History & Culture: Notes by Sir Khizar Hayat

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HISTORY & CULTURE

NOTES BY
SIR KHIZAR HAYAT
Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Stanmore O Levels | Karachi Cambridge School | The Academy School Block H Campus | The Academy Gulshan Campus | Endeavor Academy
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These notes are designed according to the CAIE pattern and syllabus. I made these notes
according to the questions which can be asked by the examiner in CAIE / IGCSE examination.
Student can easily learn and practice it. Hope it can be a source of Good grades Insha’Allah.
Sir Khizar Hayat
Notes prepared by: Sir Khizar Hayat

Prepared under the supervision of: Sir Adnan Ashraf

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SOME GEMS FROM MY TREASURE

Tamanna Ilahi Sharjah School A*
Mahnoor Rais Stanmore School A*
Mohammad Bilal Karachi Cambrdige School A*
Mariya Vayani Stanmore School A*
Abdullah Amir Stanmore School A*
Suhana Bilal The Academy GC-II A*
Yassa Ahmer Khan The Academy GC-II A*
Syeda Zoha Asif The Academy GC-II A*
Sheheryar Wijdan Hampton School A*
Muzaina Shavez Stanmore School A
Hina Mirza Stanmore School A
Armaan Nooruddin Stanmore School A
Manahil Nadeem Karachi Cambrdige School A
Saad Zubair Karachi Cambrdige School A
Syed Omar Karachi Cambrdige School A
Esha Muzammil Karachi Cambrdige School A
Hamna Ali Stanmore School A
Atika Amir Stanmore School A
Yousuf Khan Stanmore School A
Haniya Imran Stanmore School A
Maryam Shahzad The Academy GC-II A
Bisma Warsi The Academy GC-II A
Maria Kukda The Academy GC-II A
Mohammad Ahmed The Academy BH A
Aneesha Waheed The Academy BH A
Arsam Ansari The Academy BH A
Haris Junaid The Academy BH A
Shahmeer Ali The Academy BH A

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Syeda Noor Dawood Public A

Nawal Masood Oaks Academy A
Bahisht Abdul Razzaq Karachi Cambrdige School B
Saim Nadeem Karachi Cambrdige School B
Emaan Ovais Anjerwala Karachi Cambrdige School B
Ashbal Ahmed Khan Stanmore School B
Abubakar Jawed Stanmore School B
Kashmala Khan Stanmore School B
Eera Ahmed Stanmore School B
Umama Hani Khan Stanmore School B
Marium Imran Stanmore School B
Syed Rohan Ali Stanmore School B
Ibrahim Khan Stanmore School B
Fizza Amin The Academy GC-II B
Ayeza Shakir The Academy GC-II B
Shanzae Imad The Academy GC-II B
Aliyan Ahmed The Academy GC-II B
Talha Wasiq The Academy BH B
Rahim Bilal The Academy BH B
Bilal Faisal The Academy BH B
Ayesha Majeed The Academy BH B

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CHAPTER NAME PAGE

How successful were the religious thinkers in
Chapter 01 spreading Islam in the subcontinent during the 6-11
18th and 19th centuries?
What were the causes and consequences of the
Chapter 02 decline of the Mughal Empire? 12-16

Chapter 03 War of Independence 1857–58? 17-21
How important was the work of Sir Syed Ahmed

Chapter 04 Khan to the development of the Pakistan 22-25
Movement during the 19th century?
To what extent have Urdu and regional languages
Chapter 05 contributed to the cultural development of 26-29
Pakistan since 1947?
How far did the Pakistan Movement develop

Chapter 06 31-38
during the early 20th century?
How successful was the Khilafat Movement in

Chapter 07 advancing the Pakistan Movement? 39-42
How successful was the Pakistan Movement in the

Chapter 08 years 1927–1939? 43-52
How successful were attempts to find solutions to

Chapter 09 the problems facing the sub-continent in the years 53-59
1940 – 1947?
How important were the contributions of Jinnah,
Chapter 10 Allama Iqbal and Rahmat Ali to the success of the 60-62
Pakistan Movement to 1947?

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How successful was the establishment of an

Chapter 11 independent nation between 1947 and 1948? 64-69
How far did Pakistan achieve stability following

Chapter 12 the death of Jinnah? 70-79
Why did East Pakistan seek and then form the

Chapter 13 independent state of Bangladesh? 80-84
How successful was Pakistan in the twenty years

Chapter 14 following the “Decade of Progress”? 85-93
How effective were Pakistan’s governments in the

Chapter 15 final decade of the 20th century? 94-102
How important has Pakistan’s role been in world

Chapter 16 affairs since 1947? 103-120

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SECTION 1
The cultural & historical
background to the Pakistan
Movement

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CHAPTER: 01
How successful were the religious thinkers in
spreading Islam in the subcontinent during the
18th and 19th centuries?

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SHAHWALIULLAH
Early Life
 He was a Muslim religious reformer, born in 1703, in Delhi.
 His real name was Qutub-ud-Din but due to his Piety he got the title of “Shah Waliullah” (SWU).
 His father, Shah Abdul Raheem, was the founder of a famous religious school “Madrassa Rahimiyia” in Delhi
where SWU completed his education.
 Later he started teaching in the same institute and after the death of his father he became the principal of
Madrassa Rahimiyia.
 In Saudi Arabia he was strongly impressed & influenced by the famous scholar “Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim”
and he made his mind to reform the Muslim society in India.
Why Shah Waliullah wish to revive Islam in Subcontinent?

 He strongly believed that the main reason of the miserable condition of the Mughal Empire & Muslims
was their ignorance and distance from Quran, Sunnah & Islamic obligations.
 As far as the social condition of the Indian Muslims was concerned, they were divided among different
religious groups & there was a constant trouble between the Shia & Sunni sects, which was a serious
threat to Muslim society. Shahwaliullah wanted to remove the disunity between them.
Work and contribution

 Translation of Holy Quran into Persian:
Shah Waliullah recognized that the principles of Islam could not be followed properly unless the Holy Quran
itself was understood. As the Indian Muslims did not understand the Holy Quran in Arabic since it was not
their language thus Shah Waliullah translated the Holy Quran into Persian, which was the main language of
the Indian Muslims of that time.
 Hujatul Baligha:
In this book, Shah Waliullah discussed at length the principle & fundamentals of Islam. In this he explained the
methods of changing the Muslim society into a real Muslim society.
 Izalat-al-Akhfa:
Is another renowned book of Shah Waliullah in which he has written the explanation of the Holy Quran. Shah
Waliullah wrote extensively on Hadith &Fiqah. He altogether wrote 51 books, out of which 23 are in Arabic &
28 are in Persian.

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 Shia Sunni unity:

Shah Waliullah very firmly rejected the belief of some Sunnis that the Shias were not Muslims. He tried to
bridge this difference opinion by writing an account of the first four Khalifas of Islam in a way that should
acceptable to both the sects.
 Separate national identity:

Shah Wailullah worked for the unity of Muslims and to develop separate national identity. He created
separate national identity among Muslims and convinced them to fight for their rights. He rejected combine
unity and insure religion as only identification of Muslims.
 Saved Muslims from Jats and Marathas:

When his efforts of writing to the Muslim kings & Nawab resulted in nothing their finally. Shah Waliullah
invited Ahmed Shah Abdali to attack India. In his letter Shah Waliullah encouraged Ahmed Shah & pleased him
to launch an attack, as it was the only way left to save the Muslims of India.
 Economic development:
Shah Waliullah was very concerned about the economic conditions of the Indian Muslims. He requested the
workers to work for more hours & spend less. He laid great stress on Adi &Tawazen that is Justice and
Equilibrium.He stressed labour; peasants & craftsmen should be justly rewarded. He also urged the traders &
businessmen to adopt a fair system of trading & making money.
.Death
Shah Waliullah was laid to rest in 1762. His sons & followers ably continued his work. Under his successors the
Madrassa-I-Rahimya also continued to flourish.

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Q- Why Shah Waliullah wanted to translate the Holy Quran into Persian language?
Reason 01:
He did so because he strongly believed that the biggest reason for the decline of Indian Muslims & Mughal empire was
that they had forgotten the message of Quran. They were not acting upon the teachings of Quran. Especially the ruling &
elite-class of Muslims had gone away from Quran & Islam. They were badly indulged in pleasure-seeking.
Reason 02:
Moreover Quran is In Arabic Language which was not the native language of India. So only a small number of Indian
Muslims & scholars could understand the meanings of the verses of Quran. Shah Waliullah strongly believed that until
the Indian Muslims understand the meanings of Quran in their own language they would not be able to act upon its
golden teachings.
Reason 03:
Moreover Persian at that time had been the official language of India since the Peak period of Mughal-Empire. So the
majority of the common people living in India could easily write, speak and understand Persian very well that’s why he
selected Persian language to translate Quran.
SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI

Early Life
 Syed Ahmed was born near Lucknow in the town of Rae Bareli.
 He was faithful following of Shah Abdul Aziz.
 In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Waliullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya).
 He graduated from Madrassa & joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan.
 He learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery.
Aims and Objective

 The purpose of Syed Ahmed’s life & struggle was not only confined to the spread of Islam by preaching
& persuasions but he believed in taking practical steps for this purpose.
 The main purpose before Syed Ahmed & his followers was the establishment of a state, which was
based on the Islamic principles.
 His approach to freedom was based on the armed struggle & confrontation against the foreign
(British) &non-Muslim forces.

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 Jihad Movement:
The Jihad Movement was started in 1823 by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi against the cruel Sikh rule of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh (the founder of Sikh Empire in Punjab). Their religious liberties had been suspended by the sikh govt. They were
not allowed to practice Islam. Azaan was banned and to further insult Muslims, sikh army had converted Bad-shahi
Masjid of Lahore into the stable of their horses.
S.A.S.B believed that to over throw the cruel Sikh-rule and to re-establish Muslims’ rule, an armed struggle was
necessary. So he raised an army of 80 thousand muslim volunteers/Mujahideen to Launch his Jihad-Movement against
Sikhs .This army inflicted crushing defeats to sikh army at many places especially at Akora-Khattak & Hazro in K.P.K (now
KPK). He & his assistant Shah Ismail (the grandson of Shah-Waliullah) were killed in a surprise attack by Sikh forces at
Bala-kot in N.W.F.P.
Q- Why the Jihad Movement of SASB failed?
Reason 01:
After the successes in the wars against Sikhs, Ranjit Singh created disruption in the camp of the Mujahedeen through his
agents who called the reforms of Syed Ahmed as Un-Islamic. A conspiracy was hatched against, the movement and an
attempt was made on the life of Syed Ahmed by poisoning him, which he survived.
Reason 02:
Sardar Yar Muhammad was bribed to betray to Syed Ahmed & joined the Sikhs against Mujahideen. Some
misunderstanding arose between the Pathans and the Mujahedeen& the Pathans now deserted the Movement.
Reason 03:
Lack of proper funds to provide for different expenses of the Movement, Poor war equipment, Lack of proper military
training in the Mujahideen fighters.
HAJI SHARIATULLAH
Early Life
 Haji Shariatullah was born in the district of Faridpur in the year 1781.
 After receiving his early education in his village he got an opportunity to perform Haji at the age of 18 He
stayed there in Hejaz for 20 years & studied religion & Arabic.
 He returned to Bengal in 1806.

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Aims and Objective

 The British traders & the Hindu Zamindars were giving them a rough treatment.
 The Muslims there had also gone far away from the paths of the true religions Islam being influenced
by the Hindus; they were sunk in various superstitions.
 Haji Shariatullah was deeply moved by these prevailing conditions of the Muslims of Bengal & decided
to improve it.
 Thus he started the Faraizi Movement among the Muslims.

 Faraizi Movement:
Haji Shariatullah started his Faraizi Movement, The Faraizi Movement emphasized on performing of Faraiz,
which were the religious duties, imposed by Allah. He also asked his Muslim brothers to give up all the un-
Islamic practices. His followers thus came to be known as Faraizi’.
 Adopting Tauba:
Haji shariatullah urged from his followers to adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for all the past
sins and a pledge to lead a righteous & God-fearing life in future.
 Declared India as Dar-ul-Harb:

Haji Shariatullah declared India as Dar-ul-Harb (Lands of Infidels) where Eid and Friday prayers could not be
offered. The Movement of Haji Shariatullah was direct, Jihad against the religious oppression & superstitions.
It infused a new life among the Bengali Muslims & especially among the peasants. With this movement his
sowed the seed of independence in Bengal.
Death
Haji Shariatullah breathed his last in the year 1840 and was succeeded by his son Dadu Main who continued
his father’s movement.

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CHAPTER: 02
decline of the Mughal Empire?

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Who were Mughals?

The Mughal rule was founded by Babur in 1526. Six great rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, expanded and
consolidated their rule 1526 to 1707. During this period they excelled in literature, music, painting and
architecture, building several monuments like Taj-Mehal in Agra. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, there
were corrupt and inefficient rulers who failed to run the affairs of a huge empire. The process of decline
continued till the British overthrew them after the 1857 War of Independence. The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur
Shah Zafar, was exiled to Rangoon and imprisoned. The British thus replaced the Mughals to make India their
colony.
Why Mughal Empire declined?

 Policies of Aurangzeb:
Prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He
imposed the discriminatory Islamic tax Jizya on the non-Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar,
though he tried to defend himself by waiving some other taxes. He also demolished a number of Hindu
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee. In
order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy taxes, and the money collected by
taxes was spent on luxurious buildings, a tradition of the Mughal rulers.
 Weak successors:
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and paid little attention to the
defense and consolidation of the empire. They became morally corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not
overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of the huge empire.
 No law of succession:
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor, the princes got engaged in
conspiracies, intrigues and making loyal groups that always led to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a
candidate often depended on the support he could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state resources
were wasted on mutual fights instead of public welfare and defense of the empire.
 Marathas:
Marathas were the militant Hindu community concentrated mainly in the southern Indian state of
Mahrashtra. The Maratha Empire was founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s.
They gradually organized themselves and began to offer stiff resistance to the Mughals. Aurangzeb spent
about 25 years in the Deccan desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state
treasury almost empty and this added to his difficulties.
 Arrival of British:
Mughal rule was perhaps driven by the British, who began to dominate the political horizon of India, 1750
onwards. The tottering Mughal Empire was no match to the British supremacy in warfare. The British very
skillfully established themselves in India and eventually replaced the Mughals annexing all important states

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between 1757 and 1856. They started their victorious journey from north-eastern India, and moving
southwards, they turned to the western territories of Sindh, Punjab and Kashmir.
East India Company (EIC)

The British East India Company (EIC) was a trading company) made by a group of merchants, led by Sir
Thomas Smyth .They got permission from Queen Elizabeth-1 of England in 1600.They wanted to have trade
with the eastern countries. They got monopoly (full control) over the trade between Britain and the eastern
countries. The first trade-ship of EIC landed in Surat (a seaport in India) in 1608 but in 1612 they got official
permission from the Mughal Gov. to have proper trade with India. This written Permission was granted by the
governor of Gujrat Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jehan. Later this business firm started interfering into the
domestic politics of India and it paved the way for the British Rule in India.
Why EIC attracted toward subcontinent?

 To boost industrialization in Britain:
India became known as the "golden sparrow" because of its fabulous wealth and resources such as cotton,
silk, jute, indigo, jewelry and even the addictive drug opium. British needed these to feed their factory
industry as they were a fast industrializing nation .
 Access to warm water:

Indian peninsula was surrounded by a warm water sea where multiple ports could operate throughout the
year. Such ports (as founded by the British in a planned way) could greatly help British expand their trade in
multiple directions from India.
 To remove rivals:
British wanted to expel other European colonial powers such as the Dutch, Portuguese and French from India
in order-to enjoy monopoly of trade in India. Dutch had driven British out of South East Asia and British had to
turn towards India.
British expansion from (1750 to 1852)

 Battle of Plessey 1757:
The French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal to attack the EIC base at Calcutta. Furthermore the Fortification
of British post on Calcutta was also against agreement with the Nawab of Bengal. Siraj-ud-Daulah marched
over Calcutta and seized Fort William and locked the British residents in a small room. 23 out of 65 people
died and so Battle of Plessey began. Robert Clive succeeded in defeating Siraj by bribing one of his key men
Mir Jaffer. Jafar was made the new Nawab of Bengal and Bengal came under EIC’s rule.

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 Battle of Buxar 1764:

The Battle fought between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector
Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim. Nawab of Audh Shujauddaula and the Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II, accompanied by Raja Balwant Singh of Kashi made an alliance with Mir Qasim. The battle was fought
at Buxar, a "small fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on the banks of the Ganga River. It
was a decisive victory for the British East India Company.
 Anglo Mysore War 1799:

The ruler of Mysore Hyder Ali, and then his son Tipu Sultan fought three fierce wars against the British_ the
Anglo-Mysore wars from 1770's to 1799. Hyder Ali, assisted by his son and the French naval force got a
significant victory in 1780-1782. After his sudden death in 1782, his son Tipu continued to resist the British. He
defeated Brigadier Mathews in 1783 and captured Bandore and Bangalore. With success from both sides, the
2nd Anglo-Mysore war ended in 1784 under the Treaty of Mangalore. In 3rd Anglo-Mysore war tipu lost some
territories. In 4th Anglo-Maysore war, Got martyred.
 Annexation of Sindh 1843:

In 1841, all British troops were killed in a rebellion in Afghanistan causing a serious damage to the British
prestige. In order to undo this damage, they decided to annex Sindh. The Amirs of Sindh had been friendly to
the British, since 1809, under the Treaty of Friendship. They were provoked by the British general Charles
Napier so much that they attacked the British Residency in 1843. The British, in turn, attacked and annexed
Sindh by defeating the Amirs the same year.
 Annexation of Punjab and NWFP 1849:

After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, there was a political crisis in the Punjab. The Sikhs, violating the Treaty
of Perpetual Friendship of 1809, attacked the British and were defeated in the Battle of Aliwal in January 1846.
They were penalized and forced to sign the Treaty of Lahore. In the Second Sikh War, 1848-1849, the Sikhs
were defeated again and the Sikh Empire came to end. The British annexed the Punjab and the NWF on 30 th
March 1849. Gulab Singh, the ruler of Kashmir, bought the state, and was made the Maharaja of Kashmir as a
reward for his support to the British.
 Doctrine of lapse 1852:

In 1852, Governor General Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. Under this, if a state ruler died
without a natural/male heir, the EIC would annex/occupy the state. Soon the states of Satara, Nagpur and
Jhansi were annexed by the EIC under this black-law. The Indian rulers resented the policy greatly, especially
when it was misused to take the state of Oudh in 1856, on the death of its Nawab though he had many sons.
Dalhousie annexed Oudh with the excuse of bad governance on behalf of Nawab.

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British attempts to westernize India

 Christian Missionaries:
Christian missionaries came to India to spread Christianity by various means. Several missionary schools were
set up in all the major Indian towns where teaching of the Bible to the local students was introduced. In these
schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected local religions to be given up which was resented by
Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs alike.
 English Language:
The British replaced Persian and Sanskrit with English as the official language in the 1830's. This deeply upset
both the Muslims and Hindus as these had been the popular languages of India for centuries.
 Co-education system:
Modern British education was resisted by the Indians. Moreover, they were required to send their children to
co-educational schools which was hated since it appeared to impose the British traditions on the Indians
without due regard to their religious and cultural feelings.
 Ban on pardah system:

They were more infuriated when they were forced to abandon 'purdha'/Hejab which had been an Indian
custom for centuries. The Muslim community, in particular, opposed such steps as they went against the
fundamental teachings of Islam.
 Ban on suttee:
Suttee was the Hindu ritual of burning a widow alive on the cremation of her husband. When the British
abolished it first in Bengal and then in the rest of the country, they faced fierce opposition by some of the
Hindu tribes.

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CHAPTER: 03
War of Independence 1857–58?

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Why war of independence 1857 started?

 Social factors:
When the Hindu custom of Suttee was banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus
reacted strongly. Therefore, when British changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as interference in
their religious traditions. Similarly the introduction of the coeducation system and a discouraging attitude of
the observance of Hijab/Purda were resisted by the Muslims for whom these steps were against their socio-
religious traditions.
 Educational factors:
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of Indians because of Lord
Macaulay's contemptuous remarks about the Indian educational standard, when English began to replace
Urdu and Hindi as the official language, in 1834, both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such
measures as an onslaught on local cultural traditions.
 Religious factors:
Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the second half of 19 th century also promoted a
sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were reports of forcible conversion of Indians into
Christianity. Christian missionaries were active at all public places like, schools, parks, markets and they
believed it was their duty to impose a superior culture and religion on all Indians.
 Military factors:
The British officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant way and they were denied any promotion
regardless of their services for the British. Indian sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British
soldiers. This inculcated hatred and frustration among Indians. Muslim troops were reluctant to fight the
fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the Company's army.
 Doctrine of Lapse:
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the Doctrine of lapse was
enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state whose ruler didn't have a son was annexed by the
EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa (Kanpur) and Rani of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons.
 Economic factors:
Heavy taxation on Indians and exploitation of local raw materials and wealth for the British factories in
England was another major reason. As factory made better cotton began to replace the local hand processed
cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
 Cartridge issue:
New cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow
and pig and they had to be chewed out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for
Muslims pig was Haram (forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use these cartridges.

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Events of the war of independence

 Meerut:
On 6th May, 1857 A.D. 85 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges with their
teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martialed and imprisoned for 10 years. They were stripped off their
uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd. It was too much of a disgrace and this incident sent a
wave of anger. The Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into open revolt. They released their companions and
murdered a few European officers. On the night of 10th May the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached
there on 11th May.
 Delhi:
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May, 1857 and the small British garrison at Delhi
was not able to resist and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur
Shah Zafar, was proclaimed Emperor of India. In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British
force commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of four months, the British recovered Delhi in
September 1857 A.D. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, his two sons and a grandson
were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A. D.
 Kanpur:
In November-December 1857, the rebels led by Nana Sahib Peshwa, captured Kanpur, near Lucknow and held
it out for three weeks. They killed the British officers and slaughtered 300 women and children while taking
several as captives. The British sent reinforcements and recaptured the city. Nana Sahib escaped. The
captured rebels were given horrible punishments in revenge.
 Lucknow:
The struggle for independence at Lucknow was led by Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. The Chief Commissioner, Sir
Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700 Indian soldiers inside the Residency. The Indians did
not make any concession and killed most of the Englishman, including “Sir Henry Lawrence and the notorious
English General O’ Neil. At last, the Commander-in-Chief General Collin Campbell marched towards Lucknow
and captured it after a fierce battle in March 1858.
 Jhansi & Gwalior:

The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi. General Sir Huge Rose attacked
Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi Bai kept the British General frightened for quite some time. She
with the help of Tantya Tope created problems for the British troops. A fierce battle was fought between the
British and the revolutionaries under Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantya Tope from June 11 to June 18, 1858 A. D. But
the personal velour of Rani and TantyaTope could not match the resources at the command of the British.
Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of the British. He was
subsequently hanged on April18, 1859.

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Why war of independence 1857 failed?

 Lack of unity:
Right from the beginning the Hindu-Muslim divide was evident. Hindus had no reason to fight for the
restoration of the Mughal rule in India. So, on many fronts both communities did not support each other. At
many places different groups fought for different reasons.
 Lack of planning:
The uprising was a hasty step taken by the troops from selected provinces without any proper planning and
this became a major reason for the failure. As the uprising spread to other provinces, there was no
coordination among troops about the future line of action.
 British strength:
They were one of the powerful nations of the world with the most modern weapons and a regular and
professionally trained army. They had highly skilled military commanders against the rebels who did not have
any such leaders to counter the British. British army had been trained in dealing with such emergencies.
Did war of independence achieve something for Indians?

Negative Impacts
 Persecution on Muslims:
Muslims were exclusively targeted because British had taken political control from them and they wanted to
erase any sense of "imperial pride" from their minds. At many places mass executions were carried out
publicly and the dead were stitched in the pigskin. Muslims were denied all respectable posts.
 Mughal empire abolished:

Mughal rule was officially abolished and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon
(Myanmar/Burma) where his sons were beheaded and he himself was given death sentence that was
commuted to life imprisonment due to his advanced age.
 Martial race:
British also became cautious and selective in military matters. They began to recruit troops from the relatively
loyal provinces such as Punjab KP and Kashmir, and followed the policy of encouraging the "martial race" of
Pathans and Punjabis.
Positive Impacts
 Political awareness:
Indians had learned the hard lesson that militarily they were no match to the British. Therefore, now they
would resist British rule politically. As a result Indians began to develop political awareness and founded
political parties.

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 EIC abolished:
British government abolished the EIC under Allahabad Declaration of 1858. Under this, all annexation policies
were abandoned e.g. the doctrine of lapse. British government promised respect of local religious faiths and
practices. They also decided to train Indians in politics by introducing political reforms periodically.

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CHAPTER: 04
How important was the work of Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan to the development of the
Pakistan Movement during the 19th century?

