; 1938: 200,000 unemployed)
→ his foreign policy moves aligned with the popular resentment towards the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
→ many policies failed tho (ie. 1934 Anschluss) → in these cases, propaganda helped shift blame from Hitler.
R2: the efficacy of propaganda was also ensured by certain factors → the adult literacy rate was almost 100%
(making the population more receptive to written propaganda such as Mein Kampf and the People’s Observer)
→ Volksempfänger (‘People’s Receiver’) was a short-range radio receiver which the Nazi Party mass-produced
(1939: 70% households owned one), giving direct access into homes to disseminate broadcasts and speeches.

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 Nature, Extent and Treatment of Opposition

Nature and Extent of Opposition

E1: some individuals undertook active resistance → despite being exiled, SPD/KPD operated in Prague/Paris +
smuggled pamphlets into Germany (1935: 1,600,000 seized at borders) → some army officers opposed Hitler
(1938: Ludwig Beck tried to arrest Hitler AND 1944: Claus von Stauffenberg tried to have him assassinated)
→ religious leaders (eg. Bonhoeffer / von Galen / Niemöller) spoke out against certain policies (eg. eugenics)
E2: many individuals undertook passive resistance → many ppl deliberately underperformed in the workplace
→ workers occasionally participated in strikes / sabotaged factory equipment → many ppl told anti-Nazi jokes
and refused to give the Nazi salute → others continued to hide/read banned literature or listen to foreign radio
→ the Swing Youth was a youth organisation that met and listened to jazz/swing music (which was banned).
PA: Housden → people from all parts of society carried out “a whole variety of activities against [the regime]”.
PB: Lynch → “there was no consistent, organized resistance movement” (all opposition was doomed to fail).
R1: the immediate suppression of political opposition AND the banning of trade unions limited the ability of
the KPD/SPD to organize resistance → the legality of Hitler’s rise meant that conspirators had to act outside
the law to remove him (which made them appear as traitors to many ppl) → Hitler was also genuinely popular
due to policy successes → these factors led to centralized resistance against Hitler being almost impossible.
R2: archival studies report that non-conformity was the most common cause for investigation by the Gestapo
(46% of all cases), whilst instances of active resistance was far less frequent → combined with the fact that
most cases of passive resistance would have gone unnoticed due to their very nature, McDonough estimates
that whilst passive resistance was relatively common, less than 1% of Germans engaged in active resistance.

Treatment of Opposition
E1: Schutzstaffel (SS) served as the de facto national police force AND ran camps (1939: 250,000 members)
→ Gestapo was as a secret police force known for their use of torture + extralegality (1944: 32,000 members)
→ Sicherheitsdienst (SD) served as a surveillance force who investigated any threats (1944: 6,500 members)
→ People’s Court served as a legal system to convict threats (98% verdicts were death or life imprisonment).
E2: all types of active resistance resulted in either immediate execution or being sent to concentration camps
(some types of passive resistance were also punishable by arrest) → these camps served to punish and deter
→ 1933-45: constructed 27 main camps AND built a further 1,100 sub-camps (most after 1939 during WWII)
→ imprisoned 1,650,000 people, of which nearly 1,000,000 died (excluding those in extermination camps).
PA: Thurlow → the Nazi security apparatus “monitored and controlled all expressions of dissent/resistance”.
PB: Evans → “violence and intimidation rarely touched the lives of most ordinary Germans” (selective terror).
R1: scale of the Gestapo was limited (eg. 281 officers responsible for Lower Rhine region = 4,000,000 people)
→ Gestapo relied heavily on informants (eg. Wurzburg, 54% of race-related charges initiated by other citizens)
→ scale of camps was limited during 1933-39 (1937: only 4 total camps; 1939: only 25,000 total prisoners)
→ most targets of the SS/Gestapo/SD were active resistors or minorities (most people were indeed left alone).
R2: Hitler’s domestic policies also gave him much public support, lessening reliance on his security apparatus
→ his economic policies reduced unemployment (1934: 2,300,000 unemployed; 1938: 200,000 unemployed)
→ his social policies benefited workers (1933-38: 10,300,000 ppl took a Strength Through Joy (KdF) holiday)
→ his cultural policies democratized some art forms (1938: over 2,500,000 attended KdF orchestra concerts).

