Solar Drying Systems

Solar Drying
Systems

Om Prakash
Anil Kumar
First edition published 2020
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Contents

Foreword by Rebecca R. Milczarek .....................................................................ix

Preface......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................. xiii
Authors...................................................................................................................xv

1. Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems.....................................................1

1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1
1.2 Importance of Drying ...........................................................................3
1.3 Crop Drying Characteristics................................................................6
1.4 Safe Moisture Content ..........................................................................8
1.5 Dried Product Quality Parameters .....................................................8
1.6 Classifcation of Drying........................................................................8
1.7 Introduction to Solar Drying .............................................................10
Problems.......................................................................................................... 11
References ....................................................................................................... 11

2. Drying Methodology....................................................................................13
2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................13
2.2 Moisture Content ................................................................................14
2.3 Moisture Movement Mechanism......................................................15
2.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) .............................................17
2.4.1 EMC Models ...........................................................................17
2.4.1.1 Henderson Equation .............................................18
2.4.1.2 Chung–Pfost Equation..........................................19
2.4.1.3 Modifed Halsey Equation ...................................19
2.4.1.4 Modifed Oswin Equation....................................19
2.5 Drying Theory .....................................................................................19
2.6 Drying Rate Equation .........................................................................20
2.6.1 Constant Drying Rate Period ...............................................21
2.6.2 Falling Drying Rate Period...................................................21
2.7 Shrinkage..............................................................................................22
2.7.1 Shrinkage Model ....................................................................23
2.7.2 Volume Shrinkage..................................................................23
2.7.3 Bulk Density ...........................................................................23
2.7.4 Particle Density ......................................................................23
2.7.5 Dry Solids Density .................................................................24
2.7.6 Equilibrium Density .............................................................. 24
2.7.7 Porosity....................................................................................24

v
vi Contents

2.8 Pretreatments for Drying ................................................................... 24

2.8.1 Pretreatment of Vegetables ................................................... 24
2.8.2 Pretreatment of Fruit ............................................................. 26
Problems..........................................................................................................27
References .......................................................................................................27

3. Various Designs of Solar Drying Systems...............................................29

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 29
3.1.1 Open Sun Drying (OSD) ....................................................... 29
3.1.2 Direct Solar Drying (DSD) .................................................... 31
3.1.3 Indirect Solar Drying (ISD)................................................... 31
3.2 Classifcation of Solar Dryers ............................................................ 34
3.3 Passive Solar Dryers ........................................................................... 35
3.3.1 Direct Passive Solar Dryers .................................................. 35
3.3.2 Cabinet Dryers ....................................................................... 35
3.3.2.1 Normal Absorber Cabinet Dryer......................... 38
3.3.2.2 Reverse Absorber Cabinet Dryer
(RACD).................................................................... 38
3.3.3 Greenhouse Dryers ................................................................ 39
3.3.3.1 Defnition of Greenhouse Effect .......................... 40
3.3.4 Indirect Passive Solar Dryers ............................................... 42
3.3.5 Mixed Mode Passive Solar Dryers ...................................... 43
3.4 Active Solar Dryers............................................................................. 44
3.4.1 Direct Active Solar Dryers .................................................... 45
3.4.2 Indirect Active Solar Dryers ................................................. 45
3.4.3 Mixed Mode Active Solar Dryers ........................................ 45
3.5 Hybrid Solar Dryers ........................................................................... 47
3.6 Innovations in Solar Dryers............................................................... 48
3.7 Miscellaneous Design Solar Dryer ................................................... 49
Problems.......................................................................................................... 51
References ....................................................................................................... 52

4. Performance Analysis of Solar Drying Systems..................................... 55

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 55
4.2 Drying Effciency................................................................................. 56
4.3 Coeffcient of Performance ................................................................ 57
4.4 Thermal Effciency .............................................................................. 57
4.5 Overall Daily Thermal Effciency .....................................................58
4.6 Exergy Analysis...................................................................................58
4.7 Exergy Analysis of Various Solar Dryers.........................................59
4.8 Testing Procedure of Solar Dryers in Load and No-Load
Conditions............................................................................................63
4.8.1 Load Condition ......................................................................63
4.8.2 No-Load Condition ...............................................................63
Contents vii

4.9 Discussion ............................................................................................65

4.10 Performance Characteristics of Various Solar Dryers....................70
Problems..........................................................................................................70
References .......................................................................................................71

