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Chapter 12

Electric Fields

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H2 Physics (Syllabus 9749)

Content

 Concept of an electric field

 Electric force between point charges
 Electric field of a point charge
 Uniform electric fields
 Electric potential

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) show an understanding of the concept of an electric field as an example of a field of force and define
electric field strength at a point as the electric force exerted per unit positive charge placed at that
point.

(b) represent an electric field by means of field lines.

(c) recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of electric field and
gravitational field.

Q1Q2
(d) recall and use Coulomb’s law in the form F  for the electric force between two point
4 0 r 2
charges in free space or air.

Q
(e) recall and use E  for the electric field strength of a point charge in free space or air.
4 0 r 2

(f) calculate the electric field strength of the uniform field between charged parallel plates in terms of
the potential difference and plate separation.

(g) calculate the forces on charges in uniform electric fields.

(h) describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles.

(i) define the electric potential at a point as the work done per unit positive charge in bringing a small
test charge from infinity to that point.

(j) state that the field strength of the electric field at a point is numerically equal to the potential gradient
at that point.

Q
(k) use the equation V  for the electric potential in the field of a point charge, in free space or
4 0 r
air.

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Contents Pg

H2 Physics Syllabus 9749 ..................................................................................................................... 2

12.1 Review of Basic Concepts ............................................................................................................ 4
12.2 The Electric Field ......................................................................................................................... 6
12.2.1 Electric Field Strength ....................................................................................................... 6
12.2.2 Electric Field Lines ........................................................................................................... 7
12.2.3 Force between Two Point Charges (Coulomb’s Law) .................................................... 10
12.2.4 Electric Field around a Point Charge .............................................................................. 12
12.3 Electric Potential ........................................................................................................................ 13
12.3.1 Potential due to a Point Charge ....................................................................................... 14
12.3.2 Electric Potential Energy ................................................................................................. 15
12.4 Relation between Potential Energy and Electrical Force ....................................................... 18
12.4.1 Relation between Potential Gradient and Electric Field Strength ................................... 19
12.5 Representation of Electric Fields by Equipotential Lines or Surfaces .................................. 19
12.6 Electric Field between Two Charged Parallel Plates .............................................................. 22
12.6.1 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field ............................................... 22
12.7 Analogy between Electric fields and Gravitational Fields ..................................................... 24
Tutorial................................................................................................................................................ 25

References
Jewett, J. W., & Serway, R. A. (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. (7th ed.). Belmont, USA: Thomson Learning, Inc.

Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (Eds.). (2007). University Physics with Modern Physics (12th Edition ed.): Addison Wesley.

Duncan, T. (2000). Advanced Physics. (5th ed.). London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.

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12.1 Review of Basic Concepts

Electrical Charges
Many of us could have encountered such an experiment in our secondary school years. When a glass rod
that has been rubbed with a silk cloth is brought near another rubber rod which has been rubbed with fur,
they attract each other. However, when two rubber rods which have been rubbed with fur are brought
together, they repel each other (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. (a) A negatively charged rubber rod

is attracted to a positively charged glass
rod. (b) A negatively charged rubber rod is
repelled by another negatively charged
rubber rod. {Jewett, 2008}

Using similar experiments like the one described above, Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790) showed that:

 There are two kinds of charges - positive charge and negative charge. (It was later discovered
that electrons carry negative charge while protons carry positive charge)
 Charges of the same sign repel one another. Charges with opposite signs attract one another.

Atomic Structure
All materials are made up of atoms. The structure of atoms
can be described in terms of three particles – the negatively
charged electron, the positively charged proton and the
neutral neutron.
The protons and neutrons in an atom make up a small, very
dense core called the nucleus, which is approximately 10-15
m in size (Fig. 2). Surrounding the nucleus are electrons,
extending out to distances of approximately 10-10 m from the
nucleus. These negatively charged electrons orbit the
nucleus and the attractive electrical force on the electrons by
the protons provides the force required to keep the electrons Fig. 2. The structure of an atom. The
in orbit. particular atom depicted here is lithium.
(Young & Freedman, 2007)

The electrical charge and the mass of the electrons, protons and neutrons are given in the table below:

Charge Mass

Electron -e = -1.60 x 10-19 C 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Proton +e = 1.60 x 10-19 C 1.67 x 10-27 kg

Neutron No charge (0 C) 1.68 x 10-27 kg

*e is known as the fundamental charge or the elementary charge.

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Neutral Atoms, Positive Ions and Negative Ions
A neutral atom is one in which the number of electrons equals the number of protons. If one or more
electrons are removed from this atom, the atom becomes positively charged and is known as a positive
ion. A negative ion is an atom that has gained one or more electrons. This process of gaining or losing
electrons is called ionisation. (Fig. 3 illustrates an example.)

Fig. 3. (a) A neutral lithium atom has equal

number of protons and electrons. (b) A
positive lithium ion has a deficit of electrons.
(c) A negative ion has an excess of
electrons. (Young & Freedman, 2007)

Furthermore, when the total number of protons in body equals the number of electrons in the body, the total
charge is zero and the body is on the whole electrically neutral. To charge a body negatively, we add
electrons to the originally neutral body so that it has excess negative charges. Similarly, to positively
charge a body, we can remove electrons (or sometimes add protons). Hence, when we speak of charge
of a body, we always mean its net charge.

Principles of Conservation and Quantization of Charges

Implicit to the discussion above are two very important principles:
 Principle of Conservation of Charges
 Principle of Quantization of Charges

Principle of Conservation of Charges:

The principle of conservation of charges states that charges cannot be created or destroyed.
Hence, for any closed system, the sum of all electric charges must be constant.

Suppose we rub a plastic rod with a piece of fur, both initially uncharged, and the plastic rod acquires a
positive charge and the fur a negative charge. The principle of conservation of charges tells us that the
positive charge acquired by the rod must be equal in magnitude to the charge on the fur. The rod has
acquired a positive charge as it has transferred its electrons to the fur. Hence, in the charging process,
charge is not created or destroyed; it is merely transferred from one body to another.

Principle of Quantization of Charges

In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868 – 1953) discovered that electric charge always occurs as integral
multiples of a fundamental amount of charge e which is also known as the elementary charge.
Charges are therefore said to be quantized, i.e. any charge q must be equal to  Ne where N is some
integer. (See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment.)