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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

He was a great Muslim political and social reformer. He was born in 1817. He was a retired judge,
archaeologist and a famous educationist too. He served the Muslim community of India in politics and
education. When Muslims had severe type of reservation about the British Gov. schools then he set up many
schools for the Muslim them in Ghazi pur, Muradabad and Ali Gharh. His most famous Educational projects
were MAO (Muhammadan Anglo Oriental School) and MAO College. This college became university (Ali-Gharh
Muslim University) after his death which proved to be a base-camp for Pakistan-Movement. He was the
creator of “Two Nation Theory”. He was the first person to demand separate electorate for Indian Muslims to
protect their political rights. He founded many educational, scientific, social and political organizations for the
Muslims of India. He died in 1898.
Why Sir Syed wanted to improve the relations between Muslims

and British?
 To change the minds of Muslims:
British had replaced Muslims as the new rulers of India but Muslims still carried a sense of imperial pride due
to their glorious past. It was important for them to accept the drastically changed political scenario of India.
He also tried to change the British mind in favor of Muslims.
 To improve Muslims socio-economic status:

Sir Syed knew that Muslims could hope for an improved socio-economic status only by making friends with the
British who had complete political control of India. If Muslims distanced themselves from the British, they
would continue to remain a backward and poor community. By improving relations with the British, Muslims
had a better opportunity to get better jobs.
 To educate Muslims:
Hindus had already started improving their relations with the British because for them it was only a matter of
changed rulers. They began to acquire modern British education which most of the Muslims considered un-
lslamic. Sir Syed knew that this would cause a growing social and economic disparity between Hindus and
Muslims and this would bring more troubles for the Muslims.
Why Sir Syed presented Two-Nation theory?

 Hindi-Urdu controversy:
Hindus demanded that Hindi should be declared the official language of India in place of Urdu that enjoyed
the same status since 1825. Urdu, written in Persian-Arabic script was one of the marks of cultural identity of
Muslims. Hindi, with its Devanagri script, reflected the future plans of Hindu Raj over India. Sir Syed strongly
opposed this demand and predicted that in future there might be separation between Hindus and Muslims.

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 Separate electorates:
Hindu-dominated INC made two more demands that were apparently democratic but in reality against the
interest of Muslims. It demanded that elections of the councils in India should be held on the bases of modern
Western democracy. Sir Syed countered this demand by saying that Hindus, being a majority, might win
election on all seats. He suggested the idea of separate electorates for Muslims.
 Civil services examination:

He opposed another demand of the Congress that asked for the competitive examinations for the Civil
Services in India. He knew that Hindus were far more educated than Muslims and therefore, there was little
chance for Muslims to get any seat in the Civil Services. He argued that only when equal education
opportunities were provided to both the communities could such an idea work.
Why Sir Syed advised Muslims to acquire modern education?

 For better socio-economic condition:
Unless Muslims acquired modern British education, they could not get better jobs, and therefore, could not
hope for improving their socio-economic condition. After the War, they had been denied any respectable post
in India and this further added to their miseries.
 To compete with Hindus:

Muslims also lagged behind Hindus in almost all walks of life as the latter had already started equipping
themselves with the modern education. Hindus, therefore, were fast becoming prosperous, rich and
advanced. Muslims, therefore, needed to compete with Hindus in order to ensure their survival and dignity in
India. Educated Muslims had a better chance of being in the good books of the British who hardly trusted
them.
 To develop political awareness:

Sir Syed also told Muslims that it was vital to get modern education if they wanted to develop political
awareness and insight. Though in the beginning Sir Syed discouraged Muslims from participating in politics,
with the emergence of the Hindu- dominated INC and its pro-Hindu policies, he had to change his views.
Therefore, he wanted Muslims to beware of the clever policies of INC.

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Work and contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

 Political efforts:
He opposed the Hindu demand of making Hindi as the official language because by this demand the future
Hindu aims of ruling India became apparent. He also opposed two more demands of INC in the 1880's:
competitive examinations for the civil services and the joint electorate for the elections of the legislative
councils. He advocated a system of separate electorates for Muslims and a fixed quota for Muslims in the
competitive examinations.
 Social efforts:
Sir Syed also tried to create awareness among Muslims by convincing them to accept the British as the new
rulers of India and so, it was wise to make friends with them. He highlighted the similarities between Islam and
Christianity by writing "Taba'yeen-al-Kalam". In another book he proved that it was not un-lslamic to dine with
the Christians. He wrote a book in response to Sir William Muir's book "Life of Muhammad" that contained
some objectionable remarks about the Holy Prophet.
 Literary efforts:
While convincing Muslims Sir Syed worked to convince British about changing their stance regarding Muslims.
He wrote two pamphlets shortly after the War of Independence. In "Essays on the Causes of Indian Revolt" he
proved that Indians alone were not responsible for the Revolt but British too were to blame for their failure to
understand the Indian mindset. In "Loyal Muhammadans of India" he defended Muslims and proved that they
were as loyal to the British as any other community in India.
 Educational efforts:
He set up a series of institutes, issued magazines and wrote books.
1- In 1859 he opened a school in Muradabad,
2- In1864 another school in Ghazipore,
3- In 1863 Ghazipore Scientific Society, In it modern scientific writings of the West were translated into Persian
and Urdu.
4- In 1866, he issued the Aligarh Institute Gazette from Aligarh to encourage Muslims to acquire modern
education.
5- He visited England in 1869 and decided to set up an institute for Muslims after observing the Cambridge
and Oxford Universities,
6- In 1875, he set up the MAO College, Aligarh where both western and local education was imparted. This
institute produced many prominent leaders like Liaqat Ali Khan and several workers of the Pakistan
Movement.
7- In 1886, Muhammadan Education Conference was established in order to launch a campaign for raising
educational standard of Muslims. It held regular meetings in several cities.
8- Launched a magazine 'Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq'.

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CHAPTER: 05
To what extent have Urdu and regional
languages contributed to the cultural
development of Pakistan since 1947?

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Importance of national language

National language is necessary to identify a country. It is to be recognized worldwide. It helps to show the
culture. The literature poetry is found in national language. It links one another. It helps in official work and is
the language of communication.
Why Urdu was chosen as a national language of Pakistan?

 Vast history:
One of the reasons of choosing Urdu as the national language was its long history of affiliation with the
Muslim community of India. It flourished a lot during the period of the Sultanate of Delhi when poets like Amir
Khusrau and Wali Dakni composed Urdu poetry. Later, during the Mughal period it was promoted by the
Mughal kings and eventually it became the court language.
 Rich background:
Urdu has a rich literary background both in prose and poetry. Three great poets, Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Ghalib
and Iqbal composed world class poetry while during the 19th century Urdu prose also began to flourish .At the
same time Urdu religious stock also grew when translations and commentaries on the Quran, Hadees and the
Islamic law were written. Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement also contributed to the development of Urdu.
 Urdu as uniting force:

Pakistan has a huge variety of culture in its provinces with four major regional languages. In such a country
one common language was thought to be a source of promoting a sense of National unity. Urdu was the only
option which could serve as a uniting force between several cultural communities living in Pakistan.
Promotion of national and regional Languages
Urdu
Historical Background:
Urdu was the most developed language with a strong and rich literary background. In its journey of evolution
many Urdu novels, short stories, essays, religious and non-religious writings had become popular much before
the creation of Pakistan. Translations of the Quran, Hadith, biography of the Holy Prophet and Islamic
jurisprudence further enriched the Urdu literature.
Contribution:
Allama Mohammad Iqbal, Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

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How government of Pakistan promoted it:

It was made the medium of education in the public sector educational institutes while in the private sector
institutes it became a. compulsory subject in the primary and secondary education level. Special awards were
offered to the best writings in prose and poetry by the government. Most of the programs, plays and news are
broadcast on radio and TV in Urdu. Federal Ministry of Information has been issuing the monthly "Mah-i-Nau"
from Lahore, and a quarterly "Adabiyat" is issued by the Academy of Letters, Islamabad.
Sindhi
It is the older language which is spoken in Sindh. It was written in Marwari and Arz Nagri Script. It was later
written in Arabic script. It has a number of famous poets and prose writers as Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul
Latif Bhitai. In nineteenth century a famous journal Talim-ul-Alkashaf-ul-Tauheed was published.
Contribution:
Sachal Sarmast, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai.
Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula" in 1954, and later, Sachal Sarmast Academy. A department of Sindhology was set up in
the Sindh University, Jamshoro to encourage research on Sindhi language and literature. Under the 1972
Language Bill, Sindhi and Urdu were declared the national languages of Sindh. Radio stations of Karachi,
Hyderabad and Sukkur, and PTV Karachi have been broadcasting programs in Sindhi.
Punjabi
It is the regional language of Punjab. It was first used by Hafiz Barkhurdar in 1080. It was called Al-Hindko. It
has words from Arabic, Persian, Turkish languages - famous folk tales are Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal, Sussi
Punnu etc.
Contribution:
Waris Shah, Baba Farid, Bullah Shah.
University of the Punjab has been encouraging research work on Punjabi language and literature Government
has supported poets and writers like Munir Niazi, Dr Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman for their
work. PTV and Radio Pakistan, Lahore has been broadcasting Punjabi plays and other programs for the
promotion of Punjabi. Movies, theatre and literary organizations like "Punjabi Adabi Sangrat” have also been
patronized by the government.

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Pashto
The first period of Pashto poet was Amir Khan Pehilvan. The second period begins with the Mughal invasion of
India in the early thirteenth century and lasted for about one hundred years, during this period the quality of
Pashto prose was at its peak. Perhaps the greatest scholar in this period was Hazrat Mian Umar. The third
period extends to the establishment of British rule and is also considered to be a golden period for Pashto
literature, as so much high quality writing was produced.
Contribution:
Akhund Dardeeza and Khushal Khan Khattak
Peshawar University was set up in 1950 and the Academy of Pashto was established in 1954 for the promotion
of Pashto language and literature. This institute under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Qadir took great
pains to compile the first Pashto dictionary. Pashto is taught at college and university level, and post graduate
classes are held in Peshawar University". Radio Pakistan Peshawar and PTV Peshawar broadcast a variety of
programs in Pashto. Abasin Arts Council has been promoting Pashto theatre.
Balochi
Balochi is the language spoken by the majority of people in Baluchistan. There are many kinds of Balochi,
'Sulemanki' and 'Makrani'. The Balochi language was brought into Baluchistan by tribes which migrated from
north-west Iran. They were nomadic People who rarely settled in any one place for long periods of time. This
explains why there has been little development in Balochi poetry. Before partition, Balochi literature was
beginning to decline there were few books or magazines published in Balochi and even the Baluchistan
gazetteer was published in English.
Balochi is the least developed regional language of Pakistan. Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later, PTV Karachi
broadcasted programs in Balochi after independence. After the establishment of PTV Quetta, many more
programs began to be telecasted. Baloch Literary Association was set up for the same purpose. Newspapers
like "Awaam" and some weekly and monthly magazines like "Omaan", "Sangat" and "Mahatak" were issued in
Balochi. Government has patronized prominent poets and writers in Balochi that include Atta Shad, Ishaq
Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din.

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Why regional languages promoted by Pakistani government?

 Sindhi’s association with Islam:
Sindhi, among all regional languages, was the first to have adopted the Arabic script. This reflects its close
association with Islam. Several sufi poets, such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast wrote Sindhi
verse. Therefore, it was important to promote it.
 Pushto’s association with Pakistan movement:

Pashto is spoken in Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (former NWFP) and its literature carries a strong element of
resistance against the foreign rule. Such an element of resistance is quite visible in the poetry of Khushhal
Khan Khattak and Rehman Baba. This way Pashto became associated wifh the Pakistan movement.
 Balochi under developed language:

Balochi is spoken in the largest province in terms of its area but the least populated province. It had
traditionally been underdeveloped due to a lack of its preservation in written form. Also, the people of
Balochistan had to be assured of their significance as a cultural unit of Pakistan and so, it had to be promoted.

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SECTION 2
The emergence of Pakistan
(1905-1947)

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CHAPTER: 06
How far did the Pakistan Movement develop
during the early 20th century?

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Proclamation act:
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar had been deposed in 1857 at which point control of British India was
transferred to the Crown from the East India Company (EIC). Victoria was offered the position of empress after
the EIC was dissolved; she accepted it on 1 May 1876 with it being officially proclaimed in India on 1 January
1877.Victoria was adamant that freedom of religion be observed in the country having respect for Indians and
their various beliefs.
Why Bengal was partitioned in 1905?

 Vast and densely populated province:
Bengal was the most populated province with a population of more than 80 million. This huge population was
spread over a small area, making it a very densely populated province. It was difficult to govern such a big
province as it created problems in maintaining law and order, collection of taxes and providing emergency
help in times of floods and cyclones. So, it was sensible to divide it into two provinces.
 Economic disparity:
The western part of Bengal had a population of 54 million with a Hindu majority, whereas the eastern part had
31 million inhabitants with a Muslim majority. There was a growing economic disparity between the Hindus
and Muslims. Hindus were the dominant community enjoying monopoly over industry, trade and politics.
Muslims on the other hand, were generally backward and poor. British perhaps wanted reduce this disparity.

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 INC demanding for self-rule:

British also closely observed the political activities of the INC in the 1890's when leaders like Bal Gangadhar
Tilak had to be in prison as they delivered provoking speeches in which they demanded self-rule for India.
Therefore, the British decided to distract the attention of the INC towards a new issue.
Why Indian national congress opposed partitioned?

 Divide and rule policy:
For the INC, it was yet another example of the old British policy of "divide and rule". By doing so the British
were strengthening their grip on the Indian political affairs while dividing the two major communities, Hindus
and Muslims. The British power lay in the communal differences of India.
 Indian nationalism:
The INC also viewed the partitioned as a step against the Indian nationalism. It believed that all people living in
India were primarily Indians regardless of the cultural and religious differences and identities. So, all
communities living in Bengal were equally Indians whether they were Hindus or Muslims.
 Loss of economic monopoly:

The Hindu dominated INC was also unhappy over the loss of monopoly over the economy and politics of
Bengal. In East Bengal, Muslims were a decisive majority and had formed their own government. Therefore,
their economic condition began to improve.
Why partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

 INC resistances and protests:
A country-wide anti-partition campaign was launched. Mob rallies were organized and shutter down strikes
were observed as a token of resentment against the partition. With the passage of time, the opposition to the
partition became fierce and eventually adopted the terrorist behavior. Many senior British officials were
attacked including Lord Minto who survived a murder attempt.
 Swadeshi movement:
The INC started the Swadeshi Movement in which boycott of the British goods and institutions was observed.
British titles given to the Hindus were returned and the attendance in various institutes dropped significantly.
At many places, the British factory made cotton cloth was thrown in the bonfire to mark the hatred against
the foreign goods. This created serious economic difficulties for the British.
 King George coronation ceremony:

King George V was scheduled to visit India in 1911. The INC, threatened to boycott the Coronation ceremony
of the King that was a royal tradition and a hallmark of British authority over its colonies. This threat of the INC

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was a serious blow to the pride and prestige of the British who were now pressurized to reconsider the
partition.
Simla deputation 1906:

On 8th October 1906, a delegation of 36 Muslims led by Sir Aga Khan, called on the Viceroy Lord Minto at
Simla. The delegation conveyed to him a set of demands that included the right of separate electorates for
Muslims, and recognizing them in respect of their political importance and the service they had rendered to
the Empire. It asked for a higher percentage of seats in the councils than their numerical strength. The Viceroy
promised to convince the British government for the acceptance of these demands. This success became the
immediate reason for the formation of the ML (Muslim League) in December 1906.
Why simla deputation was important for the Muslims?

 British sympathy toward Muslims:
The British showed their sympathy towards Muslims. The Muslim delegation was able to persuade the British
to accept them as an important Indian community. This was possible mainly due to the attempts of Sir Syed
and his colleagues to improve relations with-the British. Now, their efforts had started bearing fruit as the
British were prepared to work with the Muslims and grant them concessions like the separate electorates.
 Political awareness among Muslims:

Success of the Simla delegation also showed the growing political awareness among Muslims about their
rights and status in India. Since the Hindus had already started making progress in all walks of life, the rivalry
between Muslims and Hindus was bound to grow. This rivalry was now going to be visible in the constitution,
too. The Muslims had started realizing that they needed to secure a better position in the British India.
 Sense of Nationalism among Muslims:

It also showed the growing sense of nationalism among Muslims. By asking for separate electorates and a
greater share in the legislative councils and the government jobs demonstrated that Muslims had started
working on proving themselves a distinct and important community of India. For this reason, the Muslims
decided to make their own political party only after two months on 30 th December 1906.
Why was the Muslim league founded in 1906?

 INC Hindu dominated party:
The INC claimed to represent all communities of India but it mainly worked for the interests of Hindus. Its
reaction on the partition of Bengal in 1905 was a shocking experience for the Muslims as they realized the
hidden INC aims of denying Muslims to make any progress.
 Victory of liberal party in England:

In February 1906, the Liberal Party won elections in England. It was generally more sympathetic towards the
Indians and especially at times towards Indian Muslims. It announced that it would expand the legislative

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councils by including more Indians. Muslims realized it was time to think of making a Muslim political party
because the INC had not been sincere towards them.
 Success of simla deputation:

Another reason for the formation of ML was the success of the Simla Delegation. In October 1906 about 36
Muslim delegates led by Sir Aga Khan called on the Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla. It demanded a greater share
of Muslims in the councils and separate Muslim electorates. Lord Minto's encouraging response convinced the
delegates that the organized efforts were more likely to be successful.
Morley-Minto reforms 1909:

Lord Minto and Secretary of States John Morley worked together to draw a series of reforms which were
passed by the British Parliament in 1909 as the Councils act.
(i) The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60.
(ii) The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was fixed as 50 in the
provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30.
(iii) Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.
(iv) The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the amendments
and even to vote on them.
(v) Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
(vi) The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.
Why were Morly-Minto reforms opposed by INC?

 Nominal powers to the center:
The INC was disappointed by the reforms. The reforms gave nominal powers to the central and provincial
legislative councils. They could not make, change or annul any of the laws. Instead, the members could only
ask questions on important matters express their opinions or advise the government respectfully.
 Want greater size of councils:

The INC also wanted a greater increase in the size of the councils at all levels so that a greater number of
Indians could make way to the power corridor. The British knew all this and therefore, they increased the size
of the councils according to their own policies as they were in no mood to raise the legislative councils to the
status of a parliament

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 Separate electorates to Muslims:

The INC sharply criticized the granting of separate electorate to the Muslims. It was unhappy on Muslims
getting a relatively higher position in the councils despite their much smaller numbers. The INC declared this
an undemocratic step because such a special concession to Muslims directly threatened the Hindu dominance
in Indian politics.
Lucknow Pact 1916:

The British failed in granting more rights to Indians in the period upto 1914, which brought the Muslim league
and Congress closer together. In 1916, both the communities held their annual session in Lucknow. This was
called the Lucknow pact. Congress and the League presented their demands infront of British which were
accepted. Lucknow pact led to much succession.
(i) There shall be self-government in India.
(ii) Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government.
(iii) There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community demanded joint
electorates.
(iv) A system of weightage should be adopted.
(v) The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150.
(vi) The size of provincial legislatures should not be extended.
(vii) Voting rights for all
(viii) No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-fourth of the members of
that community in the Legislative Council.
(x) The term of the Legislative Council should be five years.
(xi) Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians.
(xii) The Executive should be separated from the Judiciary.
Why Lucknow pact was signed in 1916?

 Hindu Muslim unity:
The INC and the ML decided to work together. INC persuaded the ML leaders to change the policy of "loyalty
to the British" and make a demand for self-rule. This brought ML closer to INC that already was demanding
"Swaraj" (self-rule). Gradually both parties realized it would be better to ask for constitutional reforms jointly.

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 British policies of repression:

The British policy of repression during the WW1 also brought the two parties closer to each other. Therefore,
both parties set up joint councils to improve common understanding on key issues. So, both decided to
cooperate with each other in order to generate feelings of goodwill and friendship.
 To reduce mutual friction between ML and INC:

ML and INC also wanted to reduce mutual friction and to accommodate each other. The main figure in this
regard was Mr. Muhammad AN Jinnah who believed in a unity between the INC and the ML. He was,
therefore, given the title of the 'ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity' by Mr. Gokhle.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919:

These reforms were jointly drafted by the Secretary of State, John Montague and the Viceroy Lord
Chelmsford.
(i) The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses, Upper House (Council of the State), and the Lower
House (Legislative Assembly). Council of the State was to consist of 60 members. The Legislative Assembly was
to consist of 144 members. The duration of the Upper House was five and of the Lower House was three years.
(ii) Powers were divided between the center and the provinces.
(iii) The system of Diarchy’ or a kind of double government in the Provinces was introduced.
(iv) The Governor General had the power to nominate as many members to his Executive Council as he wanted.
(v) The franchise was limited.
(vi) Both the houses had equal legislative powers. In case of a tie, the Governor General was to call a joint
meeting where the matter was to be decided by majority vote.
(vii) The Executive Council was not responsible to Legislate.
(viii) Provincial Legislatures were supposed to be unicameral.
(ix) Besides Muslims, other minorities including Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians and Europeans were also given
the right of separate electorate.
(x) New reforms were to be introduced after ten years.
(xi) The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of them should be
Indian.
 Muslims partly accepted the Montague-Chelmsford reforms with certain reservations and demands
regarding the safety of Muslim states.
 Gandhi categorically rejected this scheme and congress denounced it as inadequate, unsatisfactory and
disappointing.
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Rowlett Act 1919:

The British anticipated a violent reaction to the Mont-Ford reforms. They appointed an investigative
committee under Justice Rowlett in Dec. 1917. In the light of its report the Rowlett Act was passed in 1919.
The Act empowered the local administration/police to arrest anyone without warrant, detain him without the
right of bail and decide where the people in a province should live. Gandhi launched a countrywide strike
against it, and Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest. A protest by 20,000 unarmed
people led to the tragic massacre at Jillianwala Bagh, a public park, in Amritsar, in April 1919.
Amritsar Massacre 1919:

As part of protest against the Rowlett Act, there was unrest in Amritsar and five Europeans were killed. An
angry mob of 20,000 gathered in a public park, Jillianwala Bagh. Though all were peaceful protesters, General
Dyer, the local British Commander was determined to restore peace as he had banned all public meetings. He
sealed the only exit of the park and ordered a shootout without warning. Over 1600 rounds were fired and
about 400 people were killed while another 1200 were wounded. Dyer was trialed under the Hunter
Committee and was removed from his service without any further punishment.
Hunter committee:
As part

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CHAPTER: 07
How successful was the Khilafat Movement in
advancing the Pakistan Movement?

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What was Khilafat Movement?

It was started in 1919 by the Muslim religious leaders of India to save the respect of Turkey and the institute
of Khilafat. Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were.its major
leaders. Gandhi merged his non-cooperation campaign with it. Three Khilafat Conferences were held, a
delegation was sent to the British PM Lloyd George in February 1920 to persuade him for a fair treatment of
Turkey. Thousands of Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in the Hijrat Mpvement in 1920. Jinnah and the ML
stayed away from it but supported the cause of the Khilafat Movement. The Movement ended in 1924 with
the abolition of the Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk.
Why Khilafat movement was emerged?

 To save Turkey’s caliphate system:
The British promised that no harm would be done to the Caliphate and the Muslims troops fought for the
British on this reassurance in WWI. However, after the War, through the peace treaties such as the Treaty of
Sevres, it became evident that Britain and France would punish Germany and abolish the Turkish Empire by
dividing its slices among the victors.
 Muslims sentiment with Ottoman Empire:

They had a special respect for the Turkish Ottoman Empire as the Sultan of Turkey was also the spiritual head
or Khalifa of the entire Muslim world. He was the custodian of all the holy places of Islam in Arabia and other
Middle Eastern states. Therefore, any punishment of Turkey meant an insult of the Khalifa and that
tantamount to hurting the religious sentiments of the Muslims.
 To develop political awareness:

Many Indian Muslim leaders believed that British wanted to indulge a fear of Hindus so that Muslims could be
forced to cooperate with the British wherever needed. For this reason, leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
sharply criticized the Muslims who had joined the British army.
Khilafat Conferences:
 First Khilafat conference (Nov 1919):
Main aim was to persuade British to keep their promises about maintaining the Turkish Empire. Resolution
was passed and everyone agreed in sending a delegation to Britain to make sure that the British were aware
of Muslim strength of Muslims support for the Khalifa. Muslims also boycotted British goods besides Hindus
and adopted a policy of noncooperation with them.
 Second Khilafat conference (Dec 1919):

It was decided that all three organizations (Muslim League, Congress & Khilafat people) would be working
together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkish Empire. Maulana Muhammad Ali visited Britain & insisted

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the Britain not to punish Turkey but the Prime Minister Lloyd George said Austria has had justice; Germany
has had justice-pretty terrible justice –why should Turkey escape?
Why Khilafat movement failed?

 Gandhi’s withdrawal (Chaura Chauri incident):
Gandhi withdrew his support at a critical moment. When in 1922 an angry mob took control of a police station
in the UP town of Chauri Chaura and burned 22 policemen alive, Gandhi reacted on this violent event and
announced the withdrawal of his support for the Khilafat Movement. It was a deadly blow to the movement.
His withdrawal proved fatal because he had unified the two largest communities of India -— Hindus and
Muslims.
 Moplahs uprising:
It was a violent uprising by the Moplahs, the Muslim peasants in South India during the Khilafat Movement.
Moplahs were basically the descendants of Arab traders who had settelled in the coastal areas of Malabar
district in ancient times. Their anger was against Hindu landowners and the British. In August 1921, nearly
10,000 Moplahs at Tirur destroyed the police station-and seized all arms and also destroyed Hindu property
including temples. The British troops reacted quickly and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs while several more
were wounded. There were only 100 British casualties. With this the communal violence spread to other parts
of India.
 Hijrat Movement:
The Khilafat leaders in 1920 declared India as Dar ul Harb, a land under the enemy rule and asked Muslims to
migrate to an independent Muslim state/Dar ul Islam. Afghanistan. They reminded the migrant Muslims of the
Holy Prophet's migration to Madinah in 622 AD. About 18,000 Muslims sold their properties and left for
Afghanistan. Their leaders had promised them a bright future but the people and the Government of
Afghanistan refused to accommodate them. Accordingly, they had to return to their homeland to face further
miseries. This was a reason for the failure of the Khilafat Movement.
 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk:

Military leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a military revolution, Turkey became a
republic and the last Khalifa Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI was deposed. Attaturk, in the meantime, had
regained some of the lost Turkish terror ties and forced the Allies for a new peace treaty, the Treaty of
Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the Turkish people. In 1924, the new Turkish Government led
by Kemal Attaturk, abolished the institute of Khilafat and later sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be
a decisive blow to the Khilafat Movement.