5. Thermal Modeling of Solar Drying Systems ..........................................73

5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................73
5.2 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer.................................................74
5.2.1 Convective Heat Transfer .....................................................74
5.2.2 Convective Mass Transfer.....................................................77
5.3 Modeling Procedure for Convective Heat Transfer (CHT)...........82
5.3.1 Case I: Natural Convection ..................................................84
5.3.2 Case II: Forced Convection...................................................84
5.4 Thermal Modeling of Various Types of Dryers ..............................85
5.4.1 Thermal Modeling of Open Sun Drying ............................85
5.4.1.1 Crop Surface...........................................................85
5.4.1.2 Moist Air above the Crop .....................................86
5.4.1.3 Analysis for Steady State Condition...................88
5.4.2 Thermal Modeling of Greenhouse Drying Systems
(TMGDS) .................................................................................89
5.4.2.1 Greenhouse Dryers under Natural
Convection Mode ..................................................89
5.4.2.2 Solution of the Thermal Model for
Greenhouse Dryers under Passive Mode ..........91
5.4.2.3 Greenhouse Dryers under Forced
Convection Mode ..................................................92
5.4.2.4 Solution of the Thermal Model............................93
5.4.3 Thermal Modeling of Indirect Solar Drying (ISD)
Systems....................................................................................94
5.4.3.1 Solar Air Heater .....................................................94
5.4.3.2 Drying Chamber....................................................95
5.5 Statistical Parameters..........................................................................95
5.5.1 Root Mean Square Deviation/Root Mean
Square Error................................................................................. 95
5.5.2 Coeffcient of Correlation (r) ................................................96
5.5.3 Coeffcient of Determination................................................96
5.5.4 Sum of Squared Errors ..........................................................96
5.5.5 Root Mean Square Error (RMSE).........................................96
5.5.6 Mean Percentage Error (MPE) .............................................97
5.5.7 Mean Square Error (MSE).....................................................97
5.5.8 Adjusted R2 ( R 2 ).................................................................... 97
5.5.8.1 Case Study ..............................................................97
Problems........................................................................................................101
References .....................................................................................................102
viii Contents

6. Energy Analysis of Solar Drying Systems.............................................103

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 103
6.2 Embodied Energy of Different Prominent Materials...................106
6.3 Energy Payback Time .......................................................................107
6.4 CO2 Emissions ................................................................................... 107
6.5 Earned Carbon Credit....................................................................... 108
6.6 Energy Analysis of Various Solar Dryers ...................................... 108
6.7 Energy Effciency of Solar Drying Systems................................... 109
6.7.1 Case Study 1: Direct Solar Dryer ....................................... 111
6.7.2 Case Study 2: Indirect Solar Dryer .................................... 112
6.7.3 Case Study 3: Mixed Solar Dryer....................................... 112
Problems........................................................................................................ 119
Nomenclature ............................................................................................... 119
References ..................................................................................................... 119

7. Economic Analysis of Solar Drying Systems ........................................123

7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................123
7.2 Cost Analysis .....................................................................................123
7.2.1 Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) ..........................................124
7.2.2 Uniform Annualized Cost (UAC)......................................124
7.2.3 Sinking Fund Method (SFM)..............................................124
7.3 Cash Flow...........................................................................................124
7.4 Payback Time.....................................................................................125
7.5 Beneft–Cost (B/C) Ratio..................................................................125
7.5.1 Advantages and Limitations of the B/C Ratio................126
7.5.2 Shortcomings of the B/C Ratio..........................................126
7.6 Effect of Depreciation .......................................................................126
7.7 Annual Cost Method ........................................................................127
7.8 Economic Analysis of Various Solar Dryers..................................127
7.8.1 Direct Solar Dryers ..............................................................127
7.8.2 Mixed Mode Solar Dryers...................................................129
7.8.3 Indirect Solar Dryers ...........................................................130
Problems........................................................................................................132
References .....................................................................................................133

Appendix: The Microsoft Excel Templates ................................................... 135

Index .....................................................................................................................137
Foreword by Rebecca R. Milczarek