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12.2 The Electric Field

How do objects not in contact with each other affect each other’s behaviour? How does a proton exert a
pull on an electron at a distance? To explain ‘action at a distance’, physicists developed the idea of a field.
You have learnt about the gravitational field that results from the presence of a mass. In this chapter you
will learn about the electric field, which comes about due to the presence of charge.

The electric force between charged objects is an example of action at a distance. One charged object
exerts a force on another even though they are not in physical contact. Object A sets up a (force) field in
the space around it. When a second object B is in the field set up by A, object B experiences a force (Fig.
4). Just as object B experiences a force as it is in the field set up by A, it also generates an electric field
around itself and hence A experiences a force by B as it is in the electric field set up by B.

Fig. 4. When the charged object B is placed in the

electric field set up by charged object A, it experiences
a force. Similarly, A experiences a force as it is in the
field of B. (Young & Freedman, 2007)

Electric Field

An electric field is a region of space where a charge will experience an electric force.

12.2.1 Electric Field Strength

Definition: Electric Field Strength, E

The electric field strength E at a point is the electric force per unit positive charge acting on a small test mass placed
at the point.
F
E
q

 Electric field strength is a vector quantity.

 The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction of the electric force experienced by a
positive test charge if placed at that point.

The S.I. unit of electric field strength is newton per coulomb (N C–1).

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Force on a charge q due to an Electric Field E
From the definition of electric field strength E, if a charge q is placed in an electric field where the field
strength is E, the field will exert a force F on the charge given by

F  qE
Notes:
From the equation above we see that:
o the magnitude of the force on the charge placed in the field is given by F  qE

o The direction of the force on the charge is the same as that of the electric field at the point if the
charge q is positive.
o The direction of the force on the charge is opposite to that of the electric field if the charge q is
negative.

Example 1
An isolated electron (in a vacuum) near the surface of the earth was found to be accelerating directly away
from the surface with an acceleration a = 2.63 x 106 m s–2.
[elementary charge, e = 1.60 x 10–19 C, mass of the electron, me = 9.11 x 10–31 kg]

Fig. 5

(a) What is the direction of the electric field near the surface of the earth at its location?
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field near the surface.

Solution:
a) Since the direction of the electric field is defined as the direction of the
force acting on a positive charge, it is opposite to the direction of the force
on the electron, ie towards Earth.

b) Since the force on the electron can be expressed as

The electrical field strength is given by
. .
1.50 10
.

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12.2.2 Electric Field Lines
A convenient way of visualizing electric field patterns is to draw straight or curved lines that are parallel to
the electric field vector at every point in space. These field lines are also known as lines of force as they
represent the direction of the force experienced by a positive charge placed at that point in the field.
In general, the electric field lines must be able to represent the variations in the magnitude and direction
of the electric field in a region of space, which is done in the following manner:

o Magnitude of the Strength of the Electric Field:

 The number of field lines per unit area, through a surface perpendicular to the lines, is
proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
 Hence, where the lines are close together, the electric field is strong, while where the
lines are far apart, the field is weak (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Electric field lines penetrating two surfaces. Fig. 7. The electric field at point P is
The magnitude of the field is greater on surface A tangent to the field line through P.
than on surface B. (Jewett & Serway, 2008)

o Direction of the Electric Field:

 The direction of the electric field strength E at a point in an electric field is tangent
to the electric field line at that point and is the same as that of the electric field (Fig. 7).

Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines1:

i. Electric field lines must begin from a positive charge and end on a negative charge. In the
case of an excess of one type of charge, some lines will begin or end infinitely far away.

ii. The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

iii. Field lines do not intersect because E at a point can only point in one direction.

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There are also rules associated with drawing field lines from equipotential lines. We will cover that in a later section and
summarize all the rules there.
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Fig. 8 (a) to (f) illustrates the field patterns of some common charge systems.

(a) Single positive charge (b) Single negative charge

(c) Two positive charges of equal magnitude (d) Two opposite charges equal in magnitude

(e) Two opposite charges, the magnitude of one charge being (f) A pair of oppositely-charged parallel plates2
twice the magnitude of the other

Fig. 8. Electric field of some common charge systems. (Jewett & Serway, 2008)

Electric field lines are not real. They are only used as a pictorial representation to provide a
qualitative description of the electric field. Only a finite number of lines from each charge can be
drawn, which makes it appear as if the field only exists in certain parts. The field, in fact, is
continuous, existing at every point. Avoid obtaining the wrong impression from a two-dimensional
drawing of field lines used to describe a three-dimensional situation.

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The charged parallel plates are said to produce a uniform electric field between them (indicated by the parallel lines between the
plates), except near the edges, where there are fringe effects. This is because the charges at the edges are not distributed uniformly,
unlike the other charges that are nearer to the centre of the plates.

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12.2.3 Force between Two Point Charges (Coulomb’s Law)

As stated earlier, when a charge Q is placed near another charge Q', each of them will experience a force
as they are in the field set up by the other charge. If Q and Q' are point charges, the magnitude of the force
can be determined by Coulomb's Law.

r
Q Q’
F F

Fig. 9. The force F between two point charges is determined by Coulomb's Law.

Coulomb’s Law
The magnitude of the electrical force acting between two point charges is proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
1 QQ '
F
4 0 r 2
where F : magnitude of the force between charges Q and Q'
ε0 : permittivity of free space, and
r : the distance between Q and Q'

Notes:
o There are, in reality, one force F acting on Q and another force F’ acting on Q'. These two forces are
actually an (Newton's Third Law) action-and-reaction pair.
o Permittivity:
In the S.I. system of units, the constant of proportionality in Coulomb's Law is usually written as 1/4πε.
The constant ε is known as permittivity. Permittivity is a property of the medium, i.e. its value depends
on the medium in which the charges are placed. If the space between the charges is ‘free space’ (or
vacuum), its permittivity (known as permittivity of free space) will be denoted as ε0.

ε0 = 8.85×10-12 F m-1

where F (farad), is the unit for capacitance (expressed in SI units). 1F = 1CV-1.

For most practical purposes the permittivity of ‘air’ is the same as that of 'free space'.
When using Coulomb’s Law, just substitute the magnitude of the charges (without the signs)
to find the magnitude of the force.
Indicate the direction of the force (or whether it is attractive or repulsive) separately.