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Short Answer Questions

Q. What was Satyagraha?
It was the famous ideology of Gandhi which meant “to follow True Path by passive-resistance”. According to
this ideology a man must not respond violence with violence. We should use peaceful ways to resist injustice
and violence e.g by hunger strikes, long-march, civil-disobedience and non-cooperation etc. Gandhi used this
policy against the British rule continuously. So it was an effective tool for the struggle of Indian Independence.
Gandhi wanted to be on the right path and he stressed the British for self-rule (swaraj) for India.
Q. What was the Hindu Mahasabah?

Hindu Mahasaba was formed in 1923 by Pandit Mohan Malaviya, a Congressman. It contested its first
elections in 1926. The party made progress when V.D Sawarkar became president. In 1947, the party
condemned the partition settlement as a national disorder and believed that Gandhi's religious tolerance was
a threat to Hindu purity. A fanatic Hindu member of Mahasaba Killed Gandhi on 30th January 1948.
Q. What was the treaty of Lausanne?

In 1923, The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in a city of Switzerland (Lusanne) led to the international
recognition of the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. As
there were five major agreements with Turkey. There should be:
1- End of Ottoman Empire in Turkey.
2- Complete ban on Islam in Turkey
3- Turkey cannot exploit own resources, but have to import.
4- Usurp all the expanded areas of Ottoman Empire.
5- No trading ship will pay tax to Turkey while using its Bosporus sea.

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CHAPTER: 08
How successful was the Pakistan Movement in
the years 1927–1939?

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Simon Commission (1927)

The Conservative government sent a constitutional commission of seven members headed by Sir John Simon
in 1927. The Simon Commission prepared a report amidst opposition by the major Indian political parties.
(i) Abolition of diarchy.
(ii) Federal form of government with maximum powers to the provinces.
(iii) Separate electorates for the Muslims.
(iv) Weight age for the Muslims in minority provinces.
(v) Muslims demanded for the separation on Sind from Bombay and introduction of reforms in NWFP was not
rejected but postponed.
(vi) Muslims should not be given one third of the seats in Central Legislature.
Why Simon commission sent to India?

 Unrest in India:
After the Khilafat Movement, the communal violence in India became so serious by 1927 that it threatened
any cooperation-between Hindus and Muslims. Major Indian parties had already rejected the 1919 Act and
wanted fresh political reforms. The Conservative Government, therefore, decided to advance the date of
reviewing the 1919 Act by two years.
 Fear of losing election against labor party:

Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India feared a defeat of the Conservative Party in the upcoming
elections, and thought that the Labour Party might grant too many political concessions to the Indians. The
Labour Party was usually viewed relatively more sympathetic towards the Indian question.
Q- Why Simon commission rejected by the Indians?
Reason 01:
The Simon Commission Report did not satisfy the major political parties~6f India. In fact, all the seven members of the
Commission were British. The INC and the ML, therefore, rejected the team by declaring it an "All white body".
Reason 02:
The INC rejected Simon commission because Muslims were granted separate electorates and federal form government
recommended.
Reason 03:
The ML rejected Simon commission because no one third seats were granted to Muslims and the demand for the
separation on Sindh from Bombay and introduction of reforms in NWFP was postponed.

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DELHI PROPOSALS (1927)

In 1927 Mohammad Ali Jinnah called a conference of all Muslims leaders in Delhi to discuss the future of
constitutional reforms and separate electorates. These demands were known as the Delhi Proposals and were:
1) Sindh should be separated from Bombay with full provincial status and all previous British reforms should
be applied to the Frontier Province and Balochistan.
2) In Punjab and Bengal the allocated fewer seats should be corrected.
3) Muslims should be given one-third of the seats in the central legislature through joint electorates then the
Muslims league would be prepared to give up separate electorates.
NEHRU REPORT (1928)

The congress and Muslim league had already rejected the recommendations of the Simon Commission. The
Indian leaders accepted the challenge and convinced an all parties conference at Delhi in February 1928 to
prepare draft for the Constitutional reforms. A nine-member committee headed by Pundit Motilal Nehru
(father of Jawaharlal Nehru) was established to draft the future Constitution of India.
(i) Full dominion Status for India (that the meant India would become independent, but remain a member of
Common Wealth accepting the British monarch as Head of State).
(ii) Separate electorates and weightage were rejected.
(iii) The Muslims were to get proportional representative in Central legislature.
(iv) Sindh should be separated from Bombay.
(v) Full provincial status to be given to NWFP and Baluchistan.
(vii) India should have a unitary form of government with a strong center.
(viii) The vote for all adult men and women.
(x) India to be a federation with a two-chamber parliament.
The recommendations of Nehru report were place for the final approval. In all parties Convection held at
Calcutta in December 1928. The Muslims leaders also attended the convection. At that occasion Quaid-e-Azam
proposed three amendments in the Nehru report which were as follow:
1) One-third representations for the Muslims in the Central legislature.

2) Muslims representation in the Punjab and Bengal on the basis of population.
3) Federal form of government with maximum powers (autonomy) for the provinces.

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Hindu majority rejected all these amendments. It was last attempt M.A Jinnah to reconcile Congress with
Muslim league. The Nehru report marked the end of any future cooperation between the Congress and the
Muslim league.
Q- Why Nehru report was rejected by the Muslim League?
Reason 01:
The INC was turning its back on the agreement it had made in the Lucknow Pact of 1916 by rejecting the separate
electorate for Muslims and their one third seats in the Central Government It also reiterated its old demand of making
Hindi the official language.
Reason 02:
The INC demanded for the unitary form of government with major powers in the center but ML wanted Federal form of
government
Reason 03:
The INC not considered the demand of Muslim for one third representation of Muslims in the centre.
JINNAH’s 14 POINTS (1929)

Mr. Jinnah presented his 14 points at the annual meeting of Muslim League in 1929. These 14 points were
given to safeguard & protect the interest of Muslims.
(i) The form of the future constitution should be federal with the powers vested in the provinces.
(ii) Autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
(iii) Adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province.
(iv) In the Central Legislative, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third.
(v) Right of separate electorate for Muslims.
(vi) Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim
majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the North West Frontier Province.
(vii) Full religious liberty.
(viii) No bill or any resolution shall be passed in any legislature if three-fourth of the members of that
community opposes such a bill.
(ix) Sindh should be separated from the Bombay presidency.
(x) Reforms should be introduced in the North West Frontier Province and Baluchistan on the same footing as
in the other provinces.
(xi) Muslims should be given an adequate share, in all the services of the state.
(xii) Adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the protection and promotion of Muslim
education, language, religion, personal laws.

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(xiii) No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least one-
third Muslim ministers.
(xiv) No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature without the approval of Indian
Federation.
SALT MARCH (1930)

It marked the start of the second phase of the non-cooperation campaign of the INC. The British did not
comply with the Nehru Report and, therefore, Gandhi was given charge of the campaign. He started his Salt
March as part of his Satyagraha (truth-force) on 12 March 1930 from his Ashram (home) near Ahmedabad and
marched for 24 days to reach the coastal town of Dandi. He was accompanied by thousands of his followers.
Primarily its aim was to condemn the unfair Salt Laws of the British, but gradually it began to reject all unfair
laws of the British rule. The British banned the INC and arrested several INC leaders including Gandhi and
Nehru.
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES (1930-32)

Simon Commission report that was finally published in May 1930, invited criticism from all over India.
Congress announced complete boycott and started civil disobedience movement under Gandhi’s command.
Demonstrations and violence spread throughout the country. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were arrested.
The political situation had become tensed in the country. British Government realized that without the
cooperation of Indians it was not possible to introduced constitutional reforms in London.
First round table conference (12 Nov. 1930 to 19 Jan 1931)
In this conference all the parties were represented except Congress. Congress refused to attend unless there
was a guarantee that anything agreed at the Conference would be implemented. British Government gave no
such guarantee. The Muslim decided to attend the Congress in spite of Congress boycott.
Muslim delegation included Sir Aga Khan, M.A Johar, Maulvi Fazaal-ul-Haq and M.A Jinnah. Important issues
decided at the conference were:
 The princely States agreed to extend their cooperation in forming an All India Federation.
 The British agreed that representative government should be introduced at provincial level.
 Separation of Sind from Bombay.
 To introduce Federal System of government in India.
Result: No agreement was reached as to the question of Muslims weight age in future constitution. Since
congress was India’s largest party and absent from 1st Round Table Conference, it was difficult to take final
decision.

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IQBAL’s ALLAHABAD ADDRESS (1930)

The annual session of the Muslim league was held at ALLAHBAD in 1930, which was presided over by Allama
Iqbal. In the address Iqbal discussed the political situation of the Subcontinent. His address is regarded as a
document on Islam being the system of life. He declared Islam as a complete code of life and gave very sound
and strong arguments in support of his views. He was fully convinced that the Muslims of India would
ultimately have to establish a separate homeland, as they could not live with the Hindus in the united India.
He viewed that Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and NWFP should be group together to make a separate state,
which should be given a dominion status within or outside the British Empire.
Iqbal's address further clarified the 'Two Nation Theory' and demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims.
It was the first occasion when a demand for a separate homeland was made from the Muslim league platform.
Importance of address:
 Allama Iqbal was the 1st Muslim leader to suggest partition of the subcontinent in keeping with the
two-nation theory. He has, therefore been called ‘The father of the ideology of Pakistan’.
 His views acted as an inspiration to many Muslims who were uncertain about how to defend their
religion and culture. Iqbal gave them a clear cut objective, as he set out a goal for Muslims to work
towards a separate homeland.
 Allama Iqbal was also the inspiration for other Muslims leaders.
 In 1934 Chaudri Rehmat Ali’s Pakistan scheme was built upon his ideas.
 They were also to be the basis of Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution in 1940.
Second round table conference (7th Sept. 1st Dec 1931)
Gandhi adopted a stubborn and unreasonable attitude on all matters and refused to accept any rights of
minorities. After adopting the stiff attitude Gandhi sat back quietly observe the proceedings. He did his best to
prove India as one nation and nationality so that he could claim to represent the Indian people alone.
But the Quaid-e-Azam replied that Indian Muslims were also a separate nation of India which had its own
interests.
Result: Non settlement of minorities issue could be reached and the second Conference ended without
reaching at any conclusion mainly because of rigid attitude of Gandhi.
Third round table conference (17Nov-24 Dec 1932)
The congress once again abstained from the conference because Gandhi had started his civil disobedience
movement. Quaid-e-Azam did not take part in this conference and Sir Aga Khan led the Muslim delegation.

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The Conference could not solve the problems of Hindu Muslims and proved a formality. Gandhi and Nehru
were in jail. The Conference ended after few meetings without achieving anything.
Q- Why was it necessary to hold three RTCs?
Reason 01:
The British government refused to contemplate any form of self-government for the people of India. This caused
frustration among the masses, who often expressed their anger in violent clashes. This political chaos forced British to
come up with some decisions so, in order to review the Simon Commission Report, they announced the holding of an RTC
Reason 02:
In the absence of INC, the largest political party of India, it was not possible to make any major achievement.
Arrangements were made under the Gandhi-lrwin Pact, March 1931 to involve the INC in the political proceedings. Under
this Gandhi called off his non-cooperation movement and in return was released and allowed to fly to London to attend
the second RTC.
Reason 03:
After some successful rounds of talks there was deadlock between the Gandhi and Jinnah over the issue of the rights of
minorities. Jinnah wanted concrete constitutional protection of minorities but Gandhi insisted that granting of religious
liberty to the minorities would be sufficient. Both leaders firmly struck to their guns and the RTC failed. Therefore, one
more RTC was needed
GOVERNMENT ACT (1935)

After discussing the summary of the three RTCs in the British Parliament, the Government of India Act 1935
was passed in August 1935.
 It introduced a federal form of government for India with an upper house, the Council of State and a
lower house, the Legislative Assembly.
 Diarchy was shifted to the Centre.
 A greater degree of provincial autonomy was given and three new provinces were created: Sindh, the
NWFP and Orissa.
 Right of vote was given to 25 % of the Indians.
 The real powers were still with the British as the Viceroy could veto any law made by the provinces.
 It was sharply criticized by both the ML and the INC.

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Q- Why was Government Act of India 1935 so important for the Indians?
Reason 01:
It was very important because Federal form of government and a kind of parliamentary system meant that British were
pressurized to grant India self-rule. The provincial governments were, to a great extent self-governing units except for the
emergency powers of the Governors and the Viceroy. The Central Assembly and the Council of States were greatly
enlarged by including more Indians.
Reason 02:
A 5 times increase in the number of voters ensured that more Indians, 25% of total population including 5 million women,
had the right to elect their own representatives as compared to the previous number of voters. This increase was,
however, strengthened by the creation of three new provinces - Sindh, The NWFP, (both Muslim majority provinces) and
Orissa. Thus an increase in the number of provinces
Reason 03:
This Act laid the basis of future negotiations between the Indians and the British and thus paved the way for India
eventually getting decolonized from the British rule. The Princes States could decide to participate in political affairs for
the first time.
Q- Why was Government Act of India 1935 rejected by the Indians?
Reason 01:
The main reason for its rejection was that Indians demanded complete independence but the British retained real powers
as the Governors of provinces could interfere with the provincial governments in the name of emergency.
Reason 02:
Similarly, the Viceroy could veto any legislation made by the Indians that was not acceptable to him. The Viceroy had
control over defence and foreign affairs. This meant the Indians were given only some powers.
Reason 03:
Though the number of voters was increased by five times, 3/4th of Indians were still deprived of voting right due to the
strict property qualification. Thus a great majority of Indians were not empowered to decide their future by electing
representatives of their choice.
ELECTIONS (1936-37)
Provincial elections were held in British India in the winter of 1936-37 as mandated by the Government of
India Act 1935. Elections were held in eleven provinces - Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United
Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab and Sindh.
Result: The Indian National Congress emerged in power in eight of the provinces - the three exceptions being
Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh.

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Why congress rule was hated by the Muslims?

 Religious activities ban:
The Muslims were forbidden to eat beef. Severe punishments were awarded to those who slaughtered the
‘mother cow’. A policy was made by the Congress to erase the Muslim’s culture. Hindi was imposed as the
official language in all the provinces. Azan was banned and organized attacks were made on the Muslims who
were busy in worship in the mosques. Noisy processions were passed near the mosques at prayer times. Pigs
were pushed into the mosques and Azan was interrupted.
 Wardha Scheme:
This was also called the “Basic Education scheme” based on Gandhi's views. Teaching was to be in Hindi,
spinning cotton cloth by hand was introduced into the school curriculum and there was no religious education
to be given in the schools to keep India a secular country (but officially Hinduism was promoted as the hidden
agenda). All students were expected to bow before a picture of Gandhi at school. Muslims were offended by
it.
 Vidiya Mandir Scheme:

Just like wardha scheme it was also a particular educational scheme of congress for elementary (primary-
level). Apparently it aimed to provide basic education to all children in small villages at a nominal cost but
actually its aim was to convert non-Hindu children to Hinduism by erasing their separate cultural identity.
According to this scheme it was compulsory to:
 Bow in front of Gandhi’s portrait
 Sing the hymns (religious songs) of Hindu gods in morning assemblies
 Study trips of Hindu temples were arranged to teach children how to worship Hindu idols.
 Hindi was made compulsory as medium of education.
 It also stressed that the Muslims should leave their organization Muslim League and join the congress to get
benefits.
 Wand-e-Mataram song:
This was the national song of Hindus in which the; encouraged to expel Muslims out of Hindustan. Offending
remarks were also passed in this song about Muslims. This was not the official policy-statement of Congress,
but the singing of the song was made compulsory before the start of official business every day in the
provincial assemblies. This worried and offended Muslims.
DAY OF DELIVERANCE (1939)

Thus, more than two and half year rule of Congress comes to an end. Following the resignation of the congress
ministries. All India Muslim league officially celebrated the ‘Day of Deliverance’ on 22nd December 1939 as a
celebration to mark an end of Congress rule, which was as based on tyranny, oppression and injustice.

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Short Questions:
Q. What was Simon commission?
The Conservative government sent a constitutional commission of seven members headed by Sir John Simon
in 1927. The Simon Commission prepared a report amidst opposition by the major Indian political parties. It
recommended a federal form of government for India, abolition of diarchy and separate electorates for
Muslims but no one third Muslim seats in the government it also opposed making Sindh and the NWF as
provinces. INC and ML rejected it and the Nehru Report was prepared in its response in 1928.
Q. What was Gandhi's 'Satyagraha' campaign?
When the Khilafat Movement was gaining momentum, Gandhi developed a type of peaceful protest against
the British, called the Satyagraha. It is a Hindi word meaning 'truth-force' and involves non-violent resistance.
According to Gandhi, it meant putting one's soul against the tyrant, and therefore, had spiritual dimensions.
Its supporters were required to have a high degree of self-sacrifice. It was demonstrated by sit-ins, peaceful
strikes including hunger strike, protest marches and boycotts. Gandhi urged his followers to accept any torture
by police as a way of self-purification. His Salt March was a part of it. Though Jinnah disagreed, the campaign
gave Gandhi international fame.
Q. What was the Gandhi-lrwin Pact?
Gandhi could not attend the first Round Table Conference of November-1930, as he was in jail. The Viceroy
Lord Irwin wanted his participation in the next RTC. So, he held a number of meetings with Gandhi in February
1931 and urged him to call off his non-cooperation movement. Finally, Gandhi agreed and the Gandhi-lrwin
Pact was signed on 5th March 1931. Irwin promised to release most political prisoners and return the property
seized by the government during the protests of the non-cooperation movement. Gandhi also gave up his
demand for full independence in return for a promise that in a federal India, Indians would have a genuine say
in the government affairs.
Q. What was the Communal Award?
It was announced on 16th August 1932 by the British PM Ramsay MacDonald after the failure of the second
RTC as he wanted .to resolve the political crisis of India. It gave the right of separate electorates to all the
minorities in India and the principle of weightage was also applied. Though, Muslim majority in Bengal and
Punjab was reduced, the ML accepted it in order to reach a political settlement for the future of India. The INC
rejected it and Gandhi protested against the declaration of the Untouchables as a minority. He began a strike
of Maran Bharatt (fasting till death).

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Q. First RTC of 1930 was more successful than those of 1931 and 1932. Do you agree? Give reasons of your
answer. (14)
Ans: The RTC's were held in London. The first RTC was held in November 1930 at the House of Parliament
London. It was attended by 89 delegates including Mr. Jinnah and Sir Aga Khan. The purpose was to
review the Simon Commission Report. The RTC was successful because federal form of government for
India was approved and the state princes promised to join the federation of India on the condition of
protection of their rights. However, its main failure was the absence of INC as Gandhi was in jail for his
non-cooperation movement. INC wanted a guarantee of implementing everything agreed in the RTC
such a guarantee could not be given. In the absence of INC no major decision could be reached.
In order to include INC, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931 under which Gandhi
called off his non-cooperation movement and was allowed to attend the Second RTC that was held in
September-December 1931.It was successful in the sense that all important political parties and
leaders attended it. They included, Jinnah, Iqbal, Sir Aga Khan, Gandhi and state princes. Also two new
provinces were created, Sindh and the NWFP. Diarchy was shifted from provinces to the Centre.
However, the RTC had failures too. Firstly the deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah over the question
of rights of minorities. Gandhi refused to provide any special protection to minorities and suggested
that religious liberty was sufficient for them. He also insisted that the INC alone represented all Indians
including Muslims. Jinnah and the other Muslim leaders were infuriated over the stubborn attitude of
Gandhi. Another failure was the replacement of Labour Government by a national government
dominated by Conservative party that was not very much concerned about the RTC & it was not
interested in giving that much political concessions to Indians.
Before the third RTC the British P.M Ramsay Macdonald, announced the-communal award in
1932. This was about the representation of minorities to provide them constitutional protection. This
was called the formulae of weightage which granted minorities more seats in assemblies as compare
to their population. INC rejected it but ML accepted it. Though it was not in the political favor of M.L
because the Muslim majority in Punjab and Bengal was effected by it in a negative way. These
formulae of weightage had reduced the Muslim majority into minority in Punjab & Bengal. The third
RTC was held in November 1932 but was attended by only 46 delegates with Muslims being
represented by Sir Aga Khan and Iqbal. The only success of the third RTC was that it was held against all
odds and that it was attended by some delegates including the Muslims. The failures of this RTC
therefore outnumbered the successes. Gandhi had started his non-cooperation movement once again
and he was jailed again. Jinnah had quit from active politics to start his law practice in London.
Interestingly, he was not even invited to attend the third RTC, but he attended it as an observer.

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CHAPTER: 09
How successful were attempts to find solutions
to the problems facing the sub-continent in the
years 1940 – 1947?

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PAKISTAN RESOULUTION (1940)

The annual session of the ML held at the Minto Park (now Iqbal Park) in Lahore on 23rd March 1940 was
presided over by the Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It was attended by the ML representatives from
all provinces of India. The premier of Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq put forward a resolution demanding a
separate and independent Muslim state comprising the Muslim majority provinces in the northwestern and
north-eastern zones of India. The Resolution was passed unanimously on 23 March 1940 as the 'Lahore
Resolution'. However, the Hindu press soon began to call it the 'Pakistan Resolution' in a sarcastic way, and
the same title was eventually accepted by the ML.
Q- Why Muslim League made demand for Pakistan in 1940?
Reason 01:
Muslims wanted their own homeland. Jinnah and the ML had tried their best to maintain some kind of Hindu-Muslim
unity but this dream was shattered repeatedly. Jinnah was ready to accept the Nehru Report, 1928 with some democratic
amendments regarding the security of political rights of Indian Muslims in an Indian Federation but the INC rejected
them. Jinnah, therefore, presented his 14 Points but the INC did not accept them.
Reason 02:
During the second RTC, 1931 Gandhi adopted an inflexible attitude by refusing to grant them adequate constitutional
protection and insisted that the provision of religious liberty would be sufficient to safeguard the rights of the minorities.
Jinnah knew that such a provision was ambiguous and would surely lead to communal violence. The deadlock between
the two leaders widened the gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
Reason 03:
The atrocities committed by the INC ministers against the Muslims paved the way for the partition of India. Muslims were
denied religious liberty when extremist Hindus pushed pigs into the mosques and the Wardha Scheme forced Muslim
students to bow before Gandhi's portrait. Such acts were aimed at attacking the fundamental religious beliefs of
Muslims.
AUGUST OFFER (1940)

By April 1940 France was defeated in World War II and England was fighting against the axis powers. In
August, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow made an offer on behalf of the British government known as August offer to
present solution for Indians. Lord Linlithgow gave it in August 1940. It included expansion of Executive Council
of Governor General and representatives of political parties. After the war the Indian Constitution would be
made by consent of Indians.

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CRIPPS MISSION (1942)

Mr. Churchill the British prime minister announced to send the delegation headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, to
suggest the recommendation for the new reforms and to persuade the Congress leader ship to support the
war effort. The mission reached Delhi on 23rd March 1942 to hold the discussion with the Indian leaders but
because of the dead lock between Congress and the Muslim league, the mission failed to reach any
agreement, it however submitted their recommendations, which are as follow:
Proposals of Stafford Cripps:
 Dominion status for India after the war

 Any provinces of states would be to opt out of proposed Indian Federation
 Election would be held at the end of world war
 During the British government would retain control of the defense of India.
Q- Why did the Cripps Mission failed?
Reason 01:
Jinnah rejected it as he was not satisfied with the 'opting out clause1 and wanted a direct recognition of Pakistan as
there was no mention of the political status of the province(s) if they stayed away from the Union.
Reason 02:
Gandhi, on the other hand, declared it 'a post-dated cheque on a failing bank'. He thus equated the British rule in India
with a failing bank, and the Plan with a post-dated cheque as he believed the British had to leave India after the War
and, therefore, they were not in a position to make such offers.
QUIT INDIA RESOULUTION (1942)

In May 1942, Gandhi addressed an INC meeting in Allahabad and sharply criticized the lack of compliance
shown by the British during the negotiations of the Cripps Mission Plan. He urged the INC to start a non-
violent protest against the British. On 8th August 1942, the Quit India Resolution was passed, calling for the
immediate withdrawal of the British from India. This led to widespread riots in several .parts i India, and the
British retaliated with full force. The situation could be controlled only by using the toughest measures like the
use of machine guns and aerial bombing several thousand people were killed. The ML did not support this
movement.