Much regarding the solar drying of food materials has remained unchanged
in the 14,000 years that cultures around the globe have practiced it. Today, mil-
lions of entities—ranging from smallholder farmers in developing regions to
multinational companies operating on thousands of hectares—still employ
open sun drying to preserve fruit, vegetables, grains, and pulses. The contin-
ued popularity of open sun drying is because it is perhaps the most widely
accessible and low-cost food preservation method available.
While much in this feld has remained the same, since the 1990s there
have been rapid technological advancements in solar drying that promise
to enhance product quality, shorten drying time, and (further) improve the
environmental sustainability of the process. While open sun drying still has
a strong presence, indirect, mixed-mode, and active solar dryer designs are
becoming increasingly popular. A deeper understanding of solar drying’s
mass and energy transport phenomena is now possible through computa-
tional multiphysics modeling programs. New dryer designs can be dissemi-
nated across the globe in mere seconds. The drive to reduce greenhouse gas
and carbon emissions in the food processing industry has also renewed inter-
est in exploring and optimizing solar drying technologies.
Solar Drying Systems is a text that meets this moment. Drs Prakash and
Kumar have brought their collective 15-plus years of solar drying research
and teaching experience to bear on this comprehensive reference and instruc-
tional work. The authors have studied the solar drying of a diverse array
of crops and food products—apple, bitter gourd, gooseberry, jaggery, onion,
tomato, and watermelon, to name a few. The Agricultural Engineering com-
munity widely cites their physics-driven approach to designing and ana-
lyzing solar drying systems’ performance, and this approach forms the
framework of their book. Readers will gain an understanding of both the
fundamental principles of solar drying, which have remained constant over
millennia, as well as recent advances in dryer design, analysis, and optimiza-
tion, which are enabling a modern reimagining of the humble solar dryer.

Looking forward to a bright future,

Dr. Rebecca R. Milczarek
Research Agricultural Engineer
September 2020

ix
Preface

As the rise in demand for fossil fuel has been increasing on day-to-day basis
there is a need to put more attention on renewable energy sources. The sun
is always being considered as an unlimited source of energy. The use of solar
energy is not a new concept; it has been used since earlier in different ways.
Solar drying is one of the most prominent applications of the solar energy. It
is being used since long time for drying of different agricultural products for
farmers and small scale agro based industries.
There is a rapid advancement in the feld of solar dryer due to intensive
research in the feld of solar drying. Due to consistent effort from last three-
decade, solar drying system becomes cost effective as well as energy effcient.
This book presents complete information related to solar dryer. The whole
book is divided into seven chapters.
The frst chapter deals with various fundamentals related to the solar dry-
ing system. The solar drying system is mainly used to dry the agricultural
produce in the low thermal application. It is good in three prospective mainly
economy, environment, and minimization of post harvest loss. In this chap-
ter, importance of drying is also discussed in details Various others related
topics also discussed like crop drying characteristics, safe storage moisture
contents, dried product quality parameters and classifcation of drying. At
last this chapter, put foundation of the solar drying.
The second chapter deals with various drying methodology for the solar
dryer. This methodology is required to make drying process effective. Various
related concepts are to be discussed in detail such as moisture content, equi-
librium moisture content, drying rate, shrinkage and pre-treatment prior to
drying. By proper understanding the concept, it becomes easy to take maxi-
mum advantage of the drying process.
In the third chapter, a compressive review is being presented of the various
state of art solar dryer. Various type of solar dryer with different design are
discussed in this chapter.
Chapter four deals with the performance analysis of the solar drying sys-
tem. This analysis is very important to justify the utility of the solar dryer.
Any newly developed solar dryer is being evaluated based on these per-
formance parameters and compared the results with previous dryer. The
drying effciency, heat utilization factor, coeffcient of performance, thermal
effciency, overall daily thermal effciency, and exergy analysis are the promi-
nent performance analysis parameters based on that any solar dryer is being
judged. These performance parameters are applicable in the all the dryers
with slight modifcation, which vary from case to case to basis.

xi
xii Preface

Chapter fve deals with the thermal modelling of the solar dryer. By the
help of thermal modelling, these parameters can be predicted with high
accuracy namely inside air temperature, inside air relative humidity drying
rate, drying kinetics, and drying potentials.
Chapter 6 present the energy analysis of the solar dryer. All the important
parameters related to energy analysis such as embodied energy, energy pay-
back time, carbon credit and CO2 mitigation are being discussed.
The last chapter deals with economic analysis of the solar dryer. All impor-
tant economic parameters are discussed in this such annual cost, payback
period and others.
We hope that the present content of the book in respect of different tech-
nologies of solar drying can serve the useful information to practicing engi-
neers, learner's, faculty members, and various student of the world. Despite
our best concern and effort, we apologize if some errors are in the manuscript
due to inadvertent mistakes. We would appreciate being informed about the
errors and constructive criticism for the enhancement of the quality of this
book.