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The Principle of Superposition (for electrical forces)
What happens if there are more than two charges?
The force between any two charges in a group of charges is independent of the presence of the other
charges. Hence, when more than two charges are present, the force between any pair of them is still
governed by Coulomb's law.
The resultant force on any one of them is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted by
the other individual charges.
For example, if four charges are present, the resultant force exerted by particles 2, 3 and 4 on particle 1 is
given by
   
F = F12 + F13 + F14 .

Example 2:
In a water molecule, the oxygen atom acts as a negative point charge of magnitude 1.1 × 10-19 C and the
hydrogen atoms act as positive point charges of magnitude 0.55 x 10-19 C. The distance r between each
hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom is 1.0 x 10-10 m.

Calculate the net force due to the two hydrogen atoms

experienced by the oxygen atom.
105o

Fig. 10. Figure for Example 2.

Solution:
The magnitude of the force on the oxygen
atom due to a hydrogen atom is given by
1.1 10 0.55 10
4 8.85 10 1.0 10 75
5.44 10

Hence by Cosine rule,

Net force, 6.62 10
52.5 from either of the lines that joins the oxygen atom to the
hydrogen atoms.

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12.2.4 Electric Field around a Point Charge

With the electric field strength E defined, and Coulomb's Law, we can now quantitatively describe the
electric field around a point charge.

Consider an isolated point charge Q that is placed in free space. An electric field is set up by Q, in the
space around it. If a small positive charge q is brought into the space and is placed at a distance r from Q,
a force F will be exerted by the field of Q on the charge q.

P+ 
P r r P
test charge, q
Q Q
Q + +
+

(a) What is the electric (b) A positive test charge q is placed (c) The electric field at P is the force per
field at P due to a at P and the force on the test unit charge exerted by Q on the test
point charge Q? charge is measured. charge at P.
Fig. 11. Determining the electric field of a point charge

According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of repulsion or attraction between Q and q is

1 Qq
F
4 0 r 2

Hence, the magnitude of the electric field strength of a point charge Q at a distance r away from the
point charge,
F
E
q
1 Q
 E
4 0 r 2

Fig. 12. Electric field of a point charge Q

Notes:
i. E is a vector quantity, and its direction at a point is given by the direction of the force experienced by a
positive charge if it is placed at that point.
ii. The field is radial for a point charge. It is directed uniformly in all directions outward from the centre if Q
is a positive charge and inward toward the centre if Q is a negative charge. At all points that are an
equal distance away from Q the magnitude of E is the same.

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One can just substitute the absolute value of Q in the equation to calculate the magnitude of the
field strength and consider the direction separately.

Principle of Superposition (for Electric Fields)

The Principle of Superposition can be used to compute the resultant electric field strength at a point in the
combined field produced by a system of charges.

The resultant electric field E at a point P in an electric field is the vector sum of the fields
at P due to each point charge in the system.
   
E  E1  E2  E3  ......
Example 3

A charge +1.4 µC and a charge +2.6 µC are separated at 15 cm from each other.
At what point P, other than a point at infinity, is the electric field zero? This point is known as the neutral
point in the field between the two charges.

15 cm

Q1 = +1.4 C Q2 = +2.6 C

Fig. 13. Figure for Example 3

Solution:
In order for the net force on a small test charge to be zero, the force
exerted on the test charge by Q1 and Q2 should be in opposite directions
and equal in magnitude.. Hence the test charge must be located in the
region between Q1 and Q2.

Let R be the distance of the test charge Q from Q1.

4 4 0.15
1.4
0.15 2.6
0.063

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12.3 Electric Potential

Definition: Electric Potential, V

The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done per unit positive charge, by an external
force, in bringing a small test charge from infinity to that point, without any change in kinetic energy.
W
V
q
The SI unit of potential is J C–1 but it is more common to use the volt, V.

A small positive test charge in an electric field will be subjected to an electric force. As such, if one wishes
to slowly move the test charge to a specific location in the electric field without a change in the kinetic
energy of the test charge, an external force needs to be applied to overcome the electric force (this external
force will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the electric force). Hence the external force will
do work W on the test charge q as it is moved.

Notes:
i. Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
ii. Note that the electric field is not generated by the test charge.

The work done in this definition refers to the work done by the external force that is needed to
overcome the electric force that acts on the test charge in order to move it and is commonly referred
to as the "work done on the system". Some questions in A-levels will ask you to look for "work
done by the system" instead – this would refer to the work done by the electric force on the test
charge. You can simply find it by using:

Work done on system (by external force) = - Work done by system (by the associated field force)

12.3.1 Electric Potential due to a Point Charge

The electric potential in the field of a point charge3 Q is given by

1 Q
V
4 0 r

where V is the potential at a point in the electric field, at a distance r away from the point charge.
Note:
What if I have two or more point charges, how do I determine the potential at a point in the electric
field set up by these point charges?
Since the electric potential is a scalar quantity, the resultant potential at a point in the field is the algebraic
summation of the potentials contributed by each charge at the point.
Vresultant = V1 + V2 + V3 + ......

Remember to keep the signs in your substitution.

3
The actual derivation of this equation is not in the syllabus. If you are interested, you can find it in Appendix A.
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Example 4

Four charges are placed at the corners of a square as shown in the figure below. Each side has a length a.
Find the electric potential at P, the centre of the square.
Q1= Q2=

Using Pythagoras' Theorem, the distance between

the corner of a square to P is given by /√2. Electric P
potential at the center of the square is given by
1 1
2 2 2
4 /√2
3√2 Q3= Q4=
4 Fig. 14. Figure for
Example 4

12.3.2 Electric Potential Energy

The electric potential energy, U, of a charge at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done by an
external agent in moving the charge from infinity to that point, without any change in the kinetic energy.

Relationships between U and V:

Electric Potential Energy U of a charge Q placed at a point in an electric field with potential V is given by
U  QV

The work done by the external agent in moving a charge Q from point A to point B in an electric field
is given by
→

where VA and VB are the potentials of the field at A and B respectively.

Notes:
(i) U may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of the charge and the potential.
(ii) Similar to gravitational potential energy, the electric potential energy is stored in a system of
charges and not possessed by a single charge Q.
The electrical field is a conservative field which means that
 work done on a charged particle in moving it from one point to another depends only on the
particle's initial and final positions and is independent on the path taken.
 the change in potential energy is also independent of the path taken.