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Q- Why the Indian National Congress started Quit India Resolution?
Reason 01:
Gandhi had rejected the Cripps Mission Plan. While addressing an INC meeting in Allahabad in May 1942, he expressed
his resentment of the Plan. There were rumors of a possible Japanese attack on India as the Japanese forces had
captured Singapore recently. Gandhi argued that in case of British departure from India, there was no danger of any such
attack by Japan. Even if India was attacked, Indians would persuade Japan by non-violent protest.
Reason 02:
He also knew that regardless of the result of the WW2, the British would be forced to leave India due to the huge losses
they had incurred in the early phase of the War. On 8th August 1942, the All India Congress Committee asked its Quit
India Resolution asking the British to leave India quickly. This led to large scale violence and Gandhi was arrested. British
had to use the strongest measures including the use of machine guns and aerial bombing. The ML did not support the
INC.
GANDHI-JINNAH TALK (1944)

Lord Wavell released Gandhi from prison in May 1944. Gandhi proposed Jinnah that they should meet to
consider the future of India after the British departure, which now seemed inevitable. Throughout September
1944 the two met at Jinnah’s home in Bombay. Although many people expected comprise to be reached, the
talks broke down for a number of reasons:
 Gandhi wanted the Muslim league to give immediate support to Congress in its struggle to remove the
British. Only after the British left could partition be considered. Jinnah knew that he had to secure
partition before the British left.
 Gandhi also wanted the central government to have control over key areas such as defense and foreign
policy. Jinnah wanted these matters to be in the hands of the provinces.
 Gandhi considered himself to be speaking for all India. Jinnah reminded him that really he was just the
spokesman of Congress.
 Gandhi gave the impression that he did not support the ‘Two nation theory’, whereas this had now
become official Muslim league policy.
SIMLA CONFERENCE (1945)

In March 1945, Lord Wavell consulted the British Government about the future of India as British had decided
to leave it after the WW2. He drafted the Wavell Plan and invited all political parties of India to Simla to
discuss it. The Simla Conference was held in June 1945. The Wavell Plan proposed an Executive Council
comprising equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers. The Council would have control over all affairs
except for the Viceroy and a British member controlling the defense. The Conference was attended by the INC,
the ML, the Sikh Party and the Scheduled Castes. After some initial success the Conference ended on 14 July
1945 without any success.

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Q- Why Simla conference failed?
Reason 01:
The Wavell Plan suggested the formation of an Executive Council with an equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers.
Jinnah pointed out that the other non-Muslim parties would surely support the INC, making Muslims a permanent
minority in the Executive Council. They included the Sikhs, the Scheduled Castes and the Christians. Lord Wavell could not
increase the number of Muslim ministers who were already granted a share greater than their numerical strength in
India.
Reason 02:
Gandhi was accompanied by the INC president Abul Kalam Azad with the intention of weakening the ML claim of
representing all Muslims of India. Therefore, he demanded that the INC should be given the right of nominating some
Muslim ministers, too. Jinnah rejected this demand as he knew that this might loosen the grip of the ML in some
provinces of his proposed map of Pakistan as the INC was already popular in the NWFP. So, the Conference failed to
agree on the Wavell Plan.
ELECTIONS (1945)
Winston Churchill’s Conservative government was replaced by the Labour Party P.M. Clement Attlee. He asked
Wavell to hold elections for the central and provincial assemblies so that an Executive Council of the Indians
could be set up. The INC campaigned for an independent, undivided India but the ML for an independent and
divided India.
 The INC got 91 % of non-Muslim vote to get a majority in 8 provinces including the NWFP where it
bagged 19/36 seats whereas the ML got 17/36.
 The ML won 87 % of total Muslim vote 100% seats in the central assembly and 446/495 seats in
provincial assemblies. It was able to form governments in Bengal and Sindh while it emerged as the
largest party in Punjab.
Q- Why did Muslim League performed well in 1945 elections?
Reason 01:
Jinnah had played key role in unifying its various factions. In the Lucknow meeting of the ML in October 1937 he
persuaded the party to build up support from the grass roots. Due to his efforts the chief ministers of Assam, Bengal and
Punjab joined the party by 1938 and the vote bank of the ML was enlarged significantly. It was able to win most of the
by-elections between 1940 and 1945.
Reason 02:
It had learned a lot from the 1937 elections. So, it launched a more effective campaign in 1945. It made successful efforts
to overcome the 'image problem'. For many years the ML was seen as a party of elite Muslim class because the
circumstances of its foundation were marked by the presence of rich landowners/ nawabs. A mass contact campaign was
launched to approach all segments of the Muslim community.

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Reason 03:
The INC rule 1937-39 had shocked Muslims into unity. They realized that in an INC-dominated India their political and
cultural identity would be seriously threatened. Therefore, only three months after the celebration of the Day of
Deliverance, Muslims got united on the ML platform to make a demand for Pakistan.
CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)

In March 1946, the British sent a three member delegation to India to hold talks with the INC and the ML. It
included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethic Lawrence and Mr. A. V. Alexander. After analyzing the political
situation, it proposed:
 It rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan.

 Three different parts suggested to a post British India.
(a) The Hindu majority territories.

(b) The western Muslim population
(c) Bengal & Assam
 Each part would have its local autonomy & would be able to draw up its new constitution.
 Foreign affairs, defense & communication would be managed by a central Indian union.
Q- Why did the Cabinet Mission fail?
Reason 01:
It was rejected by the INC and the ML. British made a last attempt to keep India united and dispatched a commission of
three members of the British Cabinet in March 1946. They were Lord Pethic Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. A. V.
Alexander. The Commission found dichotomy between the INC and the ML. the INC insisted on an undivided and
independent India whereas the ML demanded independence and partition of India. Both parties firmly stuck to their
guns.
Reason 02:
The Commission, therefore, proposed the formation of an interim government that would set up an All India Commission.
This Commission would decide whether there should be one or two states after the British had left. Both parties rejected
it as they wanted a permanent settlement in the presence of the British.
Reason 03:
Finally, in May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its final plan according to which a federation of India was to be set
up comprising three autonomous units: one unit of Hindu majority provinces, another unit of the western Muslim
provinces and a third unit of Bengal and Assam. Each unit could make its own constitution and foreign affairs, defence
and communication would be under the central government. The ML accepted it and was ready to nominate members
but Nehru stated that the INC would not be bound by the plan after the British departure. This spoiled the whole scheme

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DIRECT ACTION DAY (1946)

By late summer 1946, the British were planning to leave India. The ML feared a Hindu-dominated India if
British left without settling the question of Pakistan. In that case they would suffer at the hands of the Hindus.
So, it was important to demonstrate Muslim solidarity on a large scale to all. In July 1946 the ML passed
resolution asking Muslims to be ready for final struggle for Pakistan. On 16th Aug 1946, the ML called for a
Direct Action Day to show the strength of Muslims, This marked the start of widespread communal riots in the
Great Calcutta Killing “4000 people were killed.
3rd June Plan (1947)

British PM Attlee announced that India would be independent by June 1948. He sent the new Viceroy Lord
Mountbatten in March 1947 to finalize the plan of independence of India. He realized that partition of India
was inevitable.
 On 3rd June .1947, he announced that there would be two states, India and Pakistan each having a
Dominion status.
 Muslim majority provinces would decide to join either state by voting.
 Both countries would adopt the 1935 Act as the interim constitution.
 A day later, in a press conference, he advanced the date to 15th August 1947 as he feared the
communal violence would worsen if more time was given to the Indians.
RED CLIFF AWARD (1947)

The 3rd June Plan did not decide the boundary between India and Pakistan. Mountbatten appointed a
Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to draw the boundary line. Radcliffe had four assistants, two
nominated by the ML and two by the INC. The Radcliffe Award was announced on 16th August 1947. The ML
was disappointed as Calcutta in Bengal and the Muslim majority districts of Frozepur and Gurdaspur in Punjab
were given to India. Radcliffe wanted to give the two districts to Pakistan but Mountbatten pressurized him
forgiving them to India. Gurdaspur provided a land route to India to have access to Kashmir. Jinnah unwillingly
accepted the Award.
INDEPENDENCE ACT (1947)

It was passed on 15th August 1947 and stated that from that day India would be partitioned into two Dominion
states: India and Pakistan. Each state would be totally free to make any laws it wished/The 1935 Act would
serve as the interim constitution till both the states had framed their own constitutions; Pakistan adopted 14 th
August and India 15th August as the Independence Day.

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CHAPTER: 10
How important were the contributions of
Jinnah, Allama Iqbal and Rahmat Ali to the
success of the Pakistan Movement to 1947?

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ALLAMA IQBAL
He was a philosopher-poet born in Sialkot in 1877. He was knitted for his services by the British in recognition
of his poetry. He was elected as a member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly in 1926. He gained unusual
fame after his famous Allahabad address, 1930 that he delivered while presiding over the ML session in the
absence of Jinnah. In this address he hinted at the possibility of a Muslim state comprising the north-western
Muslim majority provinces of India. He represented Muslims in the second and third Round Table
Conferences. He persuaded Jinnah to return to India to lead Muslims. He died in 1938 and Jinnah paid him rich
tribute on the passage of Lahore Resolution in March 1940.
Q- Why was Dr. Allama Iqbal an important influence on the struggle for a separate home land, Pakistan?
Reason 01:
He spoke against the imperialistic powers of the West and said it was unfair to occupy lands of the independent people.
He said, "European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of communal groups. I would like
to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state". This way, Iqbal predicted as well as
expressed his desire of the possibility of creation of a Muslim homeland in the North Western Muslim majority provinces
of India.
Reason 02:
Iqbal is also important because of his inspiring poetry that gradually infused the spirit of Muslim nationalism among
Muslims who began to see a clear goal ahead of them. His poetry gave hope to the Muslims telling to them to be proud
of their past and of their heritage. He believed that the British and the Hindus were equally opposed to the Muslim cause.
Ch Rehmat Ali scheme of Pakistan was greatly influenced by views of Allama Iqbal.
Reason 03:
His efforts were strengthened by both Ch. Rehmat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jinnah It was Iqbal who had persuaded Jinnah
to come back to India to lead the Muslim community. Therefore, Jinnah on the passage of Lahore Resolution in March
1940 paid rich tribute to Iqbal and wished if Iqbal had been alive to see his dream come true. Iqbal is rightly called the
"Architect of Pakistan" as well as me first leader from the ML to have dreamed of a separate Muslim homeland.
CHAUDHRY RAHMAT ALI

He was born in 1897 and studied in England in the 1930s. He attended the Round Table Conferences and
developed the idea of struggle for a separate and independent Muslim state comprising Muslim majority
provinces of the north-western India as he was opposed to any kind of an India federation. In 1933, he used
the word 'Pakistan' for the Muslim homeland in his pamphlet, 'Now or never'. Each letter in the word Pakistan
represented a Muslim majority area. Though he gained popularity, Jinnah considered such a struggle in the
1930s as too premature to be started. So, he remained less popular than Iqbal and Jinnah who even refused to
meet him.

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Q- Why was Chaudhry Rahmat Ali important?
Reason 01:
He presented the scheme of Pakistan. As a young student, he attended the Round Table Conferences in London in the
1930s and was opposed to any kind of federation of India. Instead, he believed in launching an active struggle for a
totally independent and separate Muslim homeland comprising the north-western Muslim majority provinces of India. He
tried to persuade the Muslim leaders to accept his scheme but failed to impress them, though the idea of partition of
India appealed many.
Reason 02:
He gave the name Pakistan to the independent Muslim state in his famous pamphlet 'Now or Never' that was published
in 1933. Literal meaning of the word Pakistan is 'land of the pure (Muslims)' and each letter of the word represented a
Muslim majority area within and beyond India. They are: Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Iran, Sindh, Tokharistan,
Afghanistan and Balochistan. Despite Jinnah's refusal to meet him, the word Pakistan was adopted by the ML for the
independent Muslim state. For the same reason the Lahore Resolution is also called the Pakistan Resolution.
Reason 03:
His views were really ahead of his time and different from those of Iqbal who proposed a Muslim state within or outside
India. For this reason most Muslim leaders did not accept them but the idea of partition of India began to be considered
by many in the 1930s.
MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH

NOTE: For the preparation of the topic of Jinnah (achievements / efforts), prepare previous topics including
following:
 Lucknow Pact,
 Delhi Proposals,
 Jinnah’s 14 Points.,
 Pakistan Resolution,
 Day of Deliverance,
 Gandhi-Jinnah Talk,
 Cabinet Mission Plan,
 Direct Action Day.

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SECTION 3
Nationhood
(1947-1999)

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CHAPTER: 11
How successful was the establishment of an
independent nation between 1947 and 1948?

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EARLY PROBLEMS (1947-1948)

 Division of financial assets:
Pakistan was to receive 750 million rupees, which was initially delayed by the Indian government. After
the protest of Pakistan India agreed to pay 200 million rupees. As the war between Pakistan and India had
started on the issue of Kashmir in 1948, India again stopped the rest of the amount by saying that Pakistan
could use it to but arms. After the protest from Pakistan and the threat of hunger strike from Gandhi,
Nehru forced to pay another 500 million rupees. However, the remaining 50 million rupees are still not
paid.
 Issue of princely state:

Kashmir Issue
In 1947 Hindu Raja Hari Singh ruled the State of Jammu and Kashmir. This was one of the largest princely
States in the Subcontinent and the fact that it had boundaries with Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia
gave it strategic importance. In spite of the wishes of a large Muslim majority (4 million=77%), Maharaja
did not want to join Pakistan. In September 1947 he started a campaign to drive many Muslims out of the
Kashmir. Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan and finally the Muslims rose in rebellion. The maharaja forced to
India. India forces entered in Kashmir through Gurdaspur, which provided India with the only exit to
Kashmir.
Junagadh Issue
Junagadh was a small state on the coast, 300 miles South of Karachi with a population of 700,000. The
population was mostly non-Muslims, but its prince was Muslim. After the independence the request for
accession with Pakistan was accepted by Quid-e-Azam. But the Indian government refused to accept the
accession. An economic blockade of Junagadh was imposed and states were surrounded by Indian force.
There was food shortage. By the end of October 1947, the ruler of the Junagadh was force to leave the
state. On 9th November 1947 Indian army occupied the state ignoring the strong protest of Pakistani
government India held referendum and majority of the voters cast their vote in favor of the accession with
India.
Hyderabad Issue
Majority of its population was Hindu but ruler whose title was ‘Nizam’ was a Muslim Hyderabad being a
prosperous state and because of its prestige and importance wanted to maintain its independent status
but Lord Mount batten told him this was not possible. As being Muslim, he wanted to accede to Pakistan.
The Indian government, however, was determined not to allow Hyderabad to join Pakistan. It began
pressurizing the Nizam to join Pakistan. on 13th September 1948 just two days after the death of Quaid-e-
Azam, Indian troops entered Hyderabad, dismantled the state and incorporated it into different provinces
in India.

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 Social Problems:
Immediately after the establishment of Pakistan language controversy was started between East and West
Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam declared, “Urdu and Urdu alone would be the National Language of Pakistan”.
Advice of Quaid temporarily took the heat out of Language Movement but the issue was not settled it
exploded later after the death of Quaid-e-Azam. In West Pakistan people had different traditions, cultures,
languages and lifestyle. Pakistan was not comprised of a single united people and there was much work to
do in convincing every one of the wisdoms of joining the new state. Various cultural communities of
Pakistan had little in common except for Islam.
 Refugee Problems:
Another big problem was the accommodation of refugees coming from India. After partition of India,
Muslims living in the Indian Punjab and the neighboring districts were forced to migrate to Pakistan. The
migrating families were attacked in an organized way by the militant Hindus and Sikhs. Pakistan began to
receive trains loaded with the dead and the injured. The government of Pakistan had little to provide
shelter, medical care and food to millions of refugees on urgent grounds. They were accommodated in
refugee camps and military barracks without appropriate facilities of living.
 Economic Problems:
E.P had the Jute factory but it didn’t have any industry to develop it which mainly were in Calcutta. Mostly
business community were Hindus who were transferring their assets to India. Chittagong port was in E.P
which wasn’t developed enough to handle the large-scale export of Jute to other countries. Pakistan had
to send its Jute through Calcutta to India on low price. W.P was better economically where industries were
established by British in few areas.
 Geographical Problems:
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory. This created difficulties of
communication between the two wings of Pakistan. People living in the two wings were often ignorant of
the problems of each other. This geographical gap was exploited by India to create difficulties for Pakistan.
No road and railway access between East and West Pakistan.
 Administrative Problems:
There was a shortage of the state buildings, office equipment and devoted and experienced politicians.
Also, there were not many experienced officers and civil servants to run the state affairs. Except for Jinnah,
Liaqat Ali Khan and few others, most of the politicians were either inexperienced or insincere. Pakistan
found it difficult to build a strong political base. The process of making a constitution was also delayed as
there were not many experts in the Constituent Assembly.
 River Dispute:
After partition the head works of Ferozepur and Madhupur which controlled the rivers in Pakistan were left in India.
India claimed that it had complete rights over the head works. So, it stopped the water flow in 1948. Without
control on these rivers, the prosperity of the Indus Plain could become endangered because Pakistan is an agro
based country. The problem was solved by the UN in 1960.
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 Division of military assets:

Pakistan needed funds and military equipment to run the state affairs and ensure its defense. India
unwillingly gave damaged and worn-out weapons to Pakistan under the agreed ratio of 36% of military
assets for Pakistan. Pakistan’s immediate requirement for an army of 150,000 soldiers and 4000 officers.
There were only 2500 Muslim officers were available. There were 16 ordnance factories and all were
situated in India. Eventually a financial settlement was made and Pakistan was given 60 million rupees
towards its share in the ordnance factories.
Role of Jinnah as a Governor General:

 Formation of government:
He declared Karachi as the capital of Pakistan and inaugurated the headquarters of the armed forces and
the civil secretariat. He made it clear that the sole role of the army was to be 'the servant of the people'.
As the first Governor General (GG) of Pakistan he appointed the first Constituent Assembly and the first
cabinet with Liaqat Ali Khan as the Prime Minister. The 1935 Act was adopted as the interim constitution
with some amendments. He urged the civil servants to dedicate their lives to the service of the nation.
 Building Nation:
Jinnah declared Urdu as the national language, so that it could unify various linguistic groups in Pakistan,
though this step was strongly resented by the East Pakistan where all people spoke Bengali. They
considered this as a step of West Pakistan's domination over East Pakistan. In order to ensure the
protection of religious minorities Jinnah declared himself as the "Protector General of Minorities". In his
address to the Constituent Assembly, he had made it clear that all Pakistanis were free to follow their
religion without any fear.
 Rehabilitation of Refugees:
He set up the Quaid-e-Azam relief fund for the accommodation of refugees and shifted his headquarter
temporarily from Karachi to Lahore to personally supervise the process of accommodation. He urged the
people of Pakistan to help their fellow Muslims generously coming from India. However, despite his best-
efforts millions of refugees continued to suffer for many years.
 Building Economy:
He inaugurated ‘the State Bank of Pakistan in July 1948, and Pakistan issued its own currency in both
paper and metallic form. A Development Board was set up in 1948 for planning a strategy for the industrial
development. When India closed the Firozpur and Madhupur headworks, Pakistan faced serious shortage
of water. Mr. Jinnah persuaded the Indian government to release some water so that Pakistan's
agriculture was not destroyed. The issue of canal water.

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 Princely states matter:

Jinnah wanted to resolve the issue of the three princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh and Jammu and
Kashmir but could not get any success as India occupied the first two states by force and imposed a war on
Pakistan for Kashmir in April 1948. Thus, Jinnah's dream of peaceful relations with India was shattered.
Conclusion
In the light of above factors, it may be concluded that Jinnah was quite successful in overcoming most of
the early problems because, against all odds and wishes of India, Pakistan not only survived but also began
to make progress in various sectors of economy and became an important country in the regional and
global politics.
Why Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947?

 Communal Violence:
The communal violence reached its peak as Hindus and Sikhs were opposed to the creation of Pakistan.
They began to target Muslims living in the non-Muslim majority areas and forced them to leave India. The
migrating families were attacked by the armed mobs and this caused numerous human tragedies including
rape and massacre.
 Lack of resources:
A huge number of Muslims had left all their possessions in India and so, they reached Pakistan without any
assets. Pakistan began to receive trains loaded with the injured and the dead migrants. The newly made
government of Pakistan did not have resources to provide food, clothing, shelter and medical care to so
many refugees.
 Safe exit of minorities:

At the same time, Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan became victim of similar violence and were forced to
migrate to India. Thus, the government of Pakistan faced the additional problem of monitoring a safe
departure of these non-Muslims migrating to India while receiving Muslim refugees coming from India.

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Possible Questions
4 Marks Questions
The problems also can be asked as 4 Marks Question (i.e Canal water dispute / Refugee problem etc).
14 / 10 Marks Questions
Q. Formation of a government was the most important challenge faced by the newly created state of Pakistan
in 1947. Do you agree? Explain.
Q. "Dealing with economic issues was the most important contribution made by the Quaid-e-Azam as the first
Governor-General of Pakistan." Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Q. How successful was Jinnah in solving the early problems of Pakistan? Explain.

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CHAPTER: 12
How far did Pakistan achieve stability following
the death of Jinnah?

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GOVERNER GENERALS OF PAKISTAN

Mohammad Ali Jinnah 15th August 1947 – 11th September 1948
Khuwaja Nazimuddin 14th September 1948 – 17th October 1951
Malik Ghulam Mohammad 19th October 1951 – 15th October 1955
Major General Iskander Mirza 16th October 1955 – 22nd March 1956
PRESIDENTS AND CHIEF MARTIAL LAW

ADMINISTRATORS OF PAKISTAN
Major General Iskander Mirza 23rd March 1956 – 27th October 1958
General Ayyub Khan 27th October 1958 – March 1969
General Yahya Khan 25th March 1969 – 20th December 1971
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 20th December 1971 – 15th July 1977
Chaudhry Fazal Elahi 14th August 1973 - 16th September 1978
General Zia-ul-Haq 15th July 1977 - 17th August 1988
Ghulam Ishaq Khan 17th August 1988 - 8th July 1993
MARTIAL LAWS IN PAKISTAN

1st Martial Law Iskander (7th October 1958) – Ayyub (1st March 1962)
2nd Martial Law Yahya (25th March 1969) – Bhutto (1st March 1972)
3rd Martial Law Zia-ul-Haq (7th March 1977) - Zia-ul-Haq (December 1985)
PRIME MINISTERS OF PAKISTAN

Liaqat Ali Khan: He became the 1st Prime Minister of Pakistan on 15th August 1947, shot dead on 16th October
1951.
Khwaja Nazim uddin: Assume power on 17th October 1951, dismissed by Ghulam Mohammed on 17th April
1953.
Mohammad Ali Bogra: Appointed (twice by Ghulam Mohammad on 17th April 1953, Ghulam Mohammed
dissolved the Constituent Assembly on 11th August 1955.
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Chaudri Mohammad Ali: Elected by the members of the members of the Constituent Assembly as the Prime
Minister on 11th August 1955, forced to resign when lost majority in the Assembly on 12th September 1956.
Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy: Assume power on 12th September 1956, forced to resign when lost majority in the
Assembly on 17th October 1957.
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar: Assume power on 18th October 1957, forced to resign when lost majority in the
Assembly on 16th December 1957.
Feroz Khan Noon: Assume power on 18th December 1957, removed when Martial Law was imposed on 17th
October 1958.
General Ayyub Khan: On 22nd October 1958, Major General Iskander Mirza appointed General Ayub Khan as the
Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Noor-ul-Amin: Nominated by General Yahya Khan on 7th December 1971, removed after the separation of East
Pakistan on 20th December 1971.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto: He became the 1st democratically elected Prime Minister of Pakistan on 12th August 1973,
removed by General Zia-ul-Haq on 5th July 1977, when Martial Law was imposed on the country.
Mohammad Khan Junaijo: Appointed by General Zia-ul-Haq as the Prime Minister of Pakistan on 23rd March
1985, dismissed by Zia-ul-Haq on 29th May 1988.
Benazir Bhutto: After the election held in October 1988, Benazir Bhutto (daughter of Z.A. Bhutto) becoming the
1st woman Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 1988.

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Liaquat Ali Khan (1947-1949)

Objective Resolution:
In 1948 Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles committee, to decide the principle on which constitution of
Pakistan should be based. It contained the principle of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as laid
down in Islam. Muslims and other religious groups should bind in accordance with their faith. Minorities and poor
should be protected and fundamental rights be guaranteed. Judicial system be independent of government. This
resolution was presented by Liaquat Ali Khan in 1949 as a base for future constitution.
Q- Why was it not accepted?
Reason 01: The religious parties declared it insufficiently Islamic.

Reason 02: East Pakistan objected to equal share in the parliament as it had 10% more population than West Pakistan. It
also criticized on Urdu being the only national language because Bengali was also a developed and only language spoken
throughout Pakistan.
Reason 03: Opposition by the regional politicians that most of the powers is in the hands of governor general and center.
Liaquat Nehru Pact:
It was signed to stop the movement of minorities across the Pak-India border. In April 1950, Pakistani PM
Liaqat Ali Khan and Indian PM Jawahar Lal Nehru signed this agreement. It was agreed that each country
would provide protection and religious freedom to the religious minorities living in Pakistan and India so
that these minorities would be encouraged to stay back in their native state. However, the movement of
people belonging to religious minorities continued to migrate across the border as they did n ot trust any
such statements made by the government about giving them protection.
PRODA act:
Liaqat Ali Khan managed to keep Pakistan's economy growing by presenting surplus budgets. Also, he
implemented the PRODA (Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act) in order to curtail corruption
in Pakistan. However, corruption would continue to bother future governments.
Rawalpindi Conspiracy:
Liaqat Ali Khan was able to foil a coup of about 20 military officers who were unhappy over the presence and
influence of British officers in the Pakistan Army. In March 1951, in the famous Rawalpindi Conspiracy case,
Major Akbar Khan and fourteen other officers were arrested. However, in October 1951. Liaqat Ali Khan was
killed in Rawalpindi while addressing a public rally.