Om Prakash
Ranchi, India

Anil Kumar
New Delhi, India
Acknowledgments

This book is a tribute to the engineers and scientists who continue to push
forward the practices and technologies of solar drying systems. It would not
have been completed without the efforts of numerous individuals in addi-
tion to the primary writers, contributing authors, technical reviewers, and
practitioners.
Our frst and foremost gratitude is that we have been given the oppor-
tunity and strength to play our part in the service of society. We also
express our heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Yogesh Singh, Vice Chancellor, Delhi
Technological University, Delhi, India, and the Vice Chancellor of Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India, for their kind encouragement.
We would like to express our thanks to many people, faculty and friends
who provided valuable inputs during the preparation of this text. We
thank especially Dr. Jan Banout, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague,
Czech Republic; Prof. Ahmed M. Abdel-Ghany, King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia; Prof. Shuli Liu, Coventry University, UK; Prof. Cristina L.
M. Silva, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal; Prof. Raquel P. F.
Guiné, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Portugal; Dr. Ashish Shukla, Coventry
University, UK; Prof. Perapong Tekasakul, Prince of Songkla University, Hat
Yai, Songkhla, Thailand; Prof. Samsher, Delhi Technological University, Delhi
(India); Prof. (Retd.) G. N. Tiwari, Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute
of Technology, Delhi, India; and Prof. Emran Khan, Head of Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India, for their
valuable help and suggestions.
We wish to acknowledge our research scholar, Mr. Asim Ahmad, Mechanical
Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India,
and all colleagues for their support and encouragement.
We appreciate our spouses, Mrs. Poonam Pandey and Mrs. Abhilasha, and
our beloved children Ms Shravani Pandey, Master Tijil Kumar, and Ms. Idika
Kumar. They have been a great source of support and inspiration, and their
endurance and sympathy throughout this project have been most valued.
Our heartfelt special thanks go to CRC Press, for publishing this book. We
would also like to thank all those who have been involved, directly or indi-
rectly, in bringing the book to fruition.
Finally, yet importantly, we wish to express our warmest gratitude to our
respected parents – Sh. Krishna Nandan Pandey, Smt. Indu Devi, the late Sh.
Tara Chand, Smt. Vimlesh, and our siblings for their unselfsh efforts to help
in all felds of life.

xiii
Authors

Dr. Om Prakash is working as assistant professor

in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India.
This university is the premier technical university
in India, established in 1955 by Mr. B. M. Birla as a
technical institute and deemed equal to a univer-
sity. Main campus size: 780 acres; total number of
registered students across all centers: more than
10,000; doctoral students: 300; programs offered:
undergraduate, post-graduate, and doctoral.
Dr. Prakash’s experience is in teaching and research. He has nine years’
experience in the feld of energy technology. His areas of specialization are:
energy technology, renewable energy, solar energy applications, energy eco-
nomics, heat transfer, daylighting, energy conservation, and biomedical. He
has one government-funded project of 18.5 lakhs.
He has published 30 papers in international peer-reviewed journals, 15
papers in international/national conference proceedings, and 16 chapters
in books published internationally. His papers are cited in reputed relevant
journals. He has received more than 892 citations, with an h-index of 17. With
his supervisor, he developed a thin-layer drying model in 2014, known as
the “Prakash and Kumar model.” This model is used and cited by many
researchers around the globe. He is the author of four books (one national
and three international editions). He is a contributing author to a book pub-
lished in 2020 by CRC Press, Energy Management: Conservation and Audits. He
has also fled and published two patents—one for a solar dryer and another
in biomedical. He is supervising two Ph.D. scholars and 10 Masters students.