9
 Impact of Foreign Policy on Maintenance of Power

Successes of Foreign Policy

E1: Hitler gained much of his popularity from his open condemnation and revision of the Treaty of Versailles →
Oct 1933: Hitler withdrew Germany from the World Disarmament Conference AND League of Nations →
March 1935: reintroduced conscription (army of 550,000 men) → June 1935: Anglo-German Naval Agreement
(permitted an increase in size of navy) → Hitler thus followed through with his promises with foreign policy.
E2: Hitler also sought to obtain Lebensraum (‘living space’) which involved expansion into eastern territories
→ March 1935: Saarland officially returned to German control after a plebiscite (91% voted in favor of this) →
March 1936: Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland → March 1938: annexed Austria into Germany (Anschluss) →
Oct 1938: Sudetenland became a part of Germany → March 1939: seizes rest of Czechoslovakia + Memel.
PA: Kershaw → “[Hitler’s] bold moves in foreign policy… guaranteed massive popular support.”
PB: Feuchtwanger → Hitler’s successes made him “a prisoner of his own myth and imagined infallibility”.
R1: Hitler’s foreign policy successes can be attributed at least partially to the ‘policy of appeasement’ pursued
by Neville Chamberlain, which led to Britain/France failing to respond strongly to Hitler’s expansionist actions
→ this led to Hitler underestimating them + making an immense miscalculation in 1939 when invading Poland
(Hitler thought the warnings of Britain/France were bluffs → was genuinely shocked when they declared war).
R2: Hitler nonetheless gained support from many groups due to his foreign policy successes prior to the war
→ army/navy (rearmament + conscription + increased military spending + Anglo-German Naval Agreement);
workers (employment from rearmament); nationalists (ethnic Germans were being reintegrated into Germany);
those who resented the Treaty of Versailles (they finally had a leader who was acting on these grievances).

Failures of Foreign Policy

E1: Hitler experienced a foreign policy failure after the failed coup in Austria (July 1934) which involved the
assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss → Mussolini threatened to declare war on Germany if
they invaded Austria → Hitler knew the German economy/army were not ready for war so he backed down →
international/domestic embarassment (especially significant since his power was not fully consolidated yet).
E2: Hitler initially succeeded in the invasion of Poland and subsequent so-called ‘Blitzkrieg’ victories against
Norway/Denmark/Holland/Belgium/France → BUT in 1941 Hitler invaded the USSR (‘Operation Barbarossa’)
→ despite this occupying 80% of German troops, it failed (turning point during WWII) → Hitler’s stubbornness
meant he did not cut his losses and withdraw, causing devastating harm to German soldiers AND civilians.
PA: Todd → “[Germans] could not escape… allied bombing, the food shortages and the loss of their menfolk”.
PB: Lynch → “It was only in the last desperate months [of WWII]… that faith in the Fuhrer was extinguished”.
R1: Hitler used censorship and propaganda to minimise the impact of foreign policy failures on his popularity
→ after the failed attempt at Anschluss, Hitler used these to downplay the involvement of the Nazi Party in it
→ military defeats in WWII (eg. Operation Barbarossa) were covered up by the press → BUT the population
was impacted directly by war (1942-45: 400,000 civilians were killed + 800,000 were wounded by air raids).
R2: active resistance against Hitler increased as the war continued → 1940-1944: six attempts to assassinate
Hitler were made by army officers (most notably the ‘20 July Plot’ (1944), led by Claus von Stauffenberg) →
escaped prisoners-of-war were protected by civilians AND more ppl became involved in spreading of leaflets
→ BUT Hitler did remain in power until his suicide on 30 April 1945 (he was not overthrown nor deposed).

10
 Aims and Results of Domestic Policies

Economic Policies
E1: Hitler aimed to reduce the extreme unemployment caused by the Great Depression (Dec 1932: 5,600,000)
→ Reich Labour Service (RAD) for public works projects AND constructed the Autobahnen (7,000 km) AND
subsidies for private construction AND regulations (eg. no machinery for road building during labor surpluses)
→ unemployment was almost fully eliminated (1933: 6,000,000 unemployed; 1938: 200,000 unemployed).
E2: Hitler also aimed for rearmament + autarky to create a Wehrwirtschaft (economy geared towards war) →
Four-Year Plan under Hermann Goering AND built plants for ersatz (substitute) synthetic materials (rubber/oil)
AND made bilateral trade agreements to gain raw materials AND steelworks using German lower-grade ores
→ industrial production exceeded pre-GD levels by 1937 AND synthetic fuel production over doubled.
PA: Wolfson → “production levels undoubtedly increased and the unemployment problem was solved”.
PB: Thurlow → “there was no coherent economic programme”, only poorly designed “emergency initiatives”.
R1: Reduction in unemployment was partly artificial (4,000,000 absorbed into the Wehrmacht (armed forces)
AND women were given cash incentives to leave the workforce AND Jews were excluded from the statistics)
→ generally only military-related sectors benefited and other sectors still had labor shortages → public works
were funded using ‘Mefo Bills’ which were costly (1934-35: 50% government spending on repaying these).
R2: Hitler’s rearmament/autarky objective was not fully achieved (Germany was not prepared for war in 1939)
→ 1939: synthetic oil production only 45% of target levels → 1939: over 30% raw materials and 19% food
were still being imported (most notably Germany depended on iron ore imports from Sweden) → ersatz goods
were costly to produce (6 tonnes of coal required for 1 tonne of synthetic oil) AND overall less effective.