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Malik Ghulam Mohammad (1951-1956)

Achievements:
1- Malik Ghulam Muhammad became the 3rd Governor General in Oct. 1951.
2- Being an expert in financial affairs he introduced the scheme of 6 Year Plan that was later changed into a 5
Year Plan. Its aim was to make economic planning regarding agriculture, industry, power and transport
sectors.
3- He set up a Planning Board in 1953 to review various developments schemes.
4- A major jute processing plant was set up in 1952 in East Pakistan as a result of efforts for exploring oil and
gas reserves, natural gas was discovered at Sui in Balochistan in 1952.
5- In 1952-53 Pakistan had positive Balance of Payment (BOP) due to a huge demand of cotton and jute in the
wake of the Korean war that caused large scale export of these commodities.
Challenges:
1- During the same period, however, there was serious food shortage due to severe drought in East and West
Pakistan. This caused unrest and violence that was aggravated by an anti-Qadiani movement.
2- Religious parties demanded removal of Qadinis /Ahmadis from key posts including the foreign minister Sir
Zafar Ullah Khan.
3- Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nizam ud Din in April 1953 on his failure to control the crisis.
4- When Mohammad Ali Bogra tried to limit the powers of Governor General, Malik Ghulam Mohammad
dismissed Bogra's government and dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954. The new
Constituent Assembly was elected in June 1955.
General Iskandar Mirza (1956-1958)

Achievements:
 1956 Constitution:
First Constitution that was implemented in March 1956. It introduced federal, parliamentary form of
government though the President had powers to appointment and dismiss the P.M. Under the One Unit
Scheme, East and West Pakistan had equal seats in the one house parliament, the National Assembly.

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 One Unit Scheme:

Introduced in Oct., 1955 was aimed at unity by merging together all provinces of West Pakistan to make two
provinces East and West Pakistan. It, however was bitterly opposed by E. Pakistan and smaller provinces of W.
Pakistan.
 Developments:
Mirza also started some industrialization and development plans as well as rural development schemes.
Karachi airport was completed, railways were modernized and telephone network was expanded. Steps were
taken for provision of health and education.
Failure:
 Political Crisis:
Mirza failed to have good relations with his Prime Ministers and dismissed them at short intervals. Ch. M. Ali
was replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy in Sept,1956. Suhrawardy was replaced by I.I. Chandigarh in
Oct,1957 who himself was dismissed in Dec.,1957. Malik Feroze Khan Noon was the last civilian P.M. under
Mirza from Dec, 1957 to 7th October, 1958.
 Martial Law:
Finally, on 7th Oct., 1958 he declared Martial Law and appointed General Ayub Khan as the CMLA (Chief
Marital Law Administrator).
Q- Why there were so many governments between 1951 and 1958?
Reason 01: Pakistan did not have a good team of skilled politicians. Jinnah died in 1948 without accomplishing his
mission of providing a strong political base to Pakistan. Murder of Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951 worsened the political
conditions as the newly created state of Pakistan lost the two most experienced leaders and the country went in the
hands of inexperienced and selfish politicians
Reason 02: The Indian government was bent upon creating difficulties for Pakistan. It continued to delay the release of
Pakistan's share of assets and announce the accession of the State of Kashmir to Pakistan. It imposed a war on Pakistan
in 1948 as a result of which Pakistan was forced to pay more attention on its defense instead of building a strong political
foundation.
Reason 03: East Pakistan wanted a share in the government according to its population size that was 10% greater than
that of West Pakistan but it was given equal seats in the National Assembly under the undemocratic One Unit Scheme
and the rule of parity.

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General Ayyub Khan (1958-1969)

Why Ayyub Khan came in power?
 Political Instability:
Political instability worsened between 1955 and 1958 as several Prime Ministers were dismissed in this period.
Differences between West and East Pakistan grew as the latter wanted a share in the government according
to its population size, undemocratic One Unit Scheme and the rule of parity.
 Change of governments:
President Iskander Mirza terminated as many as four governments between 1955 and 1958 as a result of
which he began to lose popularity and power. PM Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy gave very tough time to Mirza
by uniting the major political leaders of Punjab and Bengal against him. He challenged Mirza to hold a vote in
the Assembly to test his popularity. Mirza feared a defeat and, therefore, decided to declare martial law.
 Executive head:
Ayyub had already declined an offer from Ghulam Muhammad to take over the country as its executive head.
Now he could see the nominal powers of Mirza who was holding his post forcefully. Therefore, Ayyub decided
to assume power himself. He removed Mirza from office and himself became the executive head of state.
Reforms of Ayyub Khan

 Agricultural Reforms (Green Revolution):
1- Under the 1959 land reforms, no land owner could possess more than 1000 acres of un-irrigated or 500
acres of irrigated land holdings. The excess land was to be taken by the government and given to the poor
farmers.
2- In order to produce agricultural raw material and feed a growing population agriculture was
modernized. Under this, mechanization, chemical fertilizers, HYV (High Yield Variety) or GM (genetically
modified) seeds, insecticides /pesticides and modern irrigation methods were introduced.
3- Under the Indus Water Treaty 1960, three new dams and several perennial canals were built.
4- Loans were given to poor farmers.
Result: These reforms caused economic disparity between the rich and the poor farmers because the main
beneficiaries were the rich farmers.

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 Industrial Reforms:
1- Foreign aid was given to Pakistan by the USA, UK and Germany.
2- Oil refinery was setup at Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil.
3- To extract minerals, the Mineral Development Corporation was setup.
5- To encourage the private sector, a number of incentives were offered that included subsidies and taxes,
tax holiday and the Export Bonus Scheme (EBS).
6- Large scale industrialization took place in the 1960s that resulted in a robust economic growth rate of
7%, one of the highest in the world.
Result: However, these reforms too caused huge disparity between the rich and the poor. By 1968 only 22
families (mostly from W. Pakistan) owned 66% industries and 80% banking and insurance. Hence, sense of
deprivation grew among the E. Pakistanis as most of the development was in W Pakistan.
 Political Reforms:
1- Ayyub introduced the Basic Democracies (BD's) under the Basic Democracies Order, Oct., 1959 it was a four-
tier system under which elections were held at village, tehsil, district and division level to elect the union
council, tehsil council, district council and divisional council.
2- In the first elections of 1959-60, 80,000 BD's were elected which, were later increased to 120,000. These
BD's were responsible for local development including health, education, local taxes, water and sanitation and
roads.
3- They also formed an Electoral College to elect the members of the assemblies and thence to the President.
4- Two PDAC's (Provincial Development Advisory Councils) were created to coordinate between BD's E & W
Pakistan.
5- Ayyub shifted the Capital from Karachi to Islamabad.
Constitution of 1962:
 Introduced Presidential form of government.
 President, elected by the Electoral College for five years, had all executive powers.
 President could pass any laws and reject / annul any laws made by the National Assembly.
 President could dissolve the assemblies under his emergency powers.
 The National Assembly, also elected by the Electoral College, had equal seats of E & W Pakistan under
the One Unit Schemes.
 There were two provincial assemblies one each for E & W Pakistan.
Result: These reforms ensured political stability for many years but the indirect election and powers of the
President were criticized specially by E Pakistan.

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 Social Reforms:
1- New curriculum for schools and new textbooks were published.
2- Government began an extensive literacy program, building new schools and colleges.
3-Ayub khan appointed General Azam Khan the rehabilitation minister to settle 75,000 refugees in newly built
dwellings near Karachi.
4- Laws were passed that factory owners had to provide accommodations for their workers at a reasonable
rent.
5- Family Planning Programs were also launched (funded by America).
6- Medical facilities were also improved.
7- Medical and Nursing schools were also set up to increase the number of doctors and nurses.
Result: These had some degree of success.
Why Islamabad was chosen as the new capital of Pakistan?

 Climatic factor:
Karachi has a warm and humid climate whereas Islamabad was located at the Margalla hills near Murree with
a pleasant climate suitable for working. It was an abandoned place where it was easier to build a planned city
with a desired layout.
 Less distance from GHQ:

Ayyub wanted to be closer to the army's command headquarters (GHQ) in Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab
which he considered vital in times of martial law. Also, he got closer to Punjab and the NWFP (KPK) that
provided bulk of troops for the armed forces of Pakistan.
 Karachi not safe:

Karachi's location on the Indus Delta Coast made it vulnerable to attacks by the Indian navy. In such a case,
there was a fear of huge cost of reconstruction if it was destroyed by the Indians in case of a war. Islamabad,
being a land locked city, was at a reasonable distance from the Pak-lndia border and was a much better
option.

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Why Ayyub khan fall from power?

 Economic disparity:
His agricultural reforms had created huge disparity between the rich and the poor farmers. As a result of
his industrial reforms, only 22 families of West Pakistan became owners of 66% of Pakistan's industries and
80% of banking and insurance companies. East Pakistan also felt frustrated as most of the beneficiaries of
Ayyub’s reforms were from West Pakistan.
 Rigging in 1965 elections:

His political reforms also became target of criticism as he was accused of intimidation and vote-rigging in
the second presidential elections that were held in January 1965. In these, Fatimah Jinnah managed to get
about 36% votes against Ayyub Khan. Concentration of powers with the president was considered
undemocratic as the National Assembly could not pass any law without his consent.
 Tashkent Accord:
Ayyub had been assuring his people of Pakistan's victory in the war but the Tashkent Accord of 1966
contained no reference to this or the Kashmir issue. Bhutto resigned in protest and founded the
PPP/Pakistan People’s Party in 1967. Being a very charismatic leader, he mobilized masses and launched
an anti-Ayyub campaign.

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CHAPTER: 13
Why did East Pakistan seek and then form the
independent state of Bangladesh?

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Background:
 Ayyub Khan hand over power to General Muhammad Yahya Khan, on March 25, 1969.
 General Yahya Khan decided to transfer power to the elected representatives of the people and
announced that the general elections would be held on October 5, 1970.
 The one-unit plan and the ‘1962ʹ Constitution were annulled and Pakistan’s four provinces
reestablished and from Jan1970 political activity resumed.
 The various parties began campaigning to elect a national assembly of 300 members.
 The assembly would have 120 days to draw up a new constitution.
 The elections were finally held on 7 Dec. 1970 and for the first time ever were held on the principle of
one man one vote.
 The results were such a shock that they created constitutional crises in Pakistan.
Result of 1970 Elections:

West East All Pakistan total
Awami League - 160 160
PPP 81 - 81
Muslim League (PML) 9 - 9
Other parties 33 1 34
Independence 15 1 16
Total 138 162 300
Why East wanted to become independent from West

Pakistan?
 Economic disparity:
Economic disparity between East and West Pakistan grew with time. Unfortunately, this gap was widened
mainly due to the economic policies of Ayyub Khan in the 1960s. West Pakistan became the major beneficiary
of his industrial and agricultural reforms. The 22 richest families of West Pakistan owned 66% of the industries
and 80% of banking and insurance companies of Pakistan. East Pakistan was the largest producer of jute in the
world (producing 75% of the total world jute) but its economic growth was slower than that of West Pakistan.

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 Political factors:
East wanted a share in the government according to the size of the population that was 10% greater than
West Pakistan. This was denied to them under the One Unit Scheme and rule of parity as enforced in the 1956
and 1962 Constitutions. Most of the political decision making was done in West Pakistan. East Pakistan was
under-represented in the armed forces arid the Civil Services as the headquarters of the armed forces were
located in West Pakistan. The Awami League of Sheikh Mujeeb in East Pakistan won an overall majority in the
1970 elections. Mujeeb was denied power and arrested that led to a civil war in East Pakistan.
 Cultural factors:
Jinnah declared Urdu as the only national language on the basis of "One Nation One Language". This was
resented by East Pakistan as Bengali was a fully developed and the only language spoken throughout East
Pakistan. The Bengalis took this as a step of West Pakistan's attempts to dominate them. After protests and
violence, Bengali was also declared as the national language with Urdu.
 Geographical factors:
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory and this caused difficulties in communication
between the two wings. East Pakistan was regularly ravaged by floods and cyclones that further weakened its economy.
Sheikh Mujeeb’s Six Points
(i) A directly elected government.

(ii) The federal government to control defense and foreign policy. all other decisions to be made at provincial
level.
(iii) Separate currencies and financial policies foe East Pakistan, to stop all the money flowing from East
Pakistan to West Pakistan.
(iv)The provinces to tax their people and send a share to the federal government. The federal government not
to tax people.
(v) Each province to set up its own trade agreements with other countries and to control the money spent
through this trade.
(vi)Each province to have its own troops.
Operation search light:

It was a military operation launched by General Yahya in March 1971. Its aim was to crush Bengali nationalism
as Yahya thought the Awami League's campaign was a threat to Pakistan's unity. Under the operation, Bengali
intelligentsia, academics and Hindus were targeted. Thousands of Bengalis were killed and press censorship
was imposed in East Pakistan. In retaliation, on 26th March 1971, the Bengalis announced in a secret radio

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broadcast the formation of the 'Sovereign People's Republic of Bangladesh'. Yahya sent more troops but the
situation continued to worsen and escalated to the third Pak-lndia war in December 1971.
Why was India successful in 1971 war?

 More powerful Indian forces:
India was militarily superior. The 1965 war was fought on the two gross miscalculations of Ayyub Khan who
thought India was not prepared for a full-scale war. He also expected a massive Kashmiri uprising in favor of
Pakistan army. However, against all his expectations, India attacked with full force and Lahore was caught
unprepared on 6th September 1965, though Pakistan defended it well.
 No western aid to Pakistan:

Pakistan could not receive the Western aid in the two wars. The US military aid was stopped for both Pakistan
and India. It affected Pakistan more as India continued to receive the Soviet aid. Americans and Chinese
wanted Pakistan to resolve the matter on its own. Pakistan also expected some aid by the SEATO but that too
was not provided.
 East Pakistan’s support to India:

India supported East Pakistan by training and equipping the Bengali militant separatist body, the Mukti Bahini
against Pakistan. People of East Pakistan, in general, wanted freedom from West Pakistan. Therefore, they did
not support West Pakistan's army.
Why did the victory of Awami League cause a

constitutional crisis?
 Entire cabinet from East:
AL won 160 out of a total of 162 seats of East Pakistan and 300 seats of the National Assembly against the PPP
of West Pakistan that managed to win only 81 seats. Such a huge victory of the Awami League allowed it to
form the government on its own. In other words, the future Prime Minister and his entire Cabinet could come
from East Pakistan without involving the PPP of West Pakistan.
 Bhutto’s resistance:
Bhutto did not want to sit in opposition, he kept all MNAs from attending national assembly session which has
to be held in Dhakka. He threatened MNAs to break the legs of those who attend session. This promotes
hatred and anger among the Bengalis MNAs as they felt betrayed. The session of Dhakka was postponed.

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 Mujeeb’s controversial six points:

AL had won the election on the basis of Mujeeb's six points that asked for a complete internal autonomy of
East Pakistan. He wanted provincial governments controlling foreign trade and taxation policy. This would
greatly reduce the funds available to the central government in West Pakistan in addition to limiting its
powers in general.

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CHAPTER: 14
How successful was Pakistan in the twenty
years following the “Decade of Progress”?

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ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO (1971-1977)
Background:
 The 1970 election however had given the PPP an overwhelming majority in the NA.
 20 December 1971, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became President and chief martial law administrator.
Immediate Steps taken by Bhutto:

 Simla Agreement:
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited India and signed a peace treaty with the Indian PM Mrs. Indira Gandhi on 2 nd July
1972, at Simla. India agreed to return 90,000 POWs (Prisoners of War) of the 1971 war. In return, Pakistan
promised to discuss the Kashmir issue with India directly and not raising it on any international forum such as
the United Nations, though Z.A. Bhutto did not give up the claim for Kashmir. The agreement improved Z.A.
Bhutto's popularity in Pakistan.
 Constitution of 1973:
On 14 august 1973 the new constitution became law. The most significant features of the new
constitution were:
(i) There would be two houses, the senate and the Assembly. The assembly would be elected for a period of 5
years and the members of the senate would be nominated in equal numbers from each of the 4 provinces.
(ii) The leader of the party with a majority in the Assembly would become PM and select a cabinet.
(iii) The president became largely a figurehead, whose orders had to be signed by the PM.
(iv)Pakistan was an Islamic Republic and both the PM and president had to be Muslims.
(v) Pakistan was a federal state. Each province had its own assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage with
the majority party forming the provincial government. The national Assembly could only change the political
leadership in the provinces by amending the constitution which required at least a 75 % majority in a vote.
(vi)All fundamental basic human rights were guaranteed.
Reforms of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

 Industrial Reforms:
Bhutto was inspired by communism and socialism with an aim of ensuring control of the government on
sources of production and to improve the standard of living of industrial workers. Most of the large-scale
industries were nationalized, only cotton textile sector was spared. To finance these industrial units, five
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commercial banks were also nationalized. Industrial growth slowed down as the nationalized units were given
to civil servants who were not trained for the job. However, many industries survived at the time of world-
wide economic crises when many industrialists were about to close down their units.
Q- Why industrial reforms of ZAB failed?
Reason 01:
Many of the nationalized industries were 'mismanaged. Capable factory owners were often replaced by civil servants
with little understanding of commerce and civil services were already notorious for their inefficiency. Moreover,
Pakistan's education system was not yet producing sufficiently educated workers to take managerial positions in the
industries under the Federal Ministry of Production.
Reason 02:
The Federal Ministry had a huge job to do for coordinating the nationalization process across the country. It was a time
taking process and needed a hurdle free working environment but unfortunately, it was often got bogged down in
bureaucratic muddle.
Reason 03:
The changes took place at a time when the world was going through an economic recession that had lowered the
demand of various products of industries. The newly nationalized industries, therefore, could riot improve their output in
such conditions.
 Agriculture Reforms:
Bhutto believed that improved technology and better farming methods had raised production. So, landowners
could maintain their income on smaller, more productive, areas of land. He therefore cut the ceiling to 250
acres from 500 acres irrigated and 500 from 1000 acres un-irrigated. The surplus land could be sold to the
smaller peasant/farmers to make better profits. Bhutto also wanted to give tenants security of tenure of the
land they farmed. The tenants can purchase their farmed land from landlord but cannot sell to a third party
who might then evict the tenants. Such a measure encouraged tenants to make improvements on their lands
as they knew they knew they would not be evicted.
 Educational Reforms:
In order to improve literacy and ensure a uniform standard of education, most of the private sector schools
were nationalized. Primary education was made free and compulsory. New Schools were opened and the old
ones were upgraded.

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Q- Why educational reforms of ZAB failed?
Reason 01:
The nationalized schools could not perform better. Due to nationalization of schools, there was a drop in the standard of
education as they were over-burdened and could not cater to the increased number of students without an increase in
the trained staff. The government had allocated only 13% of the education budget to primary schools. With such a small
amount of funds the desired results could not be achieved.
Reason 02:
Improving literacy rate and educational standard is a time taking process. It is not possible to change the curriculum,
trained teachers and develop the educational infrastructure in a short time. As a result, there was only 1% increase in
literacy even after 5 years.
Reason 03:
Most of the rural families were not interested in the formal education or literacy. They usually preferred to make their
children work on the farm and thus share the economic burden of the family. They could not afford the loss of earnings
even if they were offered free education. Perhaps providing them agricultural education along with formal education
might have been a better option.
 Health Reforms:
To provide health care to all, and to improve life expectancy and infant mortality rate (IMR) several BHU's
(Basic Health Units) and RHU's (Rural Health Centers) were set up. New medical colleges and hospitals were
set up. Under the new drug policy, brand names of drugs were abolished, so that medicines were available at
cheaper prices. This, however, resulted in declining earning of chemists and many pharmaceutical companies
closed their business in Pakistan.
Why Bhutto adapted the policy of nationalization?

 To raise living standard:
He wanted to raise the living standard of the industrial workers who, together with other ordinary people,
constituted bulk of his vote bank. Profits from the nationalized companies were to be spent on improving
public services such as health and education
 To promote economic growth:

He wanted to promote economic growth and bring inflation down from a high level of 25%. By nationalizing
industrial units, the government could control industrial output and channel the profits and investment into
industrialization. This way the popularity of his party, the PPP, was also expected to increase with the urban
populace that was an important sector of the party's support.
 To remove Ayyub’s economic disparity:

He also wanted to even out the inequalities resulting from Ayyub’s industrial reforms the 1960s. These
reforms had benefitted only some people, the famous 22 families that had become owner of about 80% of
Pakistan's large-scale industry.

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Federal Security Force (FSF)

Z.A. Bhutto wanted to limit the powers of the army as it had become unpopular after its defeat in the 1971
war. He set up a paramilitary force in October 1972 under his direct command. Ostensibly, its task was to
assist the civil administration and the police in the maintenance law and order without requiring the
intervention of the military. However, Bhutto's critics called it a private army whose real duty was to curtail
any opposition against him. The FSF was misused to crush or punish Bhutto’s rivals even though they had been
loyal to him previously. It was dissolved by General Zia in 1977.
Why Bhutto arrested and executed?

 Failure of reforms:
As his industrial and educational reforms began to lose popularity, Bhutto was sharply criticized.
Nationalization of industries led to a decline in economic growth. Similarly, nationalization of private
educational institutes resulted in overcrowded classrooms and poor pace of improvement in literacy rate.
 PNA resistance:
The election results of 1977 were rejected by the combined opposition, the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance)
on the; basis of large-scale rigging in elections, though rigging had been reported only in some constituencies.
Bhutto miscalculated the opposition and was forced to negotiate with the PNA but it was too late.
 Zia’s took over:

The Army took it Bhutto's weakness, and the military chief General Zia-ul-Haq toppled his government on 5th
July, 1977 and thus 3rd Martial Law was imposed on Pakistan. Bhutto and opposition leaders were arrested.
 Murder of Nawab Mohammad Khan:

An old murder case against Bhutto was reopened: murder of Nawab Muhammad Khan, father of Ahmad Raza
Kasuri who was a PPP leader but had developed differences with Bhutto. The Lahore High Court and then the
Supreme Court of Pakistan awarded death sentence to Bhutto.

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GENERAL ZIA-UL-HAQ (1977-1988)
Background:
 When political tension reached its climax due to the deadlock between Bhutto and the leadership of
Pakistan National Alliance on the issue of general elections, Zia-ul-Haq took advantage of the situation.
 On July 5, 1977, he carried out a bloodless coup overthrowing Bhutto's government and enforced
Martial Law in the country.
Reforms of Zia-ul-Haq.
 Economic Reforms:
In order to win the confidence of the investors, he renounced Bhutto's policy of nationalization. Industrial
units were returned to their owners. The industrial growth began to improve. Moreover, millions of overseas
Pakistanis began to send heavy remittances that were spent on several development schemes. From the
Middle East alone $ 4billion were sent every year by the Pakistani workers.
 Afghan war benefits:

Pakistan became the greatest beneficiary of the 'Afghan Miracle’. Pakistan became the frontline state to
counter the Soviets in Afghanistan. It received heavy US aid for many years. Pakistan was given soft term loans
and aid of $ 1.6 billion, £ 1.5 billion and then $ 4.2 billion military and economic aid between 1980 and 1986.
Pakistan's GNP (Gross National Product) was 6.2% in three years.
Drawbacks on Economic reforms / Afghan war
Inflation increased, an increased power consumption and loss of skilled workers to other countries. Since no new power
plants were set up, Pakistanis had to experience load shedding. Easy availability of drugs and weapons led to drug
addiction and violence in the country.
 Islamization:
He also wanted to endorse the popular belief that Pakistan was created in the name of Islam. Accordingly,
he enforced a series of Hudood Ordinances in 1977. Under these, Islamic punishment were prescribed for
major offences such as Zina/adultery (100 stripes), theft (cutting off the right hand), drinking (80 stripes)
and Qazaf/false accusation of adultery (80 stripes). Under the Blasphemy Law a punishment of
imprisonment or fine or death sentence was prescribed for those found guilty of showing disrespect to the
Holy Prophet (PBUH). Under the Zakat and Usher Ordinance of June 1980, a wealth tax of 2.5% was levied
on the bank savings.

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Q- Why Zia introduced Islamization between 1979 to 1988?
Reason 01:
He wanted to justify his rule. Since he had toppled the elected government of Z.A. Bhutto, he had to ensure a strong and-
Stable government managed by people committed to Islamic teachings. He enforced a strict Islamic legal code named
the Hudood and Qazaf Ordinance, so that the people of Pakistan would not object to his ignoring of the political process.
Reason 02:
He planned to prove that Pakistan had been created in the name of Islam, and therefore, people should live according to
the Islamic teachings. So, he introduced Islamic education like compulsory teaching of Islamiyat in schools and colleges.
In order to make sure that people showed due respect to the Holy Prophet, he enforced the Blasphemy Law under which
strict punishments were given to those showing disrespect to the Holy Quran and the Holy Prophet.
Reason 03:
He wanted to make Pakistan a truly Islamic welfare state where needs of the poor and the unsupported were satisfied by
the government according to the financial teachings of Islam. In order to achieve this, he promulgated the Zakat and
'Ushr Ordinance under which Zakat was deducted from the public savings deposited in the banks, in addition to being
collected by the Zakat Committees.
 Social Reforms:
Programs on Radio and TV were started to promote Arabic language, and teaching of Islamiyat and Pak
Studies was made compulsory. Extra marks were given to the memorizers of the Quran in the Civil Services.
Interest-based banking was replaced with the profit - loss sharing banking.
 Council of Islamic ideology:

The Council of Islamic Ideology was created to advise the government to make laws according to Islam. Also,
the Federal Shari'at Court was created to examine the existing laws and Islamic theme. The Laws were strongly
resisted by the women activist groups and minorities as both felt insecure under these Laws.
 Constitutional Reforms:
1. Zia had to legitimize his stay in power and overcome the opposition, led mainly by the PPP.
2. He had suspended the 1973 constitution, and through the PCO (Provisional Constitutional Ordinance) he
restrained all the Courts from challenging any of the decisions of the military rule.
3. He appointed several military officers in civil services. In 1984 he held a referendum asking people if they
wanted Islamisation in Pakistan or not. With a poor participation of 10% he got elected as the President for
five years.
4. In 1985, elections were held on non-party basis, and a very obedient parliament was elected. PML led
leaders were appointed as Chief Minister (Nawaz Sharif) and Prime Minister (Muhammad Khan Junejo).
5. Zia restored the Constitution with the 8th amendment (article 58-2(b) that empowered him to dismiss the
elected government and dissolve the assemblies.