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o For example, suppose there are two ways to move a charge Q from point A to point B in an
electric field (Path X or Path Y).
Since the field is conservative,
Work done by an external force in bringing a charge Q from A to B
via Path X
= Work done by an external force in bringing a charge Q from A to B
via Path Y
By conservation of energy (assuming no changes in kinetic energy),
the change in potential energy of the system when Q is moved from
A to B, Fig 15

UAB = UB – UA = Q (VB - VA)

is independent of whichever path is taken.
o Furthermore, if the charge Q is brought from A to B through path X and then from B to A through
path Y, then the net change in potential energy of the system is zero.
= work done in bringing the charge from A to B back to A is 0

Example 5
An electron in the vacuum of a cathode ray tube moves from rest at a point where the potential is –1400 V to a
point where the potential is zero.
Calculate
q=-e
(a) the change in its potential energy,
(b) the change in its kinetic energy, and Vi = -1400 V Vf = 0 V
(c) its final velocity.

Solution:
a) Change in the electric potential energy
∆ ∆ 1.6 10 0 1400 2.24 10
b) Since energy is conserved, ∆ ∆ 2.24 10
c) 2.24 10
1
9.11 10 2.24 10
2
2.2 10

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Potential Energy of a system of Two Point Charges

r
Q1 Q2
F F

Fig. 16. Two charges Q1 and Q2 are separated by a distance r. What is the potential energy of this system?

Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance r (Fig. 16). We can find the potential energy
by viewing the situation as such: Q1 sets up an electric field around itself and Q2 is in the electric field of
Q1.4 Hence,
Q1
Potential of the electric field by Q1 at the location of Q2, V =
4 o r
Q1Q2
Potential energy of the system = Q2 V =
4 o r

Potential Energy Between Two Point Charges:

The potential energy U between two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance r is given by

Q1Q2
U
4 o r

Potential energy is a scalar quantity, which may be either positive or negative. Note from the
equation above, that if Q1 and Q2 are both positive, the potential energy is positive. From the same
equation, if one of the two charges is positive and the other is negative, the potential energy is
negative.

What is the potential energy of a system of two or more charges?

Consider the system of point charges given by the diagram below. Let us determine the expression for the
potential energy of this system.

Fig. 17. Potential Energy of the System

Recall that potential energy of the system refers to the total amount of work done needed to be done by an
external agent to assemble the charges (initially infinitely far apart) at positions as shown without a change

4
You can also analyse the situation by treating Q2 as setting up the field and Q1 being in the electric field by Q2. You would still
end up with the same final expression for the electric potential energy for the system of two point charges.
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in the kinetic energy of the charges. This calculation can be done by taking the sum of the work done to
position one charge at a time.
Step One: Bring q1 from infinity to the point. As there is no electric field initially in the region,
 Work done, W1 = 0 J

Step Two: Bring q2 from infinity to the point. As q1 is already in place, it will have set up an electric field in
the region and an external force will need to do work against the electrical force experienced by q2 due to
its interaction with the field set up by q1. Hence,
q1q2
 Work done, W2 =
4 o r12
Step Three: We bring q3 from infinity to its position in the electric field. Since q1 and q2 are now in place,
the electric field in the region is now due to q1 and q2, and the external force will need to do work against the
force on q3 due to its interaction with the field set up by both q2 and q3. Hence, the work done in this
process is
q1q3 qq
 Work done, W3 =  2 3
4 o r13 4 o r23
Hence, the net potential energy of the system is the net work done by an external agent to assemble the
system:
 Potential energy of this system, U = W1 + W2 + W3
q1q2 qq qq
=  1 3  2 3
4 o r12 4 o r13 4 o r23

Potential energy of a System of More than Two Point Charges

Hence, for a system that contains more than two point charges, the
Total potential energy can be found by calculating U for every pair of charges and summing
the terms algebraically.

12.4 Relation between Potential Energy and Electrical Force

In the chapter of "Gravitation Field", we learnt that the relationship between this force F and the potential
energy of the charge U can be written as
dU
F 
dr
Note: This equation gives us both the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the charge placed at a
point in an electric field.
o The magnitude of the force is given by:
dU
F= = gradient of the U vs. r graph
dr
o The direction of the force on the charge is given by the negative (-) sign i.e. the force on the
charge points in the direction where the decrease in potential energy is greatest.5

5
In fact this is something fundamental in physics, for many systems, to achieve greater stability charges would try to move to a
location such that the system will end up with lower potential energy.
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12.4.1 Relation between Potential Gradient and Electric Field Strength

dU
Now, from above, we have F 
dr
d ( qV )
 qE  
dr
where q is the charge placed the point in the electric field with field
strength E and potential V. Dividing both sides by q, we get the
relationship
dV
E
dr
Note:
dV
 is known as the potential gradient of the field. It gives the
dr
variation of the potential of field at the point of consideration.
 The magnitude of E is given by :
dV
E= = gradient of the V vs. r graph Fig. 18. Relationship between potential
dr and field strength.

 The direction of E is towards decreasing potential.

12.5 Representation of Electric Fields by Equipotential Lines or Surfaces

Another way to represent the electric field in a region is through lines or surfaces of equal potential.

An equipotential surface is a surface in which every point on the surface is at the same potential.

It is standard practice to draw these equipotential lines or surfaces the same number of volts apart. Recall,
dV
that the relationship between potential V and electric field strength E is given by E   . Hence, from
dr
the equipotential lines or surfaces, the electric field can be "visualised".
In general:
dV
 Magnitude of the electric field E = . Hence, the closer the equipotential lines or
dr
surfaces are to each other, the greater the change in potential for the same distance and hence
the stronger the electric field.
 Direction of the electric field points from higher potential to lower potential.
Further, all points on an equipotential surface have the same potential, hence
 Potential gradient along an equipotential surface is zero.
 There is no component of electric field along an equipotential surface.
 Electric field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.

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Fig. 19 below shows some examples of equipotential surfaces for different systems.

(a) A positive charge. (b) Two opposite charges equal in magnitude.

(c) Two equal positive charges. (d) A positively charged sphere and a negatively
charged plate.

Note : In such diagrams, only some

of the equipotential lines are drawn,
there could be more equipotential
lines nearer or further from the
source apart from those shown in the
diagram.
(e)Two parallel plates with opposite charge.

electric field lines equipotential lines (cross-section of equipotential surfaces)

Fig. 19. Equipotential and field lines.

Charges in Equilibrium on Conductors

A good electrical conductor contains charges that are free to move. Hence, when a conductor is charged,
the charges will always redistribute themselves until the excess charge resides on the surface (they try to
move out of the conductor as they repel each other) and till the net force on them is zero. When there is no
net motion, the conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
Since the charges at the surface experience no force parallel to the surface (else they will continue to move
along the surface),

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From F// = qE// = 0
 Electric field along the surface is zero, E// = 0.
dV
From E
dr
dV
  0 along the surface of the conductor
dr
 The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
 Electric field lines emerging or ending on a conductor are perpendicular to the
surface.
Furthermore, using calculus, it is possible to show that the electric field within a conductor is zero, hence
there is no potential gradient within the conductor and
the potential in the conductor is constant everywhere inside the conductor and equal to its
value at the surface.
 The electric field in the conductor is therefore zero (no potential gradient). Hence, no
field lines are drawn.

With this we can now summarise a more complete set of rules for drawing electric field lines and
equipotential lines for charged systems. We will include the previous rules for completeness.

Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines and Equipotential lines:

i. Electric field lines must begin from a positive charge and end on a negative charge. In the case of an excess of
one type of charge, some lines will begin or end infinitely far away.

ii. The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.

iii. Field lines do not intersect, because E at a point can only point in one direction.

iv. Equipotential lines/surfaces are lines/surfaces that join all points of equal potential.

v. Equipotential lines/surfaces are drawn at equal intervals of potentials (e.g. 10 V, 20 V, 30 V etc.). Hence, the closer
the equipotential lines or surfaces, the stronger the field.

vi. Electric field lines are always perpendicular to lines of equal potential, e.g. to the surface of a conductor.

vii. Electric field lines always point towards the direction in which potential is decreasing.

viii. The electric field in a conductor is zero. No field lines are drawn.

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12.6 Electric Field between Two Charged Parallel Plates
Consider two large metal plates that carry equal but opposite charges. (This can be done by connecting
them to the opposite terminals of a constant voltage supply.) It is reasonable to suppose that within each
plate, except at the edges, the charges on each plate are spread uniformly over the inside surface of each
plate, because of their mutual repulsion and the attraction by the opposite charges on the other plate.
The lines of forces are straight, parallel to each other and equally spaced (except at the fringes – see Fig.
8(f)). The electric field in the space between the two plates is said to be uniform.

Fig. 20. Electric Field between two parallel, oppositely

charged plates.

Suppose that in Fig. 20, the potential difference between two large charged metal plates is V and the plate
dV
separation is d. Since the electric field strength between the plates is constant, from E   we have
dr
o Magnitude of the electric field strength:

V
E
d

o Direction of the electric field: E is directed from the plate with the higher potential to the plate
with the lower potential.

12.6.1 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

Consider a particle of mass m, carrying charge q, that is placed in a uniform electric field E.
The field exerts a force qE on it, giving it an acceleration a in the direction of the force.

qE
By Newton’s second law, ma  qE . The acceleration of the charge is therefore given by a  .
m

In most questions, the mass is so small that the electric force overwhelms the gravitational force
on the mass (weight). Hence the weight can be ignored.

For example, if you are considering an electron:

Its weight is 9.11 ×10-31 × 9.81 = 8.94 × 10-30 N
If it is between parallel plates of potential difference 1.0 V and separation 10 cm, the electric
force it experiences is (1.60 × 10-19) × 1.0/0.10 = 1.6 × 10-18 N.

However, you should not assume that it is always the case that the weight can be ignored. You
might get a question where the mass is large enough to make the weight significant compared
to the electric force. (e.g. the Millikan oil drop experiment).

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A positively charged particle will accelerate in the direction of E. A negatively charged particle will
accelerate in the direction opposite to E.

Fig. 21. Acceleration of charged particles subjected to an E-field.

In general, the motion is that of an object moving under constant acceleration. There are two possible paths:

i. If its initial velocity is zero or parallel to the direction of E, the charged particle will move in a straight
line parallel to E.

ii. If its initial velocity is inclined to the field E, it will travel in a parabolic path.

Example 6

A beam of electrons, travelling at 1.35 x 107 m s-1, enters a uniform electric field between two plates of
length 0.060 m, which are separated by a distance of 0.020 m. The top plate is at +50 V while the lower
plate is at -50 V. Find the angular deflection of the beam as electrons emerge from between the plates,
assuming that the electrons never reach the upper plate.

vy
Electron beam

vx

Solution:
The horizontal speed of the electrons remain the same as they go through and out of the
plates. 1.35 10
A constant upward electric force acts on the electrons as they travel in the region
between the plates 1.6 10 8 10
.
This produces an acceleration of 8.78 10
.
.
Time traveling between plates, 4.44 10
.
As this is a constant acceleration, may use kinematic equation to find the final vertical
speed as electron leaves the region between plates by
0 8.78 10 4.44 10 3.90 10
.
Hence angular deflection of beam can be found by 16.1°
.
above the horizontal.

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12.7 Analogy between Electric fields and Gravitational Fields

The laws governing interaction between point charges and the interaction between point masses are
analogous. Mass, m, is analogous to charge, Q. The constant G is analogous to 1/4πε0.

Electric field Gravitational field

 
 F  F
Field E g=
Strength q m

Q GM
Point charge: E Point mass: g 
4 o r 2
r2
Coulomb’s Law: Newton’s Law of Gravitation:
1 Qq Mm
Force F F G
4 0 r 2 r2
The force between point charges follows an The force between point masses also follows an
1 1
inverse square law, i.e. F  inverse square law, i.e. F 
r2 r2
Force is a vector quantity.
The resultant force at a point must be determined by vector sum of the forces.

Due to a point charge: Due to a point mass:

Q GM
V 
Potential 4 0 r r
Potential can be positive or negative Potential is always negative.
depending on whether Q is positive or
negative.
Potential is a scalar quantity.
The resultant potential at a point is determined by the algebraic sum of the potential due to each charge
or mass.
U  Vq U  m
Potential
Energy Qq GMm
Between point charges : U  Between point masses: U  
4 0 r r
U can be positive or negative. It is positive if Q U is always negative.
and q have the same sign. Otherwise, U is
negative.
dV d
Field E g
Strength dr dr
and The negative sign indicates the direction of the The negative sign indicates the direction of the
potential field is in the direction of decreasing potential. field is in the direction of decreasing potential.
gradient
Force and dU dU
potential F  F 
energy dr dr
gradient

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Electric Potential and Potential Energy
Tutorial 12 Electric Fields
S6 HCI/2008/BT1/P1/Q4
Self-Review Questions Which of the following diagrams may represent the pattern of
Use these questions to test your familiarity with the concepts. equipotential lines surrounding a negative point charge?
These questions should be sufficiently easy such that you can
solve them on your own, with a little bit of thinking, without help
from the tutors. The solutions are made available on Moodle for
self-check.

Electric Field and Electric Forces

S1 (Jewett & Serway, P23.32)
The figure on the right shows the electric
field lines for two charged particles
separated by a small distance.
q1
(a) Determine the ratio .
q2
(b) What are the signs of q1 and q2?

S2 Point charges, each of magnitude

Q, are placed at three corners of a S7 The work done by an external agent to bring a positive charge
square as shown in the diagram. of 2.0 x 10-7C from a place of zero potential to a point P in an
What is the direction of the electric field is 6.0 x 10-4 J.
resultant electric field at the fourth
corner? (Diagram on the right) (a) Calculate the potential at P.
(b) If 4.0 x 10-4 J of work is done by the electric field when the
charge at P moves to another point Q, what is the potential of
S3 (Jewett & Serway, P23.4) Q?

A charged particle A exerts a force of 2.62 N to the right on (c) What is the potential difference between P and Q?
a charged particle B when the particles are 13.7 mm apart.
Particle B moves straight away from A to make the distance S8 Two ions, each +5.0 × 10-7 C, are 10.0 mm apart as shown.
between 17.7 mm. What vector force does it then exert on A? Point A is 5.0 mm away from the ions while point B is 8.0 mm
away.
S4 Two protons in an atomic nucleus are typically separated by a
distance of 2 x 10-15 m.
(i) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between
them? Is it repulsive or attractive in nature? Explain.
(ii) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the
two protons? Is it repulsive or attractive in nature? Explain.
(iii) Hence, explain the implications of your answers above.

S5 Two small spheres with their centres 20 cm apart in vacuo are

charged oppositely with charges of 4·0x10-8 C and -9·0x10-8 C (a) Calculate the work done by an external agent in moving an
respectively. electron from point A to point B.
(a) Determine the position of the neutral point in the field (b) Comment if there is an increase or decrease in electric
along the line where the two charges lie. potential energy when the electron moves from A to B.
(b) A small positive charge is now placed at this neutral (c) How would your answer to (b) change, if at all, if one of the
point. What is the force experienced by this charge? ions had been -5.0 × 10-7 C instead?
(c) Will the force in (b) change if the charge in (b) is now
changed to a negative charge? Explain your answer.

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Relationship between Electric Force and Potential Energy
S12 HCI/2008/Prelim/P1/Q21
S9 RI/2009/Prelim/P1/Q21
A positively charged sphere is released from rest in a vacuum
Two charged plates are 0.040 m apart, producing a uniform
between two long parallel plates carrying opposite charges. Which
electric field. The electric potential V of an electron in the field
one of the following diagrams best shows the path followed by the
varies with displacement x from one of the plates as shown.
sphere?

What is the magnitude of the force on the electron at x = 0.020 m?

A 1.4 x 1017 N
B 7.0 x 1015 N
C 1.4 x 1014 N
D 8.8 x 104 N

S13 Cambridge, UCLES, N88/III/11(part)

S10 J05/P4/Q5
An isolated conducting sphere of radius r is given a charge +Q. The figure below shows part of the deflection system of a
This charge may be assumed to act as a point charge situated at cathode-ray tube. An electron moving with a speed of 1.5 x
the centre of the sphere, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Fig. 5.2. shows the 107 m/s approaches the region between two parallel metal
variation with distance x from the centre of the sphere of the plates, which are 20 mm apart and 60 mm long. The upper
potential V due to the charge +Q. plate is at a steady positive potential of 80 V with respect to
the lower

(a) Copy Fig. 11 on to your answer paper and sketch the

path of the electron as it passes between and beyond
(a) State the relation between electric field and potential. [1] the plates. [1]
(b) Using the relation in (a), on Fig. 5.3 sketch a graph to show the
variation with distance x of the electric field E due to the charge +Q. (b) Find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of
[3] the electron in the region between the plates. [3]
(c) Hence find the vertical and horizontal components of
the velocity of the electron when it emerges from the
plates. [3]
(d) Use your answer to (c) above to find the angle through
which the electron beam has been deflected as a result
of passing between the plates. [3]

Uniform Electric Field

S11 A proton starts from rest and gains 8.35 x 10-14 J of kinetic
energy as it accelerates between points A and B in a uniform
electric field. Calculate the electric field strength between A
and B if they are separated by a distance of 0.500 m.
A 5.22 x 105 V m-1
B 1.34 x 105 V m-1
C 5.99 x 106 V m-1
D 1.04 x 106 V m-1
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S14 An oil drop of mass 2.0 x 10-14 kg carries a charge Q. The Electric Fields and Electric Forces
drop is stationary between two parallel plates 20 mm apart
with a potential difference of 500 V between them. Calculate P1 (Cambridge A-level Nov 1987, modified)
Q.
A and B are two identical conducting spheres, each carrying a
charge of +Q. They are placed in vacuum with their centres
distance d apart, as shown in the diagram below.
Explain why the force F between them is not given by the
Q2
expression F
4 o d 2
If A and B were uniformly charged spheres that were
made of insulating materials instead, would the
expression hold? Explain.

S15 HCI/2009/BT2/P1/Q22
A positive test charge +q is placed along dotted line XY between d
two long parallel plates that are oppositely charged as shown.
A B

P2 (Jewett & Serway, P23.9)

Three point charges are located at the corners of an equilateral
triangle as shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the resultant
electric force on the 7.00-μC charge.

The charge +q is moved from X to Y. Which one of the following

graphs shows the variation of the magnitude F of the force on +q
with distance d from X?

P3 HCI/2009/Prelim/P1/Q26
Three charges +q, -q and +q are placed at the corners W, X and Y
of a square WXYZ, respectively. A fourth charge is placed at
corner Z so that the charge at X experiences no net electrostatic
force. What is the charge at Z?

A -2 2 q B +2 2 q C-4 2 q D +4 2 q
Practice Questions
These are practice questions for you to apply the concepts. Your
tutor will select some questions from this set of questions to
discuss in class. The rest of the questions will be for your own
further practice after class. More challenging questions are
indicated with (*)
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P4 (Jewett & Serway, P23.57)
Two small spheres of mass m are suspended from strings of
length ℓ that are connected at a common point. One sphere has
charge Q; the other has charge 2Q. The strings make angles θ1
and θ2 with the vertical. Assume θ1 and θ2 are small.
(i) How are θ1 and θ2 related?
(ii) Show that the distance r between the spheres is given by
1
 4k e Q 2   3
r   

 mg 
Electric Potential and Potential Energy
where ke = 1/(4o)
P7 NYJC/2009/Prelim/P1/Q24
Two charges, - 9.0 × 10-6 C and + 2.5 × 10-3 C are placed 10.0
m apart. When their separation is changed to 5.0 m, the
P5 (Cambridge UCLES, N91/II/6)
electrostatic potential energy of the system
(a) Two ions A and B are separated by a distance of 0.72 nm in a
vacuum, as shown in Fig. 7. A has a charge of +3.2 x 10-19 C A decreases by 20 J B decreases by 6.0 J
and B has a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C. What force does A exert C increases by 6.0 J D increases by 20 J
on B?

P8 MJC/2009/Prelim/P1/Q24
Point charges q and Q are positioned as shown. If q = +2.0 nC,
Q = -2.0 nC, a = 3.0 m and b = 4.0 m, calculate the electric
potential difference, VA – VB.

(b) Without making detailed calculations, draw labelled arrows on A 0V B 4.8 V C 6.0 V D 8.4 V
your diagram to represent
(i) the field EA at the point X due to the charge A only,
(ii) the field EB at X due to charge at B only, P9 (Jewett & Serway, P25.19)
(iii) the resultant field E at X due to both charges. (i) Show that the amount of work required to
(c) Sketch on your diagram above, lines representing the electric assemble four identical charges of magnitude Q at the corners of a
field caused by the two ions in the region within the rectangle. Q2
Include the field line passing through X. square of sides s is 5.41 .
4 o s

P6 RI/2009/Prelim/P2/Q3 (ii) Is this positive work done by the system or on the system?

(a) State what is meant by an electric field of force. (iii) What is therefore the potential energy of the system?

(b) A wooden rod with a negatively charged metal tip is situated (iii) Hence or otherwise, what is the work done by an external
near a thin metal plate carrying positive charge. An uncharged force in bringing one of the charges to infinity?
metal sphere is introduced in the region between the rod and
the metal plate.
On Fig. 3.1, sketch the electric field pattern around the objects. P10 HCI/2009/Prelim/P1/Q25
A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of
V. Simultaneously, an α-particle is also accelerated from rest
through a potential difference 2V. If the final speed of the proton is
v, determine the final speed of the α-particle.

Av B 2v C2 2v D 4v

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Relationship between Electric Force and Potential Energy (a) State the relation between electric field strength E and potential
P11 Is it possible for the electric field strength to be zero where the V. [2]
electric potential is not zero? Give an example. (b) The area below the line of the graph of Fig. 3.2 represents the
potential difference between A and B. Use Fig. 3.2 to determine the
P12 Two positively charged particles of equal magnitude are
potential difference between A and B. [4]
located along the y axis equal distances above and below the
x axis as shown in the figure on the right. (c) Use your answer to (b) to calculate the speed of the electron as
it reaches point B. [2]
(a) Are there any points in the region at which the electric field
(d)(i) Use Fig. 3.2 to determine the value of d at which the electron
due to these two charges is zero? Are there any points
in this region at which the potential due to these two has maximum acceleration. [1]
charges is zero? Explain your answer. (ii) Without any further calculation, describe the variation with
distance d of the acceleration of the electron. [2]
(b) If the bottom charge were replaced by a negative charge
of –Q, would there be any points in the region at which
P14 HCI/2007/BT2/P1/Q21
the electric field due to these two charges would be
The electric potentials V are measured at distances x from M along
zero? Would there be any points in the region at which
a line MN. The results are:
the potential due to these two charges would be zero?
Explain.
V/V -1.3 -1.5 -1.8 -2.1 -2.3
x/m 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

The component along MN of the electric field for x = 0.40 m is

approximately

A 3.0 V m-1 towards M

B 4.5 V m-1 towards M
C 3.0 V m-1 towards N
D 4.5 V m-1 towards N

P15 (Cambridge, CIE, J93/III/4)

In an electron microscope, an electron lens has two cylinders
P13 J07/P4/Q3 which are potentials of +500 V and -100 V respectively. An
Two charged points A and B are separated by a distance of 6.0 electron beam passes at high speed into the lens from the left. A
cm, as shown in Fig. 3.1. The variation with distance d from A of cross-section of the two cylinders is shown full scale in Fig. 18,
the magnitude of electric field strength E along the line AB is together with dotted lines showing points of same potential at
shown in Fig. 3.2. (figure 3.2 has been shrunk for printing here) different places within the cylinders.

An electron is emitted with negligible speed from A and travels

along AB as the result of the electric field.

Use the diagram where necessary measuring distances on it with a

ruler, to
(i) find the potential difference between X and Y,
(ii) find the loss in kinetic energy of an electron moving in a
vacuum between X and Y.
(iii) find the approximate value of the electric field strength at Z.
(iv) sketch a graph showing how the potential varies along the
axis of the lens.
(v) sketch on the same x-axis drawn in (iv), a graph showing how
the speed of the electron varies as it passes from X to Y.

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P16 (Serway 's Physics for Scientists and Engineers Pg 790
Problem 40) (d) A lead sphere is placed in a lead box in free space, in a similar
arrangement to that shown in Fig. 4.1. Explain why it is not
The figure on the right shows several equipotential lines each possible for the gravitational field to have a similar shape to that of
labelled by its potential in volts. The distance between the lines of the electric field. [1]
the square grid represents 1.00 cm.
(e)Sketch at least three equipotential lines around the sphere
(i) Is the magnitude of the field larger at A or at B? Explain. (which is not in original question). [2]
(ii) Determine the electric field E at B.
(iii) Represent what the electric-field looks like by drawing at least
eight field lines.
P18 (Jewett & Serway, P25.40)
Electric charge can accumulate on an airplane in flight. You may
have observed needle-shaped metal extensions on the wing tips
and tail of an aeroplane. Their purpose is to allow charge to leak
off before much of it accumulates. The electric field around the
needle is much larger than around the body of the airplane and
can become large enough to produce dielectric breakdown of the
air, discharging the airplane.
To model this process, assume that two spherical conductors are
connected by a long thin conducting wire and a charge of 1.20 C
is placed on the combination. One sphere, representing the body
of the airplane, has a radius of 6.00 cm, and the other,
representing the tip of the needle, has a radius of 2.00 cm. You
may assume that no charges reside on the wire at equilibrium.
(i) What is the electric potential of each sphere?
P17 N07/P4/Q5 (ii) What is the electric field at the surface of each sphere?
A small charged metal sphere is situated in an earthed metal box.
Fig. 4.1 illustrates the electric field between the sphere and the
metal box.
Electric Field of a Parallel Plate System

P19 (RJC Prelim 2001 Paper 2)

The figure below shows a small charged particle at a point A in a
uniform electric field. The particle experiences an electrical force F
(as shown) of 5.00 x 10-7 N. The grid lines in the figure are at
intervals of 10.0 mm.

(a) By reference to Fig. 4.1, state and explain

(i) whether the sphere is positively or negatively charged [2]
(ii) why it appears as if the charge on the sphere is concentrated at
the centre of the sphere. [1]

(b) On Fig. 4.1, draw an arrow to show the direction of the force on
a stationary electron situated at point A. [2]

(c) The radius r of the sphere is 2.4 cm. The magnitude of the
(a) Calculate the work done by the electrical force if the particle is
charge q on the sphere is 0.76 nC.
moved from
Q
(i) Use the expression V  to calculate a value for the (i) from A to B
4 0 r
magnitude of the potential V on the surface of the sphere. [3] (ii) from A to C
(ii) State the sign of the charge induced on the inside of the metal (iii) from A to D [3]
box. Hence explain whether the actual magnitude of the potential
will be greater or smaller than the value calculated in (i). [3]
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 Hwa Chong Institution (College) 
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(b) If the particle carries a charge of -2.50 x 10-11 C, and the point Copy the figure on to your paper and mark on your
A is at a potential of 200 V , what are the potentials of B, C diagram above the position of the deflected beam of the
and D due to the uniform field? [4] electrons.
(c) Draw an arrow in the figure above to indicate the direction of
the uniform electric field. [1]
P21 (Cambridge, UCLES, N99/III/6 (part))
(d) If the uniform electric field is produced by a pair of flat metal
(a) Fig. 6.1 illustrates two plates A and B, a distance 30 mm apart
plates, one of which is earthed and the other is at a potential
in a vacuum, with A at a potential of -4.2V and B at zero
of 1 000 V, draw on the figure above, the position of the two
potential. Electrons are emitted from B and move directly
plates. [2]
towards A.

P20 (Cambridge, CIE, J94/III/4, part)

In one type of C.R.O., the electrostatic deflection system consists
of two parallel metal plates, each of length 2.0 cm, with a
separation of 0.50 cm.

Calculate
(i) the electric field, assumed uniform, between the plates,
(ii) the velocity with which the electrons need to be emitted
in order to reach plate A.

(b) State, with a reason, what your answer to (a) (ii) would
have been if the distance between the plates had been
doubled to 60 mm, while keeping the potentials the
same.

The centre of the plates is situated 15 cm from a screen. A

potential difference of 80 V between the plates provides a uniform
electric field in the region between the plates. Electrons of speed
3.1 x 107 m s-1 enter this region at right angles to the field.
(a) Calculate
(i) the time taken for an electron to pass between the
plates,
(ii) the electric field strength between the plates,
(iii) the force on an electron due to the electric field,
(iv) the acceleration of the electron along the direction of the
electric field,
(v) the speed of the electron perpendicular to its original
direction of motion as it leaves the region between the
plates.
(b) (i) Hence by considering your answer to Part (v) and the
original speed of the electron, estimate the deflection of
the electron beam on the screen.
(ii) The figure below represents the front of the screen of the
c.r.o.

undeflected
 beam

1 cm

1 cm 31
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C2 2018 
 
P22 HCI/2009/BT2/P3/Q2
It is possible to make a beam of protons turn by 90o with the
parallel plate arrangement shown in Figure 2.1 below. A proton Numerical Answers on Selected Questions in
moves through a small hole in the bottom plate and exits by Tutorial 12
another hole, also in the bottom plate.
S1 0.33
S2 B
S3 1.57 N to the left.
S4 4.65 10 , 57.5N
S5 40 cm to the left
S6 D
S7 3000V, 1000V, 2000V
S8 1.08 x 10-13 J
S9 C
S11 D
S12 B
S13 7.03 x 1014 m s-2, 1.5 x 107 m s-1 (to the right),
10.6 from the horizontal
(i) Should the bottom plate be charged positive or negative S14 7.85 x 10-18 C
(ii) relative to the top plate if the proton is to turn to the right as S15 B
shown? Explain.
(ii) Show that in order for the proton to turn 90º, the angle,,
between the initial path of the proton and the parallel plates is P2 0.872N at 30o below the horizontal
45o. P3 A
(iii) By resolving the velocity, v, of the incoming proton into two P4 1 = 2
components, one parallel and the other perpendicular to the P5 (a) 8.88x 10-10 N
plane of the plates, express the time taken, t, for the proton to P7 A
travel from the entrance to the exit holes in terms of x, v and  P8 B
(iv) Show that in the case where θ = 45º, the magnitude of the
Q2 Q2
acceleration, a, of the proton in the direction perpendicular to P9 5.41 , 2.71
v2 4 o s 4 o s
the plane of the plates is given by a  .
x P10 A
(v) Using the result in (iv), show that the magnitude of the electric P13 (b) 530 V. (c) 1.37 x 107 m s-1. (d) (i) d = 0 cm
field strength, E, is given by
2K P14 C
E
ex P15 100 V; 1.6 x 10-17 J; 8300 V
P16 A, ~200 V m-1
P17 c)(i) 285 V
P18 1.35 x 105 V, 2.25 x 106 V m-1 radially away,
6.74 x 106 V m-1 radially away
P19 (a) 1.00 x 10-8 J, 0 J, 1.00 x 10-8 J, (b) 600 V,
200 V, 600 V (c) towards the right (d) 1000 V is
20.0 mm left of BD, 0V is 10.0 mm right of CA
P20 6.5 x10-10 s; 16,000 N C-1; 2.6 x10-15 N ↑; 2.8
x1015 m s-2 ↑; 1.8 x106 m s-1; 0.88 cm
P21 140 V m-1, 1.21 x 106 m s-1, no change
P22 (b)(iii) t = x/v cos θ

32