Political Policies
E1: Hitler aimed to consolidate the legal power of the Nazi Party → known as ‘Gleichschaltung’ (coordination)
→ April 1933: 18 Nazi Commissioners appointed by Hitler (full legal powers over local government officials)
→ July 1933: the Law Against the Founding of New Parties (non-Nazi political entities dissolved/disbanded)
→ Jan 1934: the Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich (nullified Reichstrat and state Diets → national state).
E2: Hitler also aimed to consolidate his personal power within the Nazi Party → the official policy process was
centred around the ‘Fuhrerprinzip’, which was that all policies should revolve around the will of Hitler himself
→ both the armed forces and the judges of the court system swore an oath of allegience to Hitler personally
→ the Reichstag and Reich Cabinet became political bodies which merely served to confirm Hitler’s decisions.
PA: Bracher → Nazi political policies successfully cemented the power of both the party and Hitler himself.
PB: Mommsen → Nazi political policies created inefficiencies and Hitler never achieved full personal power.
R1: Hitler created a polycratic government (one made up of overlapping political bodies) by superimposing
party structures onto the existing structures→ Hitler also encouraged officials to ‘work towards the Fuhrer’
(promote policies they believe would please him without consulting him) → these factors led to confusion and
conflict within the government (eg. Goering vs Speer) → BUT it is possible this created healthy competition.
R2: Hitler had unrivaled nominal power BUT he had very little impact on the daily running of his government
→ from 1934 Hitler became less involved in the Reich Cabinet meetings AND these ended altogether in 1937
→ Hitler was known to be lazy (late riser + would often fail to read/sign documents that required his approval)
→ 1940-44: 6 assassination attempts from Army officers (indicate a lack of complete personal power).

11
 Aims and Results of Domestic Policies (cont.)

Cultural Policies
E1: Hitler aimed to cleanse German culture from non-Nazi thoughts → Divisions V and VI of the Reich Ministry
of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda censored all film/art/music/theatre → targetted ‘degenerate’ art →
May 1933: ‘burning of the books’ event held to physically and symbolically destroy any ‘un-German’ books →
Degenerate Art Exhibition (1937) held in Munich (650 confiscated artworks shown to be ridiculed by public).
E2: Hitler also aimed to promote pro-Nazi thoughts through the arts → the Reich Chamber of Culture (1933)
was established and had sub-chambers (eg. Chambers of Film/Music/Theater/Press/Literary/Radio/Fine-Arts)
→ films were made to celebrate the SA (eg. SA-Mann Brand) and Nuremberg Rallies (eg. Triumph of the Will)
→ the music of sympathetic musicians (eg. Richard Strauss, Richard Wagner) was promoted (eg. using radio).
PA: Lynch → Nazi cultural policies “stifled creativity” and “force[d] people to think along prescribed lines”.
PB: Kater → Nazi cultural policies were not entirely successful because much banned/degenerate art survived.
R1: Passive resistance (against Nazi culture) was very widespread (far more common than active resistance) →
the Swing Youth was a youth organisation that met and listened to Jazz music (banned by the Nazi Party) AND
many individuals continued to read banned literature or listen to foreign radio (eg. the BBC)→ ‘degenerate’ art
was condemned yet popular (over 1,000,000 people visited the Degenerate Art Exhibition in its first 6 weeks).
R2: The German Labour Front (DAF) introduced the Strength Through Joy (KdF) program → one of their aims
was to ‘democratize’ elements of culture and the arts that had traditionally only been available to the elite →
artistic forms with high production costs (eg. classical ballet and orchestras) received substantial subsidies →
more people gained access to these art forms (1938: over 2,500,000 people attended KdF orchestra concerts).