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Q- What difficulties did Zia find in ruling Pakistan during the late 1980s?
Reason 01:
There was a serious breakdown of law and order during the late 1980s. Sindh, with Karachi as the largest city of
Pakistan, became a victim of violence, sectarian riots, kidnap for ransom and drug trafficking. Arrival of the Afghan
refugees facilitated the availability of weapons and drugs like heroin. The MQM emerged as a popular party in urban
areas of Sindh. It represented the Urdu speaking migrants from India and it went into a clash with the Sindhi speaking
population. There were several incidents of communal violence in Karachi and Hyderabad.
Reason 02:
Zia's strict Islamic reforms resulted in sectarian differences leading to armed clashes between the Sunni and the Shi'a
community of Pakistan. Extremist religious organizations got weapons to fight against the rival groups. Jhang, a city in
Punjab, began to breed many extremist organizations. The NWFP (now KPK) had also developed differences with the
central government of Zia over his plans of building the Kalabagh Dam.
Reason 03:
In April 1988, the explosion at the Ojhri damp in Rawalpindi caused deaths of several innocent people, and the PM Mr.
Junejo announced to conduct a transparent inquiry of the tragedy. This created a serious difficulty for Zia as he feared
inclusion of top military officers in the inquiry. He could not afford the loss of military support, and therefore, dismissed
Junijo's government in May 1988. This worsened the political crisis for Zia.
Afghan Miracle:
The USSR/Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. This made Pakistan a vital ally of the US, and
Zia a leader of a Muslim state on the frontline against the Soviet communist forces. The US and the Western
Europe extended huge financial and military aid to Pakistan. Military aid was given to help the Afghan
Mujahideen whereas the purpose of the economic aid was to enable Pakistan to accommodate millions of
Afghan refugees. Zia was able to use some of these funds for the economic growth of Pakistan by starting
several development projects. This way the Soviet attack on Afghanistan became a miracle for Zia's military
rule.
Karakoram Highway:
Pakistan and China started a joint project in 1966 to construct an 800-mile highway connecting Pakistan with
China. The project was completed in 1978 by following the old Silk Road route in China. It was financed by
China and built mainly by its engineers. It passes through the dangerous highlands of Gilgit Baltistan and
enters China through the Khunjerab Pass/several thousand workers were killed during the construction. It is
known as the Friendship Highway in China.
Ojhri camp incident:

On 10th April 1988, an army weapons dump at Ojhri Camp, Rawalpindi blew up mysteriously. It caused
hundreds of deaths of the civilians with thousands more injured as the dump was located in a densely
populated area between Rawalpindi and Islamabad. PM Junejo announced an immediate transparent inquiry
into the explosion and promised the nation that he would bring the responsible people before the justice even
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if it meant the dismissal of senior military officers. Zia and army could not afford such an inquiry. Therefore, on
29th May 1988, using his powers under the 8th constitutional amendment, Zia dismissed Junejo's government
and dissolved the National Assembly.

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CHAPTER: 15
How effective were Pakistan’s governments in
the final decade of the 20th century?

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Benazir Bhutto’s First Term (1988-1990)
Steps taken:
 Ended bans:
She ended a ban on the making of trade unions and students' unions in order win the confidence of industrial
workers and students
 Services for women:

She took some steps exclusively for the welfare of women. First Women's Bank was opened in 1989. She
recruited women in police and civil services under a special scheme and appointed for the first time women
judges of the High Courts.
 Foreign policy:
Pakistan rejoined the Commonwealth in October 1989 as Pakistan had been recognized as a country with a
democratically elected government. She paid a successful visit to the USA in June 1989 and the Bush
administration promised an aid of over $400 million. Indian PM, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi visited Pakistan. It was a big
success because for the first time an Indian Prime Minister had visited Pakistan. Both countries signed two
agreements in 1989 to promote mutual peace and cooperation.
Challenges:
 Couldn’t legislate:
She tried to make Pakistan a democratic Islamic republic while abandoning the strict Islamic policies of Zia but
this was hard to achieve. She couldn't make any legislation in this regard because the opposition dominated
the Senate and the largest province Punjab was under her rival Mr. Nawaz Sharif.
 No confidence motion:
Nawaz Sharif was able to table a no confidence motion against Benazir by the end of 1989 in the National
Assembly. Though the motion was defeated by just twelve votes, it was a serious blow to her government.
 Hudood ordinance of Zia:

No new laws were made to improve the status of women despite all her claims mainly because the Hudood
Ordinance could not be repealed.

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 Failed to fulfill promises:

She gradually lost support as her government could not fulfill the promises of reducing unemployment,
making economic progress and controlling inflation and a high population growth.
 Pucca Qila Massacre:

She made a coalition with the MQM, a party of Urdu speaking migrants from India but the PPP stalwarts in
Sindh opposed her. The MQM wanted due rights at par with the Sindhi speaking population but this led to
growing conflict between MQM and PPP. Violence erupted in Karachi and other cities between September
1988 and May 1990 when the Pucca Qila operation against the MQM in Hyderabad became a reason of
dismissal of her government.
 Nawaz Sharif’s train march:

Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive campaign against her. He started that train march from Karachi to
Peshawar while attracting huge crowds. Benazir arrested several opposition leaders but in vain.
Q- Why Benazir dismissed in 1990?
Reason 01:
She had a weak political base in the Centre as the largest province; Punjab was under her strongest rival Mr. Nawaz
Sharif who gave her a very tough time mainly as a result of Benazir's own mishandling of Mr. Sharif. She launched a
campaign of maligning his image but without any success.
Reason 02:
Her government faced charges of corruption and mismanagement of political affairs. There were allegations that loans
from IMF were being used by her party supporters including her husband Mr. Asif Zardari and his father Mr. Hakim
Zardari. It was believed that both were using the illegally acquired money to flourish their personal business and
suppressing opposition.
Reason 03:
She soon developed conflict with the MQM as many of her party members blamed her of preferring the MQM people
over her party workers. Soon the PPP-MQM coalition ended and a massive crackdown was started against the MQM.
Violence and protests spread in major cities of Sindh. Finally, the Pucca Qila massacre of Hyderabad in May 1990 led to
the killing of several MQM workers including women and children.

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Nawaz Sharif First Term (1990-1993)
Steps taken:
 Developments:
He introduced a policy of privatizing the SOU's (State Owned Units) under which a number of important
industries, such as shipping, electricity supply, airlines and telecommunications were opened up to the private
sector under the Privatization Commission. He introduced several large scale projects to simulate the
economy, such as the Ghazi Barotha Hydro Power Project and the Gwadar Miniport in Balochistan.
Challenges:
 Yellow cab scheme:
He introduced the "yellow cab" scheme by giving loans to the unemployed youth to buy taxis. This however
was a failed scheme as most of the borrowers became defaulters as they were unable to repay the loans.
 M2 Motorway:
Another major project was to build the Motorway. The aim was to provide a fast transportation network to
the newly independent Central Asian Republics that needed access to seaports. Although its first phase, the
M2 (between Islamabad and Lahore) was completed in Nov 1997, the project suffered from continual delays.
 Economic challenges:
The US aid dropped significantly after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1988. The reduction in
overseas aid, high government spending and a decrease in foreign remittances.
 BCCI (Bank of credit and commerce international):

The BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) was the world's 7th largest bank operating in Pakistan.
There were concerns about the bank's lending practices and an investigation was conducted by a team of
British accountants in 1991. The team detected widespread fraud, embezzlement and manipulation in the
bank. Following this, the bank was closed and was required to pay huge fines. Ittefaq Industries of the Sharif
family was its major customer
 Cooperative society scandal:

The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only to members for
purposes that were beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies were controlled by the relatives of Mr.
Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the Punjab suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million
people lost their life-long savings.

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 Klashinkov culture:
There was also the problem of drug trafficking and illegal arms (the Klashinkov culture) as a result of the
Soviet-Afghan War. The govt. had to deal with rampant crime, terrorism and drug addiction especially in major
cities like Karachi. The police and military tried to maintain law and order but were unsuccessful.
Q- Why Nawaz Sharif was dismissed in 1990?
Reason 01:
He attempted to solve Pakistan's unemployment problem by providing cheap loans to men to buy taxis (Yellow Gab
Scheme) that he had imported ( Daewoo Cars). Most of the borrowers were unable to repay the loans and hence became
defaulters and unemployed. This strained the economy and made him unpopular.
Reason 02:
The closure of a major bank, BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce and Investment) also added to Mr. Sharif’s difficulties.
An inquiry by a British team of accountants detected large scale fraud and sheddy lending practices of the Bank.
Reason 03:
The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only to members for purposes that were
beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies were controlled by the relatives of Mr. Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the
Punjab suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million people lost their life-long savings

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Benazir Bhutto’s Second Term (1993-1996)
Steps taken:
 Coalition with independent candidates:
Benazir returned to power in 1993 and formed a coalition govt. with some independent parties. MQM had
boycotted! The elections and performance of People’s party better in all provinces. With her efforts Farooq
Leghari of PPP was elected as. “New President”.
Challenges:
 Agenda of change:
Once again she tried to improve the socio-economic status of women. She planned to establish women's
police stations, courts and failed to make any legislation in this regard. So her, Agenda of Change did not work.
 Opposition from family:

She also faced many family feuds regarding her mother Nusrat Bhutto and brother Murtaza Bhutto. Though
she sidelined her mother, mysterious killing of Murtaza Bhutto by police in 1996 greatly damaged her repute.
Her husband Mr. Zardari also earned a bad repute for his wife as he was involved in many corruption cases
and misuse of money.
 Loan from IMF:

In 1995, she took a heavy loan from the IMF but the economic situation worsened. Due to the Kashmir issue
military spending increase by 14% in 1995-96. The result was inflation, unemployment, unrest and violence.
 Confrontation with supreme court:

She had a confrontation with the Supreme Court by refusing to dismiss 20 judges appointed by the
government.

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Q- Why was Benazir Bhutto removed in 1996?
Reason 01:
She was opposed on all sides and by almost all provinces. She developed differences with her mother and brother. Later
the murder of her brother, Murtaza in a police operation in Karachi raised many questions about her legitimacy as PM.
She locked her horns with the Supreme Court by refuting the Court's orders to dismiss 20 judges appointed by the
government in the infamous "Judges Case" of 1996
Reason 02:
Economic performance of her government was also not impressive. Pakistan borrowed heavily from the IMF
(International Monetary Fund) and this led to strict financial controls and inflation that were blamed on the government.
She desperately tried to improve economic performance of Pakistan but could not gain success mainly due to growing
corruption and her policy of favoritism.
Reason 03:
Very strong opposition came from Punjab where the most powerful politician Mr. Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive
campaign against her. He leveled charges of corruption, mismanagement, inefficiency and flawed methods in handling
various%\/ affairs. He organized rallies and demonstrations in several cities.
Nawaz Sharif’s Second Term (1996-1999)
Steps taken:
 13th Amendment:
After electing second time, first act of Nawaz Sharif was to pass the 13th Amendment which repealed the 8th
Amendment that authorized the President to dismiss the Prime Minister and the assemblies. This measure
was supported by all political parties
 Anti-Defection Bill:
To curtail instability in the country. Sharif also passed the Anti-defection Bill under the 14th amendment. This
prevented politicians from switching parties (political turncoats) so that they could not exploit any weak and
vulnerable government.
 Tough time to journalists:

Using his powers fully, Sharif arrested journalists who wrote critical articles against him. Unexpected tax
inspections of the selected newspaper editors were carried out.
 15th Amendment:
Sharif tried to strengthen his position by passing the 15 th Amendment which made Sharia the supreme law of
Pakistan and empowered the PM tc? Enforce the Sharia the full authority.

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Challenges:
 Tussle with supreme court:
Sharif had to defend himself in the Supreme Court on charges of corruption. He, using the Parliament's
support asked the President to dismiss the Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah, and this led to a tussle between the
government and the Supreme Court.
 Nuclear Test:
In May 1998, Pakistan conducted nuclear explosions. This increased Sharif’s popularity as people felt
strengthened due to Pakistan becoming a nuclear power but it caused loss of foreign aid from the US, Japan
and other countries putting Pakistan in serious economic difficulties.
 Kargil conflict:
Sharif’s rule went into serious trouble during the Kargil crisis during of May 1999. He developed differences
with General Pervez Musharraf over the withdrawal of Pak Army from Kargil, Kashmir. Sharif tried to replace
him with his cousin Gen. Butt, but found his govt. toppled by the army on 12 th Oct., 1999.
Q- Why was Nawaz dismissed removed in 1990 or Why General Musharraf came to power in 1999?
Reason 01:
Nawaz Sharif earned the anger of Pak Army. He acted as a powerful PM 1 997 -1999 but had entangled himself with the
judiciary and the army. He had started supporting the Taliban and their government in Afghanistan. He refuse to hand
Usama bin Ladin over to US who suspected his involvement in the bombing of the US embassy in Kenya. This damaged
the Pak-US relations that were already strained since the end of the Cold War 1991-92.
Reason 02:
The US was also critical of Pakistan's nuclear ambitions. Its anger grew when Pakistan tested nuclear weapons on 28 th
May 1998 in response to Indian doing the same a couple of weeks ago. Pakistan's economic and military aid was stopped
by US, Japan and West European states creating serious difficulties for Pakistan. Sharif had to declare emergency in
Pakistan and ordered freezing of the FCA's (Foreign Currency Accounts) of Pakistanis who had deposited their savings in
foreign currency. This made him unpopular.
Reason 03:
In May 1999, the Pak Army was involved in a conflict with the Indian Army in kargil Kashmir. After some initial gains it
had to retreat and Sharif accused Genera Pervez Musharraf for this humiliation. The army rejected Sharif’s accusation.
Sharif’s tried to replace Musharraf with Gen. Zia-ud-Din Butt, Sharif’s cousin. Accordingly Musharraf’s plane was denied
landing on the Islamabad Airport on his return from Sri Lanka. Musharraf had the support of the army, who immediately
took control of the government from Nawaz Sharif on 12th October, 1999. General Musharraf declared military rule, but
not Marital Law and after some time, allowed the Sharif family to go into exile in Saudi Arabia.

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Some other Important Questions

Q. Why did Pakistan face so many problems with the provision of education between 1947 and 1999?
Education is expensive in Pakistan. Despite several efforts by various governments, the claim of providing free
primary education has not proved true. Children are expected to buy their own books and stationery.
Similarly, parents have to pay for the transport and uniform expenses. With an increasing inflation, this
becomes difficult for the poor rural population.
Educational facilities in most of the public sector institutes are not good, especially in rural areas where about
65% of the population lives. There are poorly built schools with poor seating arrangements and an inefficient
water and sewerage system. In many villages classes are held in the shade of trees. There is a high dropout
rate due to the issue of corporal punishment by the poorly paid teachers. Lesser funds are available for
education as most of the spending is reserved for defense.
There is popular opposition to female education in most of the rural and tribal areas as parents and religious
scholars are opposed to this. There are not many trained teachers due to a lack of teachers' training institutes
and programs. In tribal areas the tribal chiefs usually resist any social development schemes like the provision
of education.

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CHAPTER: 16
How important has Pakistan’s role been in
world affairs since 1947?

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Pakistan Relation with India (1947-1999)
Successful:
 Liaquat-Nehru Pact (1950):
A temporary borderline, the LOC (Line of Control) was accepted by both countries. In 1950 the Minorities
Agreement/the Liaqat-Nehru Pact was signed in which both countries agreed to stop the movement of
minorities across the border and encourage them to stay back in their homelands. In the 1950's, Jawahar Lal
Nehru promised to hold a plebiscite in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir in order to resolve this
conflict between the two states.
 Tashkent Declaration (1966):

Major war broke out between the two countries on 6th September 1965. The war continued for 17 days
without victory of either side but the whole Pakistani nation along with their army defended the country in a
superb way against its enemy which was 5 time bigger than them. Once again U.N arranged ceasefire & both
countries signed a peace treaty “Tashkent-Accord” sponsored by USSR in which the both countries agreed to
solve Kashmir issue through peaceful dialogue.
 Simla Accord (1972):

Bhutto signed the Simla agreement with the prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi. India agreed to return the
prisoners of war to Pakistan in return for a promise from Pakistan that the Kashmir Problem would be
discussed directly with India and not in international forums, such as the United Nations. Bhutto had not given
up the claim that Pakistan spoke for Kashmir because it was rightly part of Pakistan but by signing this
agreement, he had reduced his dependence on the army by making fighting with India less likely, improved his
government's reputation by being seen as willing to negotiate peace and increased his popularity by bringing
home prisoners of war.
 Cricket Match Diplomacy (1984):

Both countries had to major conflicts in those years: the Siachen Glacier and the Khalistan issues. Zia would
pay a surprise visit to India on the pretext of watching a Pak-lndia ODI (One Day International) cricket match
between the two teams. He would thus persuade the Indian PM Mr. Rajiv Gandhi to hold peace talks. This way
Zia was able to prevent a fourth Indo-Pak war.
 Lahore Declaration (1999):

It was a bilateral agreement between India and Pakistan, signed by the PMs of the two countries in February
1999 in Lahore. It was signed in order to overcome the bilateral strains between the two! countries after the
nuclear tests both had carried out. It however lost effect due to the outbreak of the Kargil War. Also, a train
route was established between Pakistan and India to improve relations.

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Unsuccessful:
 Kashmir Issue:
Kashmir is the biggest dispute between India & Pakistan. It is the question of life & death for Pakistan as her
major rivers (esp. Jhelum and Chenab) are fed by the glaciers located in Kashmir which provide water for
agriculture and human needs. Pakistan can’t survive without Kashmir as her whole economy even industries
are also agro-based which depend on the water coming from Kashmir. That’s why Jinnah always used to call
Kashmir “the jugular-vein of Pakistan” & in spite of being a great supporter of peace he ordered to fight a war
when Indian army invaded Kashmir.
 1971 War:
The Indian army had been training and equipping the militant Bengali separatists, the Mukti Bahini (the
liberation force) and therefore, the Pakistan army failed to get the local support and lost the War. More than
90,000 Pakistani officers and soldiers became Indian captives.
 Khalistan Movement:
Indian Sikhs started the Khalistan Movement demanding the separation of the Indian Punjab as an
independent state. The Indian army was used to suppress the movement and the Zia's government was
accused of supporting and training the Sikhs. When Mrs. Indra Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh
bodyguard, her son Rajiv Gandhi blamed Pakistan for this.
 Kargil Conflict:
Army-chief Musharraf started a secret military operation in Kargil to liberate Kashmir by force which rolled-
back the whole peace-process and again a limited war started in Kashmir which destroyed the hope for the
peaceful solution of this issue.

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Pakistan Relation with China (1947-1999)
Successful:
 India China war:
The 1962 Sino-lndia/China-India war came as a blessing in disguise for Pakistan. China began to extend heavy
aid to Pakistan. In 1963, a series of trade agreements were signed and a $60 million interest free loan was
given to Pakistan.
 Mutual Trade and Defense Agreement:

China soon became the largest importer of raw cotton from Pakistan and promised to help Pakistan in any war
with India. In August 1963 the PIA (Pakistan International Airlines) began regular flights to China in order to
improve cultural and trade relations.
 Kashmir and Taiwan issue:

China declared its support for Pakistan on the Kashmir issue and in return, Pakistan supported China's entry to
the UN Security Council much to the displeasure of the USA who was supporting Taiwan (non-communist
breakaway from China) as ^ the legitimate ruler of China.
 1965 War:
During the 1965 Pak-lndia war, China applied diplomatic pressure on India and extended moral and military
aid to Pakistan including the T-59 tanks.
 Bhutto’s Visit:
Z.A Bhutto visited China and sought heavy military and economic aid. Pakistan built the HMC (Heavy
Mechanical Complex) in Taxila with the Chinese assistance
 Karakoram Highway:
During Zia's regime the old Silk Route was remodeled as the KKH (Karakoram Highway) in 1978. Then in 1986
Zia visited China and signed a nuclear co-operation treaty with the Chinese government.
 Chashma Nuclear Power Plant:

In the 1990's China provided technical arid material support for the completion of t 300 MW Chashma Nuclear
Power Complex and the plutonium reprocessing.

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Unsuccessful:
 Pakistan against China in UNO:
In 1959 Pakistan voted against China's membership of the UNO and condemned the military action in Tibet,
though China did not react angrily.
 1971 War:
China could not help Pakistan in the 1971 war because of the Agreement of Peace, Co-operation and
Friendship between India and the USSR. This agreement contained a threat to a country helping any state
against India in a war.
 SEATO and CENTO:

When Pakistan became the member of SEATO and CENTO which was American sponsored anti-communism
organization. China was not wiling to make relations with Pakistan.

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Pakistan Relation with USA (1947-1999)
Successful:
 Visit of Liaquat Ali Khan:
After independence Pakistan, Pakistan's Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan changed his plan to visit Moscow, and
flew to Washington in 1950. This laid the basis of the Pak-USA relations.

Throughout the 1950's Pakistan received military and economic aid from the USA and joined the US-
sponsored anti-Soviet/communist regional military blocs of the SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization)
and the CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) to counter the Soviet in the South East Asia and the Middle East
 Afghan War:
In 1981 Pakistan received and aid of $1.6 billion and a further 1.5 billion Pound Sterling loan at low interest
rate to buy modern American weapons. In 1986, $4.2 billion military and economic aid was given.
 Nawaz Sharif’s era:

Nawaz Sharifs visits to Washington 1991-1992, were attempts to convince the US about the peaceful nuclear
program of Pakistan. President Bill Clinton tried to restore relations by opposing the Pressler Amendment that
had stopped aid to Pakistan.
 Benazir Bhutto’s era:

Benazir Bhutto visited the USA in 1996 and, under the Brown Amendment, many sanction were lifted and a
package of $388 million military aid was given to Pakistan. In Mrs. Hilary Clinton visited Pakistan to further
improve relations.
Unsuccessful:
 U2 Plane incident:
Pakistan had allowed the US to use its air bases for espionage against the USSR. U-2, a spy plane, was caught
by the Soviets in 1960. On inquiry its pilot Francis Gary Powers admitted that the plane had been launched
from an air base in Peshawar. The Soviets felt angry on this and threatened Pakistan. It asked Pakistan not to
let Americans use its air bases for any similar espionage operation. This incident shows the close relations of
Pakistan with the US. However, this also became a reason for improving its relations with the USSR.
 Ayyub’s visit to China and USSR:

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Ayub's visits to Beijing and Moscow in the 1960's greatly offended the Americans. In the wars of 1965 and
1971, the US aid to Pakistan was stopped. Pakistan also could not receive any aid from the SEATO and CENTO
because they could only help Pakistan in case of attack by a communist state (the USSR).
 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s pro-soviet government:

It damaged the Pak-USA relations. Despite his visit to Washington in 1972, he could not get any aid. The US
also criticized Bhutto's threat to develop nuclear weapons in 1974.
 Senator Larry Pressler:

Under various laws, the US aid was stopped and objections were raised about Pakistan's nuclear programs.
Senator Larry Pressler in 1991 warned Pakistan to take steps against the growth of fundamentalism
(extremism in Muslims).
Additional Questions
Q. What did the Pressler amendment say about Pakistan?
The Pressler Act 1985 had said that USA could only give aid to a country after the American President had
declared that the country had no nuclear weapons and was not developing them. During Afghan crisis, the
rule was ignored but President George H. W. Bush refused to declare Pakistan as a nuclear free country and
blocked its aid and also stopped the sale of 28 F-16 fighter jets which Pakistan had ordered and paid for. It
seemed to apply on Pakistan, not India.
Q. What was the impact of the Brown Amendment on Pakistan?

In 1995, Defense Secretary, William Perry visited Pakistan and declared that the Pressler Amendment had
been a mistake - Then in 1996 after Benazir's visit to USA Brown Amendment authorized the US government
to reimburse Pakistan for F-16 payments and provide $338 million in military equipment. She said that the
passing of Brown Amendment had vindicated Pakistan's principles case and will go a long way towards
restoring the warmth between Pak-US relations.