Dr. Anil Kumar is associate professor in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, with addi-
tional charge of Additional Coordinator, Centre for
Energy and Environment, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India. He gained his Ph.D. in
Solar Energy from the Centre for Energy Studies,
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India, in 2007.
He was a post-doctoral researcher at the Energy
Technology Research Center, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla
University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand, in the discipline of Energy
Technology from June 2015 to May 2017. He also served as assistant

xv
xvi Authors

professor at the Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of

Technology Bhopal, India, from 2010 to 2018, and assistant professor in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University Institute of Technology,
Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal, India, from 2005 to
2010. The nature of his experience is teaching and research (science, technol-
ogy, society, and sustainable development). His areas of specialization are:
energy technology, renewable energy, solar energy applications, energy eco-
nomics, heat transfer, natural rubber sheet drying, and environmental issues,
and has successfully completed many research funded projects in these areas.
He has more than 14 years’ experience in the feld of energy technology. He
has published 120 papers in international peer-reviewed journals and 75
papers in the international/national conference proceedings. His papers are
cited in all the reputed relevant journals. He has received more than 3000+
citations, with a 30 h-index. Working with his student, he developed a thin-
layer drying model in 2014; it is known as the “Prakash and Kumar model.”
This model is used and cited by many researchers around the globe. He is an
author of nine books (four national and fve international editions). He is a
contributing author to the book entitled Energy Management: Conservation and
Audits, published by CRC Press in 2020.
He has also fled and published three patents—one on solar dryers and
another on solar photovoltaic thermal collectors. He has supervised seven
Ph.D. scholars and 33 Masters students. Dr. Kumar has visited a number of
countries, including the UK, Thailand, and Malaysia, and has received vari-
ous awards and appreciation from reputed sources. Some of these are listed
below:

• Commendable Research Award 2019: for publishing quality research

papers in Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India.
• Research Excellence Award 2016: the researcher has Top 20 publications
from the Web of Science database, honored by Dr Chusak Limsakul,
President Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand.
• Appreciation for outstanding services from Chairman BOG and Director,
M.A.N.I.T., Bhopal, India, International Institute of Engineers, Kolkata,
Elsevier, etc.
• Best Paper Award in Global Conference on Energy and Sustainable
Development (GCESD 2015), February 24–26, 2015 at Coventry University
Technology Park, Puma Way, Coventry, West Midlands, UK.
1
Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems

1.1 Introduction
Plants are the primary source of food for the human population. Human
food is further categorized as perishable, non-perishable, processed, raw,
fresh, manufactured, organic and foods usable in various ways. The preser-
vation of food is also crucial. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) reported that many people in developing countries
are acutely malnourished (www.fao.org), and it is certain that extra crops
will need to be cultivated to guarantee food safety. This situation is mainly a
result of an increase in population (Chauhan and Kumar, 2016). An alterna-
tive solution is to minimize loss at the levels of pre-harvest, during harvest,
and post-harvest. Among these three types of loss of the crop, post-harvest
loss is the most prominent. Post-harvest loss occurs mainly because of micro-
bial degradation of the crop. Microbial growth depends primarily on storage
conditions and moisture content. However, different kinds of microorgan-
isms have dissimilar growth rates, relating to conditions such as product,
storage atmosphere, content, etc. (Matthews et al., 2019).
The main methods of preservation to ensure the minimization of post-
harvest loss of the food product are freezing, vacuum sealing, canning, and
preserving with sugar, irradiating fruit, applying preservatives, and drying.
Drying is the most environomical method for minimization of post-harvest
loss. The process can be used for various types of food products for long-term
preservation with minimum compromise to the product quality, texture, and
color (Aumporn et al., 2018). The drying process is a very energy-intensive
process. Figure 1.1 represents energy consumption for drying as seen from
the global perspective.
Dried food takes up very little space compared to frozen and canned food.
However, it cannot be used as a substitute for freezing and canning meth-
ods because of their capacity to retain taste, appearance and nutritive value.
Drying occurs through heat and mass transfer of the dryable product. The
fow of energy is presented in Figure 1.2.

1
2 Solar Drying Systems

100%

80%

Retail, preparation and cooking

60% Processing and distribution
Fisherish production
Livestock production
40% Cropping production

20%

0%
Global High-GDP Low-GDP
countries countries
~95 EJ-yr–1 ~50 EJ-yr–1 ~45 EJ-yr–1

FIGURE 1.1
Global energy use in the food sector (Lamidi et al., 2019).

SURFACE

INNER PART OUTER PART

X T P Tair

MASS Transfer XS PWS MASS Transfer

Moisture diffusion
Moisture diffusion TS TS
Convection
Capillary
HEAT Transfer

HEAT Transfer Conduction

Conductivity Convection
Radiation

FIGURE 1.2
Transportation of heat and mass transfer from the inner to the outer part of the product.

There has been intensive research in the feld of drying, with the aim of
making it more effective and less expensive. Every year, more and more
publications are produced regarding this feld. A graphical representation is
shown in Figure 1.3.
To take maximum advantage of drying, it is very important to select pre-
and post-processing of the product both before and after the drying event.
Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems 3

3500
2929
3000
Number of publications

2686
2412 2420
2500
18901888
2000 1758 1748
1486
1500 1371 1314
1259
1019 981
894 883
1000 734* 735 705 736 652

500

0
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
Year

FIGURE 1.3
Trend of research publications from 2000–2019 (Menon et al., 2020).

The selection of a suitable dryer is also an important consideration in mini-

mizing the drying time and retaining the nutrient content of the dried prod-
uct. Based on the capacity of the dryer, the drying load per batch is to be
estimated. The pre-processing of the dryable products includes osmotic
dehydration, blanching, salting, and soaking. However, based on the prod-
uct to be dried, the pre-processing method varies from case to case. The main
post-processing operations carried out on the dried products are coating and
packaging. These have a deep impact on preserving the product over a long
time span.

1.2 Importance of Drying

It is well known that developing countries are facing problems of food secu-
rity. There are two ways to attain this food security. The frst is to increase
productivity by more farming, and the second is to minimize losses. There
are serious problems in increasing farming because it is already in the satu-
ration stage. In India, agricultural commodities contribute 18% of the gross
domestic product (GDP) of the country. Agriculture also provides 50% of the
employment of its citizens. Hence there is very little scope to increase the
area of agriculture. However, recent studies reveal that, on average, 16% of
4 Solar Drying Systems

TABLE 1.1
Post-Harvest Losses of Various Prominent Agricultural Commodities in India
Serial No. Commodities % Loss
1 Grains 4.65–5.99
2 Pulses 6.36–8.41
3 Fruits and vegetables 4.58–15.88
4 Floriculture 30–35
5 Medicinal and aromatic plants Not estimated
6 Oil seeds 3.08–9.96

the agricultural produce is wasted at the post-harvest level. Crop can also
be lost in the pre-harvest and during harvest, but post-harvest loss is very
prominent. Table 1.1 shows the post-harvest loss of agricultural commodities
in India.
It is therefore very important to minimize this loss at the post-harvest level
with a minimum investment of both energy and economy.
Drying emerges as one of the most prominent solutions to minimizing
post-harvest loss with the least use of energy and economy. It is a complex
method that involves at the same time heat and mass transfer along with sev-
eral other processes. This results in physical/chemical damage which leads
to variations in the quality and shape of the product. These are the promi-
nent changes that occur during the drying process, i.e., shrinkage, crystal-
lization, puffng, transformations from shrinkage, variance in color, texture,
and aroma, along with other changes that occur as a result of a compound
reaction (Singh and Shrivastava, 2017).
The important features of food drying are as follows:

1. The working temperature has a wide range, from triple point to the
critical point of the produce’s moisture level.
2. Working pressure is in a wide range, with the lower atmospheric pres-
sure to 25 bar.
3. Drying loads are across a wide range, from 0.10 kg/h to 100kg/h.
4. The drying time has a wide range, from less than 1 second to 5 months.
5. The thickness of the produce is in wide ranges from microns to tens of
centimeters.
6. Porosity of the produce is in a wide range, from 0%–99.9%.
7. All three types of heat transfer take place simultaneously.
Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems 5

Sustainable agricultural
produce drying

Improving the efficiency of Sustainable agricultural

existing dryers produce drying

Insulation Heat Operating Renewable Combined power

recirculation circulation energy sources and drying

Solar Biomass Biogas Heat Geothermal

drying drying drying pump drying

Hybrid drying Heat storage system

FIGURE 1.4
Classifcation of sustainable agricultural produce drying (Lamidi et al., 2019).

Drying is a highly energy-consuming process which uses 10–20% of total

energy from various developed countries. Hence it is very important to
develop energy effcient drying. Another way of saving energy is by using
renewable energy sources for the process (Kumar et al., 2017). Figure 1.4
presents the broad classifcation of the drying of sustainable agricultural
produce. This includes both renewable and non-renewable energy-driven
dryers.
The behavior of the moist air can be explained clearly with the help of a
psychometric chart, and the chart can also explain the drying phenomenon.
In drying there are two major parameters, namely temperature and humid-
ity. Both parameters are shown in the chart. Hence researchers and student
can use this chart to determine the drying behavior. A sample of a psycho-
metric chart is given in the Figure 1.5.
6 Solar Drying Systems

120 140
35

30
100
30

0 .9
25

gm Water/gm of Dry Air

80

ty
dii
0% (C)
25

mi
20

10 re

Hu
tu

70 0%

0.9
ra

e
60

tiv
pe

8
90

0
la
% 60%
m

Re
20
Te

15
n

t
io

ra

%
40 atu

50
40
S 15
or 10
ulb %
B 30
0.85

et 10
W
20 20%
5
5
0 10%
0.80

0 –5

0%
0
–10 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Temeperature (°C)

FIGURE 1.5
A classical psychometric chart.

1.3 Crop Drying Characteristics

The main aim of the crop drying process is to reduce the amount of water
content in the crop to a safe storage level in order to increase its shelf life
(Elkhadraoui et al., 2015). After the product is dehydrated or dried, the rate of
degradation will be decreased because of the reduction of microbial activity and
resulting biochemical reactions. It eliminates not only post-harvest losses but
also transport costs and storage space once a large quantity of water has been
removed from the crop. Different crops contain varying amounts of moisture.
Table 1.2 lists selected crops with their initial and fnal moisture content. To
ensure a long shelf life, each crop is dried to reach a different fnal moisture
content. To attain the chosen moisture content, crops have to be dried at the
maximum allowable temperature to avoid over- or under-drying. Both of
these states have a negative impact on a crop’s shelf life, therefore it is essen-
tial to maintain the maximum allowable temperature when drying.
Crops can also be classifed based on moisture content. There are three
types of crops, with high, medium, and low moisture content. High moisture
content crops contain moisture greater than 80%, medium moisture content
crops contain moisture of between 30% and 80%, and the remaining crops
Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems 7

TABLE 1.2
Initial and Final Moisture Content and Maximum Allowable Temperatures
for Drying a Range of Crops
Initial Moisture Final Moisture Maximum Allowable
Content Content Temp. (oC)
Crop (%, w.b.) (%, w.b.)
Paddy rice, raw 22–24 11 50
Paddy rice, parboiled 30–35 13 50
Maize 35 15 60
Wheat 20 16 45
Corn 24 14 50
Rice 24 11 50
Pulses 20–22 9–10 40–60
Oil seed 20–25 7–9 40–60
Green peas 80 5 65
Caulifower 80 6 65
Carrot 70 5 75
Green beans 70 5 75
Onion 80 4 55
Garlic 80 4 55
Cabbage 80 4 55
Sweet potato 75 7 75
Chilies 80 5 65
Apricot 85 18 65
Apples 80 24 70
Grapes 80 15–20 70
Bananas 80 15 70
Guavas 80 7 65
Okra 80 20 65
Pineapple 80 10 65
Tomatoes 96 10 60
Brinjal* 95 6 60
Prakash and Kumar (2014).
* Eggplant.

come under the category of low moisture content crops. Each crop has differ-
ent moisture diffusivity, which is the rate of movement of moisture without
any specifed mechanism.
Therefore, based on the type of crop, drying parameters must be adjusted
in order to reach the best outcome from the drying process. For low moisture
content crops, a thick-layer drying process is recommended, but for medium
and high moisture content crops, a thin-layer drying process is advised.
The relative humidity also plays a very important role in the drying process.
The relative humidity of the drying chamber should be kept to a low level.
8 Solar Drying Systems

1.4 Safe Moisture Content

Safe moisture content (SMC) is a very important parameter for dried prod-
ucts, as each product has an individual safe moisture content level. The list
in Table 1.2 presents details of some selected crops with initial and fnal
moisture contents. The fnal moisture content is the same as the safe mois-
ture content of the crop. If the moisture of the dried product is greater than
the safe moisture content then the shelf life of the product will be reduced
considerably and products will quickly degrade, leading to huge fnancial
consequences. Hence it is very important to keep the moisture content of the
dried product within the safe moisture limit.

1.5 Dried Product Quality Parameters

There is a global emphasis on the quality of dried food products because of
its important impact on human health. This includes both external and inter-
nal variables for product quality (Huddar and Kamoji, 2019).
To ensure a satisfactory level of nutrient content in food products, stan-
dardization is being adopted, and both national and international standards
have been set up to monitor dried food production. Approved products
are usually tagged with a suitable symbol (Agricultural Products Act, 1937,
under the Ministry of Agriculture).
There are two major consideration in the case of dried food products: exter-
nal and internal factors. External factors include shrinkage, color, favor/
taste, texture, etc.. while internal factors are classifed into four subdivisions—
namely nutritional content, chemical content, thermo-physical, and microbial.
The nutritional content includes loss of proteins and vitamins, and
minerals such as potassium, magnesium, etc. Chemical content includes
discoloration, browning, etc. The thermo-physical category includes
thermal conductivity, specifc heat, bulk and actual density, and surface
fracture. The microbial subdivision includes primarily contamination by
microorganisms.

1.6 Classification of Drying

There are many types of the drying methodology available across human
society. Figure 1.6 presents a detailed classifcation of the drying system.
 Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems
DRYING & DRYER
CLASSIFICATION

CONVENTIONAL DRYERS SOLAR-ENERGY

DRYING

BULK OR STORAGE BATCH & CONTINOUS FLOW “NATURAL

(LOW TEMPERATURE) DRYERS (HIGH TEMPERATURE) DRYERS SOLAR-ENERGY
OPEN TO SUN DRYING DRYERS

CROPS DRIED IN-SITU POST HARVEST DRYING ACTIVE DRYERS

PASSIVE DRYERS

DRYING ON GROUND DISTRIBUTED TYPE MIXED MODE INTEGRAL TYPE DISTRIBUTED TYPE MIXED MODE INTEGRAL TYPE
MATS OR CONCRETE DRYING ON TRAYS DRYERS DRYERS DRYERS DRYERS DRYERS DRYERS
FLOORS

VERTICAL OR INCLINED CABINET GREENHOUSE

HORIZONTAL TRAYS
RACKS DRYERS DRYERS

FIGURE 1.6
Classifcation of drying and dryers (Ekechukwu and Norton, 1999).

9
10 Solar Drying Systems

The drying process is classifed into two types, conventional and solar.
Conventional dryers cover all types of mechanical and electrical dryers.
They are very harmful to the atmosphere and costly in operation. In con-
trast, the operating cost of solar dryers is almost zero and it is very envi-
ronmentally friendly. Solar dryers have been used for generations to dry
agricultural produce using open sun drying, also called natural sun drying.
But one disadvantage of this method is that, because of changes in the cli-
mate, it is not always reliable. Hence controlled solar drying is becoming
increasingly popular. Controlled solar dryers are operated in both modes
of heat transfer, namely the natural convection mode, and the forced mode.
The solar dryer is classifed based on the operational mode of heat transfer
(Dhalsamant et al., 2018).

1.7 Introduction to Solar Drying

Solar energy is the most prominent source of renewable energy because it is
both plentiful and non-polluting. It is also sustainable, affordable, and eco-
friendly. The Earth receives some 4000 trillion kWh of electromagnetic radia-
tion every day from the sun. The use of solar energy in tropical climatic zones
is very feasible, where at least six hours of sun radiation is received daily at
approximately 520–820 W/m2 of radiation per hour.
The drying processes are very energy intensive, and the primary energy
sources used for drying are fossil fuels. The depletion rate of fossil fuels is
very high, and therefore solar energy emerges as a promising alternative
energy source. Huge amounts of fossil fuels can be saved by using solar
energy (Kumar et al., 2016).
A solar dryer is a system that utilizes solar radiation for the drying opera-
tion, as shown in Figure 1.7. There are primarily two types of solar dryer, the
open sun dryer and the managed dryer.
Because of changes in the climate across the world, the use of open sun
drying is becoming limited, and the use of managed solar drying is more
effective in this situation. Such solar dryers can be operated by a forced, nat-
ural, or mixed mode of heat transfer (Kant et al., 2016). A proper solar dryer
is selected based on location and necessity. The solar drying system can be
used either for drying thin layers or for deep bed drying.
Fundamentals of Solar Drying Systems 11

FIGURE 1.7
Natural solar drying (Prakash and Kumar, 2014).

Problems
1.1 Describe the need for a solar drying system in the current scenario?
1.2 Explain the importance of the drying of agricultural produce.
1.3 Critically analyze crop drying characteristics.
1.4 Critically analyze the safe storage moisture content.
1.5 Defne the quality for a dried product and its importance?
1.6 Classify the various types of drying processes.
1.7 Discuss the introduction of solar drying in the present scenario.

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