Social Policies
E1: Hitler aimed to create a Volksgemeinschaft (‘People’s Community’) where Aryan Germans would be united
→ this meant indoctrinating the German youth so they would accept the Nazi Weltanschauung (‘world view’)
→ 1935: youth groups absorbed into Hitler Youth or League of German Maidens (1939: 82% teenagers in one)
→ history was rewritten and eugenics was taught → Nazi Teachers’ League (1934: 97% teacher membership).
E2: Hitler also aimed to promote the Volksgemeinschaft by ‘cleansing’ society of supposedly inferior minorities
→ targeted minorities were Jews / Jehovah’s Witnesses / Roma and Sinti / Homosexuals / Disabled / Homeless
→ policies included sterilisation (1933-39: 600,000 sterilised) AND euthenasia (1939-45: 250,000 murdered)
AND concentration camps (27 main camps were built in total, 1,650,000 total prisoners - mostly after 1939).
PA: Wildt → Nazi social policies (particularly anti-Semetic policies) successfully created a Volksgemeinschaft.
PB: Welch → Nazi social policies failed to unify Germans (particularly failed to unify industrial working class).
R1: Propaganda targeted to the industrial working class focused on patriotism (eg. ‘National Day of Labour’)
→ Strength Through Joy (KdF) program rewarded workers (1933-38: 10,300,000 took part in a KdF holiday)
→ nonetheless most unskilled workers were worse off (frozen wages + rising prices + lower living standards)
→ employment on public works was physically demanding and low-paying (many saw through the facade).
R2: The Volksgemeinschaft was partly guaranteed by the monopoly of Nazi organisations (compulsory unity)
such as the German Labour Front AND Hitler Youth / League of German Maidens AND Nazi Teachers’ League
→ the 1949 “Consequences of National Socialism” survey conducted by the German Public Opinion Institute
revealed that most respondents looked back on the regime fondly (indicating Volksgemeinschaft was created).

12
 Impact of Policies on Women

Ideology and Social Expectations

E1: Nazi ideology regarding women was based on the ‘3 Ks’ of Kinder/Küche/Kirche (Children/Kitchen/Church)
→ this confined the spheres of activity that were acceptable for women → women were considered inferior to
men and thus were expected to be obedient to them → this ideology was spread with propaganda/speeches
→ Goebbels: “the mission of women is to be beautiful and to bring children into the world” (Nazi ideology).
E2: Nazi ideology and social policies focused on motherhood in order to increase the dropping birth rate →
birth control centres closed AND abortion was (mostly) criminalised AND maternity benefits were increased
AND ‘Mother's Cross of Honour’ introduced based on no. of children (Bronze = 4/5; Silver = 6/7 Gold = 8+)
AND Lebensborn (‘Spring of Life)’ project (1935) encouraged ‘pure’ (Aryan) women to procreate with SS men.
PA: Lynch → Hitler considered female emancipation as a threat and so took strong actions against it.
PB: Koonz → despite its ideology, women willingly supported and actively participated in the Nazi regime.
R1: Nazi ideology regarding women was one of the main themes of propaganda which was highly widespread
(eg. Mein Kampf set out Hitler’s idea of ‘sexual polarity’ (separate spheres) → 5,200,000 copies sold by 1939)
→ manipulated many women into viewing oppressive policies that were enforced against them as liberating
(eg. childbirth was depicted as national service, so many women happily gave birth to a large number of kids).
R2: Nazi ideology was misogynistic in its gender roles BUT these were not necessarily adopted by all women
→ births only increased from 1,200,000 to 1,400,000 million (1934-39) AND the birth rate didn’t rise at all
after 1938 due to the war AND the Lebensborn project only produced on average 1.1 children per SS man →
EVEN IF Nazi gender roles were not fully adopted ALL progress made during the Weimar Republic was lost.

Economic and Political Rights

E1: Under the Nazi regime, women were incentivised to leave (or even directly excluded from) the workforce
→ 1933: Law for the Reduction of Unemployment (incentivised women through loans to leave the workforce)
→ 1934: all women forced out of careers in both medicine and law (including lawyers / judges / jury service)
→ women were excluded from university education (quotas limited female university placements to 10%).
E2: Under the Nazi regime, women were mostly excluded from politics → no women deputies in the Reichstag
AND women were banned from senior leadership positions in the Nazi Party AND women were banned from
the civil service (1933: 19,000 female civil servants sacked) → the only political representation that women
had was the National Socialist Women’s League (BUT this was ‘below’ the male-dominated Nazi Party).
PA: Koonz → the Nazis “exploited” women and “denied them access to political status” and employment.
PB: Geary → “ideological purity still had to give some ground to economic necessity”, particularly after 1937.
R1: Some occupations were labeled “womanly work” (eg. social work, nursing, education, domestic service)
and were reserved for women → from 1937 labor shortages emerged so workforce restrictions were relaxed
→ 1939: the Land Year Programme introduced (women forced to complete a year of service work on a farm) →
female employment increased greatly (1933 = 5,000,000 women in paid employment; 1939 = 7,140,000).
R2: Relaxations of these restrictions only occurred out of necessity AND some restrictions were never changed
→ most political restrictions (eg. Reichstag, leadership positions, civil service) remained throughout the regime
→ some employment restrictions (eg. ban from legal profession) remained as women were seen as incapable
(Hitler: “[women are unable to] think logically or reason objectively, since they are ruled only by emotion”).