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Pakistan Relation with USSR (1947-1999)
Successful:
 Ayyub’s Visit:
In 1963 Soviet Union extended a loan of 11 million Sterling Pounds to Pakistan. In 1963, it changed its previous
policy of supporting India and adopted a neutral stance over the Kashmir issue. In April 1965 Ayyub paid an
official visit to the USSR and signed a number of agreements on trade and oil explorations.
 Tashkent Declaration:
After the end of the 1965 war, the Soviet Union mediated between Pakistan and India to reach a peace
agreement. Accordingly, the Tashkent Accord was signed in January 1966. The Pakistani government admired
the Soviet efforts in this regard.
 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s government:

Bhutto had communist and socialist views. He was able to improve relations with the USSR significantly. In
1972, he visited Moscow and persuaded the Soviets to help Pakistan build a steel mill near Karachi, the PSM
(Pakistan Steel Mill). Relations remained friendly till the fall of Z.A.Bhutto 1977.
 Post Afghan War:

When the USSR became the Russian Federation. The Russian Vice President Mr. Rutskoy visited Islamabad in
1991 to start friendly relations with Pakistan. Russia needed Pakistan's help to restore peace in Pakistan.
Unsuccessful:
 Liaquat Ali Khan’s Visit to USA:
Liaqat's decision to visit Washington instead of Moscow, disappointed the USSR. In retaliation, the USSR
continued to support India on the Kashmir issue in the 1950's

Pakistan further displeased the Soviets/Russians by joining the US-sponsored military blocs of the SEATO and
CENTO. India as a result began to receive Soviet aid.
 U2 Plane Incident:
Pakistan had allowed the US to use its air bases for espionage against the USSR. U-2, a spy plane, was caught
by the Soviets in 1960. On inquiry its pilot Francis Gary Powers admitted that the plane had been launched
from an air base in Peshawar. The Soviets felt angry on this and threatened Pakistan. It asked Pakistan not to
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let Americans use its air bases for any similar espionage operation. This incident shows the close relations of
Pakistan with the US. However, this also became a reason for improving its relations with the USSR.
 USSR backed India in Kargil conflict:

India was given several Russian-manufactured Mirage-2000 aircrafts that India used during the Kargil conflict.
"Russia also objected to Pakistan's nuclear policy and the nuclear blasts of May 1998.

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Pakistan Relation with Commonwealth and

Britain (1947-1999)
Successful:
 Military support and financial aids:
There were many senior British officers like General Douglas Gracey in the Pakistan army to train them along
modern lines. It also gave financial and technical aid and advice to cope with the difficulties. In a
Commonwealth meeting in 1950 in Colombo, the Colombo Plan was set up to extend aid to Pakistan. It also
provided one million Sterling Pounds for the Sui gas project. Canada gave $ 40 million for the development of
railways.
 Help in Afghan War:

During the Afghanistan crisis, Britain supported Pakistan. British PM Mrs. Margaret Thatcher was the first
Western leader to visit Pakistan in 1981 during the Afghan war. An aid of 30 million Sterling Pounds was given
to Pakistan to accommodate the Afghan refugees. Another aid of 16 million Sterling Pounds was given to help
refugees in Baluchistan and KPK.
 Trading ties:
During the 1980's Britain remained a major trading partner of Pakistan, with an estimated 376 million Sterling
Pounds worth a trade between the two countries by 1986.
 Queens visit to Pakistan:

The Queen of England visited Pakistan on 14th August 1997 to attend the Golden Jubilee ceremony of the
creation of Pakistan. She was accorded very warm welcome.
Unsuccessful:
 Redcliff boundary issue:
Pakistani government had reservations about the Radcliffe Award as some Muslim majority districts in Punjab
had been given to India. British failure to resolve the Kashmir dispute was also a setback for the relations.
 Suiz Canal Issue:

In 1956, the British attack on the Suez Canal in Egypt was criticized by Pakistan.

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 1965 and 1971 War:

Relations were also affected when Pakistan could not receive any aid from SEATO and CENTO in the wars of
1965 and 1971. When Great Britain recognized the Republic of Bangladesh, Pakistan left SEATO and the
Commonwealth.
 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s government:

Z.A. Bhutto's inclination towards the communist and socialist states of the USSR^ China was not liked by Great
Britain.
 Pakistan’s Nuclear Program:

In the 1990’s Great Britain, like the USA continued to express its concerns over Pakistan’s nuclear program.
When Pakistan conducted nuclear blasts in May 1998, Britain and the Commonwealth stopped aid to Pakistan.

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Pakistan Relation with Afghanistan (1947-

1999)
Successful:
 Visit of Z.A.B:
Z.A. Bhutto visited Kabul shortly after his election and convinced the Afghan government to attend the second
QIC (Organization of Islamic Conference) summit in Lahore. He also held talks with the Afghan head Sardar
Daud and granted Afghan traders access to India through Pakistan.
 Pak Afghan trade agreement:

An agreement was also signed, called the ATTA (Afghan Transit Trade Agreement). Pakistan also extended aid
after an earthquake in Afghanistan in 1976.
 Welcome refugees:
In December 1979, the Soviet forces attacked Afghanistan. Pakistan, with the help of the US aid, helped the
Afghan Mujahideen. Pakistan generously accommodated about three million Afghan refugees whose number
continued to swell.
 Support to Talibans:
During Benazir's second term as PM, there was the rise of the Taliban in 1996. She supported them because
they were successfully establishing their rule in several parts of Afghanistan. Her government provided
military and financial support to them.
Unsuccessful:
 Pashtoonistan Issue:
Afghanistan has denied the Durand line as the natural border with Pakistan. It always claimed that Pashto
speaking areas of KPK to be its part to make a distinct area Pakhtoonistan.
 No access to Arabian Sea:

Afghanistan opposed Pakistan's membership of the UNO in September 1947. It rejected Pakistan's offer of
granting access to the Arabian Sea if it dropped the demand of Pakhtoonistan. An angry Afghan mob attacked
Pakistan's embassy in Kabul and ransacked it. Pakistan in return closed its border and cut off diplomatic ties
for several months.

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 Bombing in KPK’s towns:

During the Afghan war the Afghan governments condemned Pakistan's support for the Afghan Mujahideen.
The Afghan war planes bombarded many Pakistani towns in KPK.
 Bus Hijacked:
various groups of Mujahideen and governments criticized Pakistan's involvement in the Afghan affairs. The
Rabbani government backed out the Islamabad and the Peshawar Accords and a Pakistani bus was high jacked
by an Afghan group.
Pakistan Relation with Bangladesh (1971-

1999)
Successful:
 Recognition of Bangladesh:
Pakistan took some years to recognize the Democratic Republic of Bangladesh. Sheikh Mujeeb ur Rahman, the
first head of Bangladesh withdrew the bans on some pro-Pakistan organizations that had operated before its
independence.
 Invitation to Sheikh Mujeeb:

He was invited by Z.A. Bhutto to attend the second QIC summit that was held in Lahore in February 1974. He
was accorded a warm welcome.
 Bhutto’s visit to Bangladesh:

In June 1974 Bhutto visited Bangladesh and paid homage to Bangladesh's war memorial at Savar Upazila. He
tried to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujeeb in 1975 for the division of assets. He asked Mujeeb to agree
to take half of Pakistan's pre-1971 external reserves on the condition that Bangladesh received half of the
country's pre-1971 assets in 1975-76.
 Zia’s visit and formation of SAARC:

General Zia ul Haq paid visits to Bangladesh and signed a number of agreements to promote trade and culture
between the two states. In his visit to Bangladesh in 1985 and founded SAARC (South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation) with the help of his Bangladeshi counterpart General Zia ur Rahman.
Unsuccessful:
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 Relation after civil war 1971:

Relations remained strained in the beginning as Pakistan considered Bangladesh a traitor who had sought the
Indian aid for its liberation. So, it was reluctant to recognize Bangladesh.
 Refuse to accept Biharis:

Pakistan also refused to accommodate the pro-Pakistan non-Bengali, mainly Biharies who had migrated from
India after independence, they were shifted to special camps by the Bangladeshi government and forced to
live a sub-human life in these camps.
Pakistan Relation with Iran (1947-1999)
Successful:
 Recognition of Pakistan:
Pakistan After the creation of Pakistan in 1947, Iran was the first country of the world to recognize Pakistan.
This laid the foundation of friendly relations.
 RCD (Regional Corporation Development):

In July 1964, largely as a result of the efforts of Ayub Khan, the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development)
was founded that comprised Pakistan, Iran and Turkey as its members. The RCD provided a platform to its
members develop closer trade links and help each other in industrial projects and strengthening the cultural
relations.
 Help against rebellion of Balochistan:

Iran sent help to the Bhutto's government in 19973 to put down an uprising by the tribal chiefs in Baluchistan.
 Zia’s efforts:
In the 1980's, General Zia tried to minimize the mistrust between Pakistan and Iran. Pakistan made sincere
efforts to end the Iran-Iraq war through the platform of the OIC.
Unsuccessful:
 Revolution in Iran:

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The Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979, brought Ayat Ullah Khomeini as the Iranian head of state and the Shah
of Iran had to go into exile. The Sunni views of General Zia ul Haq were in a visible clash with the staunch Shia
views of Khomeini.
 Shia-Sunni Clashes:
The sectarian violence in Pakistan, mainly in the form of the Shia-Sunni clashes in the 1980's caused further
deteriorations of relations.
 Afghan Post War:

In the 1990's, both countries had sharp differences over the issue of the post-war Afghanistan. Iran did not like
Pakistan's support for the extremist Taliban government of Afghanistan. It objected to Pakistan's continuous
involvement in the Afghan the sectarian violence in Pakistan also contributed to a state of disturbed relation
between Pakistan and Iran.

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Q. How successful has Pakistan been a member of world

organizations between 1947 and 1999?
Successful:
 Pakistan joined UNO :
Pakistan joined the UNO in September 1947 to seek the UN help in resolving various disputes with India and
the problems of partition. It accepted the UN-mediated peace and the LOC (Line of Control) after the 1948 war
on Kashmir. It took the Kashmir issue to the UN Security Council for its permanent solution in the 1950's. The
World Bank persuaded Pakistan and India to accept the Indus Water Treaty in 1960. It also acted as the
spokesperson for many Asian countries that were struggling for independence in the 1950's. It also raised the
Palestine issue on the UN platform and defended the Palestine cause. The UN also held Pakistan and India
agree on peace in the Tashkent Accord, 1966.
 Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO :

Pakistan joined the US-sponsored anti-communist military blocs of SEATO and CENTO in 1954-55 along with
Great Britain and the Muslim states of Iraq and Turkey. This gave a sense of protection to Pakistan and
improved its relations with the member states.
 Pakistan joined common wealth :

Pakistan became a member of the Commonwealth after independence. It is a club of Great Britain and its
former colonies. Several development projects were funded by the Commonwealth, and Pakistan actively
participated in the Commonwealth Games.
 Pakistan joined RCD :

Pakistan, Iran and Turkey founded the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) in 1964. Several
agreements were signed to promote trade and cultural ties between the member states. The RCD Highway
and the RCD Railways were started to facilitate journey between the three states After the Iranian Revolution
of 1980, RCD gradually became insignificant but after some years it was reorganized ECO (Economic
Cooperation Organization) by adding the Central Asian states and Afghanistan.
 Pakistan joined OIC :

The QIC (Organization of Islamic Conference/Countries) was founded after a failed attempt by a lunatic Jew to
burn the al-Aqsa Mosque in 1969. Pakistan became its very active member and, Z..A. Bhutto organized its
second summit in Lahore in February 1974. Several agreements were signed and resolutions in favour of the
Palestine cause were adopted. In the 1980's, Pakistan struggled for an end of the Iran-Iraq war through the
platform of the QIC.

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 Pakistan joined SAARC :

With the efforts of Pakistan and Bangladesh, the SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
was founded in December 1985. Its aim was to promote friendly relations between the seven countries of
South Asia, specially Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
Unsuccessful:
 Pakistan joined UNO :
Unfortunately, the UN could not resolve the Kashmir issue mainly due to the veto power of the five
permanent members of the UNSC. Z.A Bhutto was disappointed by the UN role in the^1971 war as it asked
Pakistan to stop fighting instead of accepting the justice of Pakistan's case. He, therefore, tore apart the UN
resolution. He was unhappy on the quick recognition of Bangladesh.
 Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO :

Egypt was unhappy on Pakistan joining these bodies as the British had attacked the Suez Canal in 1956.
Moreover, these blocs refused to help Pakistan in the wars of 1965 and 1971 as the aid was linked with the
attack of any communist state on Pakistan. Pakistan left SEATO in 1972.
 Pakistan joined common wealth :

The membership depended on the civil/democratic rule in Pakistan. Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972
when Great Britain recognized Bangladesh. Pakistan could not rejoin it in the 1980's due to Zia's military rule.
 Pakistan joined RCD :

Pakistan was not Very successful in making the ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) a very effective bloc
mainly because of the disturbed relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
 Pakistan joined OIC :

Pakistan could not mobilize the member states to work for the collective welfare of the Muslim world because
of the rivalry between various states.
 Pakistan joined SAARC :

Due to the Indo-Pak rivalry and the grievances of Bangladesh against Pakistan have been the major stumbling
blocks in making it a successful body.
Conclusion
Pakistan has been very successful as member of various world organizations by supporting the UN objective of
maintaining world peace and playing a sincere role in making attempts to resolve various regional and global
conflicts. It has been recognized as an important Asian country that wants friendly relations with other states.

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Some other Important Questions

Q. Why did Pakistan join the UNO in 1947? (7)
Pakistan needed to be recognized as an important country. It was a newly created country and needed
recognition as a member seeking international peace. On September 30, 1947, it joined the UNO to achieve
the objective. It also took the Palestinian issue to the UN while condemning the illegal occupation of Palestine
by Israel.
India had created many difficulties for Pakistan soon after independence. It had taken the Kashmir issue to the
UN, in 1947, and persuaded India and Pakistan for a ceasefire after the 1948 war. Pakistan wanted the UN to
play its due role in a permanent settlement of the Kashmir issue.
In order to deal with its economic difficulties, Pakistan needed the help of such international monetary bodies
as the World Bank because India had been delaying the release of Pakistan's share of economic assets. With
the help of the World Bank, the issue was finally resolved in 1960 by the signing of the Indus Water Treaty.
Q. Why did Pakistan support the Palestinian cause between 1947 and 1999? (7)
Pakistan had brotherly feelings for the Palestinian Muslims. Pakistan always condemned illegal occupation of
other states throughout the world in line with the UN objective of promoting international peace. Pakistan
considered the Israeli occupation of Palestine as totally unjustified. It wanted the Palestinian Muslims to live in
an independent state without any fear of aggression by the other states.
When an extremist and lunatic Jew tried to bum the al-Aqsa Mosque in 1967, Pakistan played an important
role in the formation of the OIC (Organization of Islamic, Conference) and attended its first session held in
Rabat, Morocco. Due to the of Z.A. Bhutto, the second OIC Submit was held in Lahore in February 1974, where
Pakistan once again highlighted the need of a peaceful settlement of the Palestine issue.

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TOPICAL FOUR MARKS QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 01
Q. Who was Shah Wali Ullah?
He was a Muslim reformer, born in 1703, in Delhi. He was educated at the Madrassa Rahimiyia in Delhi,
founded by his father Shah Abdul Rahim. He went to Arabia in 1724 and returned in 1732. He was strongly
influenced by the famous scholar Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim and made his mind to reform the Muslim
society in India. He wrote 51 books, the most famous being, ‘Hujjat Ullah al-Baligha’ and translated the Holy
Quran into Persian. He worked for promoting unity among Muslims and died in 1762.
Q. What was Jihad Movement?

It was founded by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (SASB) to liberate the Muslims of Punjab from the tyranny of
the Sikh ruler Raja Ranjit Singh. The Raja had denied Muslims any kind of religious liberty and humiliated
them. SASB raised an army of 80 thousand Muslim volunteers (Mujahideen) and defeated the Sikh forces in a
number of battles from 1826 to 1830. Later, his Pathan tribal supporters like Yar Muhammad Khan betrayed
him and he was killed in Battle of Balakot near Abbotabad in 1831. The movement was continued till the
1860's.
Q. Who was Syed Ahmed Shaheed?

He was born in 1786 in Rae Bareli near Lucknow. He studied in Madrassa-i-Rahimiya and was influenced by the
teachings of Shah Wali Ullah’s sons. He served in the army of Amir Khan and thus acquired military training. He
decided to wage Jihad against the Sikh rule in Punjab. After his return from Arabia, he raised an army of
Mujahidin, and founded the Jihad Movement. After his initial successes in the 1820s, he was defeated and
killed by the Sikh army in the battle of Balakot in 1831.
Describe the Jehad Movement.

It was founded by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (SASB) to liberate the Muslims of Punjab from the tyranny of
the Sikh ruler Raja Ranjit Singh. The Raja had denied Muslims any kind of religious liberty and humiliated
them. SASB raised an army of volunteers Mujahideen and defeated the Sikh forces in a number of battles from
1826 to 1830. Later, his Pathan tribal supporters like Yar Muhammad Khan betrayed him and he was killed in
Battle of Balakot near Abbottabad in 1831. The movement was continued till the 1860’s.
Q. Who was Titu Mir?

He was a Muslim reformer and disciple of Syed Ahmed Shaheed. His real name was Mir Nisar Ali and he
worked for the revival of Islam in West Bengal during the 1800’s. He was worried over the miserable condition
of Bengali Muslims living under the oppressive rule of the British and the Hindu Zamindars. A tax was imposed
on Muslims on keeping beard. Titu Mir established his own rule in Narkelbaria, near Calcutta and raised his
own army. British defeated and killed him in a battle in 1831.
Q1. Who was Ahmed Shah Durrani?
He was also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, and was a skilled Afghan commander who was born in Heart,
Afghanistan in 1722. He led ten invasions into northern India from 1747 to 1769 including three attacks on the
Punjab between 1747 and 1753. These invasions greatly weakened the Mughal Empire. He defeated the

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Marathas in the third and last battle of Panipat in 1761, and broke their strength decisively. He died in 1772 in
Kandhar in Afghanistan.
Q. Who was Haji Shariat Ullah?
He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in East Bengal (Bangladesh). He spent many years in Arabia, and was
influenced by teachings of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab. On his return, he started the Faraizi Movement.
He urged them to fulfill the religious obligations/Faraiz so that they could hope to improve their religious and
socio-economic conditions. He died in 1840 and his mission was continued by his son Mohsin-ud-Din alias
Dadu Mian.
Q. What was the Faraizi Movement?

It was started by Haji Shariat Ullah in East Bengal. The Bengali Muslims lived a hard life under the oppressive
Hindu Zamindars and the British. He advised Muslims to fulfill their religious obligations/Fraiz so that they
could restore their past pride. He emphasized on praying for past sins and leading a righteous life in the
future. After his death in 1840, the movement was continued by his son Mohsin-ud-Din/Dadu Mian.
Q. Who were Zamindars?

It is the Urdu word for rich land owners who often acted as tax collectors too. After Aurangzeb’s death they
gradually became autonomous refusing to send taxes to the central government, and kept their own armies.
Muslims were usually oppressed by the Zamindars from 1800 onwards, especially in East Bengal. They
imposed a special tax on Muslim men who kept a beard. Haji Shariat Ullah and Titu Mir tried to organize poor
Muslims against them.
CHAPTER 02
Q. What was the East India Company?
It was a trading company that was granted the charter of trading rights in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I. Its first
ship landed on the southern Indian town of Surat, in 1608. It was granted permission to trade in India by the
Emperor Jahangir in 1612. It began to earn huge profits, and moved its headquarters to Bombay/Mumbai in
1664. Gradually, it began to acquire military power during 18th century. It was abolished in 1858 by the British
government.
Q. Who was Robert Clive?

He was hired as a clerk by the East India Company but soon he joined the Company army and earned fame as
a brilliant commander. In 1751, he gained his first victory by defeating the Nawab of Carnatic/Karnataka in the
battle of Arcot. In June 1757, his army defeated the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula in the Battle of Plassey and became
the governor of Bengal. His next victories were in the battle of Pondicherry against the French in 1761, and
Buxar against the Indians, in 1764. He faced trial in England, and though equitted, he committed suicide in
1774.
Q. Describe Pitt India Act 1784.

Direct control of the Indian possessions by Brit govt. More powers for the Governor-General; he could now
supersede the administration of Bombay & Madras; 3 presidencies under his control; a post of the
Commander-in- Chief of the armed forces. EIC lost most of its powers, though it continued its trading
activities: in fact, better governance of India by the combined efforts of the EIC and the British Government

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Later, police force & civil services, too. By 19th century, powers of EIC were further limited. 1858, it was
completely abolished.
Q. What was the ‘Black Hole Tragedy’?

Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula decided to punish the British after they had started fortifying themselves at important
posts in Calcutta (Kolkata) in violation of their treaty with him. He marched on Calcutta and seized the
Company’s Fort William in June 1756. The 64 captured British residents were locked up in a small room where
23 of them were found dead the following morning. This was used by Robert Clive as an excuse to whip up
anger against the Nawab. Clive’s army defeated and killed the Nawab in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Q. Describe the Battle of Arcot.

After the death of the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwaruddin Khan in 1749, Chanda Sahib had become the Nawab of
Carnatic with the support of the French. The English had supported another claimant to the post of the Nawab
of Carnatic, Muhammad Ali Khan Wallaja (son of Anwaruddin Khan). Chanda Sahib wanted to eliminate
Muhammad Ali and consolidate his position as the Carnatic’s Nawab. The English East India Company's forces
led by Robert Clive captured Arcot, the capital of the Nawab of Carnatic (Arcot), Chanda Sahib. This event
changed the landscape of British and French colonialism in the subcontinent. This siege was part of the Second
Carnatic War.
Q. What was Charter Act 1833?

In 1833 British tried to give Indian a more important part in running their own country. The charter act of 1833
said that Indians could be part of the civil administering India. But in practice there was little change. The
Indian civil service employed about 1000 administrators. They were chosen by open public examination, but
those exams were taken in England, in English. So in reality India was governed by an able, but entirely British
group of officials.
Q. Who was Mir Qasim?

He succeeded Mir Jaffar as the new governor of Bengal in 1760. He cooperated with the EIC in confiscating
lands and wealth of the people of Bengal, thus strengthening the British. After some years he felt
uncomfortable with the growing demands of the Company, and tried to stop the British influence in Bengal. In
1764, he raised a combined army with the help of the Mughal king Shah Alam and the ruler of Oudh, Shuja ud
Daula. Robert Clive defeated this huge army with his traditional clever tactics.
Q: Who was Tipu Sultan?

Tipu was the Sultan of Mysore in southern India from 1782 to 1799 and was a formidable enemy of the British.
The EIC maligned his conduct by declaring him “the monster of Mysore”. He was helped by the French and
defeated the British in the 2nd Anglo-Mysore War, and forced the British to accept the Treaty of Mangalore in
1784. The EIC defeated him in the 3rd Anglo-Mysore War in 1789. Lord Wellesley’s army defeated and killed
him in the 4th Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 in his fort of Seringapatam.
Q. Who was Lord Wellesley?

He succeeded Lord Cornwallis as the Governor General of India. He expanded the British influence in India by
his famous subsidiary alliances. The local rulers were allowed to rule while the British troops protected them.

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The rulers could not make any other alliances. Rulers of Hyderabad, Oudh and the Maratha Peshawar were
the first among those who accepted it.
Q. Describe how Lord Wellesley got rid of Tipu Sultan?

Lord Wellesley kept Tipu from receiving any help from the French or the Nizam of Hyderabad. He first
captured Mysore, and then defeated and killed Tipu in his fourth Anglo- Mysore war in May 1799, and
captured Serangapatam. The British were assisted by the armies of the Nizam and the Marathas .Thus several
parts of southern India came under the British rule.
Q: Describe the annexation of Sindh.

In 1841, all British troops were killed in a rebellion in Afghanistan causing a serious damage to the British
prestige. They decided to undo this damage, and asked their general Charles Napier to provoke the Amirs of
Sindh who had been on friendly terms with the British since 1809. The Amirs attacked the British Residency in
1843. The British, in turn, attacked and annexed Sindh by defeating the Amirs the same year.
Q: Describe the annexation of the Punjab and the NWFP.

After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, there was a political crisis in the Punjab. The Sikhs, violating the Treaty
of Perpetual Friendship of 1809, attacked the British and were defeated in the Battle of Aliwal in January 1846.
They were penalized and forced to sign the Treaty of Lahore. In the Second Sikh War, 1848-1849, the Sikhs
were defeated again and the Sikh Empire came to end. The British annexed the Punjab and the NWF on 30th
March 1849.
Q: What was the Doctrine of Lapse?

In 1852, Governor General Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. Under this, if a state ruler died
without a natural/male heir, the EIC would annex the state. Soon the states of Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were
annexed by the EIC. The Indian rulers resented the policy greatly, especially when it was misused to take the
state of Oudh in 1856, on the death of its Nawab. Though he had many sons, Dalhousie annexed Oudh on the
excuse of bad governance. It became a reason of the War of Independence, and was abolished in 1858.
Q. Who were Marathas?

Marathas were a ferocious and militant Hindu community living in the Deccan, south India. They excelled in
guerrilla warfare, and offered stiff resistance to the Mughals. They were especially organised under their
dynamic leader Shivaji who laid the foundation of a Maratha Empire in the 1670s. Aurangzeb fought against
them for about 25 years but failed to crush them. So, they became a reason of the decline of the Mughals.
They defeated a huge Mughal army outside Delhi in 1737, and later occupied it in 1760. They were defeated
by the Afghan army of Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1761, in the third battle of Panipat.
Q: What was Thugee ?

It was a very well organized crime committed by secret & well-organaised clans/gangs of criminals in India
called “Thugs”. It was such a huge challenge for the law enforcement agencies in India that even Mughals
couldn’t control it. The secrecy of Thugs was their real weapon that’s why it was nearly impossible to arrest a
thug. These thugs were disguised as respectable members of society and even their family members often
didn’t know about their criminal activities. They worshipped a Hindu Goddess “Kaali-Maata”.