13
 Impact of Policies on Minorities

Religious Minorities
E1: Jews were heavily discriminated against by the Nazi Regime (Nazi anti-Semitism became institutionalised)
→ 1933: Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (Jewish civil servants dismissed and banned)
→ 1935: Nuremberg Laws (marriage between Jews + Germans banned AND the citizenship of Jews revoked)
→ 1936: Jewish teachers/dentists/nurses/accountants banned → 1938: Jewish doctors/lawyers also banned.
E2: Jews were also targetted through violence by the Nazi Regime (Nazi anti-Semitism became eliminationist)
→ 1938: Kristallnacht (Jewish shops/homes/synagogues vandalised + 91 Jews murdered + 20,000 arrested)
→ 1942: Wannsee Conference (detailed plans made by leaders (Heydrich + Eichmann) for the ‘Final Solution’)
→ 1942-45: the Holocaust (over 6,000,000 Jews exterminated using gas chambers in concentration camps).
PA: Goldhagen → discrimination/violence against the Jews became “the defining feature of German society”.
PB: Mommsen → Hitler did not directly order the Final Solution (“cumulative radicalisation” was to blame).
R1: Hitler was still definitely directly responsible for the vast majority of anti-Semitism legislation and actions
→ Hitler also holds responsibility for actions he didn’t prevent/discourage (eg. Kristallnacht, the Final Solution)
→ the policy of ‘working towards the Fuhrer’ also led to ‘cumulative radicalisation’ whereby Hitler’s vague
ideas/statements were interpreted by his inferiors and translated into increasingly radical/violent policies.
R2: Other religious minorities were also discriminated against and persecuted by the Nazis (not only the Jews)
→ Jehovah’s Witnesses were targeted due to their resistance to Nazism (refused to use the Nazi greeting AND
refused to join compulsory Nazi institutions AND conscientiously objected to military service / conscription) →
treatment was slightly less severe (those who swore allegiance to the NSDAP were usually left untouched).

Ethnic and Social Minorities

E1: Ethnic minorities were targeted because it was believed that they would ‘contaminate pure Aryan blood’
→ 1936: ‘Reich Central Office for the Suppression of the Gypsy Nuisance’ established under Heinrich Himmler
→ 1936: the Roma and Sinti people (labelled ‘Gypsies’) included in the Nuremberg Laws and other race laws
→ 1940: deported to Poland → 1942: sent to Auschwitz (medical experiments) → 500,000 murdered in total.
E2: Homosexuals were targeted → 1936: Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality & Abortion
→ 15,000 sent to camps + received the most cruel treatment from SS guards (lowest in ‘criminal’ heirarchy) →
disabled individuals were also targeted → 1933: the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Progeny
(sterilisation of the blind/schizophrenic/alcoholic) → 350,000 sterilised AND 72,000 euthenised (1939-41).
PA: Lynch → whilst most attention has been paid to the Jews, other minorities suffered significantly too.
PB: Wolfson → “the extent of the Nazi terror [towards minorities up until 1939] should not be exaggerated”.
R1: 1933-39: the scale of the concentration camp system was relatively small → 1937: only 4 camps in total
→ 1936: only 10,000 prisoners AND 1939: only 25,000 prisoners → 1938: 5 camps were actually shut down
→ BUT after 1939 the system rapidly expanded (27 main camps were built in total, 1,650,000 total prisoners)
→ EVEN IF the scale of the camps was small during 1933-39, minorities still underwent severe discrimination.
R2: Other minorities were also persecuted and discriminated → mixed-race Germans (eg. African Germans,
children of French troops in the Rhineland) were among the first victims of the mass sterilization programme
→ homeless beggars/tramps were the first minority targeted (1933: 300,000-500,000 rounded up and
subjected to compulsory work, concentration camps or sterilization → 10,000 imprisoned in total + most died).

14
 Extent to which Authoritarian Control was Achieved

Extent of Security Apparatus & Terror

E1: Schutzstaffel (SS) served as the de facto national police force AND ran camps (1939: 250,000 members)
→ Gestapo was as a secret police force known for their use of torture + extralegality (1944: 32,000 members)
→ Sicherheitsdienst (SD) served as a surveillance force who investigated any threats (1944: 6,500 members)
→ People’s Court served as a legal system to convict threats (98% verdicts were death or life imprisonment).
E2: Concentration camps were used for both punishment of opposition and intimidation to ensure conformity
→ 1933-45: constructed 27 main camps AND built a further 1,100 sub-camps (most after 1939 during WWII)
→ imprisoned 1,650,000 people, of which nearly 1,000,000 died (excluding prisoners in extermination camps)
→ extermination camps used to terrorise minorities (1942-45: 6,000,000 Jews killed using gas chambers).
PA: Thurlow → the Nazi security apparatus “monitored and controlled all expressions of dissent/resistance”.
PB: Evans → “violence and intimidation rarely touched the lives of most ordinary Germans” (selective terror).
R1: scale of the Gestapo was limited (eg. 281 officers responsible for Lower Rhine region = 4,000,000 people)
→ Gestapo relied heavily on informants (eg. Wurzburg, 54% of race-related charges initiated by other citizens)
→ scale of camps was limited during 1933-39 (1937: only 4 total camps; 1939: only 25,000 total prisoners)
→ most targets of the SS/Gestapo/SD were active resistors or minorities (most people were indeed left alone).
R2: Hitler’s domestic policies also gave him much public support, lessening reliance on his security apparatus
→ his economic policies reduced unemployment (1934: 2,300,000 unemployed; 1938: 200,000 unemployed)
→ his social policies benefited workers (1933-38: 10,300,000 ppl took a Strength Through Joy (KdF) holiday)
→ his cultural policies democratized some art forms (1938: over 2,500,000 attended KdF orchestra concerts).

Extent of Popular Mobilization

E1: 1933: Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda founded (philosophy = regular exposure)
→ Reich Broadcasting Corporation controlled radio + broadcast to ‘People’s Receivers’ (1939: 70% ownership)
→ 1935: youth groups absorbed into Hitler Youth or League of German Maidens (1939: 82% teenagers in one)
→ history was rewritten and eugenics was taught → Nazi Teachers’ League (1934: 97% teacher membership).
E2: Hitler further mobilized/controlled the masses through his domestic cultural, social and economic policies
→ Reich Chamber of Culture had sub-chambers to control Film/Music/Theater/Press/Literary/Radio/Fine-Arts
→ Strength Through Joy program provided leisure activities (eg. concerts/plays/holidays/cruises/sports/gyms)
→ German Labour Front (DAF) replaced all trade unions and represented both workers and employers.
PA: Wolfson → “the Nazi State permeated every corner of life” and “there could be no escape [from it]”.
PB: Evans → self-preservation was responsible for conformity with Nazism, not genuine support of Hitler.
R1: the Nazi terror apparatus would have deterred much active resistance (tho this is obviously hard to prove)
→ passive resistance through non-confirmity (eg. not giving Nazi salute, telling anti-Nazi jokes) was prevalent
(46% of all Gestapo cases) → suggests many didn’t support Hitler BUT were deterred from active resistance
→ some programmes such (eg. Euthanasia Project) were abandoned due to public opinion being against them.
R2: Hitler faced his toughest opposition because of military failures (NOT a loss of public ideological support)
→ the ‘20 July Plot’ (1944) was motivated by the need to take control from Hitler to push for peace with Allies
→ the “Consequences of National Socialism” survey conducted in 1949 by the German Public Opinion Institute
revealed that most respondents looked back on the regime fondly (indicating mass support was attained).

15
 Extent to which Authoritarian Control was Achieved (cont.)

Extent of Political Organization & Control

E1: Hitler had autocratic power → March 1933: Enabling Act (allowed government to issue laws themselves)
→ April 1933: 18 Nazi Commissioners appointed by Hitler (full legal powers over local government officials)
→ July 1933: the Law Against the Founding of New Parties (non-Nazi political entities dissolved/disbanded)
→ Jan 1934: the Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich (nullified Reichstrat and state Diets → national state).
E2: Hitler superimposed party structures onto the existing structures AND therefore had overlapping positions
(eg. Four-Year Plan Department under Goering overlapped/clashed w/ the Ministry of Economics under Speer)
→ Hitler also encouraged officials to ‘work towards the Fuhrer’ (promote policies they think would please him)
→ Hitler was leading the Nazi State despite his disinterest with bureaucracy and everyday government.
PA: Bracher → Hitler created an efficient autocratic government due to competition between different entities.
PB: Mommsen → Hitler created a confusing government structure plagued by inefficiencies and guesswork.
R1: Hitler’s decision to create a polycratic government inherently involved a significant amount of confusion →
Nazi Press Chief: Hitler created “the biggest confusion in government that has ever existed in a civilised state”
→ Hitler’s decision to promote the ‘work towards the Fuhrer’ principle inherently involved guesswork as well
→ this led to ‘cumulative radicalisation’ whereby interpretations from his inferiors became increasingly radical.
R2: Hitler also became increasingly distant from the actual running of the government as the regime went on
→ Hitler: “a moment of genius is worth a lifetime of office work” (justified his lack of direct involvement in gov)
→ from 1934 Hitler became less involved in the Reich Cabinet meetings AND these ended altogether in 1937
→ Hitler was known as lazy (late riser + would often fail to read/sign documents that required his approval).

16
 Summaries of Essay Plans

Conditions in which Authoritarian States Emerged

Economic Factors: dependency on foreign loans, Wall Street Crash, bankruptcy, export market, unemployment,
defla onary policy, popularity of centrist par es, ac ons taken by Hitler | turning point, 1924-28 barely survived,
1929-33 electoral success, ed to unemployment, recovery in late 1932, s ll most popular party, other na ons.
Social Division: an -government resentment, working class suffered from WWI, middle class feared communism,
conserva ves favored monarchy, poli cal division, a empts to seize power, street violence, poli cal polariza on |
hyperinfla on solved, welfare programs, reduced polariza on, divisions exacerbated by GD, extremism popular.
Impact of War: Treaty of Versailles, repara ons, territory, popula on, colonies, military, Rhineland, iron and coal,
Diktat, War Guilt Lie, stab-in-the-back myth, November Criminals, self-determina on | repara ons not excessive,
withdrawal from Rhineland, less harsh than Brest-Litovsk, perceived as excessive, Keynes, Nicolson, resentment.
Political System: propor onal representa on, number of par es, coali ons, rapid change, legi mized extremists,
power of Reich President, Ar cle 48, rule by decree, undermined democracy | hos lity towards Weimar Republic,
communists, conserva ve elite, survived un l GD, Golden Years under Stresemann, failure of par es not system.

Methods Used to Establish Authoritarian States

Ideology: 25-Point Program, elements of Nazism, included socialist ideas, a ract wide support base, Mein Kampf,
need for Na onal Socialism, copies of Mein Kampf | pragma c reasons for support, working class, industrialists,
landowners/businessmen, autarky, na onalis c/material reasons, ideology inconsistent, only effec ve a er GD.
Propaganda: highlight strengths, vilify enemies, promote vision, Goebbels, common mediums, People’s Observer,
spoken word, talented public speaker, Nuremberg Rallies, Hitler Over Germany campaign | copies of Mein Kampf,
copies of People’s Observer, rallies small, scale grew, electoral strategy, channeling discontent, Goebbels quote.
Role of Leaders: reorganiza on of NSDAP, new tac cs, new organiza ons, new symbols, Fuhrerprinzip, reunited,
power of speeches, Hitler quote, tailored speeches, Speer quote | resentment during GD, channeled this anger,
soup kitchens, slogans, Hindenburg, Goebbels, Röhm, Himmler, Göring, leadership challenged by O./G. Strasser.
Use of Force: Sturmabteilung, street ba les, protect Nazis, disrupt opposi on, propaganda purpose, expansion,
failed Beer Hall Putsch, publicity, spreading of ideology | change of strategy, Hitler quote, violence used during
elec ons a er Hitler rose to power, street violence, scale of SA, threat to power of elite, won support for Hitler.

Methods Used to Maintain Power

Legal Methods: Reichstag Fire Decree, arrest/dissolve/suppress, Enabling Bill, other par es, power to create laws,
Gleichschaltung, commissioners, Law Against Founding of New Parties, Law for Reconstruction of Reich | polycra c,
confusion, no new cons tu on, responsibili es, Press Chief quote, illegi mate, Enabling Bill, Mar/Nov Elec ons.
Use of Force: Night of Long Knives, respect/support of army generals, death of Hindenburg, ascension to Fuhrer,
Schutzstaffel, Gestapo, concentra on camps, number of camps/prisoners/deaths | scale of Gestapo, informants,
scale of camps, selec ve targets, popularity from policies, unemployment, KdF holidays, KdF orchestra concerts.
Propaganda: Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, regular exposure, departments, objec ves,
Eher Verlag, Reich Broadcasting Corporation, mass events, propaganda films | popularity of policies, unemployment,
revision of Treaty of Versailles, covered up foreign policy failures, literacy rate, Volksempfänger mass-produced.
Leadership: cult of personality, photos/posters/newspapers, equated to Germany, defender of German people,
talented orator, rallies/broadcasts, tailored speeches, Speer quotes | informing culture, harshness of legal system,
conformity, oratory skills ques onable, actual leadership ques onable, Hitler quote, Reich Cabinet mee ngs, lazy.

Nature, Extent and Treatment of Opposition

Nature/Extent: ac ve resistance, SPD/KPD pamphlets, army officers, Beck, von Stauffenberg, religious leaders,
passive resistance, underperformance, strikes, sabotage, jokes, salute, literature, radio, Swing Youth | limited ability
to organize resistance, legality of regime, archival studies, non-conformity common, ac ve resistance uncommon.
Treatment: Schutzstaffel (na onal police), Gestapo (secret police), Sicherheitsdienst (inves ga ons), People’s Court,
execu on/imprisoned, concentra on camps, number of camps/prisoners/deaths | scale of Gestapo, informants,
scale of camps, selec ve targets, popularity from policies, unemployment, KdF holidays, KdF orchestra concerts.

17
Impact of Foreign Policy on Maintenance of Power
Successes: Treaty of Versailles, World Disarmament Conference, League of Nations, conscrip on, A-G Naval Agreement,
Lebensraum, Saarland, Rhineland, Anschluss, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, Memel | due to policy of appeasement,
underes mated Britain/France, miscalcula on, gained support, army/navy, workers, na onalists, ordinary people.
Failures: failed a empt at Anschluss, ac ons of Mussolini, not prepared for war, backed down, embarrassment,
Blitzkrieg victories, Operation Barbarossa, failed, stubbornness, harm to soldiers/civilians | censorship/propaganda,
failed Anschluss, military defeats, direct impacts, resistance increased, assassina on, civilians, remained in power.

Aims and Impacts of Domestic Policies

Economic: reemployment, Reich Labour Service, Autobahnen, subsidies, regula ons, unemployment rate dropped,
autarky, Four-Year Plan, ersatz materials/steel, trade agreements, produc on increased | ar ficial reemployment,
military sector, Mefo Bills, unprepared for war, oil produc on, import-dependent, ersatz goods costly/ineffec ve.
Political: Nazi power, Gleichschaltung, Commissioners, Laws (Founding of New Par es / Reconstruc on of Reich),
personal power, Fuhrerprinzip, oaths of allegiance, several poli cal bodies made useless | polycra c government,
‘work towards the Fuhrer’, confusion/compe on, Hitler disconnected, Reich Cabinet, lazy, assassina on a empts.
Cultural: cleanse all non-Nazi thoughts, Reich Ministry... censorship, burning of books, Degenerate Art Exhibition,
promote Nazi thoughts, Reich Chamber of Culture, propaganda films, sympathe c musicians | passive resistance
with music/books, Degenerate Art popularity, Strength Through Joy democra za on of tradi onally elite ar orms.
Social: Volksgemeinschaft, indoctrina on, Weltanschauung, youth organisa ons, educa on, Nazi Teachers’ League,
minori es targeted, sterilisa on, euthenasia, concentra on camps | a empts to unify the industrial working class,
many saw through facade, unity partly guaranteed by Nazi groups, ‘Consequences of National Socialism’ survey.

Impact of Policies on Women

Ideology/Social: Nazi ideology of the Three Ks, spheres of life, inferior, obedience, propaganda, Goebbels quote,
focus on motherhood, birth control, raised incen ves, Mother’s Cross of Honour, Lebensborn | propaganda theme,
childbirth as na onal service, gender roles not adopted, birth sta s cs, lost all progress made in Weimar Republic.
Economic/Political: excluded from workforce, Law for Reduction of Unemployment, medicine + law, uni educa on,
excluded from poli cs, Reichstag, party, civil service, National Socialist Women’s League | ‘womanly work’ permi ed,
relaxa on of laws, Land Year Programme, employment stats, only necessity, most exclusion remained, Hitler quote.

Impact of Policies on Minorities

Religious: discrimina on of Jews, Law for Restoration of Civil Service, Nuremberg Laws, Jewish professionals banned,
extermina on of Jews, Kristallnacht, Wannsee Conference, Final Solution, Holocaust | Hitler s ll responsible though,
‘cumulative radicalisation’, resistance from Jehovah’s Witnesses, treated less severely, most conformers le alone.
Ethnic/Social: Aryan blood, Reich Central Office…, Gypsies part of Nuremberg Laws, deported/imprisoned/killed,
homosexuals, Reich Central Office…, camps, disabled, Law for Prevention…, sterilisa on/euthenasia | camps ini ally
small scale, scale grew a er 1939, mixed-race Germans first to be sterilized, homeless ppl first to be imprisoned.

Extent to which Authoritarian Control was Achieved

Security/Terror: Schutzstaffel (de facto na onal police), Gestapo (secret police), Sicherheitsdienst (surveillance force),
People’s Court (legal system), concentra on camps, extermina on camps | scale of Gestapo, reliance on informants,
camps ini ally small scale, selec ve targets, popularity, employment, subsidized holidays, democra zed ar orms.
Popular Mobilisation: Reich Ministry…, Reich Broadcasting Corporation, People’s Receivers, youth groups, educa on,
Nazi Teachers’ League, Reich Chamber of Culture, Strength Through Joy, German Labour Front | passive resist. common,
Euthenasia Project abandoned, ac ve resistance a er military failures, ‘Consequences of National Socialism’ survey.
Political Autocracy: Enabling Act, Commissioners, Laws (Founding of New Par es / Reconstruc on of the Reich),
party/state structures, overlapping posi ons, ‘work towards the Fuhrer’, Hitler s ll leader | polycra c government,
Nazi Press Chief quote, guesswork, ‘cumulative radicalisation’, Hitler disconnected, Hitler quote, Reich Cabinet, lazy.

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