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Q: Describe Vernacular Press Act?

The Vernacular Press act was introduced in 1878 which gave British the power over the local press and the
newspapers. No one was allowed to write against the British in newspapers or he was to be arrested
immediately. It was re-imposed in 1905.
CHAPTER 03
Q: Describe the events of the War of Independence.
In March 1857, the Hindu sepoy Mangal Panday was executed after he had defied his officers. In May, sepoys
in Meerut refused to touch the new greased cartridges. They were court-martialled and jailed, but their
fellows freed them. Several British officers were killed in Meerut. The Mughal King Bahadur Shah Zafar
became the unifying symbol for all the rebels. They soon captured many important cities in northern and
central India. In September, the British began to recapture the lost towns, and the war ended in June 1858.
Q: What happened at the Battle of Kanpur?

In November-December 1857, the rebels led by Nana Sahib Peshwa, captured Kanpur, near Lucknow and held
it out for three weeks. They killed the British officers and slaughtered 300 women and children while taking
several as captives. The British sent reinforcements and recaptured the city. Nana Sahib escaped. The
captured rebels were given horrible punishments in revenge.
Q: Who was Rani of Jhansi/Lakshmibai?

Her name was Laxmibai, and was queen of the North Indian state of Jhansi.In the initial phase of the War of
Independence, she remained friendly with the British. Relations, however, got strained soon after the British
regained control of Lucknow. She led rebel sepoys, assisted by another Indian general Tatya Topi, against the
British. The British, led by Major Hugh Rose, attacked Jhansi, in March 1858. She escaped to Gwalior and was
finally, killed in her last battle, in June 1858.
Q. Who was Mangal Panday?

Mangal Panday was the famoud Indian sepoy in the Bengal Native Infantry of the EIC. He defied the British
officers in March 1857, mobilized many rebels for the 1857 war. He attacked and wounded the British Gen.
Baugh and then another office Hewson. The matter was reported to Gen. Hearsey who immediately controlled
the situation. Mangal Panday was trialed and executed on 8 April 1857. With this, the War of Independence
began and spread to many parts of India.
Q. Describe the reforms made by the British after the war of 1857.
The British issued a Proclamation at Allahabad in 1858 bringing the war to an end. The British recognized some
of the grievances of the Indians but, in practice they paid little attention to their promises. The British said that
they would not interfere in the religious beliefs of the people, they would pay due regard to the ancient
property rights and customs. They agreed to no further territorial acquisition. Rights to appointments in public
service were guaranteed.

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CHAPTER 04
Q. Who was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (S.A.K) ?
He was a great Muslim political and social reformer. He was born in 1817. He was a retired judge,
archaeologist and a famous educationist too. He served the Muslim community of India in politics and
education. When Muslims had severe type of reservation about the British Govt schools then he set up many
schools for the Muslim them in Ghazi pur, Muradabad and Ali Gharh. His most famous Educational projects
were MAO (Muhammadan Anglo Oriental School) and MAO college. This college became university (Ali-Gharh
Muslim University) after his death which proved to be a base-camp for Pakistan-Movement. He was the
creator of “Two Nation Theory”.He was the first person to demand separate electorate for Indian Muslims to
protect their political rights. He founded many educational, scientific , social and political organisations for the
Muslims of India. He died in 1898.
Q. What was the Aligarh Movement?
The efforts of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his colleagues for the collective social economic and political uplift of
the Indian Muslims is called the Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed established the MAO School in 1876 which
became a college in 1877. This was the nursery for several future Muslim leaders of the Pakistan Movement.
His Ghazipore Scientific Society translated the modern English writings into Persian and Urdu.
Q. What was Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory?

Sir Syed’s opposition to various Hindu demands became known as his two nation theory. He opposed their
demand of replacing Urdu with Hindi, and holding of elections on the basis of joint electrorate. He also
opposed the idea of competitive examinations for civil services in India. He proposed a quota system in civil
services, and separate electorate for Muslims.
Q. What was the Indian National Congress?

It was set up as a political organization founded by Sir A.O. Hume and Sir Henry Cotton in 1885. It claimed to
represent all Indians, and convey their concerns to the British. However, since its formation, it was dominated
by the Hindu majority. In 1920, under the leadership of Gandhi, it became a more organized political party.
Jinnah joined it in 1906, but feeling disappointed by its pro-Hindu agenda, and left it in 1920.
CHAPTER 05
Q. How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of Urdu between 1947 and 1999?
Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan. It was made the medium of education in educational
institutes of the public and private sector. Special awards were offered to the best writings in prose and
poetry by the government. Most of the programs, plays and news are broadcast on radio and TV in Urdu.
Federal Ministry of Information has been issuing the monthly “Mah-i-Nau” from Lahore, and a quarterly
“Adabiyat” is issued by the Academy of Letters, Islamabad.
Q. How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of Punjabi since 1947 (1947-1999)?
Punjabi is offered as an optional subject at the college and university level as well as in the competitive
examinations. University of the Punjab has been encouraging research work on Punjabi language and
literature. Government has supported poets and writers like Munir Niazi, Dr Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and

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Ustad Daman for their work. PTV and Radio Pakistan, Lahore have been broadcasting Punjabi plays and other
programs for the promotion of Punjabi.
Q. How has Pakistan promoted the development of Sindhi since 1947 (1947-1999)?
Government set up Sindhi Literary Board in 1948, “Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula” in 1954, and later, Sachal Sarmast
Academy. A department of Sindhology was set up in the Sindh University, Jamshoro to encourage research on
Sindhi language and literature. Under the 1972 Language Bill, Sindhi and Urdu were declared the national
languages of Sindh. Radio stations of Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur, and PTV Karachi have been broadcasting
programs in Sindhi.
Q. How has Pakistan promoted the development of Pashto since 1947 (1947-1999)?
Pushto was promoted by the Peshawar University, and the Academy of Pashto that was established in 1954.
This institute under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Qadir took great pains to compile the first Pashto
dictionary. Pashto is taught at college and university level, and post graduate classes are held in Peshawar
University. Radio Pakistan Peshawar and PTV Peshawar broadcast a variety of programs in Pashto. Abasin Arts
Council has been promoting Pashto theatre.
Q. How has the Pakistan government promoted the development of Balochi since 1947 (1947-1999)? [4]
Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later, PTV Karachi broadcasted programs in Balochi after independence. After the
establishment of PTV Quetta, many more programs began to be telecasted. Baloch Literary Association was
set up for the same purpose. Newspapers like “Awaam” and some weekly and monthly magazines like
“Omaan”, “Sangat” and “Mahatak” were issued in Balochi. Government has patronized prominent poets and
writers in Balochi that include Atta Shad, Ishaq Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din.
CHAPTER 06
Q. What was the Sawadeshi Movement?
It was launched by the Hindu-dominated INC (Congress) to oppose the partition of Bengal in 1905. A boycott
of British goods was observed in several parts of India where the British-made cotton cloth was thrown into
bonfires and Hindus were encouraged to wear locally produced (Videshi) clothes. Educational institutes and
courts were also boycotted and strikes were observed, especially in Calcutta. Protest rallies were organised to
pressurize the British till the reversal of partition of Bengal in 1911.
Q. What was Arya Samaj?
Arya Samaj , Shuddhi and Sang-thun were the movement to promote Hinduism in India. Arya samaj was
founded by “Daya-nand Saras-wati” in 1877. It had been supported by western and northern India. It aimed
to purify Hinduism of some of the impure practices which it had fallen into. It also believed in forceful
conversions of other communities (just like Shuddhi and Sang-thun).Muslims were the specific target of this
movement. It started violence and made attacks on Lord Minto II during partition of Bengal.
Q. What was the Simla Deputation/Delegation?

On 8th October 1906, a delegation of 36 Muslims led by Sir Aga Khan, called on the Viceroy Lord Minto (in the
pic) at Simla. The delegation conveyed to him a set of demands that included the right of separate electorates
for Muslims, and recognizing them in respect of their political importance and the service they had rendered
to the Empire. It asked for a higher percentage of seats in the councils than their numerical strength. The

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Viceroy promised to convince the British government for the acceptance of these demands. This success
became the immediate reason for the formation of the ML (Muslim League) in December 1906.
Q: What was All India Muslim League (M.L)?

The All-India Muslim League, founded at Dacca (now Dhaka, Bangladesh), in the Bengal Presidency, in 1906
founded by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. Its first President was Sir Agha Khan, was a political party in British India
that played a decisive role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement and developed into the
driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state on the Indian subcontinent. After the
independence of India and Pakistan, the League continued as a minor party in India, especially in Kerala,
where it is often in government within a coalition with others. In Pakistan, the League formed the country's
first government, but disintegrated during the 1950s following an army coup.
Q. What was the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (or The Morley-Minto Reforms)?
These were jointly drafted by the Viceroy Lord Minto, and the Secretary of State for India John Morley(in the
Pic). Under these all the councils were enlarged. The Imperial Council now had 60 members, and 60 new
members were added to the Central Executive Council. Provincial Councils were increased to 50 members in
the larger and 30 in the smaller provinces. The councils, however, could not make, amend or annul any law
but could only advise the government on important matters. Muslims were given the right of separate
electorate and, therefore, the INC opposed.
Q. What was Lucknow Pact?

The British had promised more political concessions for Indians in reward for supporting them in W.W-I.
Jinnah wanted both M.L & INC to present a joint charter of demands to show the unity of Indians & to
pressurize the British to get maximum possible concessions. So with the efforts of Jinnah an agreement was
signed between M.L and INC in December 1916 at Lucknow. Jinnah led the ML while Mahajan led the INC. In
this pact, for the first time Congress agreed to the “separate electorate and one-third seats in the Central
Gov.” for Muslims (these were the 2 biggest demands of Indian Muslim community). In return M.L promised
to support INC for the struggle of self-rule (it was the biggest demand of INC). Both INC & M.L demanded more
seats in the Councils, provincial autonomy and protection of minorities. They agreed to make the proposals
binding on the British. It was the first occasion of Hindu-Muslim unity that showed the possibility of starting
some kind of Home Rule campaign. But at the same time the acceptance of separate electorates and one third
Muslim seats by Congress indicated the possible communal divide of India in future.Jinnah got the title of “The
Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity” for playing a vital role in this pact.
Q. Who was Anne Besant?

Annie Besant was born on 1st October, 1847; she was a prominent member of Theosophy (a movement in
Europe & USA with new religious ideologies), women's rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish
and Indian self-rule. In 1873 she moved to London where she became a prominent speaker for the National
Secular Society and writer. In 1890 Annie Besant met Helena Blavatsky (the founder of theosophical
movement) and over the next few years her interest in left wing (non-religious / secular ) politics grew. She
travelled to India and in 1898 helped establish the Central Hindu College in India, in 1908 Annie Besant
became President of the Theosophical Society and began to steer the society away from Buddhism and
towards Hinduism. She also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress. She
granted Jinnah the title “The ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity” for his successful efforts for “Lucknow-Pact-
1916”.

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Q. What were the Mont-Ford reforms (OR The Government of India Act 1919)?
These reforms were jointly drafted by the Secretary of State, John Montague and the Viceroy Lord
Chelmsford. A bicameral set up (a parliament with 2 houses) was introduced at the Centre with an Upper
House, the Council of States, and a Lower House, the Legislative Assembly. Out of 145 members of the
Legislative Assembly, 103 were to be elected. At the provincial level Diarchy was introduced to give a
controlled self-rule to Indians under which two lists of departments were issued.One was titled as reserved
subjects while the other was labled as transferred subjects.Transferred subjects/departments were granted to
local Indian ministers while the reserved subjects/departments were kept for the British Governors.The right
of separate electorates was extended for “Sikhs” also. The number of voters was increased to 5.5 million. Both
INC and ML opposed the reforms because the British kept the strings of real power in their own hands. They
kept the important departments under their own control while less important departments were granted to
Indians. Indians took it as open deception by the British.
Q. What was “Diarchy” system?

In Mont-Ford reforms of 1919 “Diarchy-System” was introduced in India to give a controlled self-rule to
Indians under which two lists of departments were issued. One was titled as Reserved-Subjects while the
other was labeled as Transferred- Subjects. Transferred-Subjects/departments were granted/transferred to
local Indian ministers e.g. Local Govts, Education, Public health, Forestry, Public works(building roads, drains,
streets and parks etc. & providing civic facilities) , while the Reserved-Subjects/departments were
kept/reserved for the British Governors e.g. Justice , Police , Revenue/taxation , Power-resources , Press &
Publications .Both INC and ML opposed/criticized this Diarchy-System because the British kept the strings of
real power in their own hands. They kept the important departments under their own control while the less
important departments were granted to Indians. Indians took it as open deception by the British.
Q. What was the Rowlatt Act?
The British anticipated a violent reaction to the Mont-Ford reforms. They appointed an investigative
committee under Justice Rowlatt in Dec. 1917. In the light of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919.
The Act empowered the local administration/police to arrest anyone without warrant, detain him without the
right of bail and decide where the people in a province should live. Gandhi launched a countrywide strike
against it, and Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest. A protest by 20,000 unarmed
people led to the tragic massacre at Jillianwala Bagh, a public park, in Amritsar, in April 1919.
Q. Describe the Amritsar Massacre?

As part of protest against the Rowlatt Act, there was unrest in Amritsar and five Europeans were killed. An
angry mob of 20,000 gathered in a public park, Jillianwala Bagh. Though all were peaceful protesters, General
Dyer(in the pic), the local British Commander was determined to restore peace as he had banned all public
meetings. He sealed the only exit of the park and ordered a shootout without warning. Over 1600 rounds were
fired and about 400 people were killed while another 1200 were wounded. Dyer was trialed under the Hunter
Committee and was removed from his service without any further punishment.

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CHAPTER 07
Q. What was the All India Khilafat Conference?
It was held in Delhi in November 1919, led by the Ali brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana
Shaukat Ali. They hoped to try and persuade the British to keep their promises about maintaining the respect
of the Turkish Empire. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Gandhi attended it as representatives of the INC. Gandhi
hoped to keep Hindus and Muslims united in his non-violent campaign against the British. Azad warned the
Conference that the British PM Lloyd George planned to punish Turkey for fighting against the British in the
WW1. The Conference passed a resolution for sending a delegation to Britain to tell it about the strength of
the Muslim support for the Khalifa and the institute of Khilafat.
Q. What was the Khilafat Movement?

It was started in 1919 by the Muslim religious leaders of India to save the respect of Turkey and the institute
of Khilafat. Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were.its major
leaders. Gandhi merged his non-cooperation campaign with it. Three Khilafat Conferences were held, a
delegation was sent to the British PM Lloyd George in February 1920 to persuade him for a fair treatment of
Turkey. Thousands of Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in the Hijrat Mpvement in 1920. Jinnah and the ML
stayed away from it but supported the cause of the Khilafat Movement. The Movement ended in 1924 with
the abolition of the Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk.
Q. Who were the Ali brothers?

Both were real brothers; Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar who joined the Muslim
League under the leadership of Sir Muhammad Shafi in 1929. They were the founding members of the “All
India Khilafat conference”. They started the famous Khilafat Movement after the 1st world-war in 1919 to
save the Khilafat and Khalifa of Turkey .Their mother “Bee-Amma” had taken oath from them even to
sacrifice life to defend Makkah & Madinah. After the incident of Chauri-Chaura Ali-Brothers were arrested
alongwith Gandhi.
Q. What was the Moplah uprising?

It was a violent uprising by the Moplahs, the Muslim peasants in South India during the Khilafat Movement.
Moplahs were basically the descendants of Arab traders who had settled in the coastal areas of Malabar
district in ancient times. Their anger was against Hindu landowners and the British. In August 1921, nearly
10,000 Moplahs at Tirur destroyed the police station-and seized all arms and also destroyed Hindu property
including temples. The British troops reacted quickly and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs while several more
were wounded. There were only 100 British casualties. With this the communal violence spread to other parts
of India. Many Hindu groups who were opposed to any Hindu-Muslim unity began to convert Muslims forcibly
to Hinduism.
Q. What was the Hijrat Movement?

The Khilafat leaders in 1920 declared India as Dar ul Harb/a land under the enemy rule and asked Muslims to
migrate to an independent Muslim state/Dar ul Islam. Afghanistan. They reminded the migrant Muslims of the
Holy Prophet's migration to Madinah in 622 AD. About 18,000 Muslims sold their properties and left for
Afghanistan. Their leaders had promised them a bright future but the people and the Government of
Afghanistan refused to accommodate them. Accordingly, they had to return to their homeland to face further
miseries. This was a reason for the failure of the Khilafat Movement.

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Q. What was Satyagraha?

Ans: It was the famous ideology of Gandhi which meant “to follow True Path by passive-resistance”.
According to this ideology a man must not respond violence with violence. We should use peaceful ways to
resist injustice and violence e.g by hunger strikes, long-march, civil-disobedience and non-cooperation etc.
Gandhi used this policy against the British rule continuously. So it was an effective tool for the struggle of
Indian Independence. Gandhi wanted to be on the right path and he stressed the British for self-rule (swaraj)
for India.
Q. What was the Hindu Mahasabah?

Hindu Mahasaba was formed in 1923 by Pandit Mohan Malaviya, a Congressman. It contested its first
elections in 1926. The party made progress when V.D Sawarkar became president. In 1947, the party
condemned the partition settlement as a national disorder and believed that Gandhi's religious tolerance was
a threat to Hindu purity. A fanatic hindu member of Mahasaba Killed Gandhi on 30th January 1948.
Q. What was Civil disobedience Movement?

It was the sequence of “Non-cooperation movement”. Civil disobedience movement was also led by Gandhi.
It’s most prominent phase started in 1930. Its ideologies were divided in three phases. At first, the moderates
would dominate the political scenario. Second was the prominence of the extremist ideologies. Third was
Indian nationalism. Teachers and students left English colleges and schools and set up their own institutions.
Many lawyers gave up their practices as part of a boycott of the English legal system. The followers of INC
refused to pay taxes to the Govt. Gandhi was arrested for launching this movement in 1930 but later he was
released after Gandhi-Irwin Pact as a deal (when Gandhi agreed conditionally to participate in Round Table
Conference in 1931).
Q. What was the Chauri Chaura incident?

Chauri-Chaura was a town near Gorakhpur in U.P (Uttar Pardesh), now in India. A sad incident took place in
February 1922 when during a peaceful procession of K.M (Khilafat movement) the police opened fire to
disperse the mob. During stampede some people were killed and injured. So in reaction the angry mob
attacked on the police station. The policemen shutdown the doors from inside to save their lives. The nob set
the police station on fire. As a result 22 policemen were burnt alive. The whole top leadership of INC and
Khilafat Committee were arrested in the charge of murder. Latter Gandhi withdrew its support for K.M which
became an important reason for the decline of K.M. after this incident Gandhi called off (finished) the Non-
cooperation Movement which was a threat to the British.
Q. Who was Mustafa Kemal Attaturk?

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk 19 May 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish army officer, reformist statesman,
and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey. His surname,
Ataturk (meaning "Father of the Turks"), was granted to him in 1934 and forbidden to any other person by the
Turkish parliament. Ataturk was a military officer during WW I. Ataturk then embarked upon a program of
political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern and
secular nation-state. His government also carried out an extensive policy of Turkification. The principles of
Ataturk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.

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CHAPTER 10
Q. Who was Chaudhry Rahmat Ali?
He was born in 1897 and studied in England in the 1930s. He attended the Round Table Conferences and
developed the idea of struggle for a separate and independent Muslim state comprising Muslim majority
provinces of the north-western India as he was opposed to any kind of an India federation. In 1933, he used
the word 'Pakistan' for the Muslim homeland in his pamphlet, 'Now or Never'. Each letter in the word Pakistan
represented a Muslim majority area. Though he gained popularity, Jinnah considered such a struggle in the
1930s as too premature to be started. So, he remained less popular than Iqbal and Jinnah who even refused to
meet him.
CHAPTER 12
Q. What is a Cabinet?
It is the department under the Prime Minister of the country. I consist of the Federal ministers for every
department. They help in making laws in their departments e.g. Ministers of education irrigation, information
etc.
Q. What is meant by Martial Law?

It is the takeover of the government by the Chief of the Army Staff when there is an emergency in the country.
The Central and Provincial assemblies are dissolved and every department works under the army high official.
Q. What is the difference between democracy and dictatorship?

Democracy is by the people, for the people and of the people every person has the right to speak e.g. Bhutto's
government. Dictatorship is the government of a dictator who does not give an opportunity to the people to
work by their will e.g. Ayub Khan's government". It is mostly military government.
Q. What is a Parliamentary system?

Parliamentary system is when the power rests within the hands of the Prime Minister. President works with
the advice of the Prime Minister. There are two houses, the Upper House (Senate) and th Lower House
(National Assembly).
Q. What is a Presidential system?

It is a Gov. system in democracy in which the President is the sole authority and he has all the powers to make
and amend the laws. He alone rules the government. The constitution under him is presidential one. There is
no Prime minister in this system. During the period of Ayub Khan (1962 to 1969) Pakistan adopted this system.
Its purest & strongest form is found in USA. American president is considered to be the strongest & the most
powerful president in the world.
Q. What is Diarchy or Bicameral Legislature?

It is a Two House system in the Central or Provincial assemblies. In Pakistan our federal/National assembly is a
bicameral one. The Upper House is called Senate and the Lower House is called National Assembly. In some
countries The Upper House has more powers than the Lower House and in some it is vice versa. In Pakistan
there is a balance of power between upper and lower house. Laws are made in lower house (national

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assembly) but these can’t be passed without the review & approval of the upper house (senate).In the end
after the signature of the president a law is imposed.
Q. What was the PRODA Act?

The Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act was introduced during the Governor Generalship of
Khawaja Nizamuddin in 1951. It was an act for the debarring from public office of a suitable period of persons
judicially found guilty of misconduct in any public office or any representative capacity in any matter. Anyone
found guilty under PROD A was debarred from office.
Q. What was the One Unit Policy or the Bogra Formula?

In November 1954, Bogra had proposed that the four provinces and 10 princely states with in Pakistan should
be joined together to form West Pakistan. This order was passed on 5th October 1955. Mirza claimed that the
unification would bring about greater efficiency and enable more rapid development. However, the scheme
was highly unpopular in East Pakistan and was also opposed in the individual provinces of East Pakistan.
Q. What was the U-2 affair?

Pakistan which had gone under USA influence by signing SEATO and CENTO. It allowed them to use heir base
for spying American flew U-2 missions over USSR from (Badabair) Peshawar. It flew over 75000ft height which
was beyond USSR radars. However, they brought down U-2and captured its pilot USSR became very angry and
threatened Pakistan to blow up Peshawar. Pakistan relations with USSR improved when Peshawar air base
was closed.
Q. What was Operation Fair play?

On 5th July 1977 army led by, Chief of Army Staff, General Zia-ul-Haq staged a coup named Operation Fairplay.
It seemed the constitutional government of Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had ended. He was arrested and
charges were levied on him. He declared martial law and announced elections in 90 days. However, like any
dictator went back on his words and ruled for 11 years as a dictator.
Q. Who was Malik Ghulam Muhammad Khan?

Ghulam Muhammad was a capable civil servant who was the Finance Minister in Liaquat Ali Khan's
government. However, on the death of Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951 he was nominated as 3rd Governor General
and Khawaja Nazimuddin became Prime Minister. He ruled till 1955.
Q. Who was Khwaja Nazimuddin?

On the 14th September 1948 Khawaja Nazimuddin took over as Governor General of Pakistan Nazimuddin was
a dedicated leader of Muslim League and had remained Chief Minister of East Pakistan. He was, upright, and
talented politician. As Governor General for Nazimuddin remained in background and gave full power to
Liaquat Ali Khan to run the country. He remained Governor General three years till the assassination of Liaquat
Ali Khan. Then he became Prime Minister and ran the administration till 1953. Governor General Ghulam
Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nazimuddin on charges of food shortages and economic conditions.
Nazimuddin always had national interest in running the country, during the time of Khawaja Nazimuddin
several important measures were taken. He made the Basic Principles Committee.

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HISTORY & CULTURE

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Notes prepared by: Sir Khizar Hayat

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

SOME GEMS FROM MY TREASURE

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Syeda Noor Dawood Public A

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

CHAPTER NAME PAGE

What were the causes and consequences of the

How important was the work of Sir Syed Ahmed

How far did the Pakistan Movement develop

How successful was the Khilafat Movement in

How successful was the Pakistan Movement in the

How successful were attempts to find solutions to

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

How successful was the establishment of an

How far did Pakistan achieve stability following

Why did East Pakistan seek and then form the

How successful was Pakistan in the twenty years

How effective were Pakistan’s governments in the

How important has Pakistan’s role been in world

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Why Shah Waliullah wish to revive Islam in Subcontinent?

Work and contribution

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

 Shia Sunni unity:

 Separate national identity:

 Saved Muslims from Jats and Marathas:

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI

 He was faithful following of Shah Abdul Aziz.

 In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Waliullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya).

 He learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery.

Aims and Objective

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Work and contribution

Q- Why the Jihad Movement of SASB failed?

 He returned to Bengal in 1806.

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Aims and Objective

 Thus he started the Faraizi Movement among the Muslims.

Work and contribution

 Declared India as Dar-ul-Harb:

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Who were Mughals?

Why Mughal Empire declined?

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

East India Company (EIC)

Why EIC attracted toward subcontinent?

 Access to warm water:

British expansion from (1750 to 1852)

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

 Battle of Buxar 1764:

 Anglo Mysore War 1799: