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Marine Biological Laboratory Library
Woods Hole, Mas3achusetl5

Physiology of the Fungi
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Frontispiece. Pilobolus showing phototropism. See page 339.
L -VI
Physiology
of the Fungi
VIRGIL GREENE LILLY

Professor of Physiology, Department of Plant Pathology
and Bacteriology, West Virginia University;
Physiologist, West Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station
HORACE L. BARNETT
Professor of Mycology, Department of Plant Pathology
and Bacteriology, West Virginia University;
Mycologist, West Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station
1951
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

New York Toronto London
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGr
Copyright, 1951, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Prmtedinthe

United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the pubUshers.
7 89 10 11 12-MAMM-l 09 8
37865
This book is dedicated to the mem-
ory of Leon H. Leonian and to Ernst A.
Bessey. The guidance and inspiration
of these men in directing our interests
to the study of fungi is gratefully
acknowledged.
PREFACE
Living fungi are being studied more intensively than ever before.
This may be attributed in part to increased interest in the potentiahties
of the fungi in industry as well as to the greater recognition of fungi as
important disease-producing agents of plants and animals and as destroy-
ers of fabricsand other cellulosic materials of commercial importance.
This has increased the interest in the cultivation of the fungi and has
shown the need for an adequate textbook covering the broad aspects of
physiology of the fungi, their growth requirements, and activities. It
was the intent of the authors to prepare a textbook which would fulfill
the needs of students desirous of some training in this field.
This book is primarily a text for the advanced student and assumes
some basic knowledge of the morphology of fungi and of organic chemistry.
It had its origin in the lectures and laboratory exercises used for three
years by the authors in a course in physiology of the fungi offered to
graduate students at West Virginia University. The authors have
contributed equally of their time and efforts in the preparation of this
text.
For those who are interested or are actively engaged in physiological
research on fungi, this textbook may serve as a reference book and as an
entry into the literature. The large ever-growing accumulation of liter-
ature has also made it desirable to bring together a summary and dis-
cussion of the information in this field. However, no attempt has been
made at complete documentation of the subjects discussed. Certain
particularly important references are marked with a star and are recom-
mended as required reading for students.
For the most part, the scientific names of the fungi are those which
were used by the investigators whose work has been cited. No attempt
has been made to reduce these names to synonomy. Because of the
close relation between fungus physiology and plant pathology, plant
pathogenic fungi have been used as examples whenever possible.
Several suggested laboratory exercises with suggested test fungi are
included at the end of the text, so that other teachers might profit by the
authors' experience in designing and conducting laboratory work in
fungus physiology.
All tables, graphs, and photographs not credited to other sources are
original.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge our indebtedness to the many individuals
ix
X PREFACE
who have aided us with their suggestions. Among our colleagues at

West Virginia Universitywho have read portions of the manuscript are:
J. G. Leach, C. R. Orton, M. E. Gallegly, R. P. True, W. T. Jackson,
B. G. Anderson, R. B. Dustman, and J. H. Hare. In addition, the
following have read one or more chapters: B. W. Henry, J. B. Routien,
W. D. Gray, and J. B. Conn. We are also indebted to Mrs. H. L.
who typed most of the manuscript.

Barnett,
We wish to thank the many individuals, societies, and publishers who
have granted us permission to use data and illustrations. Particular
acknowledgment is made in connection with the material cited.
VirgilGreene Lilly
Horace L. Barnett
MORGANTOWN, W. Va,
May, 1951
—
-
CONTENTS
Preface ix
1. Introduction 1
Fungus Physiology in Relation to Other Sciences —Aims —Scope— Historical

Development.
2. Culture Media 8
ICinds of — Natural Versus Synthetic Media— Choice and Preparation
Media
of Media — Ways of Expressing Concentration — Comparison of Media —
Summary.
3. Growth 24
Phases of Growth— Rate of Growth — Ways of Measuring Growth — Methods
of Presenting Results — Factors Affecting Growth — Effect of External
Factors on Morphology — Summary.
4. Enzymes and Enzyme Action 45

Classification of Enzymes — —
Chemical Nature of Enzymes Factors Affecting
— —
Enzyme Activity Mechanism of Enzyme Action Adaptive Enzymes-
Energy and Energy Utilization by Fungi Summary. —
5. Essential Metallic Elements 65
Biological Essential Elements —The Essential —Essential
Macro Elements
Micro Elements — Periodicity of Biologically Essential Elements — Summary.
6. The Essential Xonmetallic Elements Other Than Carbon 87

Hydrogen — Oxygen — Sulfur — Phosphorus — Nitrogen — Other Nonmetallic
Elements — Summary.
7. Carbon Sources and Carbon Utilization 116
Monosaccharides and Related Compounds — Organic Acids — Glycosides

Oligosaccharides — Polysaccharides — Heterotrophic Utilization of Carbon
Dioxide — Utilization of Carbon — Summary.
8. Hydrogen-ion Concentration 149
—
Ionization of Compounds The Meaning of pH —Buffers and Buffer Capacity
— Methods of Determining pH Values — Effects on Fungi—Summary.
9. Vitamins and Growth Factors 171
Part I. General Considerations — Synthesis of Vitamins by Fungi — Vitamin

xi
. —
xii CONTENTS
Deficiencies in Fungi — Inhibitory Effects of Vitamins—Vitamers — Unidenti-
fied Growth Factors, Part II.Specific Vitamins — Thiamine and Its
Moieties — Biotin — Inositol — Nicotinic Acid— Pantothenic Acid— Pyridoxine

p-Aminobenzoic Acid — Riboflavin — Summary.
10. Fungi AS Test Organisms 208
General — Vitamin Assays — Amino-acid Assays — Assays for
Procedures
Essential Elements — Sugars — Tests for Certain Metabolic Products — Testing
Fabric Protectants — Summary.
11. Metabolic Antagonists 226

Antivitamins — Amino-acid Antagonists —Development of Fastness — Sum-
mary.
12. The Action of Fungicides 245

Copper — Mercury — Sulfur— Organic Fungicides — Evaluating Fungicides
Summary.
13. Metabolic Products 266

Decomposition of Organic Materials — Fungi as Food — Cultivation of Fungi
for Food — Fat Production — Production of Vitamins — Enzyme Production
Alcoholic Fermentation — Organic Acids — Esters — Antibiotics and Drugs

Toxins — Pigments — Summary.
14. Factors Influencing Sporulation op Fungi 304

Environmental Factors — Other Physical Factors — Nutritional Factors
Other Factors — Summary.
15. Spore Discharge and Dissemination 338
Methods of Spore Discharge — Influence of External Conditions — Spore
Dissemination — Summary.
16. Spore Germination 355
Physical Factors — Nutrients and Stimulants —Longevity of Spores — Sum-
mary.
17. The Physiology of Parasitism and Resistance 372

Penetration — Parasitism —Resistance —Summ ary
18. Physiological Variation and Inheritance of Physiological Char-
acters 400
Physiological Variation — Inheritance of Physiological Characters — Summary.
Suggested Laboratory Exercises 419
Index 441
:
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The primary role of the fungi in nature has been fittingly described in
the prophetic statement of B. O. Dodge (1939)
. . . way out in a
the fungi are not degenerate organisms which are on their
scheme of evolution, and so
economic importance and scientific interest.
of little
The fungi, on the contrary, are progressive, ever changing and evolving rapidly
in their own way so that they are capable of becoming readily adapted to every
condition of life. We may rest assured that as green plants and animals disappear
one by one from the face of the globe, some of the fungi will always be present
to dispose of the last remains.
The most important role of the fungi in the economy of nature is to

act as scavengers in disposing of dead and fallen vegetation. In this way
the biologically essential elements are released for reuse, and the balance
of nature is maintained. However, these are not the only functions of the
fungi which are of interest and importance to man. Since the beginning
of agriculture fungi have been used to prepare bread and other foods,
as well as fermented beverages. Some fungi cause diseases of plants
and animals. Knowledge of their role as the causal agents of plant dis-
eases long antedated the recognition of bacterial diseases. While yeasts
have long been used to produce alcohol, the vast potentialities of other
species for the industrial production of organic acids and antibiotics have
been recognized more recently. An understanding of life processes of
the fungi is essential whether one wishes to control the fungi which cause
disease, to employ them in industry, or to use them in the laboratory to
unlock the secrets of nature.
The domain of physiology is the study of functions or life processes.
Fungus physiology is the study of living fungi, their functions and ac-
how they affect their environment and how the environment
tivities,
affectsthem. Like other branches of science, fungus physiology has

four phases of development: (1) the discovery and verification of facts,
which are the foundation of any science, (2) the organization of these
facts into a systematic and coherent body of knowledge, (3) the dissemina-
tion of newly discovered facts, and (4) use of the newly discovered facts
and others already known to formulate principles. Facts are the basis of
science, but facts alone are sterile unless they are seen in relation to
1
2 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
previous knowledge. Organization and interpretation of facts are equally

as important as the experimentation which reveals them.
The fungi as a group are highly responsive to their environment and
are thus excellent test organisms for inquiring into the secrets of nature.
Nature always answers correctly the questions we ask, and, in this sense,
no experiment is a failure, although we may fail to ask the question we
intended, or we may misunderstand the answer given. Infinite care is
required to frame a question so that a definite answer may be obtained.

By observing fungi in nature we are limited to questions asked by nature.
Commonly, the environmental and nutritional factors are so complex that
the influence of a single variable cannot be evaluated. By controlling the
conditions under which a fungus is placed in the laboratory it is possible
to ask questions of great precision. Indeed, the number and scope of
the questions which we may ask fungi are limited only by the present-day
techniques and the curiosity of the investigator.
Since most of our knowledge of the physiology of the fungi has been
gained from laboratory investigations, the experimental approach will
be emphasized in the discussions which follow. However, this choice is
not meant to minimize the importance of and need for critical observa-
tions in nature. By emphasizing the results of careful laboratory re-
search, we are better able in the following chapters to present the facts
necessary for an understanding of the vital principles of fungus physi-
ology, and also to show that these principles, theories, and hypotheses
are founded upon experimental evidence.
FUNGUS PHYSIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER SCIENCES

Physiology is that branch of science which deals with the life processes or
the activities of organisms. The activities of the whole organism or of
any of its parts may be hmited by its form or structure. Both the
activity and the form of an individual are determined to a great extent
by its genetic constitution and are modified by the environment to which
the organism is exposed. Physiology, therefore, is not an independent
subject. An understanding of physiological principles is based, in part,
upon and theories from many other fields of science, such as chem-
facts
istry, physics, anatomy, cytology, bacteriology, and genetics.
Many of the physiological principles which have been established for
one group of organisms apply equally well to other groups. The vita-
mins essential to the normal growth of the fungi are the same as those
required by man, animals, and the higher plants. The general functions
of these vitamins appear to be the same in all organisms. The differ-
ence in the vitamin requirements seems to lie in the different abilities of
these groups of organisms (or individuals within the group) to synthesize
these necessary compounds. As Schopfer (1943) has pointed out, the
INTRODUCTION 3
vitamin problem is common to many branches of science. Many other

problems investigated in fungus physiology are likewise common to other
related fields of study.
In a similar way, a better understanding of certain related fields is
gained by knowledge of fungus physiology. The plant pathologist com-
monly finds it necessary to study the living parasitic fungus apart from
its host and must know something of the cultural methods and the spe-
cific nutritional requirements of the fungus at hand. The mycologist
and plant pathologist are faced with numerous unsolved problems which
must be investigated by physiological methods. One of the most chal-
lenging problems is the cultivation of certain fungi now classed as obligate
parasites on synthetic media of known is accom-
composition. Until this
cannot be fully deter-
plished, the nutritional requirements of these fungi
mined. Such knowledge would without doubt lead to a better under-
standing of parasitism and resistance.
The taxonomic mycologist uses morphological characters almost exclu-
sively in his identification and classification studies, while the bacteriol-
ogist, being unable to use distinct morphological features to any great
extent, emphasizes the physiological characters in classifying bacteria.
Much more information is needed before it can be determined whether
any physiological characters are sufficiently valuable and uniform to be
used to supplement morphological characters in taxonomy of fungi. It
seems logical that such physiological differences between groups of fungi
do exist, and that the main problem lies in the discovery and recognition
of these characters and their application to taxonomy. On the other
hand, caution must be observed, for nutritional and environmental con-
ditions are known to affect, to a certain extent, some morphological
characters used in classification.
The geneticist and the biochemist may find the fungi interesting and
suitable subjects for the study of their respective problems, while the
bacteriologist finds many points of similarity between the physiology of
the bacteria and that of the fungi. Industry has used many species of
fungi to its ovnx advantage for many Yeasts were used long
decades.
before the physiology of the fungi became an organized study, but the
search for superior strains of yeast continues. The widespread use of
antibiotics has brought under laboratory study many species of fungi
which would otherwise have been ignored. This has created many new
problems of nutrition, especially with regard to large-scale cultivation of
these fungi.
Thus, knowledge is important and useful
of the life activities of the fungi
in many some knowledge of these related
related fields of science, just as
fields is essential to an understanding of the fimgi. The study of fungup
physiology is justified as a separate field in which the basic or fundamental
principles are the aim, or as a study closely integrated with the fields of
science concerned with more practical problems. Often, the most
\aluablc results are obtained when research is not restricted by the
boundaries of practical application.
AIMS
This book is a discussion of living fungi, of their life processes and the
factors which influence them. It is written primarily for the student who
is acquainted with the structure of fungi and who is beginning the study
of their activities. From the discussions which follow the student should
gain a knowledge and understanding of the basic principles of fungus
physiology. To this end a considerable amount of factual material con-
cerning the behavior of specific fungi under specific conditions is cited.
The secondary aim of this book is to present a limited number of selected
references which may be of use to the student or investigator who wishes
more detailed information. Where possible, review articles have been
included. Complete documentation is impossible because of the tre-
mendous volume of literature. However, becoming familiar with the
literature is an essential part of a student's education.
SCOPE
As a text this book must cover many phases of the subject. One of the
first problems to be considered is the choice and preparation of suitable
media for growth and sporulation of the fungi under study. Since there
is no universal medium suitable for all fungi, a wise choice of media for
the purpose at hand is of fundamental importance in any investigation.

Before a fungus can be studied in any great detail in the laboratory, it
is necessary to determine the conditions which affect growth. Growth is
a complex phenomenon, and some discussion of the phenomenon itself
and the ways of measuring growth is necessary for the understanding of
these conditions. Nutritional factors, such as source of nitrogen, source
of carbon, the presence of essentialelements and vitamins, and the pH of
the substrate, afTect growth in interrelated ways. Each of these factors
and its importance in growth and other activities of fungi are discussed at
some length.
The life processes of the fungi involve numerous chemical transforma-
tions. Living organisms make and use special organic catalysts, enzymes,
which control these reactions. The actions of the enzymes in the living
organism are coordinated and interrelated. A knowledge of the princi-
ples of enzyme action is essential to the study of fungus physiology.
The fungi are able to make a far greater contribution to the production
of food and many other valuable products than they do at present. Both
INTRODUCTION 5
the useful metabolic products, such as alcohols, organic acids, and anti-
biotics, and the harmful products (toxins) are discussed at some length.
Certain fungi cause diseases of plants and animals. The action of
fimgicides used to control these pathogens will be discussed from a theo-
retical viewpoint, since there is an enormous amount of literature dealing
with the practical application of fungicides. Too little attention has
been devoted to the mechanism of fungicidal action.
The production of spores, which is of fundamental importance to the
fungus in the perpetuation of the species, affords many interesting prob-
lems in fungus physiology. Environmental and nutritional factors play
important roles in determining whether a fungus will spoiiilate under a
given set of conditions. These factors are discussed in some detail.
The latter portion of the text emphasizes the activities of fungi in
nature. These topics include the discharge, dissemination, and germina-
tion of spores and the physiological aspects of parasitism, variation, and
inheritance. The physiology of parasitism and resistance is of special
interest to plant pathologists and medical mycologists. Most of the
examples are taken from the field of plant pathology. Perhaps the dis-
cussion of these problems will stimulate the interest and curiosity of the
student. A better understanding of parasitism will surely lead to a wiser
choice of control methods for certain fungi.
No study of fungus physiology is complete without experimental work
in the laboratory. The judgment necessary to evaluate one's own work
is founded upon experience. Suggested laboratory exercises and demon-
strations, with brief instructions, are given at the end of the text. These
are selected to illustrate important principles, many of which can be
illustrated clearly only by direct observation of the varied reactions of
fungi to their environment.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The development of fungus physiology is far from complete. While

some of the main outlines are clearly visible, much remains to be done.
Although space and time do not permit a complete review of the history
of this science, it is important to realize that its development was the
work of many minds and hands. The influence of the early investigators
continues, not only in their published work but also in the students they
trained.
Some of the outstanding leaders in the development of fungus physi-
ology are Avorthy of special mention. Their names and their contribu-
tions are encountered frequently bj'" all students of this subject. Brief
mention of some of these men and their fields of interest and investigation
is made below.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), France. Pasteur was a chemist who, as a

microorganisms which cause disease and fermenta-
result of his interest in
tions, became a biologist. No other scientist has opened up so many
fields of fruitful study. Early in his career he discovered that fungi are
able to discriminate between the optical isomers of tartaric acid. His
student Raulin devised the first synthetic medium for the cultivation of
fungi and published the first thorough study of the nutritional require-
ments of a fungus. Pasteur discovered that some organisms are inhibited
by free oxygen and that some fungi change both their morphology and
physiology when cultivated anaerobically. Pasteur's complete works
have been collected and edited (1933-1939) by his grandson, Professor
Pasteur Vallery-Radot. Dubos (1950) has published an evaluation of
Pasteur's work.
Heinrich Anton de Bary (1831-1888), Germany. His principal contribu-
tions to mycology dealt with life histories and parasitism of fungi. His
interests were primarily with biological adaptations and were more physi-
ological than taxonomic. De Bary's influence as a teacher attracted
many students who later were responsible for much of the development of
plant pathology and mycology. Among his writings was " Morphologic
und Physiologic der Pilze" (first edition 1866, second edition, English
translation, 1887), which may be considered as the first book containing
discussions of the physiology of the fungi.
Oscar Brefeld (1839-1925), Germany. We owe a great debt to this
patient investigator,who developed methods of ensuring sterile media
and apparatus for pure culture work. He was equally insistent with
regard to the purity of his cultures. His chief interest in mycology was
the study of life and development of fungi. This meant to him
histories
observation of a fungus from ''Spore zu Spore." He was the first to use
the single-spore technique. Besides his occasional papers, he published
his monumental work (1872-1912) in 15 parts. This beautifully illus-
trated work is still of great value.

Georg Klehs (1857-1918), Germany. His important contributions to
the study of fungus physiology concerned problems related to sporulation.
In 1900 he summarized his conclusions in four statements or laws (Chap.
14). No better generalizations on this subject have appeared in the 50
years which have elapsed since they were published. For an evaluation
of the significance of Klebs' work, see Kauffman (1929).
A. H. Reginald Buller (1874-1944), England and Canada. Many of his
studies involved the activities of fungi in relation to structure. His chief
interests lay in production of fruit bodies and spores, in spore discharge
and dissemination, and in the effects of theenvironment on these activi-
ties. His keen observations are recorded in detail in seven volumes,
"Researches on Fungi." These volumes are written in an interesting,
INTRODiCTION 7
readable style and should be frequently consulted by all students of

mycology.
Leon H. Leonian (1888-1945), United States. Trained as a mycologist
under Kauffman, he was always interested in discovering the potentiali-
ties of living fungi. His principal contributions were made in the studj'-
of fungus nutrition with emphasis on the factors which are required by
fungi for growth and reproduction. For a bibliography of his papers see
Orton (1946).
The number of living investigators who have made and are continuing
to make important contributions to fungus physiology is far too great to
list here, and for this reason they have been omitted. An idea of the
scope of their interests and activities may be gained from the references in
the following chapters.
REFERENCES
Bkefeld, O.: Botanische Untersuchungen iiber Schimmelpilze, Hefte 1-4, 1872-
1881. Title changed to Botanische Untersuchungen iiber Hefenpilze Fortset-
zung der Schimmelpilze for Heft 5, 1883; thereafter Untersuchungen aus dem
Gesamtgebiet der Mykologie, Hefte 6-15, 1884-1912. Hefte 1-8, Arthur Felix,
Leipzig. Hefte 9-15, Heinrich Schoningh, Muenster.
BuLLER, A. H. R.: Researches on Fungi, Longmans, Roberts and Green, London.
Vol.I, 1909; Vol. II, 1922; Vol. Ill, 1924; Vol. IV, 1931; Vol. V, 1933; Vol. VI,
1934; Vol. VII, The University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1950.

*De Bary, a.: Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and
Bacteria (trans. H. E. F. Garnsey), Oxford University Press, New York, 1887.
Dodge, B. O. Some problems in the genetics of the fungi. Science 90 379-385, 1939.
: :
*DuBos, R. J.: Louis Pasteur, Free Lance of Science, Little, Bro^Ti & Company,
Boston, 1950.
Kauffman, C. H.: Klebs' theory of the control of developmental processes in
organisms, and its application to fungi, Proc. Intern. Congr. Plant Sci. 2 1603-
:
1611, 1929.
Klebs, G.: Zur Physiologic der Fortpflanzung einiger Pilze. III. Allgemeine
Betrachtungen. Jahrb. wiss. Botan. 35 80-203, 1900.
:
Orton, C. R.: Leon Hatchig Leonian. Phytopathology 36: 241-244, 1946.

Pasteur, L.: Oeuvres de Pasteur, reunies par Pastevur Vallery-Radot, 7 vols.,
Masson et Cie, Paris, 1933-1939.
ScHOPFER, W. H.: Plants and Vitamins, Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, 1943.
CHAPTER 2
CULTURE MEDIA
Before discussing the nutrition of the fungi in detail, it will be helpful to
consider the basic problems involved. For many purposes a knowledge
of the nutrition of the fungi is necessary for culturing them in the labora-
tory or in industry. Like all living organisms the fungi must obtain from
their environment the materials needed for the synthesis of protoplasm
and other cellular constituents. Directly or indirectly, the fungi as well
as animals and most bacteria are dependent upon green plants for "food"
and energy.
Not all natui'al substrates are equally suitable for all fungi. In nature,
the saprophytes are more widely distributed than the parasites, which are
usually restricted to the range of their hosts. Many of the substances
upon which the fungi grow in nature are chemically complex, and some,
such as cellulose, starch, and proteins are insoluble or are only colloidally
soluble. Before such compounds can be utilized, they must be changed
into low-molecular-weight compounds which are soluble in water. This
"digestion" is accomplished by means of enzymes which are excreted by
the fungi. analogous to digestion in animals, which is also an
This is
enzymatic process. The complete utilization of a natural substrate is

frequently due to the combined action of a succession of microorganisms.
More than one organism may act at the same time, and often this simul-
taneous action is more effective than that of a single organism.
One may ask. Do the fungi simply incorporate within their own proto-
plasm the suitable elements and compounds found in the medium, or do
they transform the compounds of the medium before building their own
structures? Apparently the fungi do both. The essential elements such
as potassium and magnesium are taken up as ions, although these ele-
ments may be in the state of chemical combination in the substrate and
also in the fungus cells. Certain organic compounds, such as the vita-
mins, are undoubtedly absorbed as such from the medium by vitamin-
deficient fungi; otherwise, these fungi would derive no benefit from them.
The same statement is true for other necessary compounds which the
various fungi are unable to synthesize.
By far the greater part of the compounds utilized by the fungi are
modified or changed either before or after they are taken into the cells.
Outside the fungus cells, these changes are largely in the direction of
simplifying the molecular structure of compounds used. Within the
fungus cells some of the metabolite molecules are oxidized to carbon
8
CULTURE MEDIA 9
dioxide and water or to intermediate products. By this process the

fungus obtains the chemical energy which it requires for the processes of
synthesis.
KINDS OF MEDIA
No one knows when man began to cultivate fungi, but certainly it was
many thousands of years ago.This cultivation was no doubt uninten-
tional at first and was later developed into an art, in connection with the
preparation of foodstuffs and beverages. The use of leaven (yeast)
extends back to the beginning of agriculture. The yeast culture was
preserved in a piece of dough which in turn was added to the next batch,
much as buckwheat batter is prepared today. In the Orient, species of
Mucor and Aspergillus have been used from the dawn of civilization in
preparing food from rice and soybeans. Brewers used yeast many cen-
turies before it was learned that yeast is a living organism. On the other
hand, the science of growing fungi in pure culture is fairly recent.
Natural media. It was quite natural that, when mycologists and
others began to cultivate fungi in the laboratory, they should turn to
natural materials as media. A natural medium is one which is composed
entirely of complex natural materials of unknown composition. Among
the natural substances so used are the following: plant parts, malt, yeast,
peptone, manure, bread, wort, fruit, and vegetables. Many of these
substances are used in the form of extracts, infusions, or decoctions. The
very diversity of these natural media is strong testimony to the fact that
different species have different nutritional requirements. Brefeld (1881)
was among the first to grow fungi in pure culture, and many of his tech-
niques are in use today. Since his interest in cultivating the fungi was
largely for the purpose of observing their development, it was necessary
for him to select suitable media. He found two natural media to be of
great utility: a decoction prepared from dried plums or raisins and a
manure extract. medium he considered "als Universal-
This latter
nahrlosung flir Pilzculturen."medium is still used in some labora-
This
tories. Natural media have many advantages. They are cheap and
easy to prepare. In many instances it is necessary only to add water to
the base material and autoclave. More important yet is the fact that
many fungi grow well upon a wide variety of natural media.
Certain of the more fastidious fungi have never been cultivated in the
laboratory. These obligate parasites live only upon or ^^^thin the living
tissues of their hosts. Puccinia graminis only on wheat, some
tritici lives
species of grasses, and some These host plants when

species of barberry.
killed will no longer support growth of this fungus. However, many
species, which in the past were considered to be obligate parasites, have
since been cultured on nonliving media.
10 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FVSGI
Semisynthetic media. A semisynthetic medium is one Avhich is com-

posed in part of natural materials of unknown composition. Such media
are made by adding compounds of known composition to one or more
natural materials. The widely used potato-glucose (dextrose) medium is
an example of this type. The addition of agar to an otherwise synthetic
medium introduces a natural material of unknown composition. Media
Avhich contain agar cannot be classed strictly as synthetic media. Semi-
synthetic media may many types of physiological investigations.
be used for
The composition of a given natural or semisynthetic medium is not
constant. Potato-glucose medium may vary greatly in composition
depending upon whether or not the potatoes were peeled and upon the
variety and age of the potatoes used. Neuberger and Sanger (1942)
found a twofold difference in the amide nitrogen (asparagine and gluta-
mine) among varieties. In this laboratory we have found that the
amount of potato pulp Avhich is allowed to enter this medium exerts a
marked upon growth and reproduction of certain fungi. These
influence
differences, which may seem minor, are great enough to make comparisons
between work done in different laboratories difficult.
Synthetic media. As the term is used in this book, a synthetic medium
is one of known composition and concentration. It does not mean that
every compound used is a product of the chemist's art. Some of the
may be of natural origin. The important
constituents, such as the sugars,
condition is compounds used be pure, and this is difficult to
that the
attain in practice. "Chemically pure" compounds are usually far from
being pure, as a glance at the labels will show. The ideal of using pure
compounds is seldom realized, but the closer it is approached, the more we
shall learnabout the nutrition of the fungi.
Natural media and most semisynthetic media are of limited usefulness
in studying nutrition of the fungi. The chief value of synthetic media is
for nutritional studies. However, growth and reproduction are fre-
quently poorer on a synthetic medium than on one containing some
natural material. For example, Aspergillus niger grew well in a synthetic
medium composed of sucrose, ammonium nitrate, magnesium sulfate, and
dipotassium hydrogen phosphate In addition to
(Steinberg, 1939).
these major constituents, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, molybdenum,
and gallium salts were present. Extraordinary care was taken in prepar-
ing the medium. The concentration of every constituent was so balanced
that a decrease in concentration of any constituent resulted in diminished
growth. Growth and sporulation were excellent upon this medium.
When 20 mg. per peptone or yeast extract was added, the
liter of either
rate of growth was greatly increased and the time required for sporulation
was decreased. The small amount of yeast extract or peptone used
could have added only an insignificant amount of material from which
CULTURE MEDIA ii
the fungus could synthesize protoplasm or derive energy. Steinberg's

synthetic medium was adequate but not optimum most rapid growth for
and sporulation. We may suppose that the yeast extract and peptone
contained compounds the synthesis of which constituted a limiting effect
upon the rate of growth and sporulation.
Synthetic media may be simple or complex but must contain the essen-
tial elements in utilizable form. Brefeld (1881) gave the following direc-
tions for preparing a synthetic medium: Add
cigar ashes dissolved in
nitric or citric acid to a solution containing a soluble carbohydrate, such
as glucose, and an ammonium salt. The amount of ashes was not speci-
fied. The first vsynthetic medium was devised by Raulin (1869).
Table 1. Composition of the First Synthetic Medium for CuLTrvATiNG Fungi

(Raulin, Ann. sci. nat., Ser. V, 11, 1869.)
Ammonium nitrate 4.0 g.
Ammonium phosphate 0.6 g
Magnesium carbonate 0.4 g
Potassium carbonate 0.6 g
Ammonium sulfate 25.
g
Zinc sulfate 07.
g,
Iron sulfate 07.
g
Potassium silicate 07.
g,
Sucrose 70 g,
Tartaric acid 4 g
Water 1,500 ml.
However, not enough information is given in Table 1 for the duplication

of thismedium. Which ammonium phosphate, (NH4)H2P04 or (NH4)2-
HPO4, was used by Raulin in the original work? Which zinc sulfate,
ZnS04-7H20 or ZnS04-H20, was used? Was the iron sulfate FeS04,
FeS04-7H20, or re2(S04) 3? Did he use D-tartaric, L-tartaric, DL-tartaric,
or weso-tartaric acid? These questions are asked for the purpose of
emphasizing the need for exactness in reporting the composition of media
used in experimental work. These uncertainties creep into the literature
through ignorance or carelessness, or both. Nor are these ambiguities to
be found only in the older literature, for they are present in papers pub-
lished only yesterday. Either the specific name or the formula, or both,
should be stated. If it is stated that dipotassium phosphate, K2HPO4,
was used, the reader is certain of the identity of the compound. Potas-
sium phosphate may designate at least five distinct chemical compounds.
NATURAL VERSUS SYNTHETIC MEDIA

In addition to the fact already noted that the composition of natural
media is unknown, natural and synthetic media differ in two further
respects. Natural media are more complex; i.e., they contain more
chemical compound.s than synthetic media. They also contain com

pounds ordinarily not present in synthetic media.
Specific metabolites. Only certain chemical compounds are utilized
by fungi, but not all fungi are able to utilize thesame compounds. Any
compound utilized by a fungus is called a metabolite. Some fungi are
unable to synthesize certain essential metabolites and are said to be
"deficient" for the specific metabolites they are unable to synthesize.
In order to cultivate such deficient fungi, these metabolites must be pres-
ent in the medium. Natural media usually contain these metabolites.
If a fungus grows upon a natural medium and fails to grow upon a variety
of simple synthetic media, it may be suspected that specific metabolites
are involved in its nutrition.
The following example will illustrate the role of specific metabolites in
fungus nutrition. Fellows (1936) investigated the ability of Ophiobolus
grayninis to utilize different nitrogen compounds for growth. A sucrose-
mineral salts solution was used as the basal medium to which various
nitrogen sources were added. Only complex nitrogen sources such as egg
albumen, peptone, casein, and nucleic acid allowed growth. Under the
conditions used no growth resulted when ammonium compounds, nitrates,
nitrites, and amino acids were tested. 0. graminis in the presence of egg
albumen utilized glucose, maltose, lactose, fructose, xylose, starch, and
dextrin, in addition to sucrose. From these experimental results it was
concluded that 0. graminis requires a complex source of nitrogen for
growth.
White (1941) found that this fungus requires two specific
Later,
metabolites, thiamine and biotin. When these vitamins were added to
synthetic media containing simple nitrogen sources (sodium nitrate,
ammonium nitrate, asparagine, or glycine), good growth was obtained.
Thus, it appears obvious that 0. graminis does not require a complex
nitrogen source, but that it is unable to synthesize two specific chemical
compounds. These papers illustrate the fact that fungus physiology is a
young and developing science. Much of the early work needs reevalua-
tion in the light of recent discoveries. A student should strive to develop
a critical attitude toward the work but he should be no less
of others,
critical with regard to his own work. The evaluation of experimental
results depends upon the conditions under which the work was done, and
among these conditions the medium used is of first importance.
Complexity of media. It is a common experience to find that a trace of
some crude natural product stimulates the and sporulation
rate of growth
of a fungus. This stimulation frequently occurs with fungi which grow
well on synthetic media and which are not deficient for vitamins or amino
acids. It appears that the complexity of natural media offers a clue to
understanding this stimulatory effect. If a fungus is grown upon a simple
CULTURE MEDIA 13
synthetic medium which has only one source of carbon and one source of
nitrogen, it must synthesize many complex chemical compounds from
constituents present in the medium. It may be suspected that these

biochemical syntheses are slowed up under these conditions. When a
mixture of many carbon and nitrogen sources is present, the fungus may
function more efficiently, because the biochemical syntheses are easier
since some of the intermediates are furnished. These speculations
receive some support from evidence to be presented in Chaps. 6 and 7_
CHOICE AND PREPARATION OF MEDIA
Considerable care is needed in the selection of a suitable medium. A

medium may be excellent for growth and unsuitable for reproduction or
the production of an antibiotic. The method of preparation may influ-
ence the composition of a medium in unsuspected ways.
Choice of media. In selecting a medium the purpose for which it is to
be used should be kept in view. For many purposes a natural medium is
the one of choice. This is especially true for routine maintenance of
cultures, for isolations, and for preliminary investigations. The composi-
tion of natural media may
be varied by choosing different substrates.
Frequentl}^, a combination of natural products may be used to advantage,
e.g., malt and yeast extracts. In addition, these natural substrates may
be fortified with one or more pure chemical compounds. The constitu-
ents of natural media are fixed by the substances used, but the amounts
used may be changed at will.
More judgment enters into the selection of synthetic media. The

essentials of a synthetic medium may be stated as follows sources of car-
:
bon and nitrogen phosphate and sulfate ions; the

in utilizable forms;
metallic ions potassium, magnesium, manganese, and others
iron, zinc,
which are usually present as impurities in the chemicals used. These are
the essential elements and will be considered at length in later chapters.
Most fungi utilize glucose, so this sugar is frequently used as the carbon
source. More fungi utilize nitrogen in organic combinations than in
inorganic compounds. The question of specificity enters into the choice
of the carbon and nitrogen sources, and this can be determined only by
experiment. In order to cultivate deficient fungi on synthetic media, the
specific metabolites for which the fungi are deficient must be added.
Since synthetic media are used to study nutrition, the development of a
suitable synthetic medium for a specific fungus may require considerable
investigation. In our laboratory we commonly first use a glucose-casein
hydrolysate medium containing the essential inorganic elements. This
medium has been very useful in vitamin studies. Its composition is
given in Chap. 10.

Solid versus liquid media. Both solid and liquid media are used in
cultivating fungi. Media solidified with agar, or semisolid substrates

such as corn meal, offer many advantages in that the culture vessels can
be freely handled without disturbing the fungus. This feature is particu-
larly valuable when one wishes to follow the development of a fungus.
Microscopic examination is facilitated, and contaminants are more easily
detected. Single-spore isolations can be made more easilyfrom solid
media. Agar media are used to maintain stock cultures and are recom-
mended for many preliminary experiments.
Frau Hesse (Kitchens and Leikind, 1939) introduced the use of agar
into microbiological procedures in 1881. Agar, which is obtained from
various marine red algae, is a complex polysaccharide sulfate ester
(Pigman and Goepp, 1948). It forms colloidal solutions at elevated
temperatures and sets to a gel at temperatures around 45°C. On acid
hydrolysis both D-galactose and its enantiomorph, L-galactose, as well
as sulfuric acid, are formed. Agar must exist in the form of a salt
(Ca, Mg, Na, K, etc.) to form a gel. Agar introduces physiologically
active elements into media. It may contain significant amounts of
zinc (Leonian and Lilly, 1940) and other micro essential elements.
Mulder (1940) found that magnesium could be efficiently removed from
agar by repeated soakings in 10 per cent sodium chloride solution, followed
by washing with distilled wâter until the filtrate was free from chloride
ion. Agar also contains growth factors such as thiamine (Day, 1942)
(see Fig. 1). Many fungi make some growth on water agar, which indi-
cates that agar or the ''impurities" contained in it are utilized by fungi.
Robbins (1939) found that leaching agar with 5 per cent aqueous pyridine
removed many of the physiologically active compounds.
Liquid media should be used for precise investigations where it is
desired to control as many variables as possible. The composition of the
medium may be and the amounts used measured accurately.
controlled
Cultures may be aerated by shaking or by blowing sterile air through the
media. Weighing the mycelium is facilitated. When it is desired to
study the metabolic by-products of fungus metabolism (except gaseous
products), it is almost necessary to use liquid media. Isolation of
by-products is less complicated when liquid media are used. Studies of
various metabolite deficiencies and many microbiological assays (Chap.
10) almost always require the use of liquid media. The choice between
the use of solid or liquid media should be made on the basis of the known
advantages and disadvantages of both and with regard to the purpose of
the problem under investigation.
Designating media. It is common to find references to a medium by
the name of the investigator who first used it. These names have served
as convenient abbreviations and commemorate the pioneers in the art of
CULTURE MEDIA 15
cultivating fungi. Some of these names are Blakeslee, Uschinsky, Coons,

Czapek, Leonian, Sabouraud, Richard, Thaxter, Shear, Raulin. From a
historical standpoint this practice has much to recommend it. However,
this usage has many disadvantages. These distinguished names give no
clue to the composition of these media. The original formulas have in
many instances been changed. Some of these modifications have received
A B
Fig. 1. Growth Phycomyces blakesleeanus on vitamin-free liquid medium solidified
of
with two different brands of agar. Growth in A indicates relatively high content of
thiamine of this agar. The trace of growth in B shows that this agar is relatively
free of thiamine.
hyphenated names: e.g., Czapek-Dox. Frequently the originator of a

medium modified it from time to time. This introduces a further uncer-
tainty as to its composition. In our opinion the use of personal names to
designate media should be abandoned. It is much more helpful to
designate media by descriptive than by names which tell nothing of
titles
the composition. The carbon and nitrogen sources are important con-
stituents of every medium. Thus, sucrose-nitrate medium, glucose-
asparagine medium, or malt extract-yeast extract medium are preferred
to Czapek's medium, Schopfer's medium, or Leonian's medium. These
descriptive terms afford valuable information that personal names do not.
Even when the reader is familiar with the composition of a named medium,
there is a tendency to fail to associate experimental results with the

composition.
Effect of autoclaving. Media are commonly and effectively sterilized
by autoclaving. It should be noted, however, that such high tempera-
tures may cause destruction or alteration of some constituents in the
media. These changes are not serious for many uses; at least media pre-
pared in this way are satisfactory. Sugars are among the substances
most easily altered by autoclaving. The extent of decomposition depends
upon the specific sugar used, the other constituents of the medium, and
the time of autoclaving. It is desirable to adopt a uniform schedule for
autoclaving media. An increase in the amount of caramelization occurs
as the time of heating is increased. Maillard (1912) showed that a brown
color results when reducing sugars (glucose, fi-uctose, etc.) are autoclaved
with amino acids. and Patton (1947) have shown that growth of
Hill
Streptococcus faecalis reduced when tryptophane is autoclaved with
is
sugars. Margolin (1942) found that no one method of sterilization

resulted in best growth for all of the 14 species tested. Phythophthora
erythroseptica made three times the amount of growth on glucose sterilized
by filtration as when the entire medium was autoclaved. Syncephalastrum
racemosum, however, made more growth on autoclaved than on sterile-
filtered glucose (Table 2). The organisms most sensitive to heated
glucose appear to be various species of Cytophaga, which failed to grow
on glucose which had been heated to 50°C. (Stanier, 1942). These
organisms utilized glucose which had been sterilized by filtration. Phos-
phates, a universal constituent of media, are active in converting glucose
into ketoses and other products (Englis and Hanahan, 1945) during
autoclaving.
Complex sugars and polysaccharides undergo some hydrolysis during
autoclaving. The amount of hydrolysis is dependent upon the carbo-
hydrate, the time and temperature of autoclaving, and the pH of the
medium. Sucrose, when autoclaved in acidic media, may undergo suffi-
cient hydrolysis to support some growth of species unable to utilize
sucrose. This possibility must be guarded against in experiments on the
availability of complex sugars.
Other substances used in media may be destroyed during autoclaving.
To minimize or avoid such effects, heat-sensitive substances may be auto-
claved separately, or they may be sterilized using special bacteriological
filters. The Berkefeld and Chamberland filters are less used than
formerly, while at present Seitz and fritted-glass filters are widely used.
Fritted-glass filters are best for most purposes, inasmuch as the asbestos
pad used in the Seitz filter may adsorb active compounds. All methods
of sterilization w^hich depend upon filtration are slow and can be used only
with liquid media. Various volatile chemical sterilization agents such as
CULTURE MEDIA 17
alcohol and acetone have been used. Hansen and Snyder (1947) have
recommended the use propylene oxide for the sterilization of plant
of
parts used for culture media. Frequently a seemingly insignificant
change in the method of preparing a medium may result in significant
changes in the composition of the medium, which in turn may be reflected
in the behavior of the organisms grown upon it. Even the volume of
medium in culture vessels affects the amount
decomposition during
of
autoclaving. Cotton plugs may introduce hnt into the medium. Less
refined grades of cotton release a volatile substance which affects the
Table 2. The Effect of Different Methods of Sterilizing Glucose upon

THE Growth of Sex Fungi, at 25°C.
Growth reported as milligrams of dry mycelium.
The entire medium, containing a mixture of amino acids, was autoclaved in the
control experiment. In the other experiments the glucose was sterilized by either
Seitz filtration or treatment with acetone and added aseptically to the remainder of
the sterile medium. (Margolin, thesis. West Virginia University, 1942.)
Species
avoid the use of percentages, but for routine work, where the composition
of media is of less importance, the use of percentages may be allowed.
Before the same medium can be prepared repeatedly, it is necessary to
know what constituents are used and the amount of each.
Two general methods are used for reporting the composition of media.
Either the weights of the constituents and the volume of water used are
given, or the weights of the constituents are given and the medium made
up to a definite volume. The first method is in common use; its sim-
plicity conceals its disadvantages. The volume of a medium prepared by
this methodnever the same as the volume of water used. It is neces-
is
sary to measure the volume of the medium after preparation in order to

calculate the amount of any constituent in an alicjuot.
The method of choice in accurate work is to weigh the constituents and
make the medium up to a given volume. The amovmt of any constituent
in any volume of medium may then be calculated. If a liter of medium
contains 25 g. of sucrose, and 25-ml lots are dispensed, each lot contains
^/iooo X 25, or 0.625 g. of sucrose.
Direct units. The units of volume most used are the liter (1.) and the
milliliter (ml.). A cubic centimeter (cc.) is nearly, but not exactly,
equivalent to a milliliter. Its use should be discouraged. The formulas
for media are usually given on the basis of a liter. This practice is to be
encouraged, as the liter is a convenient volume in preparing media. The
weights of solid constituents should be reported as grams (g.) or decimal
divisions thereof. The most commonly used decimal fractions of the
gram are the milligram (mg.), the microgram (jug), and the millimicrogram
(m/ig), each of which is one-thousandth of the preceding weight. Since
it is easy to make mistakes in reading small decimals, it is recommended
that no decimals smaller than 0.1 be used. The use of 12 mg. is preferable
to 0.012 although both mean exactly the same. It is easier to read
g.,
5 jug than 0.000005 g. One milligram of a substance in a Uter of solution

equals one part per million (p. p.m.). Each milliliter of such a solution
wiU contain 1 fxg of the substance. Similarly, a microgram of a substance
in a liter of solution is The microgram
present as one part per billion.
has also been called the gamma
but this usage should be abandoned
(7),
inasmuch as gamma is not a regular prefix used in the metric system.
The necessity of using such small units of weight arises from the physio-
logical activity of certain compounds and elements. For example, a
concentration of 1 mg. of biotin in a liter of medium is a relatively enor-
mous concentration.
Derived units. Derived units must be used in comparing the effect of
compounds which have different molecular weights. Among these
derived units the mole is the most useful. A mole is the molecular weight
of a chemical compoimd expressed in grams. A mole of glucose is 180 g.,
\^ K^ ±^ J. \^ X\/X-J 1.WX JUt X-^X iX.
—
while a mole of sucrose is 342 g. A liter of solution containing one mole
ofa compound is said to be one molar (il/). Equimolar solutions contain
the same number of molecules. In problems in physiology, such as
osmotic pressure, which have to do with the numbers of molecules it is
necessary to use this way of expressing concentration. If it is desired to
compare the effect of the osmotic pressure due to glucose and sucrose, the
concentration must be expressed in terms of molar strengths, for the
osmotic pressure is a function of the number of molecules of solute in a
solution. If it is the purpose to compare the effect of glucose and sucrose
on the amount of growth of a fungus, this method of expressing concen-
trations should not be used. Media of equal molarity with respect to
sucrose and glucose do not contain the same amount of carbon. The
first contains twice as much carbon as the second. Just as a milligram is
one-thousandth of a gram, a millimole is one-thousandth of a mole. The
meaning of micromole and millimicromole should be obvious.
If the weight of a compound is given in grams, this datum may be con-
verted into moles. If a medium contains 50 g. of glucose per liter, the
glucose concentration may be expressed as 50/180 or 5/18ilf. Con-
versely, if the concentration of sucrose in a medium is stated to be 0.15ilf,
the weight of sucrose is 0.15 X 342 or 51.3 g. per liter. These conversions
imply that the molecular weight is known or can be calculated. In pre-
paratory work compounds are weighed on a balance as grams, not as
moles, and unless the interpretation of the results demands conversion to
moles, it is better to record the weights than to convert these data to
derived units. The mole and molar solutions are particularly useful in
dealing with non-ionizing compounds.
Another derived unit, the equivalent, is frequently used to express the
concentration of ionized compounds. An equivalent is the atomic weight
of an ion expressed in grams divided by the valence of the ion. If an ion
is composed of more than one atom, the ion weight is computed by adding
together the atomic weights. It is important to remember that, if an
element has more than one valence, the equivalent weight depends upon
the valence. An equivalent of ferrous (Fe++) ion is 55.8/2 or 27.9 g.,
while an equivalent of ferric (Fe+++) ion is 55.8/3 or 18.6 g. A normal

solution (A^) is one which contains one equivalent in a liter of solution.
In dealing with small amounts it is convenient to use milliequivalents or
microequivalents.
In preparing a series of media for the purpose of comparing the growth
of a fungus on different nitrogen sources, the nitrogen content of the media
should be equal. If urea, CO(NH2)2, and aspartic acid, HOOC— CH2
—
CH(NH2) COOH, are used, it is obvious that different weights of these
nitrogen sources must be used if the media are to contain equal amounts of
nitrogen. Whenever media are modified by replacing one compound by
1
another, it should be done in such a way that the same amount of the
essential element is present in all the media. If this is not done, the basis
upon which the replacement was made should be stated. If 25 g. of

glucose, C6H12OC is replaced by 25 g. of sucrose, C12H22O11, it should be
realized that the carbon contents of the two media are different. It is
frequently difficult or impossible to find out from some papers in the

literature how substitutions in the media were made.
Table 3. A Compakison of Two Synthetic Media upon the Basis of Amounts

OF Essential Elements and Compounds Present in One Liter
Both media were made with double-distilled water.
CULTURE MEDIA 21
COMPARISON OF MEDIA
Media differ only in constituents and amounts used. It is desirable to
be able to compare media some uniform way. To do this, it is neces-

in
sary to know not only the amounts of the elements present, but also the
compounds in which these elements occur. A comparison of two syn-
thetic media is given in Table 3.
From Table 3 it will be noted that these media contain the same essen-
tial elements. Copper, molybdenum, and gallium do not appear in the
composition of the glucose-asparagine medium, but it should not be con-
cluded that these elements were not present, since only c.p. chemicals
were used to prepare this medium. Stout and Arnon (1939) note that a
distinction must be made between ordinary chemical purity and biological
purity. This will be considered in detail in Chap. 5. The two features
which make these media quite distinct are the different sources of carbon
and nitrogen used and the addition of two vitamins to the glucose-
asparagine medium. The latter medium is suitable for the growth of
more species of fungi than is the sucrose-ammonium nitrate medium.
SUMMARY
Fungi secure food and energy from the substrates upon which they live
in nature. In order to culture fungi in the laboratory, it is necessary to

furnish in the medium those essential elements and compounds they
require for the synthesis of their cell constituents and for the operation of
their life processes. The synthetic abilities of fungi differ. Some fungi
are unable to s5Tithesize certain key compoimds that they require and
must obtain them from the medium upon which they grow. All the fungi
require much the same essential elements but differ widely in their ability
to utilize compounds in which these elements occur. There is no uni-
versal natural substrate or artificial medium upon which all fungi will
grow.
On the basis of composition there are three general types of media:
natural media, which are composed entirely of natural products; semi-
synthetic media, which are composed in part of natural substances; and
synthetic media, which are of kno^\^^ composition. Natural media are
most useful for routine work, while synthetic media and, to a limited
extent, semisynthetic media are used to investigate the nutritional
requirements of the fungi. Media differ only with respect to constituents
and concentrations.
The compounds and the amounts used in preparing a medium must be
specified exactly. Media should be designated by naming the carbon
and nitrogen sources used, e.g., glucose-asparagine medium. The use
of proper names to designate the composition of a medium should be

avoided.
The selection of a suitable medium depends upon the fungus under
study and the purpose of the experiment. Not all media are equally
suitable for all fungi, nor is one medium suitable for a complete physio-
logical study of one fungus.
REFERENCES
Brefeld, O.: Botanische Untersuchungen liber Schimmelpilze, Heft, IV Verlag
Arthur Felix, Leipzig, 1881.
Buchanan, R. E., and E. I. Fulmer: Physiology and Biochemistry of Bacteria,
Vol. I, The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1928.
Day, D.: Thiamin content of agar. Bull. Torrey Botan. Club 69: 11-20, 1942.
Englis, D. T., and D. Hanahan: Changes in autoclaved glucose, Jour. Am. Chevi.
Soc. 67 51-54, 1945.
:
Fellows, H.: Nitrogen utilization by Ophiobolus graminis, Jour. Agr. Research 53:
765-769, 1936.
*Hansen, H. N., and W. C. Snyder: Gaseous sterilization of biological materials for
use as culture media, Phytopathology 37: 369-371, 1947.
Hill, E. G., and A. R. Patton: The Maillard reaction in microbiological assay.
Science 105 481-482, 1947.
:
HiTCHENS, A. P., and M. C. Leikind: The introduction of agar-agar into bacteri-

ology. Jour. Bad. 37: 485-493, 1939.
Leonian, L. H., and V. G. Lilly: Studies on the nutrition of fungi. IV. Factors
influencing the growth of some thiamin-requiring fungi. Am. Jour. Botany 27:
18-26, 1940.
Maillard, L. C: Action des acides amines sur les sucres; formation des melanoldines
par voie methodique, Conipt. rend. acad. sci. 154: 66-68, 1912.
Margolin, A. S.: The effect of various carbohydrates upon the growth of some
fungi, thesis. West Virginia University, 1942.
Mulder, E. G. On the use of micro-organisms in measuring a deficiency of copper,
:
magnesium and molybdenum in soils, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 6 99-109, :
1939-1940.
Neuberger, a., and F. Sanger: The nitrogen of the potato, Biochem. Jour. 36:
662-671, 1942.
Pigman, W. W., and R. M. Goepp, Jr.: Chemistry of the Carbohydrates, Academic
Press, Inc., New
York, 1948.
Raulin, J.: Etudes chimiques sur la v^g6tation, Ann. sci. nat., Ser. V, 11: 93-229,
1869.
Rawlins, T. E.: Phytopathological and Botanical Research Methods, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1933.
RiKER, A. J., and R. S. Riker: Introduction to Research on Plant Diseases, John S.
Swift Co., St. Louis, 1936.

*RoBBiNS, W. J.: Growth substances in agar. Am. Jour. Botany 26: 772-778, 1939.
Robbins, W. J., and M. B. Schmitt: Effect of cotton on the germination of Phyco-
myces spores, Bull. Torrey Botan. Club 72 76-85, 1945. :
Stanier, R. Y. The Cytophaga group: a contribution to the biology of myxobacteria,

:
Bact. Revs. 6 : 143-196, 1942.

Steinberg, R. A.: Relation of carbon nutrition to trace-element and accessory
requirements of Aspergillus niger, Jour. Agr. Research 59: 749-763, 1939.
CULTURE MEDIA 23
Steinberg, R. A.: Sulfur and trace element nutrition of Aspergillus niger, Jour.
Agr. Research 63: 109-127, 1941.
Stout, P. R., and D. I. Arnon: Experimental methods for the study of the role of
copper, manganese, and zinc in the nutrition of higher plants, Am. Jour. Botany
26: 144-149, 1939.
* White, N. H.: Physiological studies of the fungus Ophiobolus graminis Sacc, Jour.
Council Sci. Ind. Research 14: 137-146, 1941.
CHAPTER 3
GROWTH
Growth may be considered either as an increase in cell number or as an
increase in mass.Usually both these processes are concurrent in the
phenomenon called growth. To a limited degree, fungus cells may
divide and form new cells without an increase in mass. A spore may
germinate in distilled water and give rise to a germ tube, but in the
absence of nutrients this process soon stops. A few cell divisions exhaust
the reserve material originally present in the spore, and growth soon
ceases unless these new cells obtain nutrients from the external environ-
ment. Under certain conditions fungus cells may increase their store of
reserve materials, and thus their mass, without an increase
in cell number,
but this process is also limited. Growth, excluding the limited meanings
given above, involves an increase in both the number and the mass of cells.
This definition of growth neither ''explains" the processes involved nor
indicates their complexity. Rahn (1932) has expressed doubt that we
will ever fully understand the process of growing. A yeast cell which
buds and produces a daughter cell illustrates one of the striking features
of growth growth involves duplication.
: From a dozen or so simple chemi-
cal substances present in the medium the parent cell synthesizes at least
a portion of the protoplasm of the daughter cell. The daughter cell has
the same genetic constitution as the parent cell, and thus a duplication of
genes is a feature of cell multiplication. The compounds which comprise
protoplasm, enzymes, genes, and other substances are extraordinarily
complex. Our meager knowledge concerning the chemical architecture
of these substances only confirms this view. In the synthesis of such
compounds we may assume that the chemical reactions which produce
them are perfectly timed and coordinated, for no series of uncorrelated
reactions could produce such compounds.
The growth processes of the filamentous fungi are still more complex
than those of yeast, because of greater differentiation in structure. In
those species of fungi which produce aerial mycelium these parts are
nourished through the mycelium in contact with the medium. This
involves translocation of nutrients over considerable distances. This is
especially true of sporangiophores and aerial fruit bodies. The develop-
ment of fruiting structures and spores is growth, in that the formation of
new cells is involved. The formation of fruit bodies in many species
24
GROWTH 25
takes place at the expense of reserve materials and protoplasm formed by

and stored in the vegetative mycelium.
PHASES OF GROWTH
Growth in the fungi, as in other organisms, follows a definite pattern.
The way this development takes place depends upon the species and the
environmental and nutritional conditions. In the present discussion, it
will be assumed that the external conditions are favorable and that growth
takes place in a limited volume of medium.
Unicellular organisms. The bacteriologists have long been interested
in the mathematical analysis of the phenomenon of growth. The student
is referred to Buchanan and Fulmer (1928) and to Rahn (1932, 1939) for
Among the fungi, the yeasts have

further information on this subject.
somewhat the same type of development as the bacteria. Since bacteria
multiply by fission and the yeasts (except Schizosaccharomyces) by
budding, we cannot expect the growth pattern of yeasts to fit exactly the
same formulas which have been developed for bacteria. But, in a general
way, yeasts follow closely the phases of growth shown by bacteria.
These phases of growth are as follows: (1) Stationary phase. When cells
are inoculated into a medium, there is a period of time following inocu-
lation when there appears to be no change in number. The stationary
phase may be long or short depending upon the age and vigor of the
inoculum, the medium, and other factors. (2) Phase of accelerated growth.
Not until cell division is established and new protoplasm is being formed
from the constituents of the medium may growth be considered as begun.
This phase is characterized by an increase in the rate of cell division, i.e.,
the generation time is decreasing. (3) Exponential or logarithmic phase.
This phase is clearly defined for bacteria and approached by yeasts. It
is characterized by a constant generation time. If the logarithms of the
cell numbers are plotted against time, the curve is a straight line. (4)
Phase of declining acceleration. As the nutrients become exhausted, or

as toxic by-products accumulate, the average generation time increases.
A combination of these and other factors results in a lessened rate of
growth. If fresh medium were continuously supplied and toxic by-prod-
ucts removed, it is possible that this phase would never be attained. (5)
Maximum stationary phase. This marks the attainment of maximum
weight, or numbers of living cells. It is quite likely that the death of old
cells is balanced by new growth. The duration of this phase is dependent
upon the organism and upon the composition of the medium at this time.
(6) Phase of decline or autolysis. Sooner or later, following attainment of
maximum development, autolysis sets in. As the cells die, the cellular
enzymes begin to digest the various cell constituents. Only the more
resistant portions of the cell remain. Microscopic examination at this
time reveals that many cells are devoid of protoplasm. It is quite possi-
ble that some of the materials released by autolysis are used by the
remaining living cells.
Filamentous fungi. With exception of the third phase of growth dis-
cussed above, the filamentous fungi follow the same order of development
as the yeasts. The most obvious difference between the filamentous
fungi and unicellular organisms is the failure to attain an exponential rate
of growth. Usually, the exponential phase is replaced by a more or less
linear phase of growth. Emerson (1950) found a straight-line relation
between the cube root of the weight of mycelium produced by Neurospora
crassa grown in nonagitated liquid medium and the time of incubation.
This relation held for three surface-volume ratios. A comparison of the
linear, logarithmic, and cube-root growth curves indicates that this fungus
has a cube-root phase of growth during the interval when the linear graph
is concave upward. Growth in the filamentous fungi is limited to the
tips of the hyphae. The influence of neighboring cells which compete for
nutrients is a much more important factor in the growth of filamentous
fungi than in submerged unicellular organisms. In unagitaged cultures a
portion of the mycelium is usually aerial at some stage of growth. The
aerial mycelium derives its nutrients from the submerged cells, which
involves the transport of these substances over some distance.
RATE OF GROWTH
To study growth, necessary to consider both the rate and amount of
it is
production of formed during incubation. The average rate of

cells
growth is obtained by measuring the amount of growth at two intervals of

incubation and dividing the difference by the time interval. If the
weight of a fungus colony increased from 50 to 98 mg. between the fourth
and sixth days of incubation, the average rate of growth is 24 mg. per day,
or 1 mg. per hr. In experimental work, measurements of growth should
be made sufficiently often during the period of incubation so that a
smooth graph (growth curve) can be plotted from the data. The inter-
vals between measurements of growth may be as short as 1 day for a
rapidly growing fungus and as long as a week for species which grow
slowly. The rate of growth at any time may be determined by finding
the slope (tangent) of the curve. The growth rates of fungi differ, as is
illustrated in Fig. 2.
Since growth is a process which takes place in time, it can be studied
only by making many growth measurements during the period of incuba-
tion. Such a study is not complete until the phase of autolysis is attained.
Much of the information in the literature is incomplete because growth
was measured only at one time. Many of the potentialities of the fungi
can be discovered only by prolonged observation.
GROWTH 27
WAYS OF MEASURING GROWTH

The discussion of phases of growth presupposes methods of measuring
growth. In choosing a method of measuring growth, or any other physio-
accuracy and type of information desired must be kept
logical process, the
in mind. For some purposes the simplest methods are satisfactory; for
others the most accurate methods should be chosen.
Visual inspection. The simplest way to measure growth is by inspec-
tion and comparison. The value of this method lies in the speed with
which growth measurements are made. Elaborate equipment is not
400
300
• 200
T5
'o
too
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Doys of incubation
Fig. 2. Growth of four fungi under the same conditions, in 25 ml. of liquid glucose-
casein hydrolysate medium at 25°C.
needed, as test tubes and Petri dishes are satisfactory culture vessels.
This method has the further advantage that the same cultures may be
kept under observation. It is frequently the method of choice for pre-
liminary experiments, for the very appearance of the mycelium is a clue
to the amount of growth. Growth under varying conditions may be
compared if some condition is used as a standard for comparison (see
Suggested Laboratory Exercises). It is obvious that a great deal of sub-
jective judgment enters into this method of estimating growth, but it is
veiy useful where fine distinctions are not required.
Linear growth. A second widely used method of measuring growth
consists in growing fungi in Petri dishes and measuring either the diameter
or the area of the colony. This is a useful method in some instances but
almost useless in others. At least these measurements can be made in an

objective way. In this method, the diameter, radius, or area of a colony
is used to express the amount of growth, while the daily increase repre-
sents the rate of growth. It is obvious that this method neglects the
thickness of the colony. Worley (1939) has proposed to take the thick-
ness of the mycelium into account when growth is measured by this
method. Such measurements are difficultand neglect the mycelium
buried in the agar. The rate of linear growth of some fungi has little
relation to the composition of the medium. The rapid extension of
mycelium on water-agar medium may serve as a familiar example.
It has been frequently assumed that fungi grow at a constant rate when
maintained under constant environmental conditions. This assumption
is not necessarily true, for the growth of Aspergillus rugulosiis and many
other fungi is self-limited under cultural conditions. Two factors may

contribute to cause nonuniform rates of growth: (1) the change in con-
centration of nutrients due to diffusion and utilization; (2) the excretion
of inhibitory metabolic products into the medium.
The same fungus may have a constant rate of growth at one tempera-
ture and not at another. The rate of growth is frequently not constant
when fungi are cultured at temperatures higher than optimum. Fawcett
(1921) found the rate of growth of Phytiacystis citrophthora, Phytophthora
terrestris, Phoviopsis citri, and Diplodia natalensis to decrease with time
when these fungi were cultivated above the optimum temperature. Some
of Fawcett's data which illustrate this phenomenon are given in Table 4.
Table 4. The Effect of Temperature upon the Rate of Growth

OF Three Fungi
The daily increase in the average radius of the colonies is given in milhmeters,
(From the data of Fawcett, Univ. Calif. {Berkeley) Pubs. Agr. Sci. 4, 1921.)
GROWTH 29
be measured with ease and accuracy. This growth tube is illustrated in

Fig. 3.
These authors (Ryan et al, 1943) found the rate of linear growth of
Ncurospora sitophila in such a growth tube to be constant for 200 hr.
The growth-tube method has been used to study the effect of temperature,
pH, vitamin content, and other variables upon Neurospora. These
special tubes have another advantage over Petri dishes in that cultures
are well protected from contamination. The same culture may be
exposed to a variety of environmental conditions such as hght and tem-
perature. These tubes have the disadvantage that it is more difficult to
remove mycelium or fruit bodies for examination. In addition, aeration
may be poor and become a limiting factor for some fungi.
Fig. 3. Growth tube patterned after those described by Ryan, Beadle, and Tatum
{Am. Jour. Botany 30: 784-799, 1943) for measuring linear growth.
Dry weight. By weighing the mycelium and spores produced, an

accurate and objective measure of growth is obtained. For precise work
it is the method of choice. Where any significant weight of spores is pro-
duced, either Gooch or Alundum crucibles may be used to collect both
mycelium and spores. For most purposes the mycelium may be filtered
from the culture medium by use of a finely woven cloth and then trans-
ferred to weighing bottles or small aluminum cups. The excess medium
should be removed by washing and pressing the mycelium, which is then
dried to constant weight at 80 to 100°C. After the mycelium is dry, it is
weighed on an analytical balance. It is usually sufficient to record the
weight to the nearest milligram.
Some fungi make better growth and sporulate more readily on agar
than in liquid medium. It is desirable to have an objective measure of
growth of agar cultures. Fries (1943) and Day and Hervey (1946) have
obtained the dry weight of cultures grown on agar. This technique
should be more widely used. The mycelium is freed from agar by briefly
autoclaving the cultures, filtering off the mycelial mats, and washing with
:36 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
hot water. Frequently the mat can be removed from the melted agar
with a pair of forceps instead of by filtering. Autoclaving removes some
soluble constituents from the mycelium, but if a uniform procedure is
adopted, the results are comparable.
Measuring yeast growth. The growth of yeasts may be measured by
four methods. Yeast cells may be counted in an aliquot of the
(1)
medium by the use of a hemocytometer or other counting chamber. The
method is tedious. (2) The volume of yeast cells in a given volume of
medium may be measured in special graduated centrifuge tubes. Yeast
80r
0.8 1 .6 3.1 6.2

iig. fhiomine per culture
Fig. 4. Direct comparison between diameters and dry weights of the same 10-day-
old cultures of Ceratostomella fimbriata in the presence of varying amounts of thiamine.
Cultures were grown in Petri dishes on 25 ml. of glucose-casein hydro lysate agar
at 25°C.
cellsare large and easily separated from the medium by centrifuging.

This method is less tedious than counting. (3) Turbidity may be used to
measure the amount of yeast growth. Accurate determinations by this
method require the use of a photoelectric photometer. This method is
rapid and sufficiently accurate for many purposes. Lindegren and Raut
(1947) have cultivated yeasts in colorimeter tubes and have followed the
rate and amount of growth for as long as desired. (4) Yeast cells may be
filtered under vacuum, washed, dried, and weighed. Selas porcelain
crucibles with fritted bottoms are suitable. This method is accurate but
somewhat time-consuming.
Comparison of methods. It should be clearly recognized that one
method of measuring growth may not agree with another. This is illus-
GROWTH 31
trated by where two methods of measuring the amount of growth

Fig. 4,
of Ceratostomella fimbriata were used. This figure demonstrates that the
diameter of a colony may be a very poor measure of the amount of growth.
Fries (1943) grew Ophiostoma {Ceratostomella) ulmi on agar medium and
measured the radii of the colonies and also wêighed the mycelium after
removing the agar. After 5 days the average radius of cultures without
pyridoxine was 16.3 mm., while the average radius of cultures receiving
pyridoxine was 12.3 mm; the weights of mycelium produced under these
two conditions were 5.2 and 18.1 mg., respectively. It is clear from these
examples that different methods of measuring growth do not always give
comparable results. Before valid conclusions can be reached, it is neces-
sary to use valid methods of measuring the quantities involved.
METHODS OF PRESENTING RESULTS

The data obtained in a well-planned and carefully executed experiment
have value in themselves, but more frequently data are a means to an end.
Experimental data form the basis upon which conclusions are reached and
serve as a guide to further investigation. A conclusion is sound only if
the data are sound. To be of greatest value, data must be presented in an
understandable manner. Extensive data may be presented either as
tables or graphs; each method has certain advantages.
Tables. The utility and conciseness of tables make them desirable for
many purposes. Tables are especially suitable in comparing the amount
of growth (or any other function under study) of a number of fungi under
standard conditions or under a number of conditions. They give the
reader the same basic and fundamental information available to the
original investigator. The utility of such information can be appreciated
only when one attempts to assess the reports in the literature.
Derived data, such as ratios or percentages, may be needed for the pur-
poses of interpretation and study, and as such they are entirely proper.
However, the original data from which the derived data were calculated
should always be published. The original data frequently have values
which are not perceived or considered by the original investigator.
Derived data as such afford no clue as to the original magnitudes.
Without the original data no comparison can be made with other experi-
ments, whether in the same or other laboratories. The usefulness of
many publications is severely limited because the author presented only
ratios or percentages instead of the original data. If a datum represents
an average value, the number of determinations upon which it is based
should be stated. It is desirable to indicate the range of variation among
replicates, or the standard deviation should be given if the number of
observations is large.
Graphs. The significance of data is frequently best appreciated when

presented in graphical form. A graph reminds one that growth is a con-
tinuous function in time, whereas a table may suggest a discontinuous
process. Growth curves are especially suited to illustrate the rate and
amount of growth as a function In Fig. 2 the growth curves of
of time.
four fungi illustrate differences among
species. Growth curves are
equally applicable to the study of a single species under different condi-
tions. The points representing the data should be given, so that the
reader may see how closely the curve fits the data.
Three-dimensional graphs may be used to represent the relations among
three variables. Three-dimensional graphs take the form of a surface.
Rahn (1939) has given concise directions for constructing such graphs and
models. Schopfer (1943) has used such graphs to represent the growth of
Phycomyces hlakesleeanus with respect to the amount of thiamine and
asparagine in the medium as a function of time of incubation (Fig. 33).
Another way of showing the relations among the variables involves the
use of a triangular graph. Such a presentation is effective if one desires,
for example, to show the effect of the concentrations of three constituents
of a medium upon growth. For examples of the use of triangular graphs
see Haenseler (1921) and Pratt and Hok (1946).
Photographs. The presentation of experimental results is frequently
improved by the judicious use of photographs. Photographs are
particularly useful in comparing the behavior of fungi under different
experimental conditions. The behavior of different species under
identical conditions may be effectively compared by the use of photo-
graphs. Well-labeled photographs also make excellent permanent
records of certain types of experimental results.
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

All the separate factors comprising the internal and external environ-
ment may affect either the rate or the amount of growth, or both. Among
the internal factors are the genetic constitution and the internal modifica-
tions due to age and to the previous external environment. While more
is known about the external factors which affect growth than about the
internal factors, it should always be remembered that the external envi-
ronment acts by modifying the internal environment.

Internal factors. One species differs from another, and even one isolate
of a species may differ from another in genetic composition. Many
mutations have been produced in the laboratory by the action of rays, X
ultraviolet rays, and certain chemicals (see Chaps. 10 and 18). These
mutants of a single species produced in the laboratory differ from the
parent type in one or more biochemical or morphological characteristics
and thus correspond to the different isolates of a species found in nature.
GROWTH 33
There is no reason to suppose that mutants produced in the laboratory-
differfundamentally from those isolated in nature.

The potentiahties of a fungus are limited by its genetic constitution.
The realization of these potentialities may be denied or favored by the
external environment, and only as the environment is suitable do these
inherent factors find expression. Diversity, rather than uniformity, in
behavior among species and isolates is the rule.
Only a small amount of inoculum is used in most studies. It is impor-
tant to learn the age, history, or kind of inoculum has any effect on the
if
subsequent development of the fungus. All these factors may influence

the rate and amount of growth and other functions of the fungi. Young
and vigorously growing inoculum is most suitable, since old cells as a
general rule are slow to start growth. Apparently one of the first func-
tions a cell loses is the power of division. From this standpoint such cells
are "dead," although they may be capable of performing many vital

still
functions, such as respiration. Difficulty is frequently experienced in

making subcultures from old cultures. Certain species are difficult to
maintain in culture unless they are frequently subcultured. In general,
these species do not readily form resting cells. Among these are various
species of Pythium and Phytophthora, test-tube cultures of Choanephora
cucurhitarum, and others.
In experimental work of the highest precision neither the temperature
nor the medium upon which the inoculum is grown may be neglected.
Zikes (1919) investigated the generation time of six strains of yeast and
found that the storage temperature of the inoculum affected the time
required for These original cultures were grown at 8°C. and
cell division.
25°C., and subcultures were incubated over a range of temperatures.

When the inoculum which was grown and stored at 8°C. was subcultured
at low temperatures, the generation time was less than that of the culture
grown and stored at 25°C. At temperatures above 25°C. the generation
time of the high-temperature yeast was less than that of the low-tempera-
ture yeast. In some way, yeast cells cultured over long periods of time
at a certain temperature to this temperature, and when
become adapted
such cells are transferred to other temperatures, the influence of the
original temperature of incubation persists for a time. It is evident that
some change in the internal environment has occurred.

Comparable studies on the filamentous fungi are rare. From Fawcett's
data on the rate of linear growth of four citrus pathogens it appears that
the same phenomenon takes place with some filamentous fungi. Fawcett
grew the inoculum at 20°C., and on subculturing at 7.5°C. the linear rate
of growth increased with time, as is shown in Table 5.

Many fungi have latent abilities to synthesize various essential metab-
olites. In the virtual absence of these compounds in the medium and
after a shorter or longer period of incubation, a fungus may begin to

synthesize these essential metabolites, and growth then takes place in a
normal way. This is especially true of the yeasts with respect to vitamins.
Many fungi lose their pathogenicity Avhen cultured for a long time on
laboratory medium. Host passage frequently restores pathogenicity.
The indiscriminate use of inoculum from a variety of substrates and of
different ages may introduce unexpected variation in experimental work
and should be guarded against.
Table 5. Daily Increase Millimeters) in Diameter of Colonies

(in
OF Four Fungi
Inoculum grown at 20°C.; subcultures incubated at 7.5°C. (From the data of
Fawcett, Univ. Calij. {Berkeley) Pubs. Agr. Sci. i, 1921.)
1st 2d 3d 4th 5th

Species
day day day day day
Phythiacystis citrophthora 0.04 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2

Phytophthora terrestris . . . 0.02 0.14 0.21 0.7 0.8
Phomopsis citri 0.01 0.16 0.83 0.9 1.0
Diplodia natalensis 0.05 1.9 2.1
External factors. Among the external factors which influence the

growth of fungi, temperature plays an extremely important role. Tem-
perature affects almost every function of the fungi. For each fungus
there is a temperature below which it will not grow, the minimum tem-
perature. Likewise there is a temperature above which growth ceases,

the maximum These two temperatures indicate the tem-
temperature.
perature range ofan organism. A few fungi are capable of growing below
0°C., but for most species the minimum temperature is to 5°C. The
maximum temperature varies from 27°C. ior Phacidium infestans (Pehrson,
1948) and Sclerotinia cameUiae (Barnett and Lilly, 1948) to 45 or 50°C. for
Aspergillus fumigatus (Thom and Raper, 1945). The maximum tempera-
Table 6. Cardinal Temperatures for Various

GROWTH 35
ture is sometimes an important factor limiting the attack of plant

pathogens.
The cardinal temperatures of a few fungi are given in Table 6. A more
extensive compilation is given by Wolf and Wolf (1947). The character-
istic effect of different temperatures on the rate of growth of two fungi is
shown in Fig. 5. Further examples may be found in the work of Lindgren
(1942).
Most reports on the effect of light on the fungi have been concerned
with reproduction rather than vegetative growth. However, Elfving
(1890) found strong diffuse daylight to depress the growth of Penicillium
glaucum and a species of Briarea. The amount of inhibition was least
when the culture medium contained complex nutrients such as peptone.

Greater inhibition resulted when the media contained glucose, mannitol,
and malic acid. Scattered observations indicate that the depressing
effect of strong light may be rather common. In the old literature some
mention is made of the favorable effect of light on red yeasts. The
sporangiophores of Phycomyces hlakesleeanus attain a greater length in
darkness than in intense light. The role of light in the sporulation of
some fungi is discussed in Chap. 14.
Conclusive evidence that light affects the amount of growth of Karlingia
(Rhizophijlctis) rosea, one of the lower Chytridiales, was presented by
Haskins and Weston (1950). This fungus when grown in liquid glucose-
nitrate medium produced twice the amount of dry weight of cells when
cultured in light than when the cultures were kept in total darkness.
With the exception of the factor of illumination, the experimental con-
ditions were the same. Approximately twice as much glucose was
utilized by cultures exposed to light as those kept in darkness. On the
other hand, when K. rosea was grown in a liquid cellobiose-nitrate
medium, more growth resulted in total darkness than in light. The
explanation for this behavior of K. rosea is not known.
The moisture requirements of fungi differ. Most species in nature live
on substrates which are not saturated with water. The low moisture
content of a substrate is often a factor which limits the growth of fungi.
Particularly is this true of the species which live on wood or in soil. As a
general rule, wood which contains less than 20 per cent moisture is immune
to fungus decay. A few per cent in the moisture content
difference of a
may determine whether a species will be able to grow or not. Lindgren
(1942) has reported that Ceratostomella pilifera, a wood-staining fungus,
does not grow in pine wood having a moisture content of 23 per cent but
develops in wood containing 24.5 per cent moisture. The maximum rate
of penetration was attained on wood having a moisture content of 29 per
cent or more. Jute sacking is subject to fungus attack only if the mois-
ture content exceeds 17 per cent.
In physiological studies dealing with high concentrations of nutrients,

it is important to distinguish between osmosis and osmotic pressure.
Osmosis is the transfer of water through a membrane permeable to water
160
120
^80
E
40
GROWTH 37
of ions and molecules of solute contained in a unit \'olume of solution. A

mole of a non-ionized compound in 1,000 g. of water at 0°C. has an
osmotic pressure of 22.4 atm. if separated from pure water by a semiper-
meable membrane. For a fuller discussion of osmosis and osmotic pres-
sure the student is referred to Gortner (1949), Seifriz (1936), and Meyer
and Anderson (1948).
If concentration were the sole factor which determines whether growth
is possible, all solutions having the same osmotic pressure would be
equally inhibitory. Table 7 indicates that this is not true.
Table 7. Highest Osmotic Pressures (Atmospheres) op Solutions of Four

Compounds in Which Various Fungi Grew
(Hawkins, Jour. Agr. Research 7, 1916.)
Species
.
nutrients which is most favorable for growth may be poor in other

respects, e.g., The concentration may be varied in two
for reproduction.
ways: (1) by dihiting the entire medium, whereby the ratios among the
constituents remain unchanged, and (2) by varying the concentration of
one constituent. These methods are not equivalent and yield different
results.
When an entire medium
is diluted, it might be expected that the de-
crease in amount mycelium produced would be directly proportional

of
to the amount of
dilution. Such is not always the case. When Chae-
tomium convolutum was grown in full-strength medium and in medium
diluted to one-fourth and one-sixteenth full strength, the maximum
weights of mycelium produced were 220, 75, and 22 mg., respectively
(Lilly and Barnett, 1949). C convolutum grew most efficiently in the
most dilute medium. This principle appears to be generally valid and is
also illustrated by Ceratostomella fimbriata (Table 57)
Table 8. The Effect of Different Volumes of Medium upon the Rate and
Maximum Amount of Growth of Sordaria fimicola
Dry weight of mycelium in milligrams.
Days of
GROWTH 39
entirely submerged is due to lack of an adequate supply of oxygen. The

efficiency of Sordaria fimicola in converting the constituents of the
medium into mycelium decreased as the depth of the medium increased.
This fungus was less than half as efficient when grown in 50 ml. of medium
as when grown in 6.25 ml.
EFFECT OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ON MORPHOLOGY

While the study ofmorphology, as such, is not within the province of
physiology, there is a close connection between these two aspects of
mycology. Form and function are the two ways in which the poten-
organisms come to expression. The morphology of a fungus
tialities of
may be modified by environmental factors to such a degree as to be

unrecognizable. These changes in morphology may be microscopic as
well as grossly visible.
Pasteur (1879) noted that species of Mucor, when grown submerged in
liquidand in the absence of air, assumed a yeast-like form. Not only did
they resemble yeasts, but under these conditions they fermented sugar to
alcohol. Under aerobic conditions no detectable amounts
of alcohol were
formed. Reproductions of Pasteur's drawings have been published by
Foster (1949).
When yeasts are cultured in liquid media and allowed to age undis-
turbed, a film or membrane frequently covers the surface of the liquid.
Film formation frequently starts as a ring of cells on the wall of the flask
at the air-liquid interface. The morphology of the yeast cells in
such
films unusual in that the cells are joined together in filaments. The
is
supply of oxygen must play an important role in the formation of fila-

ments. The temperature range within which film formation occurs varies
with the species of yeast and is usually considerably less than the tempera-
ture range for growth. Most species of yeasts forms films only between
6 and 30°C., although Zikes (1919) found Monilia Candida and Mycoderma
cerevisiae to form films at 37°C. The early literature on this subject has
been summarized by La Far (1911).
Nickerson and Van Rij (1949) have reviewed the mechanisms of fila-
ment formation in yeast and conclude that the processes of cell elongation
and cell division are controlled by different enzyme systems. Appar-
ently, the sulfhydryl enzymes which regulate the process of cell division
may be inhibited without greatly interfering with cell elongation. Among
the agents which inhibit cell and peni-
division are cobalt, iodoacetate,
cillin. The effect of penicillin on Saccharomyces cerevisiae is shown in
Fig. 6. Camphor and other narcotizing agents produce somewhat the
same changes in morphology of yeast cells (Levan, 1947).
Many pathogenic fungi which cause disease in man are dimorphic.
These fungi are usually yeast-like in the host but frequently form myce-
Fig. 6. Saccharomyces cerevisine, camera lucida drawings of cells from agar cultures.
A, culture treated with penicillin; B, culture treated with penicillin plus cysteine.
(Courtesy of Nickerson and Van Rij, Biochim. et Biophijs. Acta 3: 461-475, 1949.
Published by permission of Elsevier Book Company, Inc.)
iw \ .
\*'
""
i/^/\
A B
Fig. 7. The effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on the morphology of cells of
Sordaria fimicola. A, rounded swollen cells produced in glucose-casein hydrolysate
medium at initial pH 3.6. B, normal mycelium from the same culture a few days
after a drop of NaOH was added.
Hum in culture. Blastomyces dermatitidis and B. hrasiliensis exhibit

thermal dimorphi.sm (Nickerson and Edwards, 1949). When these fungi
are cultured on certain media at 37°C., they are yeast-like, while at lower
temperatures of incubation they form mycelium. This change in mor-
phology is accompanied by changes in the rate of respiration and type of
GROWTH 41
Fig. 8. The effect of environment on the morphology of fruit bodies of Forties

applanatus. A, normal fruit body developed in nature; B, C, malformed fruit bodies
of the same (?) fungus developed under water in abandoned coal mines. The "nodes "
in B are believed to be caused by different water levels.
metabolism. Chemical agents may favor or prevent similar morphologi-

cal changes. Trichophyton ruhrum produces two metabolic products of
unknown constitution which inhibit the transformation of Candida
albicans to the mycelial form (Jillson and Nickerson, 1948). The addi-
tion of excessive amounts of inositol to the culture medium causes
Ophiostoma (Ceratostomella) muUiannulatum to grow almost entirely in
the form of conidia (Fries, 1949). The morphology of the vegetative
mycelium and sporangia of various species of Phytophthora was found to
depend upon the medium used (Leonian, 1925).
The form of mycelial growth of many species, when grown on agar
media, is an aid in identification. The colony form may be altered
beyond recognition when cultures are grown in agitated liquid medium.
In general, spherical colonies or balls form in agitated medium. Burk-
holder and Sinnott (1945) investigated colony form of a large number of
species when subjected to agitation.
The medium affects the size and shape of the vegetative
acidity of the
cells of some fungi. In a medium so acid as to allow only very slow
growth the cells often become swollen or nearly spherical in shape, much
like chlamydospores, but the wall remains thin (Fig. 7). This may be
accompanied by excessive branching.
Unusual environmental conditions often affect the morphology of both
vegetative and reproductive structures. The environment which exists
in coal mines is unnaturally uniform with respect to temperature, mois-
ture,'and absence of light. Basidiomycetes growing on old mine timbers
either fail to fruit or produce odd-shaped sterile fruit bodies (Fig. 8).
SUMMARY
Normal growth an increase in cell number and mass. Limited
results in
growth may from either of these two processes alone. Growth is a
result
phenomenon which requires time for its various manifestations. Growth
follows a pattern which differs from species to species, but the general
sequence of phases is much the same for all fungi. Growth studies are
based upon measuring both the amount and the rate of growth. The rate
and amount of growth are controlled by the internal and external environ-
ment. The potentialities of a fungus are limited by its genetic constitu-
tion, but the expression of these potentialities is controlled by external
factors such as temperature, light, composition, and concentration of the
medium. Even the size and shape of the culture vessels used affect the
rate and amount of growth.
The amount of growth can be estimated by visual comparison or meas-
ured by determining the diameter of a colony or by harvesting the myce-
lium and weighing it after drying to constant weight. The amount of
yeast growth may be measured by counting the numbers of cells produced,
GROWTH 43
by centrifuging and measuring the volume of cells, by turbidity, or by

weighing. The most direct way of measuring growth of either yeast or
filamentous fungi is by weighing the crop produced. The various meth-
ods of measuring growth are not strictly comparable.
The morphology of a fungus may be changed by environmental factors
so that it becomes unrecognizable. The processes of cell elongation and
cell division are controlled by different enzyme systems. In some
instances has been possible to inhibit cell division without interrupting
it
cell elongation.Frequently a change in physiology accompanies a

change in morphology.
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and pH upon vegetative growth of Sclerotinia camelliae, At7i. Jour. Botany 35:
297-302, 1948.
Bennett, I. G.: Thesis, West Virginia University, 1951.
Buchanan, R. E., and E. I. Fulmer: Physiology and Biochemistry of Bacteria,
Burkholder, p. R., and E. W. Sinnott: Morphogenesis of fungus colonies in sub-
merged shaken culture. Am. Jour. Botany 32: 424-431, 1945.
Crosier, W.: Studies in the biology of Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary,
Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Mem. 155, 1933.
Day, D., and A. Hervey: Phycomyces in the assay of thiamine in agar. Plant
Physiol. 21
233-236, 1946.
:
Elfving, F.: Studien iiber die Einwirkung des Lichtes auf die Pilze, Helsingfors
Central-Druckerei, Helsingfors, 1890.
Emerson, S.: The growth phase in Neurospora corresponding to the logarithmic
phase in unicellular organisms, Jour. Bad. 60: 221-223, 1950.
*Fawcett, H. S. The temperature relations of growth in certain parasitic fungi,
:
Univ. Calif. (Berkeley) Pubs. Agr. Sci. 4: 183-232, 1921.

Foster, J. W.: Chemical Activities of Fungi, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1949.
Fries, N.: Die Einwirkung von Adermin, Aneurin und Biotin auf das Wachstum
einiger Ascomyceten. Symbolae Botan. Upsalienses 7(2): 1-73, 1943.
Fries, N.: Ophiostoma multiannulatum (Hedge, and Davids) as a test object for the
determination of pyridoxin and various nucleotide constituents. Arkiv fiir
Botanik 1: 271-287, 1949.
Gortner, R. a.: Outlines of Biochemistry, 3d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1949.
Haenseler, C. M.: The effect of salt proportions and concentrations on the growth
of Aspergillus niger, Am. Jour. Botany 8: 147-163, 1921.
*Haskins, R. H., and W. H. Weston, Jr.: Studies in the lower Chytridiales. I. Fac-
tors affecting pigmentation, growth, and metabolism of a strain of Karlingia
(Rhizophlyctis) rosea, Am. Jour. Botany 37 739-750, 1950.
:
Hawkins, L. A.: Growth of parasitic fungi in concentrated solutions, Jour. Agr.

Research!: 255-260, 1916.
JiLLSON, O. F., and W. J. Nickerson: Mutual antagonism between pathogenic
fungi. Inhibition of dimorphism in Candida albicans, Mycologia 40: 369-385,
1948.
Kroemer, K., and G. Krumbholz: Untersuchung iiber Osmophile Sprosspilze.
I. Mitteilung, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Garungsvorgange und der Garungs-
erreger der Trockenbeerenauslesen, Arch. Mikrobiol. 2: 352-410, 1931.
La Far, F.: Tochnical Mycology. Vol. II, Eumycetic Fermentation (trans.

C. T. C. Salter), Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, 1911.
Leonian, L. H.: Physiological studies on the genus Phytoyhthora, Am. Jour. Botany
12:444-498, 1925.
LevAN, A.: Studies on the camphor reaction of yeast, Heredilas 33: 457-514, 1947.
Lilly, V. G., and H. L. Barnett: The influence of concentrations of nutrients,
thiamin, and biotin upon growth and formation of perithecia and ascospores by
Chaetomium convolutum, Mycologia 41 186-196, 1949.
:
LiNDEGREN, C. C, and C. Raut: The effect of the medium on apparent vitamin-

synthesizing deficiencies of microorganisms. A direct relationship between
pantothenate concentration and the time required to induce the production of
pantothenate-synthesizing "mutants" in yeasts, Ann. Missouri Botan. Garden
34 : 75-90, 1947.
LiNDGREN, R. M. Temperature, moisture, and penetration studies
: of wood-staining
Ceratostomellae in relation to their control, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 807,
1942.
Meyer, B. S., and D. B. Anderson: Plant Physiology, D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New
York, 1948.
NiCKERSON, W. J., and G. A. Edwards: Studies on the physiological bases of
morphogenesis. I. The respiratory metabolism of dimorphic pathogenic fungi,

Jour. Gen. Physiol. 33: 41-55, 1949.
NiCKERSON, W. J., and N. J. W. van Rij: The effect of sulfhydryl compounds,
penicillin, and cobalt on the cell division mechanism of yeasts, Biochim. et
Biophys. Acta 3: 461-475, 1949.
*Pasteur, L.: Studies on Fermentation. The Diseases of Beer, Their Causes, and
the Means of PreventingThem (trans, from Etudes sur la biere by F. Faulkner
and D. C. Robb.), Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London, 1879.
Pehrson, S. O.: Studies of the growth physiology of Phacidium infestans Karst.,
Physiologia Plantarum. 1 : 38-56, 1948.
Pratt, R., and K. A. Hok: Influence of the proportions of KH2PO4, MgS04, and
NaNOs in the nutrient solution on the production of penicillin in submerged
cultures, Am. Jour. Botany 33: 149-156, 1946.
Raciborski, M.: Ueber die obere Grenze des osmotischen Druckes der lebenden
Zelle, Bull, internat. acad. sci. Cracovie, CI. sci. math, et nat. 7: 461-471, 1905.
Rahn, 0.: Physiology of Bacteria, The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia, 1932.
Rahn, O.:Mathematics in Bacteriology, Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, 1939.
Ryan, F. J., G. W. Beadle, and E. L. Tatum: The tube method of measuring the
growth rate of Neurospora, Atn. Jour. Botany 30: 784r-799, 1943.
ScHOPFER, W. H.: Plants and Vitamins, Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, 1943.
Seifriz, W.: Protoplasm, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1936.
*Thatcher, F. S.: Osmotic and permeability relations in the nutrition of fungus
parasites. Am. Jour. Botany 26: 449-458, 1939.
Thom, C, and K. B. Raper: A Manual of the Aspergilli, The Williams & Wilkins
Company, Baltimore, 1945.
Wolf, F. A., and F. T. Wolf: The Fungi, Vol. II, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1947.
WoRLEY, C. L.: Interpretation of comparative growths of fungal colonies on different
solid substrata. Plant Physiol. 14: 589-593, 1939.
ZiKEs, H.: Ueber den Einfluss der Temperature auf verschiedene Funktionen der
Hefe, Cent. Bakt., Abt. II, 49: 353-373, 1919.
CHAPTER 4
ENZYMES AND ENZYME ACTION

The fungi, in common with other hving organisms, possess tools or
reagents far more specific, more deHcate, and more powerful than those
available in the laboratory. The most complex natural substances such
as proteins, polysaccharides, and Hpoids are degraded into simpler com-
pounds which are soluble in water. Fungi also synthesize similar com-
plex compounds from relatively simple molecules. These transformations
are carried out under such mild conditions of temperature and pressure
and in such low concentrations of acid and alkali that it is certain the
means used are of a peculiar kind. For in the absence of these special
agents formed by the living organisms, these reactions do not take place
or do so at a very slow rate. These organic catalysts produced by living
organisms are called enzymes. The life processes of organisms are con-
trolledand directed by a complicated and interrelated series of enzymes
or enzyme systems (Dixon, 1949).
Some enzymes formed by fungi are excreted and normally perform their
functions outside the cells that produce them. These are termed exo-
enzymes (extracellular enzymes), such as cellulase, amylase, and pectinase.
Exoenzymes perform the functions of digestion; i.e., the degradation of
complex food materials into low-molecular-weight compounds which are
able to enter the cell. After entering the cell, these metabolites are acted
upon by the enzymes within the cell. These enzymes are called endo-
enzymes (intracellular enzymes).
Naturally enough, exoenzymes were recognized and studied first. In
the early literature, these exoenzymes were called unorganized ferments
because of their solubility. In contrast to these unorganized ferments it
was recognized that other ferments (enzymes) occurred in an insoluble
organized form. These were called organized ferments. Pasteur (1875)
still spoke of yeast as "ferment alcoohque ordinaire du vin." Thus, the
name organized ferment took on a dual meaning, that of a living organism
and the various chemical reactions caused by these organisms. In 1878
Kiihne suggested that the word enzyme be used to replace the terms
organized and unorganized ferments. Enzyme is derived from the Greek
phrase, en zyme, which means in yeast or leaven. For excellent sum-
maries of the historical development of the relation between fermentation
45
and the action of microorganisms, see Stephenson (1939) and Harden

(1932).
It was not until late in the nineteenth century that Buchner (1897)
succeeded in releasing certain enzymes from yeast cells and demonstrating
that the endoenzyme(s) in yeast causing fermentation was also active
entirely apart from the living yeast cells. While yeast juice prepared
according to the method of Buchner contained a variety of enzymes, it
contained fermentative enzymes never before obtained apart from the
living cell.These enzymes cleaved sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
This was truly a monumental step in the science of enzymes, for it
afforded a way of studying "life" processes apart from the terrible com-
plexity of the living organism. The study of isolated enzyme systems
has led to important advances in our knowledge and understanding of
life processes; yet the student should be reminded that life is more com-
plex than its parts. Leibowitz and Hestrin (1945) say:
... it has become clear that the risk involved in translating results from lifeless
to living systems is a two-way one: not only may mechanisms which operate
in vivo be absent in vitro; mechanisms may be present in vitro and yet not neces-
sarily function in vivo. In fermentative physiology, as in biology generally,
selective and restrictive activity by the living organism must always be taken into
account.
The rate of many

chemical reactions is changed by the presence of
traces of substances which do not appear to enter into permanent chemi-
cal combination with the reactants and which appear unchanged when
the reaction has come to equilibrium. Substances which alter the rates
of chemical reactions are called catalysts, and the process catalysis.
Enzymes are catalysts of a very special kind, and many of them catalyze
but a single reaction. For example, lactose reacts with water to form
glucose and galactose. Unless a catalyst is present, this reaction occurs
at a very slow rate. Even at 100°C. a long time is required for an appreci-
able amount of lactose to react with water. If, however, some acid is
added to the lactose solution, the rate of the reaction is greatly increased,
varying in degree with the amount and kind of acid used. This same
reaction is catalyzed w^hen the enzyme, lactase, produced by some yeasts
and certain other fungi, is added to a solution of lactose. In general,
enzymes are specific catalysts. There is no stoichometric relation
between the amount of catalyst (acid or enzyme) and the amount of sub-
strate decomposed. Within limits, the amount of substrate decomposed
per unit of time is dependent upon the amount of catalyst present.
For a given set of conditions there is a position of equilibrium where the
rate of reaction of the reactants is equal and opposite to the rate of com-
bination of the products. The position of equilibrium is not changed by
ENZYMES 47
the presence of a catalyst. The same catalyst will effect synthesis as well
as decomposition; the position of equilibrium as well as the relative con-
centrations of reactants and products determines which reaction pre-
dominates. It is possible to choose conditions, in some instances, so the
equilibrium conditions favor synthesis. Bourquelot (1915) demonstrated
a-methylglucoside was readily formed from methyl alcohol and glucose in
the presence of yeast juice.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
It is more important to classify enzymes upon the basis of function
rather than the site of action (endo- and exoenzymes). Many enzymes
catalyze reactions in which water is either a product (synthesis) or a
reactant (degradation). These enzymes are called hydrolases. These

reactions usually involve only moderate energy changes. Another class
of enzymes, usually intracellular, catalyze oxidation and reduction reac-
tions and reactions involving the scission (or formation) of carbon-to-car-
bon These enzymes are known as desmolyzing enzymes and
linkages.
include oxidases, dehydrogenases, and desmolases. Energy changes
involved in these reactions are usually large. For more detailed classifi-
cations of enzymes see Gortner (1949) and Sumner and Somers (1947).
Since an enzyme acts upon a restricted number of compounds, it is
convenient to name enzymes with reference to the substrate acted upon.
In general, enzymes are named either by adding the suffix -ase to the
name of the substrate or by replacing the final syllable of the name of the
substrate by this suffix. The following examples give the substrate fol-
lowed by the name of the enzyme: maltose, maltase; lactose, lactase;
(amylum), amylase; protein, proteinase; pectin,
cellulose, cellulase; starch
pectinase. The used to designate classes of enzymes.
suffix -ase is also
Thus, esterases are members of that group of enzymes which catalyze the
hydrolysis and synthesis of esters; oxidases are enzymes which activate
oxygen, and dehydrogenases are enzymes which activate the hydrogen of
various metabolites. An enzyme may have several names. The enzyme
which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose is known also as saccharase and
invertase. Amylase is also called diastase.
Hydrolases. The hydrolases catalyze a wide variety of reactions in
which water is either a reactant or a product. Hydrolysis is generally
thought of as a process whereby complex molecules react with water to
form simpler substances. Many hydrolases are exoenzymes which func-
tion by preparing the substrate for assimilation. Among these the follow-
ing should be noted cellulase, amylase, pectinase, various disaccharidases,
:
proteinases, and peptidases. Others are endoenzymes (the same enzymes

in some instances), which catalyze the same or similar reactions within the
cells. It would be expected that the process of synthesis within the cells
48 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUXGI
would be of much more common occurrence than outside the cells. In the
medium the process of degradation may be expected to go more or less to
completion, since the soluble products of the reaction are assimilated by
the organism and hence equilibrium is not reached. Within the cell,
however, the reverse may be true. Here, the products of hydrolysis may
accumulate, a situation which would tend to favor the reverse reaction, or
synthesis. Therefore, synthesis within the cell would be expected to
occur when a plentiful supply of simple metabolite molecules continue to
reach the cell. When few, if any, metabolite molecules are entering the
cell, the hydrolysis of reserve materials would take place.
These prod-
ucts of hydrolysis within the cell are then used in other metabolic processes
until the store of reserve material is exhausted. Some of these functions
are illustrated in scheme I.
Scheme I. General Scheme of Starch Utilization

Outside the cell
Starch ->- Maltose *- Glucose
amylase ^^^^ ^-^^ maltase
Fungus cells
Within the cell
Glucose -<-
many enzymes many enzymes
Carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide,

alcohol and other water and other
products of anaerobic products of aerobic
respiration respiration
Glycogen, or
other storage
products
Esterases. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of esters, an acid

and an alcohol being formed. The most important natural esters are the
fats, which are the glycerol esters of the long-chain fatty acids. Enzymes
which catalyze the hydrolysis of fats are called lipases. Both exo- and
ENZYMES 49
endolipases are known. Many fungi store fat as reserve material, and
presumably the first step in utilization is hydrolysis.
Phosphatases are classified as esterases because of the fact that they
catalyze the hydrolysis of esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphorus is an
essential element which enters into many metabolic processes and is a
constituent of many physiologically important compounds. Many
coenzymes are esters of pyrophosphoric acid (thiamine pyrophosphate,
and diphosphopyridine nucleotide, DPN), while triphosphoric acid is a
constituent of triphosphopyridine nucleotide, TPN. The synthetic
capacity of the phosphatases has been rarely demonstrated. Other
enzymes, phosphorylases, are apparently the catalytic agents active in
forming many phosphate esters. In many instances the substrates from
which these esters are formed are different from the products of phos-
phatase hydrolysis.
Carbohydrases. The enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of com-
plex carbohydrates, or polysaccharides, are called carbohydrases. These
enzymes appear to be highly specific thus each of the common disaccha-
;
rides requires a different enzyme for hydrolysis. Sucrase is found in

many fungi, including the common strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
although it is apparently absent in Schizosaccharomyces octosporus. The
enzyme which hydrolyzes maltose to glucose is called maltase. Maltase
is very widely distributed among the fungi. The enzyme which catalyzes
the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose is called lactase. While
this enzyme is less widely distributed among the fungi than sucrase and
maltase, it is produced by many species.
While it is doubtless correct to assume that the more complex and in-
soluble carbohydrates must be hiydrolyzed before utilization, this assump-
tion may, in some instances, be false with regard to the disaccharides. It
is possible that some fungi may employ a phosphorylative degradation of
the disaccharides rather than hydrolysis. For a critical review of carbo-

hydrate utilization without preliminary hydrolysis, see Hestrin (1948).
In addition to the water-soluble polysaccharides there is a wide variety
of water-insoluble high-molecular-weight carbohydrates which are utilized
by many fungi as carbon sources. Only two of these complex polysaccha-
rides will be considered here. The empirical formula for cellulose is
(C6Hio05)„. On complete hydrolysis by acids, glucose is the only prod-
uct. Less complete hydrolysis produces a disaccharide known as cello-
biose. The majority of fungi, according to Norman and Fuller (1942),
are able to attack cellulose. The early work is reviewed by Thaysen and
Bunker (1927). With respect to the fungi which attack cellulose, a great
deal of variation in cellulolytic ability is found (see White et al., 1948).
The enzyme which catalyzes the hydrolysis of cellulose is called cellulase.
While starch has the same empirical formula as cellulose, it is more
.
easily hydrolyzed. Glucose is likewise the end product of hydrolysis.

The enzyme enzymes) which catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch is
(or
called amylase. In general, the end product of enzymatic hydrolysis of
starch is maltose and glucose. The various intermediate degradation
products are called dextrins.
Starch appears to be composed of two main types of compounds:
amylose (20 to 25 per cent) and amylopectin. Amylose appears to con-
sist of long,unbranched molecules containing some 300 glucose residues,
whereas amylopectin has a branched structure. There are two types of
amylase: jS-amylase, which hydrolyzes off two glucose residues at a time
to form maltose, and oi-amylase, which attacks the 1,4-glucosidic linkages
in such a way as to produce starch fragments (dextrins) as the primary
products. The dextrins are further hydrolyzed to form maltose and some
glucose. The primary function of a-amylase is thus liquefaction; that of
the /3-amylase is saccharification. The Aspergillus amylases are of the
alpha type. The student is referred to the excellent reviews of Hopkins
(1946)and Myrback (1948) for critical summaries of amylase activity.
Amylase is widely distributed among the fungi but is not universal.
Pectinase. The compounds
pectins are colloidal carbohydrate-like
found and in the middle lamellae of plants. Many fungi produce
in fruits
pectinase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of pectin. When the pectin is
hydrolyzed, the cells fall apart. Harter and Weimer (1921) tested the
Rhizoyus to produce pectinase in culture but were
ability of nine species of
unable to correlate the pathenogenicity of these species with the amount
of pectinase secreted. In fact, some of the pathogenic species {R.
nigricans and R. autocarpi) secreted less pectinase than did two non-
pathogenic species {R. chinensis and R. microsporus)
Pectins were formerly believed to yield a considerable variety of hydro-
lytic products, including acetic acid, galactose, and arabinose in addition
to methyl alcohol and D-galacturonic acid. More recent work indicates
that pectins are methylated polymers of D-galacturonic acid (Schneider
and Bock, 1937). The chemistry and physiology of the pectins have been
reviewed by Bonner (1936).
Proteinases and peptidases. These enzymes, also called proteolytic
enzymes, catalyze the hydrolysis (and synthesis) of proteins and peptides.
These enzymes have been separated into two groups upon the basis of
ability to attack native protein. Those enzymes which act upon intact
proteins are called proteinases, while those which attack peptides are
called peptidases. It seems that the fundamental difference between
these two classes of enzymes lies in the point of attack. The proteinases
attack the protein molecule in such a way as to produce various peptides
as well as amino acids, while the peptidases act only on the ends of the
peptide chains. This is analogous to the action of the two amylases.
ENZYMES 51
The proteolyticenzymes are a very complex group of hydrolases. In

view complexity
of the of protein structure this is not unexpected. The
question of specificity of the proteolytic enzymes has been considered by
Bergmann (1942), who emphasizes that the specificity of a given enzyme
for a certain substrate may be modified by the presence of a second sub-
strate. Johnson and Berger (1942) have reviewed the enzymatic proper-
ties of the peptidases, including those produced by the fungi.
Oxidases, hydrogenases, and desmolases. One of the central prob-
lems in metabolic processes is how and by what means oxidation of
metabolites to carbon dioxide and water is brought about. Some
organisms (bacteria) are inhibited or killed by free oxygen (anaerobes).
Others may live either in the presence or absence of free oxygen (faculta-
tive anaerobes), while others require free oxygen (aerobes) to carry on
their metabohc processes and to maintain life.Thus, one organism may
degrade a substrate only partially, and these intermediate oxidation
products become substrates for other organisms. In the end complete
oxidation takes place. In other instances an organism may first carry
out a partial degradation and complete it later. Thus, yeast produces
alcohol by fermentation. In the presence of oxygen, alcohol is utilized
and as a source of energy. Many
for the synthesis of cellular constituents
fungi possess two ways of obtaining energy by the degradation of metabo-
lites: an anaerobic (fermentative) and an aerobic (oxidative) pathway.
Both may function in the same organism at the same time, although
external conditions may favor one process at the expense of the other, or a
substance may inhibit one without affecting the other.
Biological oxidations are carried out in two ways: by the removal of
hydrogen from, or by the addition of oxygen to, substrates. The name
of Wieland is associated with the process of dehydrogenation, and that of
Warburg with the second process.
The theory of Wieland stressed the importance of the enzyme systems
which activated hydrogen or removed hydrogen from substrate molecules,
while Warburg's theory focused attention upon the enzyme systems
which activated oxygen and which carried oxygen to the substrates.
These two theories might seem irreconcilable, but today they are con-
sidered as mutually complementary. Both types of enzymatic oxidation
are known for the same organism. For further discussion of this problem
the student is referred to Elvehjem and Wilson (1944) and Meyerhof et al.
(1942) For a classification of the respiratory enzymes see Gortner (1949)
.
and Sumner and Somers (1947). For the electronic mechanism involved
in biological oxidation-reduction see Michaelis (1946).
Some representative dehydrogenases and oxidases are aerobic dehj^dro-
genases (xanthine oxidase, and uricase); anaerobic dehydrogenases,
(succinic dehydrogenase, glucose dehydrogenase, triose phosphate dehy-
drogenase) ; oxidases (cytochrome oxidase, tyrosinase, polyphenol oxi-

dase). Succinic acid dehydrogenase oxidizes succinic acid to fumaric
acid by the removal of two hydrogens but this reaction takes place only
;
in the presence of another system (cytochromes) which "carries" the

hydrogen to an oxidizing enzyme, which converts the hydrogen to water
and regenerates the cytochrome system so that it can transport more
hydrogen. In the cell, succinic acid dehydrogenase is said to be cyto-
chrome-linked. In the laboratory, hydrogen carriers other than cyto-
chrome may be used. Various other dehydrogenases are linked to the
cytochrome system.
Another oxidase, tyrosinase, is found in many fungi. It is well estab-
lished that copper is an essential constituent of this enzyme system
(Kubowitz, 1937) and may be removed by dialyzing the enzyme against
cyanide solutions. The activity which is lost by this treatment is restored
by cupric ion, Cu++, but other divalent metals do not replace copper.
Various reagents which react with copper, such as cyanide, diethyl
dithiocarbamate, salicylaldoxine, and carbon monoxide, inhibit the action
of tyrosinase. Among the fungi which produce tyrosinase are the follow-
ing species (Nelson and Dawson, 1944) Boletus luridis, Russula foetens,
:
R. niger, Lactarius piperatus, and PsalUota campestris. It is probable that

the darkening and coloration of the fruit bodies of these fungi depend upon
the activity of tyrosinase.
Pyruvic acid, CHs — CO— COOH, is a key compound in carbohydrate
utilization, and perhaps in other metabolic processes as well. The
enzyme, carboxylase, catalyzes the decomposition of pyruvic acid in
the following way:
carboxylase
CHs— CO— COOH > CO. + CHs— CHO
Pyruvic acid Carbon dioxide Acetaldehyde
The carbon dioxide formed escapes, while the acetaldehyde formed may
be either oxidized to acetic acid or reduced to ethyl alcohol. The enzyme
which catalyzes the decarboxylation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and
acetaldehyde is abundant in yeast and other fungi. This enzyme con-
sists of three moieties, a specific protein, a magnesium ion, and thiamine
pyrophosphate.
CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYMES

In the past there has been a great deal of controversy over the chemical
nature of enzymes. Sumner (1926) was the first to isolate an enzyme
(urease) in pure crystalline condition. Since then a dozen or more
enzymes have been prepared in pure crystalline form. All the enzymes
which have been isolated in pure crystalline condition have proved to be
proteins.
ENZYMES 53
Some enzymes are specific proteins requiring neither coenzymes nor

metals for activity. These enzymes must contain as an integral part of
their structure the specific groups whereby they react with the substrate.
Other enzymes consist of two moieties, a specific protein and a specific
nonprotein compound which can be detached from the protein. In the
process of purifying an enzyme by dialysis the activity may be lost and
later restored by adding to the dialyzed material some boiled juice from
the tissue under investigation. These specific nonprotein compounds are
known as coenzymes. Neither the specific protein nor the coenzyme alone
functions as the enzyme; both are required for activity. The specific
protein is called the apoenzyme, while the combination of apoenzyme and
coenzyme is called the holoenzyme. Still other holoenzymes consist of an
apoenzyme, a coenzyme, and a metallic ion. Coenzymes, being non-
protein in nature, have proved to be more easily isolated and studied than
the specific protein moieties of enzymes. Coenzymes are a varied group
of compounds, some relatively simple in structure and others more com-
plex. The vitamins are known to enter into the structure of some
coenzymes, and it is supposed it is through such coenzyme molecules that
the vitamins exert their specific effects. The same coenzyme may com-
bine with many specific proteins to form different enzymes.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Some of the factors influencing enzyme activity affect the intact organ-
ism as well as isolated enzyme systems. While the situation within the
intact organism is more complex, a knowledge of the behavior of isolated
systems will be useful in interpreting the behavior of living fungi. The
factors which will be discussed are temperature, hydrogen-ion concentra-
tion (pH), chemical reagents (activators and inhibitors), and radiation.
Temperature. The rate of many reactions is approximately doubled
for each 10°C. increase in temperature. The rate of reactions catalyzed
by enzymes also increases with temperature. This increase is not main-
tained indefinitely, for enzymes are destroyed by temperatures of less
than 100°C. Although there are some reports in the literature of the rate
of enzymatic reactions being increased as much as fivefold by a 10°C.
increase in temperature, for most enzymatic reactions the increase in rate
is less than twofold. This increase between two temperatures 10°C.
apart is called the temperature coefficient, or Qio. Since the increase in
rate is not exactly constant, it is desirable to specify the temperatures
involved; e.g., Q20-30.
A reaction with a Qio of 2 proceeds sixteen times faster at 40°C. than
at 0°C. Or, the transformation of a given amount of substrate which
requires 16 hr. at 0°C. will occur within 1 hr. at 40°C. Figure 9 shows the
theoretical effect of temperature upon the amount of substrate trans-
formed when Qio is 2, 3, and 4. It was assumed that one unit of substrate
was transformed per unit of time at 0°C. For a reaction with a Qio of 2
an increase in temperature from 28 to 30°C. causes as great an increase in
the amount of substrate transformed as does the increase from to 10°C.
A small increase in temperature in the range 25 to 35°C. has a greater
effect on the rate of reaction than a much greater increase in temperature
in the lower temperature range.
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ENZYMES 55
reflected in a lowered rate of growth or may be seen in other behavior of

the fungus. With further increases in temperature, the enzyme systems
become less and less operative. So long as the temperature does not
exceed the point which produces irreversible inactivation, lowering the
temperature will enable the fungus to resume growth or other activity.
The temperature of inactivation is not fixed unless the length of exposure
is also considered.
The effect of temperature upon growth is shown in Figs. 5 and 39.
The portions of the curves in the optimum temperature range represent a
balance between inactivation and increased rate of reaction. Above
optimum temperature, the rate of growth falls off abruptly. In a general
way the rate of growth parallels that expected of enzymatic processes.
Hydrogen-ion concentration. Long ago it was recognized that strong
acids and alkalies were destructive to enzymes. A second effect was also
recognized: some enzj^mes exhibited maximum activity only in the pres-
ence of weakly acidic or alkaline solutions (see Chap. 8 for a discussion
of pH). The effect of pH
on the activity of urease is shown in Fig. 25.
It should be noted that the pH optimum is dependent upon the concen-
tration of urea.
Haldane (1930) compiled the pH
optima of 105 enzymes and found
that the range extended from pH However, all but nine of these
2 to 10.
enzymes had pH optima between 4 and 8. Most fungi grow between
these limits. The effect of the pH of the medium upon the pH of the cell
contents is unknown in most instances. Biinning (1936) has reported
that the internal pH of the cells of Aspergillus niger is influenced by the
pH of the medium. The activities of the exoenzymes are affected by the
pH of the medium.
Chemical reagents. Some enzymes are inactive or nearly so until they
have been treated with certain reagents. A group of the plant proteinases
which includes papain and bromelin are activated by hydrogen sulfide and
hydrogen cyanide (inhibitors for many enzymes), glutathione, and other
thiol compounds. These various activators do not act by removing
heavy metals (inactivators for many enzymes) but by reducing the disul-
fide linkage, S S ——— to thiol (sulf hydril)
, SH. Neutral salts
, —
activate some enzymes (emulsin, pancreatic amylase). The mode of
activation by neutral salts is unknown. Many of the metallic ions
(Mg++, Ca++, Fe++, Cu++, Mn++) are required for enzyme activity, but
it seems better to consider them as essential parts of some enzymes rather
than activators.
Inhibitors are substances which reduce or destroy enzyme activity.
Inhibition may be reversible or irreversible. A few enzyme inhibitors are
cyanides, monoiodoacetate, fluoride, and the hea\^ metals (lead, copper,
mercury, silver, etc.). An inhibitor is active against certain enzymes and

not others. There appears to be a close relation between the chemical

constitution of the prosthetic group of the enzyme and the inhibitors
which inactivate it. We may postulate that inactivation results from a
chemical reaction between the inhibitor and the prosthetic group of an
enzyme.
One characteristic of an oxidase is inhibition by cyanide and hydrogen
sulfide. This points to some common moiety enzymes which is
in these
/Vo cyanide
0.95 X 10'^ M NaCN
o —— '-' o-
2.5xlO'^M NaCN
U P — o— o- — o — o,
l2.4xlO'^MNaCN
50 75 100
Oxygen tension (mm Hg)
Fig. 10. The effect of cyanide on yeast respiration. (Courtesy of Winzler, Jour.
Cellular Comp. Physiol. 21: 238, 1943. Published by permission of Wistar Institute
of Anatomy and Biology.)
able to react with cyanide. The oxidases are metalloproteins, and in

view property of cyanides of reacting with metals to form complexes,
of the
it would appear likely that cyanide reacts with the metal to form inactive
little-ionizedcompounds. The typical properties of ferrous and ferric

ions are masked by cyanide. Tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme, is
inactivated by cyanide. Hydrogen sulfide acts on many of the same
enzymes which are inhibited by cyanide the action may be assumed to be
;
due to the formation of insoluble metal compounds rather than the forma-
tion of non-ionized complexes.
Winzler (1943) studied the effect of different concentrations of cyanide
upon the respiration of yeast maintained under different oxygen tensions.
The effect of cyanide on yeast respiration is shown in Fig. 10. It may be
S S
ENZYMES 57
noted that tlie percentages of inhibition of respiration (oxygen uptake)

depend upon two conditions, the amount of oxygen available and the
concentration of cyanide present. We may assume that the cyanide
inhibited one or more respiratory enzymes and that, as the concentration
of cyanide increased, more and more of these enzymes were inactivated.
When the oxygen tension was reduced, these effects were increased.
While it is kno^^^l that salts of the heavy metals may denature proteins,
and this explanation has been advanced to account for enzyme inactiva-
tion by them, recent opinion inclines to the \'iew that the heavy metals
inactivate enzymes either by combining with —
SH groups, or, under
alkaline conditions, by oxidizing thiol sulfur to disulfide. Mercuric ions,
especially, may combine with specific metabolites which contain SH —
groups (glutathione, thioamino acids), as found by Fildes (1940). Cer-
tain metals may inactivate enzymes by replacing the normal metal, ren-
dering the enzyme inoperative. It is noteworthy that many enzymes
which are inactivated by heavy metals may be either "protected" or
restored to activity by the addition of thiol compounds. We may assume
for the purpose of illustration that, when a heavy metal combines with an
enzyme, an inactive complex or compound is formed as shown in scheme
II. Two factors would influence the effectiveness of thiol compounds in
preventing or reversing enzyme inactivation, the relative affinity of the
enzyme — SH groups and the thiol compound for mercury, and the rela-
tive concentration of enzyme and thiol compound.
Scheme II. A Scheme Illustrating a Possible Mechanism of Inactivation

OF A Sulfhydril Enzyme by Mercuric Ion and Reactr'ation of the Inactive
Enzyme-Mercury Complex by the Addition of a Thiol Compound
Inactivation
Enzyme —
2(Enzyme— SH) + Hg++^ Hg + 2H+
Enzyme —
Active enzyme Inactive enzyme complex
Reactivation
Enzyme— RS
\ Hg \Hg
+ 2RSH^ 2 (Enzyme— SH) +
Enzyme— RS
Active enzyme
Radiation. Many reports are to be found in the literature that radia-

tion affects enzymes adversely
(see the review of Schomer, 1936). Radia-
tion may not only the enzymes of an organism but also the sub-
affect
strates. Ionizing short-wave radiations may cause the formation of
hydrogen peroxide from water. Barron et al. (1947) were able, by adding
glutathione, to reactivate phosphoglyceral dehydrogenase which had been

inactivated by X rays.
Whether radiation is absorbed or not depends upon the chemical con-
and the wave length
stitution of the absorbing molecule of the radiation.
The energy thus obtained may disrupt the molecule or may merely
increase its ability to react. These generalizations are not very helpful in
either predicting the effect of light upon living fungi or interpreting the
observed effects of light on growth and reproduction. It is probable that
light acts on various enzyme systems. Light is known to affect one
specific enzyme system (cytochrome-cytochrome oxidase). Warburg
(1926) showed that the respiration of baker's yeast was inhibited to the
extent of 70 per cent in the dark when exposed to carbon monoxide con-
taining 5 per cent oxygen, while respiration was inhibited only 14 per cent
in light. The same effect of light on carbon monoxide inhil)ition of
respiration has been demonstrated with larvae of Tenehris molitor and the
heart of embryo trout.
o Ultraviolet radiation and X rays have a
o
lethal effect on fungi. A small percentagr^
of the spores which survive exposure
to ultraviolet radiation may produce
mutants. It has been noted recently
(Kelner, 1949) that the lethal effect of
ultraviolet radiation upon spores of Strep-
tomyces griseus is overcome to a considera-
ble extent by exposing irradiated spores
to visible light. Whether this is due to
ENZYMES 59
(products) are present in solution in greater than equilibrium concentra-

tions, the reactantscombine with the enzyme, unite, and diffuse away.
Figure 11 gives a diagram which is helpful in visualizing these processes.
ADAPTIVE ENZYMES
Some fungi produce certain enzymes only in response to particular
environmental conditions. Such enzymes are called adaptive enzymes.
\\êther they are produced under all cultural conditions, but in such small
amounts as to be undetectable, or whether they are produced de novo is
questionable. Howêver, this phenomenon is of great importance. Two
types of behavior be noted when a fungus is placed upon unsuitable
may
medium Either the fungus may die, owing to lack of
for the first time.
ability to synthesize the enzymes to cope with the new environment; or
240
Strain CI
^-0-
160 -d^
co^
80
o -Aerobic adaptation ./
• -Anaerobic adaptation
4-1-* I
*
24
_1_
32 40
8 16
Hours
Fig. 12. of adaptation of a strain of Saccharomyces carlsbergensis to galactose
Rate
under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. (Courtesy of Spiegelman, Jour. Cellular
Comp. Physiol. 25: 128, 1945. Published by permission of Wistar Institute of
Anatomy and Biology.)
after a time it may synthesize the necessary enzymes, and the fungus is
then able to grow and function under the new surroundings. Wlrether or
not the fungus is able to synthesize "new" enzymes depends upon its
genetic constitution. The biochemical and physiological responses of an
organism may change when it is placed on a different kind of medium.
These changes ordinarily are called forth by deficiencies in the medium.
The substrate upon which the inoculum grew- may be very important in
governing the various responses of the organism.
Spiegelman (1945) has shown that the adaptation of yeasts to galactose
is affected by aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Adaptation is more
rapid in air than in nitrogen, and some strains of yeast are unable to adapt
to galactose in the absence of oxygen. Figure 12 shows that only some
30 min. required for Saccharomyces carlshergensis to begin to utilize
is
galactose under aerobic conditions, while about 20 hr. are required under
anaerobic conditions.
The effect of composition of the medium on the readaptation of panto-
()0 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
thenate-dependent strains of yeast to the synthesis of pantothenate has

been studied in some detail (Lindegren and Rant, 1947; Lindegren, 1949).
Changes to pantothenate independence occurred by an adaptation, which
was transmitted vegetatively, and by a gene mutation. The adaptation
occurred only in the media of low pantothenate content, while the muta-
tions were apparently not affected by the concentration of pantothenate.
Leonian and Lilly (1943) studied the induced ability of eight strains of
Saccharoniyces cerevisiae to synthesize various vitamins for which they

were normally deficient. This was accomplished by long "training" in
media "free" from various vitamins. The ability of various yeast strains
to synthesize a given vitamin varied. These yeasts which had been

trained "reverted" to their deficient status when cultured for 6 months on
media containing vitamins and yeast extract.
ENERGY AND ENERGY UTILIZATION BY FUNGI

Fungi need energy, as well as certain elements and chemical compounds,
for growth, and reproduction. Since the life processes of the fungi
life,
are controlled by interlocking systems of enzymes, the utilization of

energy is also an enzymatic process. The chemical reactions which
accompany or underlie processes may be divided into those which
life
yield energy (exergonic) and those which require energy (endergonic)

(Coryell, 1940). The oxidation reactions whereby such substrate mole-
cules as glucose are converted into carbon dioxide and alcohol or carbon
dioxide and water yield energy, while the reactions involved in the syn-
thesis of protoplasm and reserve materials require energy. Let us con-
sider an analogy first. When water falls from a higher to a lower level,
there is a decrease in energy content, and this decrease in energy content is
the same whether the water has passed through a turbine or not. The
water that passes over a spillway does no useful work, while the water that
turns a turbine makes part of the energy available (as mechanical or
electrical power) for doing useful work. The energy given up by the
falling water is the same in both cases, but only where the proper mecha-
nism is available is any useful work obtained.
A similar situation occurs when a fungus oxidizes glucose to water and
carbon dioxide. If energy-requiring synthetic reactions are coupled with
the degradation reactions, a portion of the available energy becomes useful
to the fungus. The remainder of the energy liberated appears as heat,
which is unavailable to the fungus for lack of suitable mechanisms to
utilize it.
Winzler and Baumberger (1938) have investigated the liberation of

energy by yeast cells during metabolism. Washed yeast cells were sus-
pended in a phosphate buffer containing glucose but no nitrogen. The
reaction vessel was placed in an adiabatic calorimeter, and the heat
ENZYMES 61
evolved and the amount of oxygen absorbed and of carbon dioxide evolved
were measured. In the absence of a nitrogen source the synthesis of
protoplasm was avoided. The rate at which heat was evolved was con-
stant until all the glucose was consumed (exogenous respiration), after
which the rate of heat formation decreased (endogenous respiration) (see
Fig. 13).
20 30 40 50 60
Time in minutes
Fig. 13. Heat produced from glucose oxidation by yeast in the absence of a nitrogen
source; 10, 20, and 30 mg. of glucose were added at zero time in curves I, II, and III,
respectively. In all cases, only 26 per cent of the expected amount of heat was
evolved before the endogenous respiration rate was resumed. (Courtesy of Winzler
and Baumberger, Jour. Cellular Comp. Physiol. 12: 199, 1938. Published by per-
mission of Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology.)
In this experiment the theoretical amount of heat could be calculated

for the amounts of glucose used. Only 26 per cent of the theoretical heat
was produced before endogenous respiration set in. The volume of oxy-
gen used was equal to the volume of carbon dioxide evolved, i.e.j the R.Q.
was 1. These data may be interpreted as follows: For every molecule of
glucose oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, three molecules were syn-
thesized into a carbohydrate, presumably glycogen. When sodium
acetate was the substrate, about 59 per cent of the theoretical heat was
evolved, but in the presence of dinitrophenol the theoretical amount of
heat was evolved. This inhibitor, therefore, blocked the assimilative
mechanism but not the oxidative processes.
Within recent years it has been discovered that certain phosphate esters
may play a very important role in energy transfer. The student is
referred to the review of Lipmann (1941) for further information on this
subject.
The utilization of energy derived from degradation reactions depends
upon such energy-yielding reactions being coupled with energy-requiring
reactions. Degradation reactions which are not so coupled (blocked)
waste energy in the form of heat which is not iitihzed by the fungi. The
efficiency of utiHzation depends upon the substrate utihzcd and upon the
nature of the coupled reactions. In any case only a part of the energy
available in the sulDstrate does useful chemical work for the fungus utiliz-
ing it. The application of these ideas with any rigor requires a sound
knowledge of thermodynamics.
SUMMARY
The chemical reactions which underlie the life processes of fungi and
other organisms are initiated by organic catalysts, or enzymes. Enzymes
catalyze synthetic as well as degradation reactions and are mediators of
energy transfer as well.
Enzymes are specific proteins which in some instances require certain
metallic ions or organic coenzymes, or both, before they are active. In
general, an enzyme controls but a single type of reaction. In living
organisms these enzyme-controlled reactions are correlated and integrated
to a high degree.
Among the external factors which modify the action of enzymes the
following are especially important: temperature, hydrogen-ion concentra-
tion, concentration of substrate and products, and inhibitors. The
effects of these factors on isolated enzymes and intact organisms are much
the same.
While the role of enzymes in maintaining life processes in fungi and
other organisms is well established, the application of this information to
living fungi must be made with due caution and the realization that a
living organism is more complex than its parts.
REFERENCES
Barron, E. S. G., S. Dickman, and T. P. Singer: On the inhibition ol enzymes by
ionizing radiations, Fed. Proc. 6 : 236, 1947.
*Bayliss, W. M.: The Nature of Enzyme Action, 2d ed., Longmans, Roberts and
Green, London, 1925.
Bergmann, M.: A classification of proteolytic enzymes. Advances in Enzymol. 2:
49-68, 1942.
Bonner, J.: The chemistry and physiology of the pectins, Botan. Rev. 2: 475-497,
1936.
Bourqxtelot, E.: La Synthese biochimique des d-glucosides d'alcools monovalents.
II. AlcooW-glucosides a, Ann. chim., Ser. IX, 3: 287-337, 1915.
Buchner, E.: Alcoholische Garung ohne Hefezellen, Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges. 30:
117-124, 1897.
BtJNNiNG, E.: Ueber die Farbstoff- und Nitrataufnahme bei Aspergillus niger, Flora
131:87-112, 1936.
Coryell, C. D.: The proposed terms "exergonic" and "endergonic" for thermo-
dynamics. Science 92 380, 1940. :
DrxoN, M.: Multi-enzyme Systems, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1949.
Elvehjem, C. a., and P. W. Wilson (Editors): Respiratory Enzymes, Burgess
Publishing Co., Minneapolis, 1944.
ENZYMES 63
IiLDES, P.: The mechanism of the anti-bacterial action of mercury, Brit. Jour.
Exptl. Path. 21: G7-73, 19-40.
GoRTNER, R. A.: Outlines of Biochemistry, 3d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1949.
Haldane, J. B. S.: Enzymes, Longmans, Roberts and Green, London, 1930.
Harden, A.: Alcoholic Fermentation, 4th ed., Longmans, Roberts and Green,
London, 1932.
Harter, L. L., and J. L. Weimer: A comparison of the pectinase produced by
different species of Rhizopus, Jour. Agr. Research 22: 371-377, 1921.
Hestrin, S.: The fermentation I. Reducing disaccharides and
of disaccharides.
trehalose, Wallerstein Labs. Communs. 11
193-206, 1948. :
Hopkins, R. H.: The action of the amylases. Advances in Enzymol. 6: 389-414, 1946.
Johnson, ]\L J., and J. Berger: The enzymatic properties of peptidases. Advances
in Enzymol. 2 : 69-92, 1942.
Kelner, a.: Effect of visible light on the recovery of Streptomyces griseus conidia
from ultraviolet irradiation injury, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S. 35: 73-79, 1949.
KuBowiTZ, r.: Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der Kartoffeloxydase,
Biocnem. Zeit. 292 221-229, 1937. :
Leibowitz, J., and S. Hestrin: Alcoholic fermentation of the oligosaccharides,

Advances in Enzymol. 5: 87-127, 1945.
Leonian, L. H., and V. G. Lilly: Induced autotrophism in yeast. Jour. Bad. 45:
329-339, 1943.
Lindegren, C. C.: The Yeast Cell, Its Genetics and Cytology, Educational Pub-
lishers, St. Louis, 1949.
Lindegren, C. C, and C. Ralt: A direct relationship between pantothenate con-
centration and the time required to induce the production of pantothenate-
synthesizing ''mutants" in yeasts. Ann. Missouri Botan. Garden 34: 85-93,
1947.
Lipmann, F.: Metabolic generation and utilization of phosphate bond energy,
*Meyerhof, O., et al.: Symposium on Respiratory Enzymes, University of Wisconsin
Press, Madison, 1942.
MicHAELis, L. Fundamentals of oxidation and reduction in Currents in Biochemical
:
Research (edited by D. E. Green), Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,

1946.
Myrback, K.: The structure of starch, Wallerstein Labs. Communs. 11: 209-218,
1948.
Nelson, J. M., and C. R. Dawson: Tyrosinase, Advances in Enzymol. 4: 99-152,
1944.
Norman, A. G., and W. H. Fuller: Cellulose decomposition by microorganisms,
Advances in Enzymol. 2 239-264, 1942. :
Pasteur, L.: Etudes sur la vin, Librairie F. Savy, Paris, 1875.

Schneider, G. G., and H. Bock: Ueber die Konstitution der Pektinstoffe, Ber. d.
deut. chem. Ges. 70: 1617-1630, 1937.
Schomer, H. a. The effects of radiation on enzymes in Biological Effects of Radi-
:
ation (edited by B. M. Duggar), McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,

1936.
*Spiegelman, S. : The effect of anaerobiosis on adaptation to galactose fermentation
by yeast cells, Jour. Cellular Comp. Physiol. 25: 121-131, 1945.
Stephenson, M.: Bacterial Metabolism, 2d ed., Longmans, Roberts and Green,
London, 1939.
Stern, K. G.: On the mechanism of enzyme action. A study of the decomposition
of nioiioctliyl hydrogon peroxide by catalase and of an intermediate enzyme-

substrate eompound, Jour. Biol. Chem. 114: 473-494, 1936.
Sumner, J. B.: The isolation and crystallization of the enzyme urease, Jour. Biol.
Chem. 69: 435-441, 1926.
*SuMNER, J. B., and G. F. Somers: Chemistry and Methods of Enzymes, Academic
Press, Inc., New York, 1947.
Thaysen, a. C, and H. J. Bunker: The Microbiology of Cellulose, Hemicelluloses,
Pectins and Gums, Oxford University Press, New York, 1927.
*Van Slyke, D. D.: The kinetics of hydrolytic enzymes and their bearing on methods
for measuring enzyme activity. Advances in Enzymol. 2 33-47, 1942. :
Warburg, O. Ueber die Wirkung des Kohlenoxyds auf den Stoffwechsel der Hefe,
:
Biochetn. Zeit. 177: 471-486, 1926.

White, W. L., R. T. Darby, G. M. Stechert, and K. Sanderson: Assay of cellulo-
lytic activity of molds isolated from fabrics and related items exposed in the
tropics, Mycologia 40: 34-84, 1948.
WiNZLER, R. J. A comparative study of the effects of cyanide, azide, and carbon
:
monoxide on the respiration of bakers yeast. Jour. Cellular Conip. Physiol.

21 : 229-252, 1943.
*WiNZLER, R. J., and J. P. Baumberger: The degradation of energy in the metabo-
lism of yeast cells. Jour. Cellular Comp. Physiol. 12: 183-211. 1938.
CHAPTER 5
ESSENTIAL METALLIC ELEMENTS
The fungi need about 17 elements to supply their nutritional require-

ments. These elements are utilized in the form of specific compounds, as
ions, and as free elements. Some of the essential elements are required by
all fungi. Other elements are required only by certain species. In a
general way, the elements required by the fungi are the same ones
required by bacteria, green plants, and animals. There are, however,
striking differences in the essential-element requirements of different
groups of organisms (Table 15). Differences in ability to utilize specific
compounds containing these essential elements are common in the fungi
and bacteria.
BIOLOGICALLY ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Before seeking to determine which elements are essential, it is necessary
to define what is meant by the term hiologically essential element. An
essential element is indispensable in that no other element may entirely
replace it. Without these essential elements life is impossible. An ele-
ment needed in extremely small amounts may be just as essential as car-
bon, which comprises almost half the weight of a fungus.
There are some 92 chemical elements (if we exclude the recently
isolated trans uranic elements), most of which are known to exist, or may
exist, as a mixture of isotopes. So far as is known, all the isotopes of an
element (with the possible exception of the isotopes of hydrogen) have the
same chemical and biological properties. Even radioactive isotopes,
before they decay, exhibit the same biological properties as the stable
isotopes. The biological effects of radiation in inducing mutations are
considered briefly in Chapter 18. In spite of the limited number of ele-
ments, the question of essentiality is not settled completely for all.
The problem of determining which elements are essential for the fungi
has been approached from the standpoint of ultimate analysis of mycelium
and spores. If certain elements, such as carbon, potassium, and mag-
nesium, are always found in all samples analyzed, irrespective of the sub-
strates upon which these fungi grew, it may be concluded with a high
degree of probability that these elements are essential for the fungi.
Some of the analytical results of ultimate analyses of mycelium and spores
have been collected by Buchanan and Fulmer (1928) and Foster (1949).
65
:
Organic materials are dried before analysis. On the average about 75 per
cent of the fresh weight of mycelium is water, while spores contain only
about 40 per cent water. It is probable that the water driven off when
fungus cells are dried to constant weight is in part free water and in part
water bound to various colloidal cell constituents.
Ultimate analyses of mycelium and spores always reveal the presence of
carbon and nitrogen. On the average about 45 per cent of dry mycelium
is carbon. This high content of carbon makes it certain that carbon is an
essential element. The percentage of nitrogen found is quite variable.
Phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, sulfur, and iron are
found in the ash that remains after burning mycelium and spores. More
refined methods of analysis reveal that fungus ash contains still other
elements. Richards and Troutman (1940) investigated the composition
of yeast ash by spectrographic analysis and found the following elements
iron, sodium, boron, bismuth, barium, magnesium, manganese, copper,
zinc, tin, lead,tellurium, silver, chromium, potassium, gold, and lan-
thanum. However, the mere presence of an element in fungus cells does
not necessarily mean that it is essential.
Since many of these elements in fungus ash occur in minute traces only,
it is desirable to approach the problem of essentiality in another way.
This is done by omitting from the medium the element in question.
Raulin (1869) was apparently the first to use this method. He found
that the omission of phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, zinc, or iron from the
basal medium allowed very little growth of Aspergillus niger. These ele-
ments are thus shown to be by the two methods of investigation.
essential
In general, the experimental work in which specific elements have been
omitted from the medium is more convincing than the method of ultimate
analysis. This is the preferred method of testing the essentiality of ele-
ments required in small amounts.
Functions of the essential elements. Thatcher (1934) has attempted
to classify the essential elements into groups: structural, functional, and
those utilized in the transfer of energy. This classification has some
validity and may serve to fix attention upon the more salient biological
features of an element. However, most, if not all, of the essential ele-
ments play many roles in the life processes of the fungi. In general, the
nonmetallic elements may
be classified as structural elements. This
means that the compounds which make up the structural units such as
the protoplasm are largely composed of the nonmetallic essential ele-
ments: carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The
functional uses of these elements by the fungi are no less important. The
essential metallic elements may be classified as functional elements, but
this does not mean that these metallic elements have no structural
functions.
ESSENTIAL METALLIC ELEMENTS 67
The elements are in the form of chemical compounds,

some of which
are relatively simple, Avhile others are complex. With the exception of
oxygen the essential elements are usually utilized in the form of com-
pounds or ions. An essential element may exist in a chemical compound
and be unavailable. The properties of a chemical compound are deter-
mined by all the atoms that compose it and by the way in which atoms
are joined together in the compound. It is convenient to consider the
essential elements one by one, but this is done only to simplify the
approach to a complex subject. These separate factors must be con-
sidered in relation to the organism as a whole.
A fungus is no more capable of growth on an iron-free medium than on
a carbon- or nitrogen-free medium. Yet, in a balanced medium the ratio
of iron to carbon is in the neighborhood of 1 to 50,000. The essential
metallic elements function in conjunction with enzyme systems (Chap. 4).
This accounts for the small amounts of these elements required. If a
vital enzyme system lacks an essential metal ion, it will not function. It
appears that in processes such as growth a suboptimal amount of an
essential metal will stop growth because the apoenzymes or coenzymes
synthesized will lack the necessary activating metal. The ratios as well
as the amounts of the various essential metallic ions affect certain
metabolic processes other than growth.
The absolute amounts of the essential metallic elements required differ
widely. Raulin (1869) found that Aspergillus niger required 1 g. of
potassium to produce 64 g. of mj^celium, while 1 g. of magnesium sufficed
for the synthesis of 200 g. of mycelium. Recent work of Steinberg (1946)
with .4. niger indicates still higher yields per gram of these two elements.
The yield of mycelium per gram of iron and zinc was in the neighborhood
of 55,000 g.
The list of metallic elements knoTvni to be essential to fungi has in-
creased over the years. The now
includes potassium, magnesium,
list
iron, zinc, copper, calcium, gallium,manganese, molybdenum, vanadium,

and scandium. Others will probably be added as cultural methods
become more refined and more species are studied. It is unfortunate that
only a few fungi have been investigated thoroughly with respect to mineral
nutrition. In stating that the above elements are essential, the reserva-
tion must be made that they are essential for some fungi under certain
conditions. WTiile it may be assumed that all fungi require the
same essential elements, experimental evidence is lacking for most
species.
For the purpose of discussion the essential metallic elements will be
divided into two groups, macro and micro metallic elements. This
grouping is made solely for convenience and on the basis of the amounts
ordinarily employed in culturing fungi under laboratory conditions.
THE ESSENTIAL MACRO ELEMENTS

Potassium. This element is essential for all organisms, so far as is
known. There is an immense amount of information on the specific
effects of potassium on green plants and animals, l)ut such data are not
common for the fungi. The quantitative relation between the amount of
potassium in the medium and the weight of mycelium produced by
Aspergillus niger was studied by Steinberg (1946). This work was done
with extraordinary care using a highly purified optimal medium (except
potassium). The optimum amount of potassium w-as 150 mg. per liter.
The relative amounts of mycelium formed increased as the potassium
content of the medium decreased. The fungus produced almost three
times as much mycelium per milligram of potassium when 15 instead of
150 mg. per liter were used. Jarvis and Johnson (1950) have reported
that Penicillium chrysogenum Q176 requires 40 mg. of potassium and 8
mg. of magnesium per liter of medium for optimum growth.
The physiological effects of potassium on fungi have been studied but
little. The enzymes in yeast maceration juice which ferment glucose are
activated by either potassium or ammonium ions (Muntz, 1947). Mol-
liard (1920) noted that a low potassium content of the medium resulted in
increased synthesis of oxalic acid by A. mger. The chemical composition
of A. niger mycelium varies, depending upon the amount of potassium in
the medium (Rippel and Behr, 1934).
The problem of biological substitution arose early in the study of fungus
nutrition. Biological substitution means that one element can replace
another, in whole or in part. The possibility of biological substitution
was investigated by Steinberg (1946) using A. niger as the test fungus.
This investigation was made to determine whether the alkali metals
(lithium, sodium, rubidium, or cesium) could replace potassium, and
whether the alkaline-earth metals (calcium, beryllium, strontium, or
barium) could replace magnesium. Under these conditions sodium and
beryllium gave increased yield of mycelium in media containing sub-
optimal amounts of potassium and magnesium. These effects are
illustrated in Table 9.
Some increases in weight of mycelium were noted under certain con-
ditions with some of the other metallic ions tested, but the effects of
these elements were ascribed to ion antagonism.
Studies of biological substitution require great care and a detailed and
extensive knowledge of the composition of the media and of the behavior
of the fungus under the experimental conditions used.
Magnesium. This element is one of the alkaline-earth group. It is
essential for green plants and animals as well as for fungi and bacteria.
Aspergillus niger has been more carefully investigated with respect to the
effects of magnesium than any other fungus. Within certain limits of

concentration, the amount of growth of A. niger is proportional to the
concentration of magnesium in the medium. This has been demon-
strated by Steinberg (1946), Lavollay and Laborey (1938), and others.
The application of this principle to the microbiological assay of magne-
sium is discussed in Chap. 10. Penicillium glaucum, Botrytis cinerea, and
Alternaria tenuis failed to grow in the absence of magnesium (Rabinovitz-
Sereni, 1933). Excess magnesium was not harmful to these three fungi
until the concentration of magnesium sulfate in the medium reached about
40 per cent. These three species were able to grow in the presence of
traces of magnesium but sporulated only when the concentration of mag-
nesium was increased. Respiration also increased as the magnesium con-
tent of the medium increased. Failure to sporulate unless sufficient
magnesium is available is probably to be expected with many fungi.
Table 9. The Effect of 50 Milligrams of Sodium on the Amount of Mycelium

Produced by Aspergillus niger in an Optimal Medium Containing Twice
THE Normal Amounts of INIicro Elements when the Concentration
OF Potassium Was Varied
(Steinberg, Avi. Jour. Botany 33, 1946.)
Potassium,
mg. per liter
(Sumner and Somers, 1947). It is equally likely that magnesium is
involved in aerobic oxidation of carbohydrate. Low concentrations of

magnesium in the medium led to increased synthesis of riboflavin by A.
niger (Lavollay and Laborey, 1938).
One ion may affect the physiological action of another. This is called
ion antagonism. In nature and in the laboratory fungi come in contact
with compounds both essential and nonessential elements. Many of
of
the nonessential elements are toxic, although toxicity is not limited to the
nonessential elements. Copper is an essential element, but it is toxic to

most fungi when the concentration exceeds certain limits (Chap. 12).
The toxic effect of an ion may be overcome by the presence of one or more
other ions in the medium. Gortner (1949) has reviewed this subject from
the standpoint of colloidal chemistry and suggests that the relative
concentrations of various metallic ions may regulate the process of
adsorption.
As an example of ion antagonism Lohrmann (1940) described the toxic
action of mercuric chloride and boric acid on Aspergillus niger, A. flavus,
Mucor pusillus, Penicillium glaucum, Fusarium coeruleum, Cunning-
hamella elegans, Ahsidia cylindrospora, and Rhizopus nigricans. The
inhibition caused by either of these toxic compounds was overcome in
part by increasing the concentration of magnesium sulfate. Similarly,
the toxic effects of high concentrations of magnesium sulfate were over-
come by mercuric chloride. Either mercuric chloride or boric acid in
certain concentrations "stimulated" growth in the nutrient solution used.
This is not evidence that either boron or mercury is an essential element,
but it does show that the nutrient solution used was unbalanced. The
effect of sodium and calcium ions upon growth and respiration of A. niger
depended upon the ratio of these nonessential ions present in the medium.
A sodium-calcium ratio of 19 to 1 gave the highest rate of respiration,
while a ratio of 4 to 1 was most favorable for growth (Gustafson, 1919).
Aluminum inhibits the production of itaconic acid by A. terreus. This
inhibition is overcome by magnesium sulfate (Lockwood and Reeves,
1945). Nickerson (1946) found the inhibitory effects of zinc ion on the
rate of respiration of Epidermophyton floccosum to be reversed by calcium
or magnesium ions.
The phenomenon of antagonism is not confined to ions. Organic
compounds present in media may modify the activity of ions, and organic
compounds may antagonize the physiological activity of other organic
compounds (Chap. 11). All these possibihties exist. Whether a given
ion or compound will be physiologically active depends upon the other
constituents of the medium and the metabolic compounds excreted by the
fungus under study.
ESSENTIAL MICRO ELEMENTS

These elements have been called heavy-metal nutrients, trace elements,
micronutrients, and minor elements. The literature on this subject is
extensive and often conflicting. Reviews of this subject are given by
Perlman (1949), Foster (1939), and Steinberg (1939). A collection of
10,000 abstracts on the effects of the micro elements on green plants and
animals has been published by the Chilean Nitrate Educational Bureau
(1948).
In spite of Raulin's (1869) discovery that iron and zinc are essential for
Aspergillus niger, there arose a school of investigators who considered tho
micro elements to be stimulatory rather than essential. This view is no
longer held. There are a number of reasons for this misinterpretation:
(1) The failure to realize that the "chemically pure" compounds used in
preparing media are grossly contaminated from the biological standpoint
and that rigorous purification of media is essential in work of this kind.
(2) Distilled water is often a source of metallic ions unless it has been
redistilled in Pyrex, or preferably quartz, stills. (3) Many kinds of
chemical glassware are sufficiently soluble to furnish the fungi all or a part
of the micro elements required. (4) The inoculum, whether mycelium or
spores, may introduce sufficient micro elements to obscure the need for
these elements. Serial transfer using media free from the element in
question and the use of small inocula minimizes this source of error.
Steinberg (1936) has indicated that the optimum concentration of the
essential micro metallic elements for A. niger ranges from 0.3 mg. of iron
to 0.02 mg. of gallium per liter of medium. Lest the reader conclude that
these concentrations are so small as to be meaningless, it is revealing to
calculate the number of atoms of iron in 0.3 mg. From the atomic weight
of ironand Avagadro's number it may be calculated that there are about
3 X atoms in 0.3 mg. of iron. If the number of cells produced by
10^^
A. niger under these conditions were known, the number of iron atoms
available for each cell could be calculated. In lieu of this information we
may use data from experiments on the number produced in
of yeast cells
a liter of medium. Under favorable conditions there are roughly 500
billion yeast cells produced in a liter of medium (Stark et al., 1941). If
A. niger produces the same number of cells per liter as yeast, there would
be available 6.4 X 10^ atoms of iron per cell.
The prime essential in investigations dealing with the effects of the
essential micro elements is a medium free from the element under study.
This ideal is difficult to attain in practice. Equal care is necessary in the
choice of culture vessels, for it is wasted effort to remove an element from
the medium rigorously and then contaminate it by using glassware which
. .
furnishes the metal. The culture Aêssels should be of quartz for work of
the most exacting kind, although Pyrex or other suitable glassware may
be used. It is desirable in any event to use a few quartz culture vessels as
controls. In part, the long controversy over the effect of zinc on fungi
was due to the liberation of sufficient amounts of this element from certain
kinds of glassware used as culture vessels. Javillier (1914) showed that
the addition of zinc to cultures of A . niger has little effect when Jena glass
culture flasks were used. When quartz vessels were used, the crop
increased from 291 mg. in the control without added zinc to 1,624 mg.
when zinc was added. Steinberg (1919) found essentially the same
results except that zinc deficiency could be demonstrated for A. niger
when Pyrex vessels were used (Table 10)
Table 10. The Average Weight of Five Cultures of Aspergillus niger Culti-
vated ON the Same Basal Medium in Three Makes of Glassware
(Steinberg, Am. Jour. Botany 6, 1919.)
Mg. mycelium
Make of glassware
Zinc, 10 mg. per liter
Jena 987
Kavalier Bohemian 943
Pyrex 957
Purification of culture media. Progress in the study of essential micro

elements depends upon methods of removing them from media. As long
as these elements occur in the ingredients of the media, their need may be
unnoticed and unsuspected. In 1919 Steinberg devised a useful method
of reducing the concentration of heavy metals, especially iron and zinc, in
media. In essentials, this method consists in autoclaving the complete
medium with 15 g. per liter of calcium carbonate. The hot solution after
autoclaving is filtered through paper or a fritted-glass filter, or allowed to
cool and the supernatant liquid decanted off. The precipitate must be
removed; otherwise the essential elements will be released by the fungi.
Calcium oxide and magnesium carbonate may replace calcium carbonate
insome applications (Steinberg, 193oa) The mode of purification appears
.
to be as follows: During autoclaving, heavy-metal carbonates or their

hydroxides are formed. The excess calcium carbonate serves to adsorb
these insoluble compounds The composition of a medium is somewhat
changed by this treatment, part of the phosphate being removed as cal-
cium phosphate. In practice this is compensated by using an excess of
phosphate. A medium which is treated by this process is essentially
neutral in reaction, which may lead to some changes in the sugar during
autoclaving.
Sugars are frequently highly contaminated with metallic compounds.

Steinberg (1937) has reported a sample of glucose to contain the following
elements: lithium, sodium, strontium, calcium, rubidium, potassium,
manganese, aluminum, iron, rhodium, nickel, silver, copper, magnesium,
tin, boron, and silicon. The metallic contamination of non-ionic com-
pounds such as the sugars can be sharply reduced by a variety of mild
procedures. Shu and Johnson (1948) give these details for an aluminum
hydroxide coprecipitation method: To 140 g. of glucose contained in 500
ml. of solution, 1.25 g. of Al2(S04)3'18H20 were added. Dilute ammo-
nium hydroxide was added until the pH rose to 9, and the precipitate of
A1(0H)3 Avith the adsorbed impurities was filtered off. This treatment
was repeated until the desired degree of purification was attained. Non-
ionic substances such as glucose and urea may be purified by treatment
with cation-exchange materials operating on the hydrogen cycle. Perl-
man (1945) used Zeo-karb H (Permutit Corporation) for this purpose.
Various ion-exchange materials are used to purify beet juice in the manu-
facture of sugar. Mulder (1939-1940) found the combination of ammo-
nium sulfide and Norit to be efficient in removing copper from media.
The sulfide ion forms insoluble heavy-metal sulfides while the activated
carbon serves as a "gatherer."
Complex-forming reagents such as diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone)
(Stout and Arnon, 1939), and 8-hydroxyquinoline (Waring and Werkman,
1943) are useful in removing heavy-metal ions from, or testing the purity
of, salts used in preparing media. These reagents and the metal com-
plexes they form are removed from solutions by extraction with chloro-
form or other organic solvents. The chemistry of complex formation
between organic compounds and ions is treated by Yoe and Sarver (1941).
Others have merely added such complex-forming reagents to the media,
in which the various metallic ions combine with the reagent to form non-
available compounds. The specificity of the reagent, concentrations of
reagent and the metallic ion or ions, the pH of the medium, as well as the
stability of the complex, enter into the success of this type of treatment.
Hickey (1945) found that 2,2'-bipyridine inactivated ferrous iron in media
treated with this reagent. It is better to remove metallic impurities from
the media by extraction than to depend upon complexing compounds to
hold these ions in non-ionic combination.
Certain compounds used in making media such as the amino acids and
hydroxy acids form non-ionized complexes with various metallic ions.
Media containing these types of compounds are difficult to free from
metallic contamination. In addition, some fungi excrete hydroxy acids,
such as citric acid, which may modify the availability of the essential
micro elements.
Media may be freed of essential micro elements by a biological process.
If a fungus is grown on a medium, it will absorb and utilize the essential

elements present in the medium. The success of this procedure depends
upon having a low initial concentration of the essential micro elements,
which soon become exhausted so that the culture liquid no longer supports
growth. Removal of the mycelium will thus remove the elements which
have been taken up. The culture filtrate may then be used as a medium
relatively free of micro elements. However, fungi excrete various com-
pounds which may affect the results. MacLeod and Snell (1947) have
recently utilized this method in studying the mineral nutrition of some
lactic acid bacteria.
Iron. Raulin's claim that iron was essential for fungi was questioned
at but his findings were soon confirmed. So far as is known, iron is
first,
essential for all fungi. It may be noted that, in the absence of another
essential element in the medium, iron alone may cause little or no response.
If the zinc content of a medium is low, the addition of iron to an iron-free
medium will have little effect. This situation is true of any essential
nutrient. Only one element may be studied at a time, but all the other
essential nutrients must be present before the effect of the nutrient under
investigation can be studied. Some results of Steinberg (1919) with
Aspergillus niger on media purified by the calcium carbonate method are
given in Table 11. Neither iron nor zinc alone had much effect on the
growth of A. niger, since both of these elements are essential for this
fungus.
Table 11. The Effect of Iron and Zinc, Singly and in Combination, on the
Amount of Growth of Aspergillus niger
(Steinberg, Am. Jour. Botany 6, 1919.)
Essential Micro Element Mg. Mycelium
Added
Control (none added) 18
Iron 44
Zinc 40
Iron plus Zinc 731
been shown in recent years in proving iron to be an

Little interest has
essential element for a large number of fungi. In view of the almost uni-
versal occurrence of a group of iron-containing enzymes (catalase, the
cytochromes, cytochrome oxidase, etc.), the essential role of iron is taken
for granted.
effect of suboptimal iron concentrations upon fungi
The most obvious
is decreased growth. This result is probably due to the decreased and
limited amounts of iron-containing enzymes formed under these condi-
tions. It was shown by Yoshimura (1939-1940) that the amount of
catalase produced by Aspergillus oryzae increased as the amount of iron
in the medium increased. Lilly and Leonian (1945) showed that a rela-
ESSENTIAL METALLIC ELEMENTS to
tion existed between the amount of iron supplied in the medium and the
ability ofRhizohium trijolii to synthesize certain vitamins. In the pres-
ence of suboptimal concentrations of iron the addition of certain vitamins
replaced iron to a certain degree. A quantitative study of the ^ntamins
synthesized by Torulopsis has shown the iron concentration to be
utilis
important (Lewis, 1944). Increased amounts of thiamine, riboflavin,
nicotinic acid, and pyridoxine were synthesized on media low in iron, while
the amounts of biotin, inositol and p-aminobenzoic acid were decreased.
L) 10 15 20
Mg. ferric sulfate per liter
Fig. 14. The effect of iron [Fe2 (804)3] in overcoming the inhibitory action of copper
(CuS04-5H20) on the production of penicilUn by Penicillium chnjsogenum X-1612.
An amount of copper sufficient to inhibit peniciUin production entirely did not affect
the amount of growth. The fungus was cultured submerged in a lactose-starch-
dextrin-ranmonium sulfate medium for 7 days. (Curves drawn from data of Koffler
et al., Jour. Bad. 53 120, 1947.
: Pubhshed by permission of The Williams & Wilkins
Company.)
There has been a great deal of interest in the effects of iron and other
metallic ions on various microbiological processes. Perlman et al. (1946)
have shown that the iron concentration is an important factor in citric
acid fermentation by Aspergillus niger. The optimum iron concentration
for citric acid production varied over tenfold for different strains of
A. niger. The effect of iron on penicillin production has been studied by
Kofl^ler et al. (1947), who concluded that the effect of the ash of corn steep
isdue to iron and phosphate. Chromium increased penicillin production
above that obtained with iron and phosphate, presumably by neutralizing
the effect of other ions. Similarly an antagonism was shown to exist
between copper and iron. The antagonistic effect of copper and iron on
the production of penicillin by Penicillium chrysogenum X-1612 is shoA\Ti
in Fig. 14.
The iron concentration of the medium has been shown to affect the
amount of pigmentation of Torulopsis pulchcrrima (Roberts, 1946).
Zinc. This element is essential for Aspergillus niger (Raulin, 1869;
Steinberg, 1919). Foster (1939) lists Trycliophytoninterdigitale, Rhizopus
nigricans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae as recjuiring zinc, and Roberg
(1928) found zinc to be essential for A. fumigatus and A. oryzae. Blank
(1941) reported the amount of Phymatotrichum
growth oi omnivorum to be
increased by the addition of zinc to a medium treated with calcium car-
bonate, and Perlman (1948) noted that the sclerotia of Sclerotium
delphinii are more highly pigmented in the presence of added zinc.
Zinc ions activate (and inhibit) various enzymes such as enolase and
dipeptidase. Zinc is contained in carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme which
catalyzes the decomposition of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
In addition to these specific uses the zinc concentration has a decided
effect on a number of physiological or biochemical processes in fungi.
Foster and Waksman (1939) found that the production of fumaric acid
from glucose by Rhizopus nigricans varied according to the amount of zinc
added to the medium. Fumaric acid was produced most efficiently when
the concentration of zinc was low (1.2 mg. per liter). Higher concentra-
tions of zinc resulted in increased growth and decreased production of
fumaric acid. From these results it appears that zinc plays a role in the
utilization of glucose, the completeness of oxidation and assimilation
being favored by relatively high concentrations of zinc. A somewhat
similar effect of zinc on the production of lactic acid by Rhizopus sp. has
been noted (Waksman and Foster, 1938). Zinc was found to cause
increased growth and a decrease in the production of lactic acid, while the
effect of iron is to increase the yield of lactic acid. For a further dis-
cussion of the mechanism fungus metabolism, see Foster (1949).
of zinc in
Copper. This element is essential for animals, green plants, and fungi.
From the work of Steinberg (1936) it appears that 0.04 mg. of added
copper per liter of purified medium is sufficient for the maximum growth
of Aspergillus niger. Under these conditions omission of copper decreased
the yield only from 984.8 to 774.3 mg. It is probable that purification of
the medium by is not very satisfactory
the calcium carbonate treatment
for this element. The ^veightmetal needed to obtain maximum growth
of
with A. niger is much less for copper than for iron or zinc. The experi-
mental difficulties increase as the amount of a micro element needed
becomes less. Apparently it is very difficult to prepare a copper-free
medium. Roberg (1931) made use of Bortel's method of adding a trace
of ammonium sulfide to convert heavy metals to sulfides and adsorbing
these impurities with charcoal. This treatment is very efficient in remov-
ing iron and zinc but somewhat less satisfactory for removing copper.
The essential nature of copper for A. flavus and Rhizopus nigricans was
shown by McHargue and Calfee (1931). The full effect of copper was
dependent upon the presence of other essential elements. The coloration
of conidia of A. niger has been shown to depend upon the copper content
of the medium (Javillier, 1939).
Although copper is an essential element, it is a constituent of many
fungicides (Chap. 12). The concentration, therefore, is a very important
consideration in studying the effect of this element. The phenomenon of
ion antagonism must also be considered, for the effect of a given amount
of copper is dependent upon the other constituents of the medium.
Marsh (1945) investigated the antagonistic effects of three salts upon
copper as it affected germination of conidia of Sclerotinia fructicola
Table 12. The Antagonistic Effect of Three Salts on Copper as Shown by

THE Germination of Conidia of Sclerotinia fructicola
(Marsh, Phytopathology 35, 1945.)
Salt concen-
tration
78 I'lIYSlOWGY OF THE FUSGl
nutrition may be rewarding. It was unnecessary to resort to elaborate

methods of medium purification to demonstrate that manganese is essen-
tial for P. gonapodyoides. This situation occurred only when reagent
magnesium sulfate of a certain manufacture was used. Substitution of
another brand of magnesium sulfate revealed heavy (biological) con-
tamination by manganese (Fig. 15). The inoculum was found to carry
sufficient manganese and other micro elements to influence the amount of
growth in the first passage. No growth resulted in the third passage in
A B
Fig. 15. Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides growing in a basal solution \Yith no added
mineral supplements. A, medium prepared with Baker's Analyzed magnesium
sulfate. B, medium prepared with Mallinckrodt's magnesium sulfate analytical
reagent. Age, 5 days. Note the extensive white mj'celium in A and the slight
growth in B. (Courtesy of Robbins and Hervey, Bull. Torrey Botan. Club 71: 263,
1944.)
the absence of added manganese. The range of manganese concentra-

tions for optimum growth was narrow and appeared to depend upon the
concentration of other micro elements present, particularly zinc. Stein-
berg (1935) found manganese to be essential for A. niger. McHargue and
Calfee (1931, 1931a) noted that growth of A. flainis, Rhizopus nigricans,
and Saccharomyces cerevisiae increased in the presence of added
manganese. Steinberg (1945) showed that omission of manganese from
a balanced medium resulted in a decrease in yield of A. niger from
1,084.8 to 356.6 mg. No spores formed when manganese was omitted.
It is interesting to note that, as the numbers of spores used for inoculum
decreased, A. niger became more sensitive to micro-element deficiencies

in the medium. The favorable effect of adding biotin to the medium
when only a few spores were used as inoculum suggests an intimate con-
nection between micro-element nutrition and the synthesis of this vita-
min. Whether the decreased yield due to small inoculum was due to
other deficiencies or to a decreased rate of growth is not entirely clear, as
all made after 4 days.

harvests were
Manganese (Mn++) has been shown to be the natural activator of
yeast arginase. Other enzymes are activated by this element (Sumner
and Somers, 1947). In view of the small amounts of manganese required
by fungi, it may be assumed that manganese functions as a constituent of
various enzymes.
Molybdenum. The study of the role of this element emphasizes the
similarity in certain physiological processes throughout the plant king-
dom. The most striking feature of this essential element is its role in
nitrogen metabolism. The utilization of nitrate nitrogen by green plants
and fungi and the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria {Azotohac-
terchroococcum, Clostridium pasteimanum) is dependent upon molybdenum
(Bortels, 1930, 1936).
Our knowledge of the effect of molybdenum on fungi is largely confined
to Aspergillus niger. Steinberg (1936, 1937) found that more molybde-
num was required by A. niger for maximum growth in media containing
nitrate nitrogen than in media with ammonium nitrogen. Steinberg
expressed the opinion that molybdenum is essential for A . niger even when
ammonium nitrogen is available. Additional studies on A. niger and
other organisms (Mulder, 1948) indicated that an increased need for
molybdenum is associated with nitrate utilization. It may be assumed
that the enzymatic reduction of nitrate is carried out by enzymes which
require molybdenum as an activator.
In view of the important role of molj^bdenum in the utilization of
nitrate nitrogen, care should be used in comparing the value of different
nitrates. molybdenum is present, misinterpretations
Unless sufficient
may result. Steinberg (1937) found the amount of molybdenum present
as an impurity in various nitrates to vary. One sample of calcium nitrate
contained enough molybdenum to support maximum growth of A. niger.
Perhaps the report of Young and Bennett (1922) that many fungi made
better growth on calcium than on potassium nitrate may be partially
explained on the basis of the molybdenum content of these two salts.
This explanation, of course, must allow for the effect of calcium, which is
now known to be essential for certain fungi.
Calcium. This element was one of the first to be recognized as essen-
tial for green plants and animals. In 1922, Young and Bennett reported
that Rhizocionia solani made no growth in the absence of this element
This report apparently attracted little attention since most investigators

working on this problem confined their attention to Aspergillus niger.
The value of using more than one fungus to demonstrate the essential
nature of calcium was strikingly shown by Steinberg (1948, 1950). These
data are given in Table 13.
It is evident from the data in Table 13 that the essential nature of cal-
cium for certain fungi is established. The concentrations of calcium
required for maximum growth varied from 2 to G mg. per liter of medium.
On the other hand, neither A. niger nor Fusariuni oxysporum needs more
Table 13. Effect of the Omission of Calcium from the Medium on the
Growth of Seven Fungi
(Steinberg, Science 107, 1948.)
Calcium added,
Fungus
Aspergillus niger
Rhizoctonia solani
Sclerotium I'olfsii
Cercos-pora nicotianae
Fusarium oxysporum var. nicotianae.
Pythium irregulars
Thielaviopsis basicola
Within limits, the growth of M. aUiaceus and M. epiphylluswas propor-

tional to the concentration of either of these elements, and the response
to each element was modified by the presence of the other. The data in
Table 14 illustrate this effect.
In addition to the essential micro elements discussed above, there is
some evidence which indicates the essentiality of other metallic elements
for the fungi. Certain of these elements are essential for other organisms.
Gallium. Under certain conditions Steinberg (1938) was able to show
that omission of this element from the medium led to decreased yield and
sporulation of Aspergillus niger. Extraordinary care was needed to
demonstrate gallium deficiency. The chemicals used were spectroscopi-
cally pure with the exception of traces of iron, calcium, and sodium. The
sucrose, after 6-hr. extraction with alcohol, contained only 0.0014 per cent
ash. The water used was triple-distilled, the last distillation being made
in a quartz still. Spectroscopically pure calcium oxide wâs used to purify
the sucrose further. Under these conditions the yield of A. niger
increased from 814 mg. to 1,053 mg. when gallium (0.02 mg. per liter) was
added to the medium. The salts of 76 other chemical elements were
tested, and none was found to replace gallium. In view of the similar
chemical behavior of gallium and aluminum, Steinberg considers it possi-
ble that the biologic activity sometimes attributed to aluminum may in
reality be due to gallium.
Scandium. In the discussion of the role of manganese in nitrogen
metabolism it wâs noted that the amount of manganese required was
determined by the nitrogen source used. In a somewhat similar fashion,
Steinberg (1939) found that scandium appeared to be essential when
glycerol was used as a carbon source for Aspergillus niger. Growth was
poor on this carbon source omission of copper or manganese increased the
;
yield somewhat. Omission of scandium decreased the yield from 269.4 to

107.4 mg. Interestingly enough, scandium appeared to have no effect on
growth when sucrose was used as a source of carbon. Addition of lysine
or proline (20 mg. per liter) to the glycerol medium increased growth and
at the same time prevented the effect of scandium. These results suggest
that the need for certain elements may be shoA\Ti only under certain
nutritional conditions.
Vanadium. Bertrand (1943) reported the presence of this element in
all fungi examined. Amanita muscaria contained from 61 to 156 mg. of
vanadium per kilogram. Bertrand (1941) considers vanadium as an
essential element for Aspergillus niger.
Cobalt. Whether fungi require some, or all, of the other metallic ele-
ments required by other organisms is not kno^vn. Cobalt is required by
animals. Lack of sufficient amounts of this element in the soil causes
severe cobalt deficiency in animals which are pastured on such soils.
Recently, a cobalt-containing vitamin (B12) was isolated. This vitamin

is synthesized by Streptomyces griseus (Rickes et al., 1948) and some
bacteria. Whether S. griseus requires cobalt as an essential element for

growth or reproduction is not known. The synthesis of this vitamin is
necessarily dependent upon a supply of cobalt. Some bacteria are known

to be deficient for vitamin B12.
PERIODICITY OF BIOLOGICALLY ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
Steinberg (1938a), Frey-Wyssling (1935), and others have considered

the problem of biologically essential elements in relation to the structure
Table 15. A Portion of the Periodic Table of Elements Based on Atomic

Number
The biologically essential elements are set in italics. Those elements essential for
fungi are marked with an asterisk.
Group
SUMMARY
The role of the essential metallic elements is primarily functional rather
than structural. Presumably these ions usually function in ionizable
combinations, but some compounds containing metals in non-ionizable
compounds have been isolated from fungi. It may be assumed that
many of these metallic ions activate enzyme systems, while others are
integral parts of enzymes and other essential organic compounds. An
element is essential because some of its vital functions cannot be replaced
by any other element. Some functions may be performed by other closely
related elements.
The concentration of an essential element affects many life processes
besides growth, which is the usual criterion of essentiality. The concen-
trations of various essential ions influence the formation of pigments, the
synthesis of vitamins and other products, and the dissimilation of carbo-
hydrates. While the essential elements may
be supposed to participate
uniquely in certain life processes, the concentrations of other ions, both
of essential and nonessential elements, modify the action of a given ele-
ment. The phenomenon of ion antagonism no doubt exists among all
ions, and in evaluating the effects of any element it is necessary to con-
sider the other constituents present in themedium. It is probable that
the mechanism involved one of modified adsorption rather than any
is
direct chemical reaction in the medium.

The widespread use of Aspergillus niger as a test fungus in micro-
element studies has had the advantage that the work in many laboratories
may be compared. The careful and long-continued studies by Steinberg
are especially valuable. The almost exclusive use of this fungus has also
had its disadvantages. Comparatively little is known about the need of
other species for micro elements. Other fungi may require some of these
elements in amounts which make it comparatively easy to demonstrate
deficiency. The evidence for the essentiality of iron, zinc, copper,
manganese, molybdenum, and calcium is impressive in most instances,
but the need for the elements on the part of all fungi under all cultural
conditions has not been established. In a few instances the evidence is
confined to a single fungus. The micro-element nutrition of a wide range
of species needs further study.
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CHAPTER 6
THE ESSENTIAL NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS OTHER

THAN CARBON
Fungus mycelium and spores are composed mainly of compounds of the
nonmetallic elements. As a rule, more than 95 per cent of the fungus
consists of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
The nonmetallic essential elements are both structural and functional.
The cell wall, which is composed mainly of chitin or cellulose, appears to
be the most stable structure of the fungus. Protoplasm is highly labile,
and the constituent compounds of protoplasm are continually undergoing
destruction, repair, and synthesis. The various structural and functional
compounds of organisms are in a state of continual flux (Hevesy, 1947).
The turnover of essential elements in functional compounds is more rapid
than in structural compounds.
The terms utilization, assimilation, and dissimilation are frequently
used in physiology. Utilization is a broad term and implies that an
organism uses or gains some benefit from a specific substance. Fungi
utilize water as a solvent but derive neither energy nor substance from it.
Assimilation is the incorporation of substances or their degradation
products into cellular materials. Assimilation implies synthesis. Dis-

similation is the degradation, or breakdown, of complex compounds into
simpler ones. This term is particularly applied to those processes such as
alcoholic fermentation where intermediate metabolic products accumu-
late in the medium. Frequently dissimilation must precede assimilation
and may be considered as the first phase of utilization.
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen enters into the composition of nearly all organic compounds
of interest to physiology except carbon dioxide. This is true of the
organic nutrients used by fungi as well as of the fungus protoplasm and
other cellular compounds. Elemental hydrogen is not used by fungi.
All the hydrogen utilized by fungi is in chemical combination. Certain
bacteria (hydrogen bacteria), however, are able to obtain energy by
oxidizing hydrogen.
The importance of water for all living organisms is so great that it
seems impossible to conceive of life without water. The formula H2O is
really the formula of steam. In the liquid state these simple molecules
87
associate to form polymers. At room temperature water consists mostly

of (H20)3, which is sometimes called trihydroL For a further discussion
of water see Barnes (1937).
The chemistry of life processes is largely confined to reactions which
take place in the presence of water or in solution. In addition to being a
solvent of remarkable powers, water is associated with the colloids which
comprise protoplasm. Gortner (1949) has distinguished between "free"
and "bound" water. Free water is mobile within the cell and serves as a
solvent and for the purpose of translocation of the various products of
metabolism. Bound water is firmly adsorbed by protoplasm, and in this
form water does not freeze. This property of bound water enables cells
to withstand low temperatures. The ability of fungus spores to with-
stand low temperatures may well be due to their having most of their
water content in the bound form.
Water ionizes to form hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (0H~) ions.
The effects of these ions on biological processes are so important that they
will be discussed in detail in Chap. 8.
OXYGEN
Apparently none of the fungi are obligate anaerobes. Many are
strictly and some are facultatively anaerobic. An aerobic
aerobic,
organism requires uncombined oxygen, while a facultative anaerobe may
use combined oxygen in addition to free oxygen. The amount of oxygen
required for optimum growth varies with the species. It is common to
express the amount of oxygen available in terms of millimeters of mercury.
Approximately 21 per cent of air is oxygen. The amount of oxygen may
be regulated by controlling the air pressure within the culture vessel. If
the barometric pressure is 740 mm. Hg, the partial pressure due to oxygen
is ^Hoo X 740, or 155.4 mm. Hg. If the pressure within a culture vessel
is reduced to 100 mm. Hg, the partial pressure of oxygen amounts to 21
mm. Hg. Tamiya (1942) has reported that Aspergillus onjzae has a
maximum rate of respiration when the partial pressure of oxygen is 500
to 630 mm. Hg. Such partial pressures of oxygen are readily obtained by
using oxygen-nitrogen mixtures. Ternetz (1900) reported the following
reduced oxygen supply on Ascophanus carneus: at 10 mm. Hg the
effects of
mycelium grew with difficulty; at 20 mm. Hg growth was good, but no
spores formed; at 40 mm. Hg some fructification occurred; at 120 to 140
mm. Hg growth was somewhat better than at atmospheric pressure.
The ability of certain soil fungi to exist under conditions of low oxygen
supply is important for survival. The amount of oxygen in soil depends
upon the soil type and the amount of water present. Soil saturated with
water contains but a trace of free oxygen. Hollis (1948) found Fusarium
oxysporum to survive under essentially anaerobic conditions for 13 weeks,
:
ESSENTIAL NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS 89
while F. eumartii perished within 3 weeks when exposed to the same condi-
tions, The mycehum grown under reduced oxygen ten-
of F. oxysporuni
sion was abnormal in its morphology. For further information on the
effect of reduced oxygen tension, see Fellows (1928) and Scheffer and
Livingston (1937).
Enormous amounts must be supplied to the 10,000- to
of sterile air
15,000-gal. tanks used in the production of penicillin
and other antibiotics.
In the laboratory, aeration is provided by shaking machines of the rotat-
ing or reciprocal type. Aeration under these conditions is more uniform
than is possible in stationary cultures, W'here submerged and aerial
hyphae obtain different amounts of oxygen. This was sho\Mi by Tamiya
(1942) who reported that the enzyme systems of submerged mycelium of
Aspergillus oryzae are more easily poisoned by cyanide than are those of
aerial mycelium.
In a broad sense, respiration denotes all the enzymatic processes which
occur in cells involving a release of energy. There are two general ways
in which energy is released by living cells: (1) Cells obtain energy from
chemical reactions in which free oxygen is a reactant. The oxidation of
metabolite molecules by this process is generally called respiration, or
more specifically aerobic respiration. This process is characterized by the
intake of free oxygen and the formation of carbon dioxide. If the com-
pound being oxidized is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only,
the products are carbon dioxide, water, and energJ^ (2) Cells also obtain
energy from chemical reactions in which free oxygen is not a reactant.
This process is called anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. Metabolic
processes of this kind are characterized by the production of carbon
dioxide, the incomplete oxidation of substrate molecules, and the release
of a small amount of energy.
The reactions involved in the aerobic respiration of glucose may be
summarized in a single equation:
CsHisOe + 60.-^ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 673,000 cal.
This equation gives no indication of the intermediate stages in this reac-

tion or how the energy is utilized by the organism performing the oxida-
tion. The number and variety of intermediate reactions do not affect
the total amount of energy released. The reactions involved in the
alcoholic fermentation of glucose are summarized in the following equation
CeHisOs-* 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + 25,000 cal.
This equation, like the preceding one, gives no indication of the inter-
mediate reactions involved. To obtain the same amount of energy, more
of a compound must be fermented than when it is completely oxidized.
Not all of the energy released by either of these processes is available to
the organism (Chap. 4).
A knowledge of the oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide

amounts of
evolved by organisms is method of study in many
the basis of a useful
phases of physiology. The principles of such measurements are simple.
In aerobic respiration both the oxygen and carbon dioxide may be meas-
ured. The ratio of the moles, or volumes, of carbon dioxide evolved and
oxygen used is called the respiratory quotient (R.Q.) and is written
CO2/O2. From the respiratory quotient the nature of the substrate
being oxidized may be deduced. A respiratory quotient of 1 is character-
istic of aerobic oxidation of carbohydrate. The complete oxidation of a
fat may be represented as follows:
(C,8H3602)3C3H5 + 81.50-2^ 57CO0 + 55H.2O
The respiratory quotient for this fat is 57/81.5, or 0.7. If fungus cells are
suspended in a buffer in theabsence of nutrients, and the respiratory

quotient determined, it is possible to deduce the type of compound within
the cells being used as a source of energy. Oxidation of the stored com-
pounds within the cell is called endogenous respiration. The oxidation of
substrate molecules from the medium is called exogenous respiration.
Since both types of respiration may occur simultanously in the presence
of nutrients, it is necessary, in order to determine exogenous respiration,
to subtract the value for endogenous respiration from that obtained in the
presence of nutrients.
The rate and amount determined by instruments
of respiration are
known Various types of respirometers have been used
as respirometers.
to investigate different phases of fungus metabolism and nutrition. In
principle a respirometer is a closed vessel of known volume in which
fungus cells are suspended in a buffer or other solution. The carbon
dioxide evolved is absorbed in a concentrated solution of potassium
hydroxide. The change in volume due to the consumption of oxygen is
measured by the use of suitable manometers. At the end of the experi-
ment the amount of carbon dioxide evolved is measured after the potas-
sium hydroxide solution is treated with a mineral acid. Carbon dioxide
alone may be measured by passing a stream of carbon dioxide-free air
through a culture and absorbing the carbon dioxide evolved in barium
hydroxide or other suitable reagent. The results of such experiments are
reported on the basis of the volumes of oxygen used and carbon dioxide
evolved per milligram of dry weight per hour. These values are reported
as Q02 and Qco2 (see Umbreit et at., 1945).
A modern respirometer is illustrated in Fig. 16. The various manipula-
tive details will not be discussed. For an adequate treatment of these
see Umbreit etal. (1945) and Dixon (1943). These methods are extremely
useful in studying a wide range of problems. Hawker (1944) used
manometric techniques in studying the effect of excess thiamine on
glucose utilization by Melanospora destruens and Phycomyces nitens.

The papers of Siu and Mandels (1950) and Mandels and Siu (1950)
should be consulted for details concerning a simple differential manometer.
This manometer is designed to measure the respiration of intact growing
cultures of filamentous fungi. Dorrell (1948) investigated the effect of
Fig. 16. A constant-temperature bath and shaking device for micro respiration
studies. (Courtesy of American Instrument Company.)
dinitrophenol on endogenous and exogenous respiration of Fusarium

graminearum (Gibberella zeae). As usually carried out, respiration experi-
ments last only a few hours. The initial state of the cells or mycelium
Table 16. The Effect of Age of Zygosaccharomyces acidifaciens Cells on the

Amount of Aerobic Respiration
(Nickerson and Carroll, Jour. Cellular Cornp. Physiol. 22, 1943. Published by
permission of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology.)
Age of cells,
hr.
used has a great effect on the results obtained. Nickerson and Carroll
(1943) have indicated that the culture history of the cells used influences
the amount of aerobic respiration. Some of their data for Zygosaccharo-
myces acidifaciens are shown in Table 16.
SULFUR
Not all compounds which contain an essential element are equally
useful. In fact, some compounds are useless because the essential ele-
ment is unavailable. Among the factors which may affect availability is
the state of oxidation of the essential element. This is particularly true
of sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Among the organic compounds,
structure is enormously important. The situation is further complicated
in that not all fungi utilize the same compounds. Many examples of thi,
will be cited in connection with nitrogen and carbon nutrition. Atten-
tion must be given the sources of the essential elements as well as the uses
fungi make of them.
Sources of sulfur. This element is present in many types of com-
pounds, both inorganic and organic. The state of oxidation of sulfur, as
well as the specific structure of organic sulfur compounds, affects utiliza-
tion. Sulfate sulfur, SO4"", is the most common source of sulfur used in
media. Some fungi, however, require specific organic sources of sulfur.
Steinberg (1936, 1941) has made an exhaustive study of sulfur sources for
Aspergillus niger and reached the general conclusions that inorganic sulfur
compounds containing oxidized sulfur are utilized, while sulfide and
disulfide sulfur are not utiHzed. Of the organic compounds containing
sulfur, the alkyl thioalcohols, sulfides,and disulfides are not used.
Alkyl sulfonates and sulfinates are excellent sources of sulfur. Steinberg
is of the opinion that oxidized sulfur is reduced to suKoxylate before it
enters the normal metabolic channels. An exception to the nonutiliza-

tion of reduced sulfur was noted for compounds which occur as normal
metabolites, such as cysteine, cystine, methionine, and homocystine.
These are assumed to enter normal metabolic channels without pre-
liminary modification. An exception to this statement was noted with
thiamine (thiazole sulfur), but the enormous (physiologically) amounts
used may have upset the metabolic activities of the fungus.
In spite of the general utility of sulfate sulfur in fungus nutrition, many
fungi either utilize organic sulfur contained in natural metabolites to bet-
ter advantage or require these compounds as a source of sulfur. Leonian
and Lilly (1938) reported that the addition of cystine to a synthetic
medium was necessary for the grovv^th of Saprolegnia mixta, Achlya con-
spicua, Isoachlya monilijera, and Aphanomyces camptostylus. Since other
naturally occurring sulfur-containing amino acids were not tested, it
should not be concluded that these species are deficient for cystine.
.
Volkoiisky (1933, 1934) observed that certain of the aquatic Phycocomy-

cetes failed to utiHze sulfate sulfur. These species were Saprolegnia
Achlya prolifera, A. polya7idra, A. oblon-
parasitica, Isoachlya monilifera,
gata, A. conspicua, Dichtyuchus monosporus, and Aphanomyces sp. A
total of 26 isolates failed to utilize sulfate sulfur. This investigator
(1933a) designates ability to utilize 6-valent sulfur as euthiotrophy and
inability to utilize sulfate sulfur and ability to utilize reduced sulfur as
parathiotrophy
Fries (1946) was able to induce mutation in Ophiostoma (Ceratostomella)
rmiltianmilatum by irradiating the ascospores with X rays. Among
these mutants 13 strains were unable to utilize sulfate sulfur. Only five
of these strains regained this ability when cultivated on media containing
sulfate. These parathiotrophic strains of 0. multiannulaium utilized
ammonium sulfide as well as cystine and cysteine as sources of sulfur.
From the fact that these mutants could utilize sulfide sulfur, it is evident
that these strains were not deficient for specific sulfur-containing amino
acids. Bonner (1946) found induced mutants of Peni-
has, however,
amino acids. Blasto-
cillium to be deficient for specific sulfur-containing
cladia pringsheimii has been reported to require methionine (Cantino,
1949).
Fries (1948) has reported the occurrence of natural mutants of Ophi-
ostoma multiannulatiim which require reduced sulfur, and also mutants
which are unable to synthesize methionine. Of a total of 51,037 single-
conidium cultures, 2 required reduced sulfur and 30 required methionine.
The role of sulfur. The use fungi make of sulfur may be deduced from
the sulfur-containing compounds which are known to occur in mycelium
and spores. Among these are the proteins. In Chap. 4 it was noted that
the activity of many enzymes depends upon the sulfhydryl or thiol group,
— SH. On hydrolysis, fungus protein yields the following sulfur-contain-
ing amino and methionine. Sulfur is thus a
acids: cystine, cysteine,
structural element. Another sulfur-containing compound is the tripep-
tide, glutathione, which is abundant in yeast. The formula for gluta-
thione is given below:
COOH CH2SH
H2N— CH— CH2—CH2— CONH— CH— CONH— CH2— COOH
This compound sometimes represented by the symbol GSH. In spite
is
of intensive investigation the role of this compound is not fully under-

stood. Perhaps one of its functions is to protect sulfhydryl enzymes
from inactivation.
The probable mechanism of the biosynthesis of cystine has been studied
using mutants of Aspergillus nidulans (Hockenhull, 1949). All these
cystine-deficient mutants were able to utilize thiosulfate sulfur, methio-
nine, and It was postulated that sulfate sulfur was first reduced
cystine.
to sulfite and then to sulfoxylate, which was assumed to dimerize to
thiosulfate. The next reaction was believed to be between serine and
thiosulfate to form cysteine S-sulfonate, which is then converted to
cysteine. Cysteine on being oxidized forms cystine.
vitamins, thiamine and biotin, contain sulfur. The role of these
Two
compounds will be considered in Chap. 9. In addition to the sulfur-con-
taining amino acids and vitamins there is evidence that other types of
organic sulfur compounds are formed by fungi. Raistrick and Vincent
(1948) found that many strains and species of Aspergillus and Penicillium
converted essentially all of the sulfate sulfur into organic sulfur com-
pounds, but not all of these compounds were found in the fungus proteins.
Penicillium chrysogenum excretes into the medium various unidentified
organic sulfur compounds (Plumlee and Pollard, 1949). The function of
these compounds is unknown.
The reactions whereby a fungus transforms a single source of sulfur into
these various compounds are obscure. When sulfate or other sources
containing oxidized sulfur are utilized, it is necessary for the fungus to
reduce the sulfur to its lowest valence. Schizophyllum commune has been
shown to reduce sulfate to methyl mercaptan, CH3SH (Birkinshaw et al.,
1942). This substance contributes to the characteristic odor of this
fungus.
PHOSPHORUS
Raulin (1869) found phosphorus to be an essential element for Aspergil-
lus niger. Omission of phosphate from his synthetic medium reduced the
yield approximately 50 per cent. Phosphorus is essential for all forms of
life. Phosphorus may be classified as a structural element in the sense
that definite compounds containing this element have been isolated from
fungi. Phosphorus compounds play an important role in the functions of
chemical transformations and energy transfer.
Sources of phosphorus. Apparently phosphorus is utilized only when
it is in the form of phosphate. This element is taken up as phosphate and
functions in this form, mainly in the form of phosphate esters. It will be
recalled that there are several different phosphates. The formulas for the
potassium salts are K3PO4, potassium orthophosphate KPO3, potassium
;
metaphosphate and K4P2O7, potassium pyrophosphate. More complex

;
phosphates than pyrophosphate occur. Orthophosphoric acid may be

neutralized in three steps to produce the following types of salts: KH2PO4,
monopotassium orthophosphate; K2HPO4, dipotassium orthophosphate;
and K3PO4, tripotassium orthophosphate. All these salts furnish utiliz-
able phosphate, but the effects of these three salts on the acidity of the
medium are quite different. In addition to inorganic phosphates, the
organic phosphates (esters) may also be used as sources of this element.

Dox (1911-1912) investigated the assimilation of various phosphorus
compounds by Aspergillus niger with the following results: Ortho-,
meta-, and pyrophosphates supported excellent growth, as did such
organic compounds of phosphorus as phytin, sodium glycerophosphate,
sodium nucleinate, casein, and ovovitellin. Sodium hypophosphite
(NaH2P02-H20) and sodium phosphite (Na2HP03-5H20) were not
utilized and appeared to be toxic.
Smith (1949) studied the phosphorus metabolism of MeruUus lacrymans
and Marasmius chordalis in connection with the utilization of different
carbon sources. In glucose medium M. lacrymans grew better when
supplied wîth inorganic phosphate, while M. chordalis grew miore rapidly
when supplied with organic phosphorus (adenylic acid). On cellobiose
medium M. lacrymans grew faster when supplied with organic phosphorus.
The role of phosphorus. An idea of the manifold ways in which phos-
phorus enters into fungus metabolism may be gained from the studies of
Mann (1944, 1944a). Aspergillus niger was grown on a glucose-nitrate
medium containing varying amounts of dipotassium orthophosphate.
Some of Mann's data on the effect of two concentrations of phosphate are
given in Table 17.
Table 17. The Effect of Two Concentrations of Orthophosphate upon the

Appearance, Sporulation, and Other Metabolic Functions of Aspergillus niger
(Mann, Biochem. Jour. 38, 1944. Published by permission of the Cambridge
University Press.)
Characteristics of
phosphate by A. niger takes place only in the presence of oxygen. The

phosphorus by yeasts, and presumably by other fungi which
utilization of
are capable of anaerobic respiration, may take place in the absence of
oxygen. Various respiratory inhibitors such as iodoacetate, azide, and
cyanide inhibited both respiration and phosphorus metabolism. This
points to an intimate connection between carbohydrate and phosphorus
metabolism. By analysis, ortho-, meta-, and pyrophosphates were
found in the mycelium. Since only orthophosphate was supplied in the
medium, it is shown that A. niger is capable of these transformations.
Phosphorus appears to participate in almost every step in the anaerobic
dissimilation of glucose into alcohol by yeast. Some of these steps may
be common to other fungi. It isremarkable that the formation of alcohol
by yeast and lactic acid in muscle should follow almost the same pathways.
Phosphorus is required in the enzymatic transformation of glucose into
alcohol and carbon dioxide (Harden, 1932). Sumner and Somers (1947)
and Tauber (1949) have summarized the enzymatic reactions involved.
Either starch or glycogen may be transformed into glucose-1-phosphate
by enzymatic esterification. The shift of the phosphate radical to the
other end of the glucose molecules leads to glucose-6-phosphate, which
may also be formed by direct esterification of glucose. Glucose-6-phos-
phate is transformed into fructose-6-phosphate and then into fructose-
1,6-diphosphate. Scission of a molecule of fructose-l,6-diphosphate
yields dihydroxyacetone-1-phosphate and D-1-phosphoglyceric aldehyde.
An equally long series of transformations leads to pyruvic acid,
— —
CHs CO COOH, Avhich on decarboxylation by the enzyme carboxylase
yields acetaldehyde, which is enzymatically reduced by DPN-H2 to ethyl
alcohol. Cocarboxylase and diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN) are
coenzymes, both of which contain phosphorus.
Gould et al. (1942) studied the formation of alcohol by Fusarnim
tricothecioides and found the limited production of alcohol by this species
was due to insufficient synthesis of diphosphopyridine nucleotide. Alco-
hol production was increased 20- to 25-fold by the addition of either yeast
extract or DPN to the medium. The paper of Semeniuk (1943-1944),
which deals with the relation of phosphorus to glucose dissimilation by
Chaetomium funicola, has an extensive bibliography (117 references).
Nord and Mull (1945) have summarized a long series of papers on the
physiology and biochemistry of Fusarium lini and reached the conclusion
that fermentation by this fungus follows a pathway which does not
involve the sugar phosphates. The review of Barron (1943) on the
mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolisms contains much information
about the role of phosphorus (219 references) in carbohydrate metabo-
lism. The role of phosphorus compounds in the transfer of energy was
noted in Chap. 4.
Phosphorus enters into the composition of the nucleoproteins, which are

found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of every cell. The nucleoproteins are
conjugated proteins which consist of a protein moiety in combination
with purine or pyrimidine nucleotides (nucleic acids). These nucleotides
are important functional compounds and may be classified according to
their heterocyclic components.
The preliminary hydrolysis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides
involves the removal of phosphoric acid and the formation of nucleosides.
Nucleosides on hydrolysis yield sugars, purines (adenine, guanine) or
pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, uracil). The nucleotides are also classi-
fied according to the sugar moiety, i.e., D-ribose or D-desoxyribose.
The nucleoproteins which contain D-ribose are mainly found in the
cytoplasm, while D-desoxyribose characterizes the nucleoproteins of the
nucleus. The Feulgen stain is used by cytologists to detect the presence
of D-desoxyribose nucleic acid. Viruses, chromosomes, and genes consist
largely of nucleoproteins. For a review of the role of nucleoproteins see
Mirsky (1943).
NITROGEN
This essential element used by fungi for functional as well as struc-
is
tural purposes. The cell many species, with the exception of the
wall of
Oomycetes and yeasts, appears to be composed of chitin (Brian, 1949).
Chitin is a linear polymer, similar to cellulose, of D-glucosamine. The
amino group of glucosamine in chitin is acetylated. This substance
makes up the exoskeleton of insects and Crustacea. It is interesting that
the chitin formed by fungi, insects, and Crustacea appears to be the same
substance. Protein, the basis of protoplasm, is composed of nitrogenous
substances. Purines, pyrimidines, and some of the vitamins are also
nitrogen-containing compounds.
Not all nitrogen sources are equally suitable for all fungi. Fungi may
be specific in the nitrogen sources they utilize. Our information on this
subject, while extensive, is far from complete. The reports in the litera-
ture which indicate that specific fungi are able to grow on a given source
of nitrogen may be accepted with confidence, but the reported negative
results are to beviewed with caution. Failure of a fungus to grow upon a
given nitrogen source may mean only that the medium used did not con-
tain the necessary growth factors, as in the case of Ophioholus graminis
(See Chap. 2).
Classification according to nitrogen sources used. Robbins (1937),
Steinberg (1939, 1950), and others have classified the fungi according to
their ability to utilize different sources of nitrogen. In the main Rob-
bins's classification as follows: (1) fungi able to utihze atmospheric
is
nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, ammonmm

nitrogen, and organic nitrogen; (2)
fungi able to utilize nitrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, and organic
nitrogen but not able to utilize atmospheric nitrogen; (3) fungi able to
utilize ammonium and organic nitrogen but unable to utilize atmospheric
or nitrate nitrogen; (4) fungi which are able to utilize only organic
nitrogen and unable to utilize atmospheric, nitrate, or ammonium nitro-
gen. Robbins recognized that the experimental conditions might affect
the classification of some fungi. In spite of admitted imperfections the
above classification is very useful in preparing media and in discovering
the causes of failure of some fungi to grow on certain media.
Nitrogen -fixing fungi. It has been shown to the satisfaction of all
competent investigators that various genera of bacteria {Rhizohium,
Azotobacter, Clostridium) contain species which are able to fix nitrogen.
Table 18. Nitrogen Fixation by Phoma betae and Azotobacter vinlandii

(Duggar and Davis, Ann. Missouri Botan Garden 3, 1916.)
references to nitrogen fixationby filamentous fungi see Wolf and Wolf

(1947) and Buchanan and Fulmer (1930).
So we are aware, only one study of nitrogen fixation by fungi
far as
using modern isotopic techniques (Tove et at., 1949) has been published.
Phoma causarina was grown on a sucrose-salts medium in oxygen and
nitrogen enriched with N^^. Growth was slow and sparse under these
conditions, but some N^^ was fixed. These authors state that the isotopic
method is about 100 times more sensitive than the Kjeldahl procedure
used by other investigators.
While it is probable that only a relatively few fungi are able to fix nitro-
gen, the importance of biological nitrogen fixation is so great that further
investigations with modern techniques are desirable. Long ago Ternetz
(1907) reported that five species of Phoma isolated from roots of Ericaceae
fixed significant amounts of nitrogen. For a discussion of nitrogen fixa-
tion by bacteria see Wilson (1940).
Fungi utilizing nitrate nitrogen. Nitrates occur in the soil and thus are
a ''natural" source of nitrogen. A fungus which utilizes nitrate nitrogen
(NOs") must be able to reduce the nitrogen to the oxidation level of
ammonia. We may assume that failure of a fungus to utilize nitrate
nitrogen is coupled with inability to perform this reduction. According
to Robbins (1937) no instances have been recorded in the literature of an
organism being able to utilize nitrate nitrogen and unable to utihze
ammonium nitrogen. This does not mean that fungi which are able to
utihze nitrate nitrogen will grow at the same rate on ammonium nitrogen,
or that all sources of organic nitrogen will be as favorable as nitrate nitro-
gen. Yeasts as a rule do not utilize nitrate nitrogen.
The following is a partial list of fungi which have been reported or
observed to utilize nitrate nitrogen:
Armillaria rnellea C. velutipes

Ascobolus denudata Cordyceps militaris
A. leveillei Dendrophoma obscurans
Ascochyta pisi Dothidella quercus
Aspergillus spp. Fusarium spp.
Botryotinia convoluta Glomerella cingulata
Botrytis allii Gyrnnoascus setosus
B. cinerea Helminthosporium spp.
Cephalothecium roseum Lambertella corni-maris
Cercospora apii Lentinus tigrinus
C. beticola Macrosporium sarcinaeforme
Chaetomiiim cochlioides Marasmius Julvobidbillosus
C. convolutum Neocosmopara vasinfecta
C. globosum Ophiobolus graminis
Colletotrichum lagenarium 0. miyabeanus
C. lindeniuthianum Penidllium spp.
Collybia tuberosa Phoma apiicola
e
P. betae S. sclerotioruni
Pleurage curvicolla Sderotium bataticola
Pyronema confluens Septoria nodorum
Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides Sordaria fimicola
Pythium debaryanum Sphaeroholus stellatus
P. intermedium Sphaeropsis malorum
P. irregular Trichoderma lignorum
Rhizodonia solani VerticiUium albo-atrum
Sderotinia minor Xylaria mali
Several of the species in the above Hst were reported by Young and
Bennett (1922) and others by Robbins and Kavanagh (1942). Some
reports are found in the papers of various authors, while some of the fungi
have been observed in our laboratory (see Fig. 17 for illustrations).
Fungi which utilize ammonium nitrogen. In the nitrogenous com-
pounds found in fungi the nitrogen is in the same state of oxidation as in
ammonium compounds. The following is a partial list of fungi which
have been reported or observed to require ammonium or organic nitrogen
and to be unable to assimilate nitrate nitrogen:
Absidia coerulea M. putillus

A. cylindrospora M. ramealis
A. diibia M. rotula
A. glauca M. scorodonius
A. orchidis Monilinia frudicola
Basidiobolus ranarum Mortierella rhizogena
Ceratostomella fimbriata Mucor flavus
C. ulmi M. hiemalis
Choanephora cucurbitarum M. nodosus
Cyathus striatiis M. pyriformis
Endothia parasitica M. saturninus
Lenzites trabea M. stolonifer
Marasmius alliaceus M. stridus
M. androsaceus Phycomyces blakesleeanus
M. chordaiis Pleurotus ostreatus
M. epiphyllus Rhizophlydis rosea
M. foetidis Rhizopus nigricans
M. graminum R. oryzae
M. performis Sporodina grandis
M. personatus Zygorrhynchus moelleri
A number above list were listed by Robbins (1937).

of fungi in the
The Marasmius are reported by Lindeberg (1944). Others are
studies on
reported by various authors, while some have been observed in our
laboratory. Obviously, this list is far from complete, and numerous
common fungi have been omitted from both this and the previous list
because of lack of definite information regarding their ability to utilize
nitrate nitrogen.
Fungi which utiUze only organic nitrogen. Certain fungi are unable to
utilize nitrogen except in the form of amino acids, peptides, and mixtures
of these compounds such as peptone. The use of organic nitrogen does
not extend to all organic compounds which contain this element. Many
A B C D
Fig. 17. Growth of two fungi on four media differing in nitrogen source. .4, no
nitrogen added; B, potassium nitrate; C, ammonium tartrate; D, asparagine. Above,
Helminthosporium sativum; below, Ceratostomella fimbriata.
of the early reports claiming utilization of organic nitrogen only by various

species have been found to be in error.
All the early work where peptone was the nitrogen source used is to be
suspected because the need for growth factors was not recognized. The
use of other complex nitrogen sources such as proteins makes interpreta-
tion doubtful for the same reason. However, in the case of amino-acid-
deficient fungi a portion of the nitrogen source must be supplied in the
form a particular amino acid. Cantino (1949) found that Blastocladia

of
pringsheimii is deficient for methionine and perhaps other amino acids.
Presumably other amino acids are used to supply a portion of the metabolic
nitrogen of this species. The same situation may exist in the nitrogen
utilization of amino-acid-deficient mutants of Neurospora. Leonian and
Lilly (1938) reported Coprinus lagopus and Pleurotus corticatus to grow on
a mixture of five amino acids and not on ammonium nitrate as a source of
nitrogen.
Inorganic sources of nitrogen. The nitrates commonly used in prepar-
ing media are potassium nitrate, sodium and calcium nitrate.
nitrate,
These salts are equivalent in so far as they supply the same kind of nitro-
gen. They are not equivalent in that different cations are involved.
Calcium ion may precipitate a varying amount of phosphate, depending
upon the concentrations of the two ions and the pH of the medium.
Some fungi utilize nitrite (N02~) nitrogen. Blakeslea trispora makes
some growth on nitrite nitrogen (Leonian and Lilly, 1938). Owing to the
instability of nitrites in acid solution and the destructive effect of nitrous
acid on proteins and amino acids, nitrite nitrogen is little used in making
media. Nitrite is produced by many fungi from nitrate and may accumu-
late in the medium under certain conditions. The toxic effect is related
to the pH of the medium, being greatest at low pH. Wirth and Nord
(1942) attributed the accumulation of pyruvic acid in the nitrate medium
on which Fusarium lini grew to the presence of the nitrite, which inac-
tivated thiamine pyrophosphate (cocarboxylase).
Yeasts utilize nitrate nitrogen poorly as a general rule. Pirschle (1930)
studied the relative value of nitrate and ammonium nitrogen for a yeast
and concluded that poor utilization of nitrate nitrogen was due in part to
the accumulation of nitrite in the medium. This was shown by the yields
of aerated and nonaerated cultures on media containing nitrate and
ammonium nitrogen as well as by analyses of the culture medium for
nitrite. Aeration prevented the accumulation of toxic amounts of nitrite
or its decomposition product nitrogen trioxide. In other experiments
Pirschle showed that nitrite inhibited the growth on ammonium
of yeast
nitrogen. By adding sufficient nitrite to a medium containing ammonium
sulfate, growth was depressed below that obtained on potassium nitrate.
How far these conclusions may be applied to other fungi which do not
utilize nitrate nitrogen is not known.
Inorganic and organic ammonium salts are equivalent in that they
furnish inorganic nitrogen; i.e., ammonium ion. The nitrogen of all
ammonium salts is the same, but the physiological effects of the anions
are not. The ammonium salts of strong inorganic acids generally tend to
make a culture medium more strongly acidic than when an ammonium
salt of a weak acid is used. However, the situation is far more compli-
cated than this simple theory Yv'ould predict. It should be emphasized

that nitrates and ammonium salts have opposite effectson the acidity of
culture media. Other conditions being equal, as nitrate ions are con-
sumed, the culture medium becomes more alkaline, while as ammonium
ions are utilized, the culture medium becomes more acid.
Before considering the ammonium salts of the organic acids, the use of
ammonium nitrate should be mentioned. Both ions contain nitrogen, a
feature which has led many investigators to use it in media. If a fungus
is able to utilize both kinds of nitrogen, the pH of the
will be medium
somewhat This salt should not be used if the purpose of an
stabilized.
experiment is to determine whether a fungus can utilize either one or the
other or both forms of nitrogen. Some fungi apparently use nitrate
nitrogen in preference to ammonium nitrogen when both are supplied in
the medium. Fusarium lini appears to be such a fungus (Wirth and
Nord, 1942).
Table 19. The Effect of Various Organic Acids on the Growth of Four
Fungi on Media Containing Ammonium Nitrate
Initial pH 5.5. Figures are milligrams of mycelium produced. (Leonian and LiUy,
Am. Jour. Botany 27, 1940.)
Organic acids,
0.02M
be modified by the presence of other compounds in the medium. Among

these the organic acids, especially the four-carbon dicarboxylic acids, play
an important role. This subject has been studied by Leonian and Lilly
(1940), Burkholder and McVeigh (1940), Brian et at. (1947), and Bernhard
and Albrecht (1947). The data in Table 19 illustrate the effect of organic
acids on the amount of growth of four fungi.
Succinic and fumaric acids were most uniform in their effect on nitrogen
assimilation. Figure 18 shows the reciprocal effect of varying amounts of
200
These authors suggest that different pathways of carbohydrate iitihzation

may be followed, depending upon whether nitrate or ammonium nitrogen
is present.
Organic sources of nitrogen. Of the vast number of organic com-
pounds which contain nitrogen the ones of interest in fungus nutrition are
those which occur naturally. A few exceptions will be noted later. In
practice, this means proteins and the products of protein hydrolysis.
The following steps in protein hydrolysis have been recognized protein -^
:
metaprotein —> proteoses —> peptones —> peptides —> amino acids. Pep-
tone, which is a complex mixture of peptides and amino acids, is frequently
used as a nitrogen source in media. According to Gortner (1929),
peptones are neither coagulated by heat nor precipitated by saturating a
solution with ammonium sulfate, properties which distinguish peptones
from proteins, metaproteins, and proteoses. Since peptides having some
11 amino-acid residues are precipitated by ammonium sulfate, it may be
deduced that the peptides in peptone have on the average 10 or less
amino-acid residues. Peptone is a useful source of nitrogen when it is
desired to culture a large number of species upon a single medium. A
part of its virtue may be ascribed to its complex nature, for a mixture of
nitrogen sources may be better utilized than a single source. Peptone
also contains most of the water-soluble vitamins (Stokes et al., 1944).
Most of the amino acids which have been isolated from proteins are
listed in Table 20. In addition, the amides of aspartic and glutamic
acids are included. These compounds are found free in many plants and
are thus available to the fungi in nature.
These amino acids are not of equal value in fungus nutrition. The
relative value of 24 amino acids for 14 fungi was tested by Leonian and
Lilly (1938) who found no one amino acid wâs best for all these species.
Steinberg (1942) made an extensive study of growth of Aspergillus niger
on 22 amino acids. Seven were excellent sources of nitrogen for A. niger:
alanine, arginine, aspartic and glutamic acids, glycine, proline, and
hydroxyproline. Steinberg expressed the opinion that the seven amino
acids which supported the most growth of A. niger are those which are
synthesized first (primary amino acids) by this fungus and from which the
other amino acids (secondary amino acids) are normally formed. It is
assumed that the "primary" amino acids enter directly into the metabolic
pathways, while the "secondary" amino acids must undergo preliminary
deamination before use. The primary amino acids are probably not
the same for all fungi. Lilly and Leonian (1942) investigated the effect
of nitrogen source on the growth of 10 strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The data in Table 21 show clearly that different amino acids vary in
effectiveness, and that different strains of the same organism respond
differently to the same source of nitrogen.
: :: : : : :

Table 20. Common Names and Formulas ok Some Alpha-amino Acius Isolated
FROM Proteins and of Some Amides Found in Plants
Monoamine dicarboxylic acids:
Aspartic acid: HOOC— CH2— CHCNHo)— COOH
Glutamic acid: HOOC—
CHo—CH.— CH(NH2)— COOH
Amides of monoamino dicarboxylic acids:
Asparagine NH2OC— CH2— CH(NH2)— COOH
Glutamine: NH2OC— CH2— CH,— CH(NH2)— COOH
Basic amino acids:
Argiiiine*: NHo— C(=NH)— NH— CHo— CH2— CH2— CH(NH2)- -COOH
Lysine*: NH2— CH2— CH2— CH2— CH2— CHCNH,)— COOH
Histidine * CH
N
^ NH
CH===C— CH2— CH(NH2)— COOH
Monoamino monocarboxylic acids:
Glycine: CHoCNH.)— COOH
Alanine CH3— CH(NH2)— COOH
Valine * (CH 2— CH— CH (NHo)— COOH
3)
Leucine*: (CH3)2— CH— CH2— CH(NH2)— COOH

Isoleucine*: CH3— CH2— CH(CH3)— CHCNH.)— COOH
Phenylalanine * CeHs- CHo—CH (NH2)— COOH
Serine CH2(0H)— CH(NH2)— COOH
Threonine*: CH3— CH(OH)— CH(NH2)— COOH
C— CH2— CH(NH2)— COOH
Tryptophane '*
CH
NH
Tryosine HO^^^ \ CH2— CH(NH2)— COOH
CH2— CH
Proline: CH2 CH— COOH
NH
CHOH -CH2
Hydroxy proline: CHo CH— COOH

NH
Sulfur-containing amino acids:
Cysteine: CHsCSH)— CHCNHo)- COOH
Cystine: HOOC— CH(NH2)— CH2— S— S— CH2— CHCNHa)- COOH
Methionine*: CH2(SCH3)CH2— CHCNH.)- COOH
* The 10 amino acids reported by Rose (1938) as essential for the nutrition of the white rat.
Physiological specificity extends to the configuration as well as the

composition of the molecule. Optical isomers (enantiomorphs) usually
have different physiological properties. A mixture of amino acids may or
may not be utilized better than a single amino acid. The effect of one
amino acid on the utilization of another varies with the amino acids
ESSENTIAL XON METALLIC ELEMENTS 107
involved and the specific fungus used. Leonian and Lilly (1940) tested
thegrowth of Phycomyces blakesleeanus upon five single amino acids and
upon a mixture of these five amino acids with the following results mix- :
ture of five amino acids, 214; asparagine, 209; DL-alanine, 151; arginine,
50; aspartic acid, 203; glycine, 201; and glutamic acid, 189 mg., respec-
tively. a poor nitrogen source for P. blakesleeanus, but the
Arginine is
presence of arginine in the amino-acid mixture did not depress growth.

More complex relations were found with yeast (Lilly and Leonian, 1942).
Ten strains of yeast were grown upon media containing a mixture of six
amino acids (aspartic and glutamic acids, arginine, asparagine, alanine,
and leucine). Upon this mixture of amino acids two strains grew as well
as or better than upon the best single amino acid (aspartic acid). The
Table Comparison of Various Soi'rces of Nitrogen for Six Strains of

21.
Yeast
Milligrams of dry yeast cells produced in 72 hr. Each culture received 8 mg. of X.
(Lilly and Leonian, Proc. West Va. Acad. Sci. 16, 1942.)
Yeast strain
Nitrogen source
Ammonium sulfate 18.7 21.2 22.3 17.5 21.7 23.8

Urea 33.2 31.5 32.9 27.3 32.0 35.1
L- Aspartic acid . . . 60.7 59.9 65.6 62.0 52.4 70.6
L-Aspargine 49.4 45.8 50.0 49.2 47.6 35.0
Glycine 3.0 1.2 2.0 2.1 1.0 1.1
DL-Norleucine 29.3 17.6 33.0 18.4 1.2 4.2
amount of growth of one strain was 70.6 mg. on aspartic acid alone, while
on the amino-acid mixture only 38.6 mg. was produced. Omission of
asparagine from the mixture increased the yield to 52.0 mg. These
results show that the effects of multiple nitrogen sources upon growth, and
perhaps other functions, are complex.
Organic acids, especially the four-carbon dicarboxylic acids, affect the
some amino acids much as they do that of ammonium com-
utilization of
pounds. Phycomyces hlakesleeamis on a medium containing arginine
produced 43 mg. of mycelium per flask. Addition of 0.1 per cent succinic
acid to the medium increased the yield to 192 mg. (Leonian and Lilly,
1940).
Nitrogen utilization by the fungi has been studied for almost a century,
but many of the problems involved are not yet solved. Brenner (1914)
has reviewed the early work in this field, especially with reference to the
divergent views of Raciborski and Czapek on the mode of utilization of
amino acids. Raciborski held that amino acids were deaminat^d before
utilization, while Cznpek believed that amino acids were utilized directly.
Both processes arc doubtless involved, and only prolonged study of
specific fungi and various nitrogen sources will permit elucidation of these
questions.
One of the main uses of nitrogen is in the synthesis of proteins. With
the exception of certain amino acids (primary amino acids) and ammonia,
most nitrogen sources undergo modification before entering the synthetic
metabolic pathways. Nitrates, nitrites, and hydroxylamine are pre-
sumably reduced to ammonia before assimilation. Those amino acids
(secondary amino acids) which do not enter directly into the metabolic
pathways leading to the synthesis of protein are probably deaminated.
Burk and Horner (1939) have listed the types of deamination performed
by fungi as follows:
1. Deamination by hydrolysis:
H2O
R— CH(XH.:)— COOH > R— CH(OH)— COOH + NH3
2. Deamination by hydrolysis followed by decarboxylation:
H2O
R— CHCNHo)— COOH > R— CH2OH + CO2 + NH3
3. Oxidative deamination:
MO,
R— CHCNHa)— COOH > R— CO— COOH + NH,
The production of higher alcohols, "fusel oil," is due to hydrolytic
deamination and decarboxylation of various amino acids, especially
leucine, which yields isoamyl alcohol. Various species of filamentous
fungi, especially those which produce alcohol, are capable of the same
reactions. The following amino acids are converted by yeasts into alco-
hols having one less carbon than the parent amino acid: leucine, isoleucine,
phenylalanine, trytophane, and valine. Wirth and Nord (1942) indicate
that Fusarium lini oxidatively transforms alanine into pyruvic acid.
For further information on the process of deamination by yeast, see Thorn
(1937). The process of deamination releases nitrogen in the form of
ammonia, which is utilized by most fungi.
It seems probable that the synthesis of amino acids is the next step in
protein formation. The formation of primary amino acids may result
from the reaction of ammonia with certain alpha-keto acids (pyruvic,
oxalacetic, and ketoglutaric) this is essentially the reverse of oxidative
;
deamination. This process may be fo.'mulated as follows:

R— CO— COOH + NH3 -> R— C(=NH)— COOH + H. -^ R— CHCNH.)— COOH
In addition, yeasts are able to add ammonia to fumaric acid to form
aspartic acid (Haehn and Leopold, 1937). The role of the four-carbon
dicarboxylic acids in nitrogen assimilation may be explained on the basis
that these acids are transformed into kcto acids. Brian et al. (1947) have
assumed that those fungi, such as Phycomyces hlakesleeanus and Myro-
:
ESSENTIAL NONMETALUC ELEMENTS 109
thecium verrucaria, which make hmited growth on ammonium nitrogen do

so because they are unable to synthesize in adecjuate amounts the neces-
sary three-, four-, and five-carbon keto acids. The interrelation among
various dicarboxylic acids is shown
schemes IV, VIII, and IX.
in
The reactions discussed above account for the synthesis of only a few of
the 20 or so amino acids found in fungus protein. Another type of reac-
tion may account for the synthesis of secondary amino acids. This is
called the transamination reaction and may be represented as follows
R— CO— COOH + R'—CH(NH2)C00H -^ R— CH(NH2)C00H+R'— CO— COOK
According to Roine (1947), Torulopsis utilis has the necessary enzymatic
mechanisms for the synthesis of the following amino acids by transamina-
se 30 40 50 60 70
Time in minutes
Fig. 19. Amounts of soluble nitrogen compounds found in the trichloroacetic acid
extract as a function of time. Data are based on 100 ml. of yeast suspension, or
about 5 g. fresh yeast. Curve 1 represents total soluble nitrogen, curve 2 total
amide nitrogen, curve 3 alanine nitrogen, and curve 4 dicarboxylic-amino-acid nitro-
gen. (Courtesy of Roine, Ann. Acad. Sci. Fennicae 26: 63, 1947.)
tion: aspartic acid, glutamic acid, alanine, valine, leucine,and isoleucine.

For a general review of the transamination reaction, see Herbst (1944).
Roine (1947) has obtained experimental evidence which indicates that
in Torulopsis utilis the primary amino acids are formed first and that the
secondary amino acids are then formed from them. This evidence wâs
obtained by analyzing the nonprotein nitrogen fraction which was
extracted from cells of various ages with trichloroacetic acid (a protein
precipitant) . Nitrogen-starved cells of T. utilis were suspended in carbo-
hydrate-free medium which contained ammonium nitrogen. The culture
was aerated. Every 10 min. a portion of the crop was harvested, and the
distribution of nitrogen compounds in the trichloroacetic acid extract was
determined. Figure 19 show clearly that the first stages of protein syn-
thesis consist in the formation of monoamino dicarboxylic acids, their
—
no PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
amides, and alanine. It may be assumed that the amides of gkitamic and
aspartic acid function in yeast as nitrogen carriers, as they do in green
plants.
Preformed amino acids are probably used in protein synthesis. In
principle this process is the reverse of hydrolysis. Many complex chem-
ical reactions are involved. Proteins vary in complexity, the simplest
having molecular weights in the neighborhood of 16,000 to 17,000. The
molecular weight of some proteins is said to be greater than 1,000,000,
and tobacco mosaic virus protein is estimated to have a molecular weight
of 40,000,000. In spite of these enormous molecular weights, a good
deal is known about the structure of proteins. Fundamentally, a pro-
tein consists of amino-acid residues joined together by peptide linkages,
— CH2 — NH— —CO Since different proteins have highly specific
.
properties which depend upon the molecular structure, the synthesis of

these compounds involves a systematic linking together of amino-acid
residues in a definite pattern. For reviews of protein structure the reader
is referred to Bull (1941) and Astbu^y (1943).
The general pathways of nitrogen utilization by fungi are shown in

scheme III.
Scheme III. Possible Pathways of Protein Synthesis from Various Sources

OF Nitrogen
Nitrates > Ammonia > Primary amino acids
i
Secondary amino acids Secondary amino acids
Ammonia —
Primary amino acids- Peptides

i
Polypeptides
i.
Protems
OTHER NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS

It is not known whether fungi require nonmetallic elements other than
hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Boron and iodine
are frequently added to culture media, but good evidence of their essen-
tiality for fungi appears to be lacking. Sodium chloride is frequently
added to media, but neither sodium nor chlorine, so far as is known, is
essential for the fungi.

In nature fungi come in contact with many nonessential elements.
Some of these may be metabolized. Others may modify the life processes
of the fungi by their toxic action or by other means. Chlorine is found in
various compounds synthesized by fungi, e.g., non-ionic chlorine is found
in chloramphenicol, one of the newer antibiotics. Many species of fungi

metabolize arsenic. Penicillium hrevicaule, among other species, pro-
ESSENTIAL HON METALLIC ELEMENTS 111
duces a volatile, toxic, organic arsenic compound, trimethylarsine,

(CH3)3As, which has an odor resembling garlic. In the past P. hrevicaule
has been recommended for the detection of arsenic compounds in forensic
medicine. This microbiological test for the presence of arsenic is said to
))e many times as sensitive as the ]\Iarsh test. The early work on the
utilization of arsenic compounds by fungi is reviewed by La Far (1911)
and more critically by Challenger et al. (1933). P. hrevicaule also pro-
duces dimethyl selenide from selenium compounds (Challenger and
North, 1934).
SUMMARY
The classification of essential elements as structural or functional may
be misleading in that an element usually plays many roles. This is
especially true of the essential nonmetallic elements.

With the exception of carbon dioxide all the organic compounds used
by or contained in fungi contain hydrogen. One of the most important
hydrogen-containing compounds is water. This compound is associated
with proteins in the form of bound water, and it functions as a solvent in
which most if not all biochemical reactions take place. Water enters
into many reactions, particularly in the hydrolytic processes of ''diges-
tion." Apparently fungi do not utilize free hydrogen.
None of the fungi appear to be obligate anaerobes. Many are faculta-
tive anaerobes, while some appear to be strict aerobes. Free oxygen is
used by the fungi in respiration, chiefly as an acceptor of hydrogen. The
facultative anaerobes have another mechanism of oxidation which does
not involve free oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration, or fermen-
tation. The rate and amount of growth and sporulation and the meta-
bolic by-products of a given fungus are affected by the oxygen supply.
The problem of specificity arises in connection with the form of sulfur
utilized. Most fungi utilize sulfate sulfur, but some require reduced sul-
fur. Other species are unable to synthesize specific sulfur-containing
amino acids, especially methionine. Sulfur enters into the composition
ofenzymes and other proteins, peptides, and at least two vitamins.
The fungi utilize phosphorus in the form of phosphate salts and esters.
Some specificity in the different sources of phosphate has been found
Phosphate esters enter into a wide variety of enzymatic reactions, and
many coenzymes are phosphate esters.
thought that certain phosphate esters act to transfer chemical
It is
energy to certain enzymatic reactions. Phosphorus enters into the com-
position of proteins, especially the nucleoproteins, which are found in the
nucleus or cytoplasm of every cell. Viruses and genes are thought to
consist largely of nucleoproteins.
Fungi differ in ability to utilize different forms of nitrogen. A few
utilize atmospheric nitrogen; many utilize nitrate nitrogen; and a still
:
greater number utilize ammonium nitrogen. All species are abletoutilize

some form of organic nitrogen. Other constituents in media, especially
the four-carbon dicarboxylic acids, modify the availability of ammonium
nitrogen and amino acids. Not all amino acids are of equal value
certain
in fungus nutrition. The primary amino acids are those which enter
directly metabolic pathways, while secondary amino acids are deaminated
before the nitrogen is used.
Most of the nitrogen utilized by fungi enters into the synthesis of pro-
teins. The primary amino acids are formed first, and the secondary
amino acids are formed from primary amino acids. Proteins are the
most complex compounds synthesized by living cells. Many of the
vitamins and other essential metabolites also contain nitrogen.
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CHAPTER 7
CARBON SOURCES AND CARBON UTILIZATION

Carbon occupies a unique position among the essential elements
required by living organisms. Almost half of the dry weight of fungus
cells consists of carbon. Protoplasm, enzymes, the cell wall, and reserve
nutrients stored within the cells are compounds of carbon. Carbon com-
pounds are equally important in fugus nutrition. Fungi secure energy
by oxidizing organic compounds. In addition to being the main struc-
tural elements, carbon compounds play an equally important functional
role. The number of carbon compounds known far exceeds the total
of known compounds of all the other elements, because of the property of
carbon of forming compounds in which carbon is linked to carbon in the
form of chains and rings. Various other elements such as nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulfur may serve as linking elements. While many carbon
compounds are stable at ordinary temperatures, others are extraordinarily
sensitive to a wide range of chemical reagents and to slight changes in the
physical environment.
Organic compounds differ in composition, structure, and configuration.
These are key factors which must be considered in relation to utilization
of organic compounds by fungi. Since more is known about carbohy-
drates and related compounds as carbon sources, and about the manner
in which they are dissimilated and assimilated, than about any other
class of organic compounds, most of the discussion in this chapter will
be devoted to these topics. In the main, only naturally occurring organic
compounds will be considered.
MONOSACCHARIDES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS

The simple sugars, or monosaccharides, have the general formula
C„(H20)n. The carbon chain is unbranched except in a few, very rare
sugars. The functional groups present are primary ( — CH2OH) and
— —
secondary ( CHOH ) alcohol groups, and an aldehyde ( CHO) or —
— —
ketone ( CO ) group, actual or potential, is always present. The
primary alcohol and aldehyde groups are restricted to the end positions
of the carbon chain, while the ketone group is usually on the second
116
CARBON SOURCES 117
carbon in the chain. Sugars having an aldehyde group are called aldoses,
those having ketone group, ketoses; the ending -ose denotes a sugar. In
addition, the sugars are further classified according to the number of
carbon atoms in the chain, e.g., pentoses, hexoses, or more specifically
as aldopentoses, ketohexoses, etc. While be necessary in the
it will
discussion to follow to include some information about the chemistry

and structure of the sugars, the reader is advised to consult suitable
texts for further information.Those of Oilman (1943) and Pigman and
Goepp (1948) are recommended.
Compounds which have the same composition and the same molecular
weight are called isomers. There are 16 aldohexoses (32, if the alpha
and beta forms are considered), which have the same percentage com-
position and the same functional groups as glucose (dextrose). There
are eight possible ketohexoses isomeric with fructose. Two kinds of
isomers exist among the sugars: First, there are those which have the
same physical properties but differ in the direction inwhich they rotate
plane-polarized light (enantiomorphs) .Isomers of this kind occur in
pairs, and the configuration of the functional groups of one isomer is the
mirror image of the configuration of the other. Enantiomorphs usually
differ physiologically. One such isomer may be utilized and the other
not, or one may be utilized much more rapidly than the other. Pasteur
(1860) was the first to demonstrate that fungi are able to distinguish
between such isomers. Penicillium glaucum utilized c?-tartrate more
rapidly than Z-tartrate {d and / refer to optical rotation). Second, there
are those isomers which, although they have the same functional groups,
have these groups arranged in a different order, so that one isomer is not
the mirror image of the other (diastereoisomers). It is usually safe to

assume that one member of a pair of enantiomorphs will be better
utilized than the other, but such an assumption about utilization of
diastereoisomers is not possible.
Since not all sugars of a group such as the aldohexoses are utilized by
fungi, it is of interest to compare chemical structure or configuration with
utilization. Not all fungi are able to utilize exactly the same sugars
(Fig. 20). Whether a sugar is utilized or not depends upon both the
configuration of the sugar and the particular abihties of the specific
fungus. By configuration is meant the spatial arrangement of the
hydrogen and hydroxyl groups. The long history of chemical investi-
gation which established the configuration of the simple sugars must be
passed by. Inasmuch as glucose is the key compound in sugar chemistry,
as well as in physiology, particular emphasis will be devoted to this
aldose.
The structures of the glucose enantiomorphs are given at the top of
page 119.
Fig. 20.
A B CD
Growth of three fungi on four sugars. A, gkicose; B, fructose; C, sucrose;
D, maltose. Top row, Monilinia Jructicola (8 days); middle, Mucor ramannianus
(8 days); bottom, Ustilago striiformis, fragmenting strain (20 days).
H H H H
CARBOS SOURCES 119
1. CHO CHO
2. H— C— OH HO— C—
I
HO— C— H— C—OH
I
3.
I
I
4. H— C— OH HO— C—
5. H— C—OH HO— C—
I I
6. CHoOH CH.OH
D-Glucose L-Ghicosc
The letters d and l indicate that these sugars belong to different series;
they do not indicate optical rotation. The small letters d and / have
been used in the past to express two separate ideas, optical rotation or
configuration. The use of d and I makes it difficult
in the old literature
at times to discover which enantiomorph was meant. The configuration
of the secondary hydroxyl group farthest from the carbonyl group deter-
mines to which series a sugar belongs. D-Glucose is the form which
occurs naturally and is meant when glucose is used without qualification.
Not all naturally occurring sugars belong to the d series; e.g., L-arabinose.
For the sake of clearness and accuracy, the series designation should
always be used where there is any chance of confusion and misinterpre-
tation. Pigman and Goepp (1948) point out that only sugars of the
galactose type occur naturally as both enantiomorphs. D-Galactose is
fermented by some yeasts, while L-galactose is not.
Hexoses. The following hexoses occur naturally: D-glucose, D-man-
nose, D-galactose, L-galactose, D-fructose, and L-sorbose. It is doubtful
if L-sorbose occurs in green plants, but itis formed from sorbitol by
bacterial {Acetobacter suboxydans) oxidation (Bertrand, 1904).
CHO CHO CHoOH

H— C—OH HO— C— C=0
HO— C—
1
H
The configuration of glucose, mannose, and fructose is the same for

carbons 3 to 6. In the presence of dilute alkali these sugars undergo
enolization to produce the same enol form.
D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Fructose
CHO CHO CH,OH
H— C— OH HO— C— C=0
I I
R R R
it
CHOH
II
COH
R ±:
Common enol form
Other effects of alkali and heat on sugars were noted in Chap. 2.
Many fungi will utilize these three sugars if configuration is important

in determining availability. However, these sugars are not equivalent
for all fungi. The fact that galactose is not utilized by all fungi which
utilize the three closely related sugars is illustrated by the data in Table
22.
Glucose is utilized by more fungi than any other sugar and is nearly a
universal carbon source. In attempting to culture fungi of unknown
nutritional requirements on synthetic or semisynthetic media, glucose
should be the first carbon source used. However, there are a few fungi
which are unable to utilize glucose, or any sugar, as a carbon source.
Leptomitus lacteus (Schade, 1940; Scliade and Thimann, 1940) is unable to
utilize glucose, fructose, galactose, or sucrose. Skoog and Lindegren
(1947) have reported the behavior of 12 strains of Saccharomyces cere-
visiae which did not utilize glucose when first isolated. These strains
became adapted to glucose on sufficiently long exposure to this sugar.
Cheo (1949) found certain isolates of Ustilago striiformis to be unable to
grow on glucose when freshly transferred from a sucrose medium. After
2 to 4 weeks these isolates began to grow. This behavior suggests the
formation of an adaptive enzyme which was not formed when these
isolates were cultured on sucrose medium. Some fungi, such as L. lacteus,
apparently lack the ability to form adaptive enzymes for glucose utili-
zation and must be classed as absolutely incapable of glucose utilization,
while the yeasts of Skoog and Lindegren and the isolates of U. striiformis
are facultatively able to utilize glucose. The differences among these
fungi probably lie in the ability to form adaptive enzymes.
No carbon source can be utilized if the medium is lacking in any
essential element or Kinsel (1937) and Stevens and Larsh
compound.
(1939) reported that Diplodia macrospora would grow only on disacchar-
ides and not on media containing glucose or other monosaccharides.
CARBON SOURCES 121
The explanation anomalous situation was given by Margolin

of this
(1940) and confirmed by Wilson (1942), who found that D. macrospora
was deficient for biotin. It is probable that other vitamin-deficient
fungi have been reported in the past as unable to utilize certain sugars
owing to the absence of specific growth factors. Negative results
reported in the literature are therefore to be viewed with caution.
Wolf and Shoup (1943) studied the oxidation of carbohydrates by
Allomyces arhuscula, A. javanicus, A. moniliformis, and A. cystogenus.
All four species oxidized dextrin (degraded starch), while A. arhuscula
oxidized maltose and sucrose in addition. The other common naturally
occurring sugars, including glucose and fructose, were not oxidized. It
has since been shown that A. arhuscula is deficient for methionine and
thiamine (Yaw, 1950).
While there is an immense amount of information scattered throughout
the literature to the effect that a certain sugar is utilized by various
species, much this information deals with relatively few sugars.
of
Critical studies on the utilization of the sugars are rare. Margolin
(1942) studied the amount of growth of 21 fungi on four hexoses. These
data (Table 22) were obtained under uniform conditions. A mixed
nitrogen source (ammonium nitrate and amino acids) was used, and
vitamins were supplied to the deficient fungi. The time chosen for
harvest in this study was the time maximum weight was attained on
glucose. This work suffers from the common defect that the yields are
compared on the basis of a fixed time of harvest. The ideal way of
determining the value of different sugars for fungi would be to study
both the rate and amount of growth as a function of time of incubation.
The following generalizations about utilization of the common hexoses
may be drawn from the data in Table 22: (1) There is no single sugar
which supports the maximum amount of growth for all of these fungi.
(2) All of these fungi utilize glucose, although the maximum amount of
growth was not always attained on this sugar. (3) The more closely the
configuration of another sugar approaches that of glucose, the more
fungi utilize it. It is believed that these generalizations are valid for all
fungi which utilize sugars.
Steinberg (1939) found D-glucose, D-fructose, D-mannose, L-sorbose,
and sucrose to be equallyeffective in the nutrition of Aspergillus niger
while D-galactose, lactose, glycerol, and mannitol were poor sources of
carbon for this fungus. Herrick (1940) reported that two isolates of
Stereum gausapatum grew on glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose.
One isolate made significantly better growth on fructose; the other grew
equally well on all four sugars. This indicates that not all isolates of a
species are alike in ability to utilize a given sugar. The utilization of
different carbon sources by A. oryzae was investigated in detail by Tamiya
.
(1932). This paper should he consulted for the experimental details

and references to the literature. One hundred twenty-three carbon
compounds were investigated, and of the hexoses, mannose supported
Table 22. Milligrams of Mycelium Produced by 21 Fungi Grown on Media
Containing Different Sugars
AL the sugars were used at a rate which supphed 8 g. of carbon per liter. Each
125-ral. flask contained 20 ml. of medium. Cultures were incubated at 25°C. Each
weight in the table is the average of 12 cultures. (Margolin, thesis, West Virginia
University, 1942.)
Mg. mycelium
Days of
D-
Fungus incu- D- D- D-
Ga- Mal- Suc- Lac-
bation Glu- Fruc- Man-
lactose rose tose
cose tose nose
tose
Blakeslea trispora 6 91 94 98 123 113 10 7

Diplodia macrospora 15 83 55 71 55 94 58 21
D. natalensis 8 199 154 89 50 190 199 17
Fusarium lycopersici 6 108 101 100 126 119 74 18
Helicostylum pyriforme 5 126 81 126 99 102 11 40
Helmintiwsporum sativum. . 8 75 128 83 46 96 100 40
Mucor ramannianus 8 89 118 115 116 128 12 124
Pilaira moreaui 7 40 32 45 44 44 11 44
Phycomyces blakesleeanus . . . 7 138 130 139 74 101 111 6
Phytophthora cactorum 14 119 40 16 11 157 77 4
P. erythroseptica 12 79 20 81 17 114 93 10
P.fagopyri 6 89 51 19 11 20 130 13
Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides 6 152 122 79 14 76 142 12
Pythium ascophaUon 6 85 56 84 10 111 116 27
Rhizopus nigricans 4 121 114 117 121 121 7 5
R. suinus 6 130 128 136 135 30 12 8
Rosellinia arcuata 6 73 58 49 33 63 38 34
Sordaria fimicola 6 121 162 147 28 127 16 52
Syncephalastrum racemosum. 5 131 141 126 140 132 15 13
Thielavia basicola 10 60 54 55 78 57 61 6
Typhula variabilis 12 181 122 113 23 202 126 15
the most growth. Quantitative data on the utilization of L-sorbose by

fungi is less abundant than for the other hexoses. Observations in this
laboratoiy indicate that many fungi either do not utilize sorbose or do so
slowly.
Pentoses. The pentoses shown below occurnaturally, mostly in the
form of polysaccharides or othercomplex compounds. L-arabinose and
D-xylose are the most easily available and have been more extensively used
than the other pentoses. The formulas for the naturally occurring
pentoses are given below:
.. '
Methylpentoses. D-Isorhamnose, L-fucose, and L-rhamnose are related

and L-mannose in that carbon G with its primary
to D-glucose, L-galactose,
alcohol group in these hexoses has been replaced by a methyl group.
These methylpentoses have not been thoroughly investigated in nutri-
tional studies involving many fungi. Aspergillus niger utilizes L-rham-
nose to some extent, but L-fucose is not utilized (Steinberg, 1942). A.
oryzae makes much poorer growth on L-rhamnose than on D-xylose or
Table 24. Milligrams of IMycelium Produced by Five Fungi Grown upon

Xylose and Arabinose
These sugars were used at concentrations which suppHed 8 g. of carbon per liter.
Each 125-ml. flask contained 20 ml. cf medium. Cultures were incubated at 25 °C.
(Margolin, thesis, West Virginia University, 1942.)
Days of
Fungus D-Xylose L-Arabinose
incubation
Blakeslea trispora 6 77 49
Mucor ramannianus 8 77 74
Phycomyces blakesleeanus . . . 7 126 85
Phytophihora erythroseptica . . 12 15 7
Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides 6 33 18
* This sugar was called Z-xylose in the earlier literature.
L-arabinose (Tamiya, 1932). Of the five fungi listed in Table 24 only

Mucor ramannianus L-rhamnose (Margolin, 1942). Stereum
utilizes
gausapatum utilizes rhamnose about as well as arabinose (Herrick, 1940),
Sugar alcohols. Reduction of the aldehyde or keto group of the
simple sugars converts them into alcohols. Several sugar alcohols are
widely distributed in nature. Only the formulas for three of the natu-
rally occurring sugar alcohols will be given.
CHoOH
CARBON SOURCES 125
Sugar acids. Three types of sugar acids may be produced from aldoses
by oxidizing the terminal groups. Oxidation of the aldehyde group
yields aldonic acids, such as D-gluconic acid
from glucose, while oxidation
of the primary alcohol group yields uronic acids, such as D-galacturonic
acid from D-galactose. Oxidation of both the aldehyde and primary
alcohol groups yields saccharic acids. The uronic acids are widely
distributed in natural polysaccharides such as plant gums and mucilages
and in pectin. The fungi in nature must frequently come in contact
with uronic acids, but data on utilization of these and other sugar acids
are rare. Steinberg (1942) cultured Aspergillus niger on media which con-
Table 25. Milligrams op Mycelium Produced by FrvE Fungi Grown upon

Glucose, Mannose, and Galactose and the Corresponding Sugar Alcohols
These compounds were used at a rate which supplied 8 g. of carbon per liter. Each
125-ml. flask contained 20 ml. of medium. Cultures were incubated at 25°C. (Mar-
golin, thesis, West Virginia University, 1942.)
Fungus
6
1
utilize galactose to betteradvantage in the presence of glucose. The

experiments of Steinberg (1939) on the effect of two poor carbon sources
on the growth of A. niger were made at 35°C. Some combinations of
poor carbon sources supported more growth than when these sources
were used singly. Thus, the calculated weight of mycelium for the
combination, D-mannitol-lactose was 21.4; the actual yield was 233.6 mg.
Some combinations of poor carbon sources resulted in a decrease in
amount of mycelium formed (glycerol-D-galactose calculated yield,
:
243.7 mg.; actual yield, 154.7 mg.). The effect of mixed carbon sources
in the amount of growth of Phy corny ces blakesleeanus and Pythiomorpha
gonapodyoides appeared to be purely additive (Margolin, 1942).
Table 26. The Effect of Galactose and Glucose, Singly and in Combination,
UPON the Amount of Growth of Aspergillus niger
Cultures incubated 7 days at 20°C. (Horr, Plant Physiol. 11, 1936.)
Grams of Sugars Used per Liter Yield, Mg. per Culture
10 galactose 45 .
18 galactose 42.4
20 galactose 44.3
2 glucose 145 .
10 glucose 411 .0
18 galactose + 2 glucose 577.4
10 galactose + 10 glucose 1,151.6
mixed carbon sources is

All these results indicate that the effect of
highly specific. A
mixture of poor carbon sources may or may not
result in increased growth, depending on the carbon sources involved as
well as the fungus concerned.
The favorable effects of mixtures of poor carbon sources on the rate
and amount of growth have been ascribed to the ease with which a fungus
is able to synthesize certain key intermediates. If the synthesis of
intermediate X from
carbon source A is slow and difficult, and the syn-
thesis of X
is rapid from carbon source B, it is probable that growth will
be more rapid on media which contain both carbon sources.
ORGANIC ACIDS
An organic acid is characterized by having one or more carboxyl

( — COOH) groups. Some organic acids are utilized as sources of carbon
and in other ways. Two series of organic acids are especially interesting
from the standpoint of physiology. The fatty acids are monocarboxylic
acids; the higher members, when esterified with glycerol, form fats.
The dicarboxylic acids, especially those which contain four carbon atoms,
enter into the metabolic pathways of the fungi in various ways; e.g.,
utilization of ammonium nitrogen (Chap. 6).
I
CARBON SOURCES 127
The form in which an organic acid exists (free acid or salt) is a function
of the pH of the medium or cells. The free acid is the predominant form
at low pH values. The terms for an acid and its salt {e.g., fumaric acid,
fumarate) are used in the literature somewhat loosely. The effect of a
free acid and its anion may be different (Chap. 8).
Leptomitus ladeus, w^hich does not utilize sugars, grows on various
fatty acids — acetic, butyric to capric —
but not on formic or propionic
acids (Schade, 1940). Apodachlya hrachynema utilizes the same fatty
acids as L. ladeus and also, fumarate, succinate
and malate. Aspergillus
niger, according to Steinberg (1942), makes some growth on acetate,
lactate, tartrate, malate, and fumarate. Growth was very poor com-
pared with that on sucrose. Dulaney (1949) reported that little strepto-
mycin was produced when organic acids were used by Streptomyces
griseus.Yeasts use acetate to synthesize fat (White and Werkman,
1947). Tamiya (1932) investigated the utilization of many organic acids
by Aspergillus oryzae. Growth wâs poor on most of these compounds
except quinic acid. While an organic acid may serve as the sole source
of carbon for fungi, in general acids do not allow as much or as rapid
growth as carbohydrates.
An amino acid may serve as a source of both nitrogen and carbon.
Peptone may serve as a source of carbon and nitrogen for many fungi.
Aspergillus niger, when grown on peptone as the sole source of carbon,
deaminates the peptides and amino acids and releases ammonia in
quantities greater than the fungus can use. The utilization of amino
acids as carbon sources by A. niger wâs investigated by Steinberg (1942a),
who found certain combinations of "primary" amino acids to be utilized
about three-fourths as efficiently as sucrose.
The amino acids by Penicillium roqueforti and
utilization of individual
Fusarium oxysporum var. was studied by Gottlieb (1946).
lycopersici
Not all the naturally occurring amino acids were utilized as carbon sources
by these fungi. The six-carbon straight-chain amino acids norleucine and
lysine and the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine
were not utilized as carbon sources. Glycine and valine were poor
carbon sources for P. roqueforti, while F. oxysporum var. lycopersici grew
well on these amino acids. Alternaria solani, Helminthosporium sativum,
Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium moniliforme, Chaetomium globosum, and
Aspergillus niger were unable to utilize the naturally occurring sulfur-
containing amino acids as a source of carbon.
Yeasts differ in ability to utilize different amino acids as the sole
source of carbon (Schultz et al., 1949). Glutamic acid and proline were
available to more species than other amino acids. It is characteristic of
fungi cultivated on amino-acid media as the sole source of carbon that
the medium becomes alkaline. This is probably due to accumulation of
H H
ammonia which results from deamination. In general, the amino acids

appear to be poor sources of carbon.
GLYCOSIDES
The carbon sources to be discussed in this and the next two sections
differ from those previously considered in that they undergo hydrolysis.
The complex carbohydrates and carbohydrate-like compounds yield
simple sugars w^hen hydrolyzed. In some instances, other compounds
are also formed. In most instances, fungi utilize these compounds only
after hydrolysis. Therefore, utilization will be dependent upon the pro-
duction of the necessary hydrolytic enzymes. If a fungus is unable to
perform this preliminary "digestion," such complex carbohydrates will
be unavailable.
Many of the compounds to be considered in this section are isomers.
The simple sugars exist mainly in the form of ring structures, rather than
the open-chain forms which were depicted in the previous sections of this
chapter. The chemical evidence may be reviewed in Pigman and
Goepp (1948) or other text dealing with the sugars. Glucose exists in
aqueous solution as an equilibrium mixture of a-D-glucose and /3-D-glu-
cose. These formulas contain a six-membered ring of w^hich one atom is
oxygen (pyranose). Some sugars, however, contain a five-membered
ring (furanose).
The formulas for these two forms of glucose are given below:
H OH HO H
\ c/ \ c-/
,
H— C—OH H— C—OH
HO— C— HO— C—
I
H— C—OH H— C—OH
I
H— C—O— H— C— O—
I
CH2OH CH2OH
a-D-Glucose /3-D-Glucose
The simple glycosides are a widely distributed group of naturally

occurring compounds which contain a sugar moiety and an alcohol or
phenol moiety. The form glucoside was formerly used to designate com-
pounds of this type irrespective of the sugar moiety. Specific glycosides
are designated by adding the ending oside to the name of the sugar
involved; e.g., glucoside, mannoside, etc.
Two glucosides are formed when glucose is treated with methanol
under appropriate conditions. The formulas are given below:
H H
CARBON SOURCES 129
H OCH3 H3CO H
C , C-
H— C— OH H— C— OH
HO— C— HO— C—
I
H— C— OH
I
H— C— OH
H— C— O— H— C— O—
I I
CH,OH CH2OH
a-Methyl-D-glucoside /3-Methyl-D-glucoside
These formulas correspond to the alpha and beta isomers of glucose.

The proof that a-methylglucoside and a-glucose have the same structure
was furnished by Armstrong (1903), who followed the enzymatic
hydi'olyses of these glucosides polarimetrically.
Our interest in the glycosides isnot in the chemical structure per se,
but in the fact that utilization of these and other compounds having the
same type of glycoside linkage is dependent upon configuration. Differ-
ent enzymes are required for the hydrolysis of the a- and /3-glycoside
linkages. Some fungi possess both types of hydrolytic enzymes, others
but one, and some fungi appear to lack both. Thus, certain yeasts
ferment a-methylglucoside but not /3-methylglucoside. These yeasts
have an enzyme or enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of the a-gly-
coside linkage but not the /3-glycoside linkage (lactose-fermenting yeasts
are able to hydrolyze ;S-glycosides).
The use of the methylglucosides is not always a safe guide in pre-
dicting which complex sugars will be utilized by fungi. Aspergillus niger
utilizes /3-methylglucoside rapidly and completely, while a-methyl-
glucoside is poorly utilized (Dox and Neidig, 1912). Attempts to adapt
A. niger to utilize a-methylglucoside as a sole source of carbon were
without much success, although the fungus apparently utilized this
compound in the presence of sucrose (Dox and Roark, 1920). A. niger
utilizes lactose poorly. Tamiya (1932) found A. oryzae made only a
trace of growth on a-methylglucoside. /3-Methylglucoside was not
tested. This fungus grows well on maltose. These results are, perhaps,
not unexpected in view of the specificity of enzymes. The utilization of
the naturally occurring simple glycosides by fungi has been investigated
but slightly.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
These sugars are derived from two, three, or four hexose sugars by the
elimination of water. On hydrolysis, the individual sugars are regener-
ated. Five factors which determine the structure of the oligosaccharides
are (1) the component sugars; (2) the component sugar which functions
as the alcohol; (3) the stereochemical nature of the glycoside linkage; (4)
the carbon of the alcohol moiety which forms the glycoside linkage; and
(5) the ring structure of the component sugars (see Oilman, 1943),
Maltose. It is doubtful whether this disaccharide occurs free in
nature. It formed when starch is enzymatically hydrolyzed; on
is
further hydrolysis two molecules of glucose are formed. This disac-

charide is utilized by many fungi. The glycoside linkage is alpha in
maltose.
H OH
C
H-C-OH
I
HO-C-H
I
H-C-0
I
H-C-0
I
CH2OH
Maltose
Cellobiose. The occurrence of this sugar as a repeating unit in cellu-

lose makes it important. Cellobiose differs from maltose only in the
nature of the glycoside linkage. With few exceptions only fungi which
produce enzymes which attack the /3-glycoside linkage will utilize this
sugar.
HO-C-H
CH2OH CH2OH
Cellobiose
Since cellobiose and maltose differ only in the nature of the glycoside
linkage, it would be interesting to compare the utilization of these two
sugars by a large number of fungi. Cellobiose has been studied so infre-
quently that the necessary data are lacking.
CARBON SOURCES 131
Lactose. This sugar probably present in the milk of all animals.

is
Hydrolysis of lactose by acids or lactase yields a molecule each of glucose

and galactose. This sugar is hydrolyzed by emulsin and is therefore a
/3-glycoside.
CH2OH
Lactose
Sucrose. This sugar is of common On hydroly-

occurrence in plants.
sis one molecule of glucose and one formed; a mixed a- and
of fructose are
j8-glycoside linkage unites the sugar moieties. Sucrose apparently is
utilized by fewer fungi than maltose, but more extensively than lactose
(see Table 22).
CH2OH
CH2OH
Sucrose
In addition to the three common disaccharides (maltose, lactose,

and sucrose), many other oligosaccharides are known. Owing to cost
and have not been studied inten-
relative unavailability, these sugars
sively. Some of these "rare" sugars are used in differential media in
bacteriology. Brief mention will be made here of some of these sugars.
The nonreducing disaccharide trehalose (mushroom sugar) is syn-
thesized by various fungi and is fermented by many yeasts. Trehalose
on hydrolysis yields glucose it differs from maltose in the position of the
;
H H C H
glycoside linkage. Tamiya (1932) reported that Aspergillus oryzae

utilized trehalose and raffinose. The trisaccharide raffinose is obtained
as a by-product of beet-sugar manufacture. On complete hydrolysis
galactose, glucose, and fructose are formed in equivalent amounts. The
structure for raffinose is given below.
Volkonsky (1934) found raffinose to be utilized readily by Pythmm
deharyanum and a species of Sporotrichum. One isolate of Phytophthora
parasitica utilized raffinose rapidly, while another isolate utilized this
sugar slowly. Phytophthora cactorum and P. palmivora utilized this
sugar slowly. The great majority of fungi tested by Volkonsky did not
utilize raffinose.
CH2OH H- ^ H—
O— C H— C—OH H— C— OH
HO— C— HO— C— HO— C—
I
H— C— OH H— C— OH HO— C—
I
I
H— C— O— H— C— O— H— C— O—
I
CHoOH CH2O- CH2OH

D-Fructose D-Glucose u-Galactose
Raffinose
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are utilized by fewer fungi than

is glucose. All microorganisms which can utilize a given polysaccharide
are also able to utilize its hydrolytic products (Van Niel, 1944). Not all
polysaccharides yield glucose on hydrolysis, but the majority of them do.

While the evidence at hand does not exclude the direct utilization
of disaccharides by some fungi, it is probable that these sugars are
hydrolyzed before utilization in most instances. Smith (1949) suggests
that Marasmius chordalis attacks cellobiose by a route that involves
neither preliminary hydrolysis nor phosphorylation.
The failure a fungus to utilize an oligosaccharide may be due either to
of
the lack of the necessary hydrolytic enzyme or to inability to utilize the
component sugars. Failure to synthesize the necessary hydrolytic
enzymes appears to be by far the most common cause of nonutilization.
This is borne out by the data in Table 22. Of the 21 fungi studied by
Margolin, two failed to grow on maltose, while eight did not utilize
sucrose. Since all these fungi grew well on glucose and fructose, it is
evident that failure to utilize maltose and sucrose was due to the fact that
these fungi could not hydrolyze these sugars. The nonutilization of
lactose by Syncephala strum racemosum is evidently due to the failure of
CARBON SOURCES 133
this fungus to synthesize lactase, for this fungus makes good growth on
either glucose or galactose. The same argument applies to Blakeslea
trispora, Fusarium lycopersici, Rhizopus nigricans, and R. suinus. Non-
utilization of a complex carbohydrate is usually due to the lack of the
necessary hydrolytic enzymes.
The hydrolysis by fungi is easily demonstrated.
of oligosaccharides
Phycomyccs blakesleeanus Mucor ramannianus does
utilizes sucrose while
not. If the mycelium of P. blakesleeanus is removed from a flask of
sucrose medium after several days' incubation and the flask reinoculated
with M. ramannianus, the latter fungus will grow. P. blakesleeanus
excretes sucrase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose to D-glucose
and D-fructose, both of which are utilized by M. ramannianus.
A complex carbohydrate and its hydrolytic products are not necessarily
equivalent in all respects. Hawker (1947) reported that the amount of
mycelium produced by Melanospora destruens was different when this
fungus was grown on equivalent amounts of glucose, fructose, mixtures of
glucose and fructose, and sucrose. More mycelium was produced from
glucose than from an equivalent amount of sucrose, and this was true
whether the concentrations of these sugars were low or high. On the
other hand, perithecia were produced more abundantly on sucrose than
on glucose media. Indeed, hydrolysis of the same lot of sucrose to
glucose and fructose allowed the production of no more perithecia than
other samples of these sugars. The conclusion seems inescapable that
the particular structure of sucrose was in some way favorable for the pro-
duction of perithecia. While a fungus may utilize an oligosaccharide and
its hydrolytic products, it is not safe to assume that both are used with
the same efficiency for all purposes.
POLYSACCHARIDES
The chemistry of the polysaccharides resembles that of the oligosac-
charides except that thenumber of sugar residues is much larger. These
substances constitute the bulk of carbohydrate materials synthesized by
plants and animals. The most important polysaccharides are cellulose,
starch, and glycogen. On hydrolysis simple sugars are formed. The
molecular weights of polysaccharides may be very large; cellulose from
different sources may have a molecular weight ranging from 200,000 to
400,000. The molecular weights of many polysaccharides are much less
than that of cellulose. In general, polysaccharides are insoluble or only
colloidally soluble. The utilization of these substances by fungi is
dependent upon the excretion of the necessary hydrolytic enzymes. Pig-

man and Goepp (1948) classify polysaccharides on the basis of the
hydrolytic products as homopolysaccharides, which yield only one mono-
saccharide on hydrolysis, and heteropolysaccharides, which yield two or
more monosaccharides or related compounds on hj^drolysis. Cellulose,

and glycogen are members of the first class and yield glucose on
starch,
hydrolysis. Polysaccharides are frequently named b}^ replacing the end-
ing -ose of the parent monosaccharide by -an. Fructan (le\ailan) desig-
nates a polysaccharide which yields fructose on hydrolysis. A hexosan
is a polysaccharide which yields hexose sugars on hydrolysis, and a pen-
tosan yields pentoses. Pectins are polymers of galacturonic acid.

The heteropolysaccharides occur in lesser amounts than the homopoly-
saccharides. Among them are the hemicelluloses, which on hydrolysis
yield D-xylose as the principal sugar, the plant gums, and agar.
Cellulose. Chemically, cellulose is a linear polymer of o-glucose. The
glucose residues are joined together through /3-glycoside linkages as in
cellobiose, and may be thought of as consisting
cellulose of repeating
cellobiose units. Norman and Fuller (1942) postulate that the majority
of fungi are able to utilize cellulose. In spite of the importance of cellu-
lose utilization by fungi in the economy of nature much remains to be
learned about this process.
It is commonly accepted that the first stage in utilization of cellulose is
hydrolysis, although Campbell (1932) has suggested oxidation. The

hydrolysis of cellulose may be expressed schematically as follows: cellu-
lose —> cellodextrins -^ cellotetrose -^ cellobiose -^ D-glucose. Fungus
cellulases appear to have been infrequently studied. Grassmann et al.
(1933) separated cellulase and cellobiase from Aspergillus

This oryzae.
cellulase was inactive
hydrolyzing cellulose degradation products hav-
in
ing a molecular weight less than 1,000 (six glucose residues), while the
cellobiase hydrolyzed cellulose fragments containing from two to six
glucose residues.
Fungi differ widely in ability to utilize cellulose. In general, the rate of
utilization of cellulose is less than that of glucose. This is probabty due
to the insolubility of cellulose, which limits the action of cellulase to the
surface, or to an inadequate rate of enzyme synthesis.
The principal source of cellulose available to fungi in nature is wood and
other plant remains, ^^^lile cellulose is the chief constituent in such
materials, hemicelluloses, gums, tannins, and lignin are also present.
The wood-rotting fungi have been classified according to whether they
cause white or brown rots. The fungi which cause brown rots attack
cellulose in preference to lignin. The fungi which preferentially attack
the noncellulosic constituents of wood cause white rots. The latter
species are apparently more numerous than those which cause brown rots.
The following are some of the fungi listed by Nobles (1948) as causing
white rots: Armillaria mellea, Ganoderma lobaturn, Lenzites hetulinus,
Pleurotus ostreatus, Polyporus ahietinus, P. cinnabarinus, P. pargamenus.
A few fungi causing bro^^^l rots are Daedalea quercina, Lentinus lepideus,
CAR BOX SOURCES 135
Lenzites trabea, Merulius lacrymans, Polyporus betulinus, and Trametes

americana.
The effect of a typical fungus causing white rot on the composition of
wood is given in Table 27. Polyporus pargamenus was allowed to act on
blocks of aspen wood for 20 months. At the end of this time the wood
block showed three degrees of attack. The tan-colored portion was
altered least. The pink-colored portion was intermediate, while the
white portion had lost the most lignin. P. pargamenus also degraded the
cellulose somewhat, as shown by lower degree of polymerization.
T.\BLE 27. The Effect of Polyporus pargamenus ix Altering the Composition of

Aspen Wood
Time of incubation 20 months. (Heuser et al., Arch. Biochem. 21, 1949. Published
by permission of Academic Press, Inc.)
Portion of
wood block
Saproliginales to utilize starch and its hydrolytic products (dextrin,

maltose, and glucose). Thirteen other carbon sources, including fructose,
were not utilized. Margolin (1942) found that 19 out of 21 fungi which
utilized maltose also utilized dextrin.
The nonutilization of starch by Sclerotinia libertiana has been suggested
as the basis of a method of preparing potato starch (Kakeura, 1946).
Few yeasts utilize starch, although maltose and glucose are readily
utilized.
All the fungi listed inTable 22 except Pythiwn ascophallon and Phy-
tophthora jagopijri utilized dextrin.A comparison of the ability of fungi
to utilize glycogen and starch has not been investigated thoroughly.
Tamiya (1932) found the yield of mycelium of Aspergillus oryzae to be
greater on glycogen than on dextrin. Dextrin was a better carbon source
than starch.
The role of the pectin-destroying enzymes in parasitism and the rotting
of fruitsand vegetables is discussed in Chap. 17. Presumably these fungi
utilize some or all of the hydrolytic products of pectin (n-galacturonic acid
and methyl alcohol). None of the fungi, in so far as is known, utilize agar
as a source of carbon. A niger utilizes the arabo-galactan from western
.
larch as a source of carbon (Ratajak and Owens, 1942).
HETEROTROPHIC UTILIZATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

The assimilation of carbon dioxide is not restricted to green plants.
Carbon dioxide fixation has been demonstrated in bacteria, fungi,

protozoa, liver slices, barley roots, and intact green plants in the absence
of light. The basis for classifying organisms according to the way they
utilize carbon dioxide is discussed by Werkman and Wood (1942), By
the use of carbon isotopes an elegant method is available for demonstrating
carbon dioxide assimilation. In addition, the mechanism of fixation can
be studied. This involves isolation and degradation studies of the com-
pounds synthesized Avhile the organisms were exposed to isotopic carbon
dioxide. Either stable or radioactive carbon isotopes may be used. The
finding of isotopic carbon incompounds synthesized is proof of assimilation.
Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus nigricans were shown to assimilate car-
bon dioxide (Foster et al., 1941). Radioactive carbon dioxide (Cî02)
was used in these experiments. Mycelium of R. nigricans was suspended
in 5 per cent glucose solution and agitated in a closed system containing
isotopic carbon dioxide. At the end of the experiment the mycelium and
the medium were analyzed for radioactivity. More than one-third of
the carbon dioxide assimilated was incorporated into cell constituents
which were not decomposed by boiling for 1 hr. with 2M hydrochloric
acid. Carbon dioxide was assimilated under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. The data of such an experiment are given in Table 28.
CARBON SOURCES 137
Table 28. Distribution of Radioactive Carbon (CÔ in the Culture Medium

AND Mycelium of Rhizopus nigricans Exposed to C^'02 in the Gas Phase for
30 Minutes
Results are expressed as percentage of CÔo assimilated. (Foster et ah, Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci., U.S. 27, 1941.)
Substance tested Aerobic
Total C* in supernatant solution after removing cells.

Fumaric * acid in this solution
C* in neutral volatile distillate
Total C* in acid extract of cells
Fumaric * acid in this solution
C* remaining in cells after acid extraction
succinic acid was increased. It was surmised that this fungus utilizes
carbon dioxide, since none was set free.
The formation of oxalacetic acid by the reaction between pyruvic acid
and carbon dioxide suggests that heterotrophic carbon dioxide fixation
may play a role in amino-acid synthesis. Support of this hypothesis may
be found in the work of Ajl and Werkman (1949), who found the carbon
dioxide requirement of Aerohacter aerogenes could be replaced by oxal-
acetic, a-ketoglutaric, fumaric, or aspartic acid. For further information
on carbon dioxide utilization by fungi see Foster (1949).
UTILIZATION OF CARBON
Carbon compounds are utilized by fungi for two general purposes, as a

source of energy and as a source of the chief structural element. These
two processes may be the same until a number of chemical transforma-
tions have taken place but may
then diverge after certain intermediate
compounds are formed. The of carbon is quite easily
over-all use
determined, but it is a problem of a different order to trace all the chemical
transformations which occur when a compound is utilized.
Table 29. The Distribution of Carbon from Arabinose among the Products
OF Metabolism of Fusarium lini
(White and Willaman, Biochem. Jour. 22, 1928. Published by permission of
Cambridge University Press.)
Age of
CARBON SOURCES 139
products. Carbon balances are especiall}^ useful in determining the effi-

ciency with which a fungus produces metabolic products of value, such as
alcohol and citric acid. For further examples see Raistrick ct al. (1931).
Utilization ratios. The relations of the amounts of fungus metabolic
products to the amount of carbon soiu'ce (or other substance) used are
frequently expressed as ratios. However, these ratios are valid only for
the fungi and the experimental conditions used. These ratios should be
considered as absolute values only for the conditions under which they
were obtained. The various utilization ratios are of less value than
complete carbon balances, but the analytical determinations are fewer.
To be of most value, these ratios should be determined at various intervals
during incubation, because these ratios change with age.
The most useful of these ratios is the economic coefficient, which is
obtained by dividing the weight of mycelium and spores by the weight of
sugar or other carbon source used. The residual carbon source in the
medium must be determined at the end of an experiment. In general an
efficient fungus will convert half the weight of sugar supplied in the
medium into cellular material. The efficiency of most fungi when grown
on laboratory media is much less. This is due in part to the use of
unbalanced media and to the type of carbon metabolism taking place.
The carbon which is not utilized for the synthesis of cellular material
appears either as carbon dioxide or as intermediate metabolic products,
such as alcohol and organic acids. In industrial applications it is desir-
able to employ cultural conditions which divert a large part of the carbon
used into the desired intermediate products, rather than into the produc-
tion of mycelium and carbon dioxide.
The economic coefficient of Fusarium sambucinum under various
cultural conditions has been studied by Holzapfel (1925). This fungus
utilized sucrose (0.33)and fructose (0.36) more efficiently than glucose
(0.24). The economic coefficient varied with the concentration of the
carbon source and wîth the source of nitrogen, as w'ell as with the age of
the cultures.
For a discussion of other utilization ratios and examples, see Steinberg
(1942), Peterson et al. (1922), White and Willaman (1928), and Fries
(1938).
Intermediary metabolism. The problem, to be considered here is the
way fungi utilize the various sources of carbon available to them. From
the data and discussion in the earlier part of this chapter it is clear that
structure and configuration play an important role in determining which
compounds may serve as a source of carbon for a given fungus. The
availability ofcomplex natural compounds, such as the carbohydrates,
was found to depend upon the production of the necessary extracellular
hydrolytic enzymes. The utilization of simple compounds, such as the
monosaccharides, is likewise an enzymatically catalyzed chain of meta-

bolic processes. It may be assumed that the chemical composition of the
fungus will be about the same, irrespective of the carbon source utilized.
Therefore, at some place along the path of synthesis the initial carbon
sources are converted into the same compounds. It is probable that the
original compounds are converted into the same intermediate compounds
before synthesis. Thus, galactose is apparently transformed by Sac-
charomyces fragilis into galactose- 1-phosphate, which is then converted
into glucose- 1-phosphate (Caputto et at., 1949). These intermediate
compounds then enter the various metabolic reaction chains which lead
to the production of materials which make up the fungus. We may
suppose that the first steps in utilization are those which transform a
carbon source into key intermediates.
The intermediate metabolic products should also serve as a source of
carbon for the fungus in question. If a fungus transforms compound A
into compound B, then compound B should serve as a source of carbon.
Nonutilization of compound B indicates that this compound is not part of
the metabolic pathway. This simple hypothesis neglects two important
considerations compound B may not enter the fungus cells with the same
:
facility ascompound A, or compound B may be toxic in the concentra-

tions present. As an example of this approach, the work of Steinberg
(1942) may be consulted. Since Aspergillus niger made only a trace of
growth on D-gluconic acid, it seems probable that the first step in the
by this fungus is not the oxidation of the aldehyde
utilization of glucose
group. The isolated enzymes from a fungus may also be studied to
determine the reactions catalyzed, or the effect of specific enzyme
inhibitors on the intact fungus may be studied.
In some instances intermediates of sugar dissimilation are excreted into
the medium and may be isolated. Thus, the production of acetaldehyde
may be demonstrated by adding bisulfite to the medium. Acetaldehyde
forms an insoluble addition product with this reagent. The excretion
of intermediate metabolites may be due to slowness of the next step in the
metabolic process. These products are usually utilized in the course of
time. Among such intermediates which have been identified are acet-
aldehyde, ethyl alcohol, and pyruvic acid.
On the basis of the evidence now available we may not assume that all
fungi utilize a sugar or other carbon source in exactly the same way, or
that a fungus has only one metabolic pathway for the utilization of a
sugar. Nord and Mull (1945) consider that species of Fusarium dis-
similate carbohydrates by oxidation, carbon chain, and
by splitting the
by a phosphorylation mechanism. The relative importance of these
three methods of attack depends upon the fungus involved and upon the
environmental conditions. Identity of a metabolic product formed by
CARBOX SOURCES 141
two fungi not proof that the reaction mechanism is the same in both
is
instances. Yeast and certain species of Fusarium produce alcohol, but

the pathways from glucose to alcohol appear to be different. The
mechanism of carbohydrate dissimilation by Fusarium lini, when grown
upon a nitrate medium, is believed to take place as shown in scheme V.
An essential feature of this scheme is the formation of pyruvic acid from
both pentoses and hexoses. The intermediate steps in this biosynthesis
by Fusarium lini have not been elucidated. A portion of the hydrogen
derived from the dissimilation of carbohydrate is enzymatically trans-
ferred and used for the reduction of nitrate ion which acts as a hydrogen
acceptor. The nitrite produced inhibits the carboxylase enzyme system
which transforms pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde.
Pyruvic acid does not accumulate in the culture medium when ammonium
nitrogen is used.
Scheme V. The Pathway of Hexose and Pentose Utilization by Fusarium lini

Grown on Nitrate Medium
(Courtesy of Wirth and Nord, Arch. Biochem. \ : 155, 1942. Published by permis-
sion of Academic Press, Inc.)
Acceptor
(Nitrate)
Nitrite
I
Carboxylase system
Hydroxylamine
Hexoses
+
->- Pyruvic acid ^- Alcohol
Pentoses
X reduction
Amino acid
Utilization
Pyruvic acid is the key intermediate compound formed in the dis-

similation of hexoses and pentoses by F. lini. The transformation of
pyruvic acid into alcohol by F. lini and yeasts appears to follow the same
pathway and to require the same coenzymes, cocarboxylase and code-
hydrogenase I.
The anaerobic dissimilation (fermentation) of glucose by yeast and

the comparable process in muscle (glycolysis) have been intensively
studied. These are perhaps the best understood of all metabolic proc-
esses. Although does not function in glucose dissimilation by F. lini in
it
the same way as in yeast, phosphate plays a role in all these transforma-
tions until pyruvic acid is formed. Many investigators have contributed
142 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FLi.XGI
to the scheme of gUicose dissimilation presented in schemie VI (Meyerhof,

1938, 1949). Further information about these reactions may be found in
Sumner and Soraers (1947), Tauber (1949), and Prescott and Dunn
(1949).
Scheme VI. The Pathway of Glucose Dissimiliation by Yeast (Alcoholic

Fermentation) and Muscle (Glycolysis)
(Courtesy of Meyerhof, WaUerstein Labs. Communs. 12 256, 1949. Published by
:
permission of WaUerstein Laboratories.)

Glycogen, starch D-Glucose
± H,P04 + H3PO4
II
Glucose- 1-phosphate (Cori ester)^=±GIucose-()-phosphate (Robison ester)
Fructose-6-phosphate (Neuberg ester)

+ H3PO4
'4'
Fructose-ljG-diphosphate (Harden- Young ester)
Dioxyacetone phosphate* Kd) 3-GIyceraIdehyde phosphate (Fischer-Baer

ester)
CHaOHCiOCHrOPOsHa + H3PO4
tCHOCHOHCH2-0-P03H2
+ H2 + H2
/-Q^Glycero phosphate (d) 1,3-Diphosphoglyceric jicid
[CHsOHCHOH-CHaOPOsHs + H3PO4
'CO-O-POsHsCHOH-CHa-O-POsH,
Glycerol + H3PO4 (d) 3-Phosphoglvceric acid

TCOOH-CHOH-CHa-O-POsHs
(d) 2-Phosphoglvceric acid

+ H2O
*
CH2dHCH(OP03H2)COOH
(Enol)-Phosphopvruvic acid
TCH2:C(OP03Ho)(COOH)
Aceta dehyde + C02< -Pyruvic acid + H3PO4 .
±H2
Ethanol Lactic acid
Pyruvic acid is a key intermediate compound in metabolism. Pyruvic

acid serves as a source of carbon for many fungi, although the rate of
growth on this substance is frequently slow. This is in accord with the
hypothesis that intermediate metabolites are able to replace the original
carbon source. The accumulation of this compound in the culture
medium may be demonstrated by the formation of iodoform in the cold
by adding a solution of iodine and making the medium strongly alkaline.
The sensitive color test ofLu (2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine) may also be
used [see Friedemann and Haugen (1943) for details]. Acetaldehyde also
yields iodoform under these conditions, but gentle heating will drive off
CARBON SOURCES 143
this substance. AVe have noted in this laboratory that pyruvic acid
ordinarily disappears from culture medium as the time of incubation is
increased. The disappearance of the pyruvic acid in the culture medium
is usually correlated with a rise in pH. Some typical reactions of pyruvic
acid are shown in scheme VII. For a review of pyruvate metabolism see
Stotz (1945).
Scheme VIIo Some Typical Transformations of Pyruvic Acid
CH3-CO— COOH
H ^^ rtmA
Pl7ri11M^ acid
Pyruvic ^\ NH3+H
CH3-CHOH-COOH CH3-CH(NH2)-COOH
-CO2
Lactic acid ot - Alanine
CH3— CHO
H
Acetaldehyde
CH3-COOH CH3-CH2OH
Acetic acid Ethyl alcohol
It is probable that most intermediates used in the synthesis of proto-

plasm are synthesized from low-molecular-weight compounds. Acetate
is used by yeasts for the synthesis of fats and other cellular constituents.
Weinhouse and Millington (1947) studied the metabolism of isotopic

acetate by yeast depleted of endogenous nutrients. Acetate was rapidly
utilized. The distribution of the carbon from the isotopic acetate was
Scheme VIII. Oxidation of Acetate by Yeast by Means of the Krebs Citric
Acid Cycle*
COOH
CH3— COOH -I HOOC—CHr— CO—COOH -
Hooc— CH2— c— CHj— coon
T
HOOC— CH2—CHO H— COOH
HOOC— CH: —CH— CHO H— COOH
T
HOOC— CH=CH— COOH COOH
CO2
T -CO2
2CH3— COOH HOOC— CH2—C Ho— COOH <— HOOC— CH2—CH2— CO— COOH
* Original scheme modified according to Weinhouse. Courtesy of Weinhouse and Millington, Jour.
Am. Chem. Soc. 69: 3093, 1947. Published by permission of the American Chemical Society.
determined by analysis. A portion of the acetate was oxidized; another

portion was found in the lipide fraction and cell residue; some was con-
verted to citric acid.was calculated that from one-fourth to one-third
It
of the lipides found in the yeast cells at the end of the experiment (a 7-hr.
period) were newly synthesized from acetate. The cell residue (after
extraction of the fats) contained only a little isotopic carbon. This is not
surprising, since nitrogen was not furnished during these experiments.
The mechanism of acetate oxidation by yeast is postulated by these

authors to follow a modified Krebs citric acid cycle (scheme VIII). The
oxidation of acetate is thus the result of a rather complex cyclic process.
While the four-carbon dicarboxylic acids of the Krebs cycle are poor
sources of carbon for most fungi, they are important in intermediary
metabolism. These acids are readily interconvertible. The role of the
keto acids in amino-acid synthesis was noted in Chap. 6. Lewis (1948)
studied the metabolism of mutants of Neurospora crassa which were
unable to synthesize either aspartic or glutamic acids. These amino
Scheme IX. A Generalized Krebs Isocitric Acid Cycle Proposed to
Illustrate the Pathways of Conversion of Carbohydrate into
Aspartic and Glutamic Acids by Neurospora*
Carbohydrate
It
Pyruvate -^
(CHg-CO-R)
Oxalacetate
Cis-aconitate
n
Isocitrate
A
A
oi -Ketoglutarate
Succinate
* Courtesy of Lewis, Am. Jour. Botany 36: 294, 1948.
acids could be replaced by a-ketoglutaric, succinic, malic, or fumaric

acids. A generalized Krebs cycle was proposed by Lewis which indicates
the pathway of synthesis of aspartic and glutamic acids from glucose
(scheme IX). Compounds utilized by the Neurospora mutants are
printed in The probable location of the genetic block which
italics.
prevents the biosynthesis of aspartic and glutamic acids is indicated by A.
SUMMARY
Organic compounds are utilized by fungi for the synthesis of structural
and functional compounds and as sources of energy. The fungi utilize a
wide range of natural organic compounds including those of great com-
CARBON SOURCES 145
plexity. Not all fungi utilize all natural organic compounds, nor do all
species utilize a given compound with the same facility. The composi-
tion, structure, and configuration of organic compounds affect utilization,
but the effect of these factors may be different for different fungi.
The carbohydrates are the most common and important sources of
carbon for the fungi. Sugars (and other compounds) having the same
structure, but with mirror-image configuration, differ physiologically.
Usually only one enantiomorph is utilized, or one is utilized much more
rapidly than the other.Glucose is utilized by more fungi than any other
sugar. Few fungi are unable to utilize glucose. A few species are appar-
ently unable to utilize any sugar; e.g., Leptomitus lacteus. The species
that utilize the pentoses, sugar alcohols, acids, and other simple organic
compounds are fewer in number than those which utilize glucose.
The oligo- and polysaccharides are utilized by fewer species than is
glucose. The nature of the glycoside linkage as well as the sugar residues
is important in determining whether these compounds are utilized by a
given fungus. It is probable that most fungi hydrolyze oligosaccharides

before utilization occurs. This does not exclude direct utilization in some
instances. An oligosaccharide and its hydrolytic products are not always
physiologically equivalent. The general order of availability of the three
common disaccharides appears to be maltose, sucrose, and lactose.
Among the polysaccharides, cellulose and starch are the most abundant.
These compounds are insoluble and must be hydrolyzed or otherwise
degraded to low-molecular-weight compounds before utilization. Only
those fungi which form cellulase and amylase are able to utilize these
compounds. This "digestion" is accomplished by enzymes. Ability to
utilize other polysaccharides is also dependent upon possession of the
necessary hydrolytic enzymes.
Some fungi utilize carbon dioxide, but not as a sole source of carbon.
It is postulated that carbon dioxide combines with pyruvic acid and other
keto acids to form key intermediate products which are necessary for the
formation of amino acids.
The fate of the carbon supplied to a fungus is best determined by
carbon-balance studies; i.e., by complete chemical analyses of the myce-
livim and other metabolic products, including the carbon dioxide produced.
The first step in utilization of sugars and other carbon sources is the
formation of certain key intermediate metabolic compounds. These key
compounds are in part utilized for synthesis and in part oxidized to pro-
vide energy. The metabolic pathways leading to the formation of key
intermediates differ, depending upon the environmental conditions and
the fungus involved. Among the key intermediates pyruvic acid is
especially noteworthy. Reduction of this compound yields lactic acid,
while amination and reduction leads to alanine. Decarboxylation pro-
:
duces acetaldehyde, which in turn may yield either ethyl alcohol or acetic
acid. Acetate is utilized by yeast and other fungi for the synthesis of
fats and other cellular constituents. A fungus utilizes a compound by a
series of step-by-step transformation. Among the best understood of
these metabolic activities is the transformation of glucose into alcohol by
yeasts.
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Friedemann, T. E., and G. E. Haugen: Pyruvic acid. II. The determination of

keto acids in blood and urine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 147: 415-442, 1943.
Fries, N.: Ucber die Bedeutung von Wuchsstoffen flir das Wachstum verscheidener
Pilze, Symbolae Botan. Upsalienses 3 2, 1938. :
GiLMAN, II.: Organic Chemistry, an Advanced Treatise, Vol. II, John Wiley & Sons,
Gottlieb, D. The utilization of amino acids as a source of carbon by fungi, Arch.
:
Biochem. 9: 341-351, 1946.

Grassmann, W., L. Zeichmeister, G. Toth, and R. Stadder: Ueber den enzyma-
tischen Abbau der Cellulose und ihrer Spaltprodukte. 2. Mitteilung iiber
enzymatische Spaltung von Polysacchariden, J. Leibigs Ann. d. Chem. 503:
167-179, 1933.
CARBOX SOURCES 147
*Ha\vker, L. E.: Further experiments on growth and fruiting of Melanospora

destruens Shear in the presence of various carbohydrates, with special reference
to the effects of gkicose and of sucrose, Ann. Botany (N.S.) 11: 245-260, 1947.
Herrick, J. A.: The carbon and nitrogen metabolism of Stereurn gausapatum Fries.,
Ohio Jour. Sci. 40: 123-129, 1940.
*Heuser, E., B. F. Shema, W. Shockley, J. W. Appling, and J. F. McCoy: The
effect of lignin-destroying fungi upon the carbohydrate fraction of wood, Arch.
Biochem. 21 343-350, 1949.
:
HoLZAPFEL, II. H.: Untersuchung iiber die C-und N-Quellen einiger Fusarien, Cent.
Bakt., Abt. II., 64: 174-222, 1925.
*HoRR, W. II.: Utilization of galactose by Aspergillus niger and Pcnicillium glaucum,
Plant Physiol. 11: 81-99, 1936.

Kakeura, M.: Starches by using parasitic fungi, Japanese patent 172,381, Mar. 6,
1946. Chem. Abs. 43: 6850, 1949.
KiNSEL, K.: Carbohydrate utilization by the corn Diplodias, Phytopathology 27:
1119-1120, 1937.
Lewis, R. W. : Mutants of Neurospora crassa requiring succinic acid or a biochemi-
cally related acid for growth, Am. Jour. Botany 35 : 292-295, 1948.
Margolin, A. S.: The carbohydrate requirements of Diplodia macrospora, Proc.
West Va. Acad. Sci. 14 : 56-59, 1940.
Margolin, A. The effect of various carbohydrates upon the growth of some
S. :
fungi, thesis. West Virginia University, 1942.

Meyerhof, O: The intermediary reactions of fermentation. Nature 141: 855-858,
1938.
Meyerhof, O.: Glycolysis of animal tissue extracts compared with the cell-free
fermentation of yeast, Wallerstein Labs. Communs. 12 255-264, 1949. :
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wood-rotting fungi, Can. Jour. Research, Sec. C, 26: 281-431, 1948.
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formation of methyl-p-methoxycinnamate by the action of Lentinus lepideus
on glucose and xylose. Arch. Biochem. 14: 243-247, 1947.
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of cellulose. Advances in Enzymol. 8: 253-298, 1948.
Norman, A. G., and W. H. Fuller: Cellulose decomposition by microrganisms.
Advances in Enzymol. 2 239-264, 1942. :
Pasteur, L.: Note relative au Penicillium glaucum et a la dissymetrie mcleculaire

des produits organiques naturels, Compt. rend. acad. sci. 51: 298-299, 1860.
Peterson, W. H., E. B. Fred, and E. G. Schmidt: The fermentation of pentoses by
molds, Jour. Biol. Chem. 54: 19-34, 1922.
PiGMAN, W. W., and R. M. Goepp: Chemistry of the Carbohydrates, Academic
Prescott, S. C, and C. G. Dunn: Industrial Microbiology, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949.
Raistrick, H., J. H. BiRKiNSHAW, J. H. V. Charles, P. W. Clutterbuck, F. P.
Coyne, A. C. Hetherington, C. H. Lilly, M. L. Rintoul, W. Rintoul, R.
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1931.
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Am. Jour. Botamj 27: 659-670, 1940.
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the growth of yeasts, Arch. Biochem. 22 : 412-419, 1949.
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:
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:
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:
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Yaw", K. Personal communication, 1950,
:
CHAPTER 8
HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION
The growth of fungi and bacteria may be inhibited or prevented by
media which are too acidic or too alkaline. A completely satisfactory
medium may be made useless by the addition of relatively small amounts
of strong acids or bases but may have its former usefulness restored if the
excess acid or base is neutralized. This suggests that the ions which
characterize acids and bases are particularly active in life processes. It is
necessary to understand certain fundamental ideas about acidity and
ways of measuring concentration of these ions before discussing in detail
the effects of acids and bases on the activities of the fungi.
IONIZATION OF COMPOUNDS
Since water is the universal solvent for all life processes, our discussion
willbe confined to aqueous solutions. The chemical compounds which
comprise natural and synthetic media may be divided into two classes,
those which form ions in solution (acids, bases, and salts), and those
which do not ionize (organic compounds in general, except organic acids
and bases). Water is a compound of the first class, although it forms ions
to a very slight degree. The ionization of water may be represented by
the following equation:
(1) HOH ^ H+ + OH- or HOH + HOH ^ H3O+ + OH"

For each molecule of water ionized one hydrogen and one hydroxyl ion
are formed.
In any aqueous solution the product of the concentrations of the
hydrogen and the hydroxyl ions (in moles) is equal to a constant (K^),
Water is a neutral compound, i.e., the concentrations of hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions are equal. A solution which contains a greater concentra
tion of hydrogen than of hydroxyl ions is acidic a solution which contains
;
a greater concentration of hydroxyl ions than of hydrogen ions is basic, or

alkaline. Since all aqueous solutions contain hydrogen and hydroxy]
ions, the deleterious effects of these ions must be due to their relative
concentrations. At room temperature (23 to 25°C.) the concentration of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water is 1 X 10"^ mole per liter, or 1 mole
each of these ions in 10 million liters. The degree of ionization of water
increases with temperature. However, water is a neutral substance at
149
150 PHTSIOLOGT OF 71- 1 FVXGI
alllempersTures because equal number? of hydrogen and hydrox\-l ions

are pi^sent. The value of K^ at 23 to 2o^C. is obtained by multiphing
the conceniraticais irf hydrogwi and hydroxyl ic«is present.
(3j K, = : >
:>-- 1 X icr- = 1 X lO-^*
For ihe parpoee of this discussicsa. we will consider an acid to be a com-

pound. whcKe aqueous scJuticHi contains a greater concentration of hydro-
gen rhxn at hydroxyl ioais. A t-o^ is a compound whotse aqueous solution
contains a greater concentraticai of hydro^l ions than of hydrc^n itms.
Tbese deaniiioas vdll include a number ci compounds which are ordinarily
con^doed as salts. A solmion of an acid c«Mitains a greater concentra-
tion of hydrogen ions th.--^- pure water by Tirtue of the ionization of the
acid. Hydrochloric acid ionises as follow?:
C3) Ha ^ H- - a-
In a sofaxtica of hydrochloric acid there are two sources <rf hydrogen ions.
the acid and 'irater. Enou^ of the hydrogen icais will combine with the
hvdrasyi ions to reduce the concentration erf this ion so that Eq. (2) will
b* satined. The ionization o£ a base may be represented as follows:
,
i XaOH = Xa- - OH"
- ^ c- - - -- es^ctly the same as gi"r«i above fca* an acid except that
._- , _ _ :>ii C'f hy<irogen ions is less in a solution of a base than in
pure
A s~.: i-^ : i- soch as Lyir >;h-oric. is considered to be completely itm-
ixed even lu ; rated solutions- A weak acid, such as acetic, in
IX s-i-u : I- - uly sli^tly about 1 per cent . The perc-entage

of iooixi" : : i ^ increases as the dHuticm increases. The c<»-
ccntri " : _ equal volumes of normal hydrochloric and
liS in.
acetic - - -^ — r chief differraice between these acids. Thus the

stoaiiT r
' ~ ~ ' - -^pressed in twô ways. (1 the total acidity <
A*^^ . \ includes both the ionized and nonionized

mofecuks CH iL i.e.. the titratab'ie acidity, and (2 ) the actwal acidity
at any instant. - :_ îa functicHi of the cc«icentration of hydrogen ions
is
jwesBQt. T: -
-tration c^ hydrogen ions is a nincrion of the con-
centre I. - i-izatitHi of the acid involved.

: It is the actual
~ esses. It is also necessary to consider
acadity -
the phy- . riieii- : z^ or cations which are associated

;
wz- ^- - : -". i= impossibie to add just hydrogen
7 HZ MIAXC^G OF pH
T: - ::. I. : UL : - _ ^-:i : ui in a soluticai can be expressed in
Ti —ays. A derived unit pH is most used in biological work. The
HYDROGES-IOS COSCESTRA TIGS' 151
calculated c<Hic«itrati<Mis of hydrogen and hydroxyi ions in sohition; <rf

hydrochloric acid and potasdum hydroxide are given in Tat4e 30. C<«n-
plete ionization was assumed in these falmlatioPiS.
Table 30. Calcxxated Coxcestâtioks or Htoso^cix axd Htdeoiti. loss rs

Prsz Watee axd cf SoLmoxs of Htdeoceuckic Acid axd PotasctctiC
Vonaaiit.
fractions. a solution contains 4.23 X 10"" mole per liter of hydrogen

If
ion, this concentration of hydrogen ions may be expressed in terms of pH
by use of Eq. (5).
(7) pH = log = log 1 + log 10« - log 4.23 = 5.37

^^3 ^ ^Q_,
By reversing the above calculations, the hydrogen-ion concentration may

be calculated if the pH
known.value is
The pH scale has three features which may be perplexing: (1) alkaline
solutions are designated on the same scale as acidic solutions; (2) increas-
ing acidity is expressed by smaller pH values; and (3) the logarithmic
nature of the scale. A difference of one pH unit indicates a tenfold
difference in hydrogen-ion concentration, while a difference of 0.3 pH unit
means a twofold difference. A solution having a pH value of 4 contains
10,000 times as many hydrogen ions per unit volume as a solution having
a pH of 8. A solution having a pH value of 6.2 has twice the hydrogen-
pH value of 6.5. The student
ion concentration of a solution having a
should remember that pH is the name of a logarithmic scale used to
measure hydrogen-ion concentration and not an entity in itself.
BUFFERS AND BUFFER CAPACITY

A medium having pH values between 5 and 6 at the time of inoculation
is suitable for most but more acidic or more alkaline media are used
fungi,
at times. It is often important that the pH of the culture medium does
not change too greatly as the result of metabolic activities of the organism.
The ease with which the pH of a medium is modified depends upon the
composition of the medium.
Substances which tend to maintain the pH of a solution relatively
constant when an acid or base is added, or when the solution is diluted,
are called buffers. In general, the kinds of compounds which act as
buffers are mixtures of weak acids or bases and their salts, acid salts of
polybasic acids, basic salts of polyacidic bases, and amphoteric compounds
such as amino acids and peptides. As an example of a buffer we may
consider a solution which contains equivalent amounts of acetic acid and
sodium acetate. If a strong acid such as hydrochloric is added to this
buffer solution, a reaction will occur between the sodium acetate and the
hydrochloric acid.
(8) CH3— COONa + HCl -^ CH3— COOH + NaCl

The net effect of adding hydrochloric acid is the formation of an equiv-
alent amount of acetic acid. Inasmuch as acetic acid is only slightly
ionized, no great change in hydrogen-ion concentration will take place
until most of the sodium acetate has been converted into acetic acid. If
HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION 153
sodium hydroxide is added to an acetate-acetic acid buffer, the sodium

hydroxide will react with the acetic acid.
(9) CH3— COOH + NaOH -* CHsCOONa + H2O

This reaction will convert sodium hydroxide, which is a strong base,
into a salt of a weak acid and water. A slight increase in pH will occur,
owing to the hydrolysis of the sodium acetate formed. After most of the
acetic acid has reacted with sodium hydroxide, the addition of more of
the base will result in a rapid increase in the pH value of the solution.
In culturing fungi, it is important to choose buffers which retain the
pH of the medium in the desired range. The effective yH range of buffers
prepared from weak acids and their salts is related to the degree of ion-
ization of the acids. The more highly an acid ionizes, the lower will be
the pH range of a buffer prepared from it and one of its salts. The degree
of ionization of weak acids is designated by a term called the ionization
constant {Kg). Mixtures of weak bases and their salts are also buffers.
A few ionization constants of wêak acids are acetic, 1.8 X 10~^; carbonic
(firsthydrogen), 3.5 X 10"^; phosphoric (first hydrogen), 1.1 X 10"^;
phosphoric (second hydrogen), 7.5 X 10^^. Extensive data of this kind
may be found in various handbooks of chemistry.
The weak acids may be used to calculate the
ionization constants of
effective pH
range of buffers prepared from these compounds and their
salts by means of the following relation:
[salt]
(10) pH = p2v„ + log
[acid]
The symbol p/C is equivalent to log {l/Ka). When the mole concen-
trations of the weak acid and its salt are equal, Eq. (10) becomes:
(11) pH = log -^ = p/Va
The p/va value of a weak acid is thus the pH of a buffer which contains
equivalent quantities of a weak acid and one of its soluble salts. The
pH of an acetate buffer containing equivalent amounts of acetic acid and
an acetate may be calculated using Eq. (11).
(12) pH = log = log 1 + log 105 - log 1.8 = 4.74

^ g ^ ^Q_,
In an analogous manner it can be shown that the pH of a buffer com-

posed of equivalent amounts of a weak base and one of its salts is related
to the ionization constant of the base {Kh) by the following equation:
(13) pH = 14 - log ^= pA^t,
For a derivation of the formulas relating pH and ionization constants

see Umbreit et al. (1945). The useful range of a buffer extends one pH
unit above and below the p/v^ (or p/v^) value. The data in Table 31
giving the pH range of a number of buffer systems of biological interest
were calculated using Eq. (11) and (13). The information in Table 31 is
useful in selecting buffers which are active in certain pH ranges. Direc-
tions for preparing buffer solutions of definite pH are given by Gortner
(1949). In practice, media are diluted with these buffers (Lindeberg,
1944).
Table 31. The Useful pH Range of a Number of Buffer Systems of Biological

Interest Calculated by the Use of Eqs. (11) and (13)
Acid or base
H YDROGEN-ION CONCENT RA TION loo
If a medium contains several buffer systems, as is frequently the case,

each buffer system will play pH range in which it is active
its role over the
alone. If two buffers with overlapping pH ranges are present, it will
require more acid or alkali to effect a change of unit pH than if one buffer
were present. The effect of buffer concentration has not been considered
in the above discussion. ^Vhile the pH of a buffer depends solely upon
the ratio of the concentrations of the weak acid and its salt, it isobvious
that the amount of an acid or base required to change the pH value of a
7.0
Ia.
6.0
5.0
^4.0
I
cultures are agitated. See Foster (1949) for a discussion of the use of
calcium carbonate in industrial microbiological processes.
For fungi which have an extremely narrow pH range, the special cul-
ture flask devised by Cantino (1949) for culturing Blastodadia pring-
sheimii may be used (Fig. 22). A base (or acid) is placed in the side arm
and an internal indicator of the desired pH
range is added to the medium. A little of the
base is tipped into the culture flask as desired.
Flasks with two side arms may be used so that
either acid or base maybe added to the culture
medium.
METHODS OF DETERMINING pH VALUES

Only two general methods of measuring pH
values will be discussed. The colorimetric
method is simple, inexpensive, and sufficiently
accurate for most purposes, but cannot be it
Fig. 22. Flask designed for used with highly colored or turbid media.
the study of glucose dis-
similation by Blastodadia.
The potentiometric method using the glass
A, the side arm containing electrode is more accurate and is often the
NaOH for neutralization; preferred method.
B, sintered-glass aerator; C,
methods. The use of indi-
Colorimetric
inlet for aeration with differ-
ent gas mixtures; D, the cators change color in response to
w^hich
outlet for removal of media.varying concentrations of hydrogen ion is
(Courtesy of Cantino, Am.
the basis of this method. Indicators may
Jour. Botany 36 100, 1949.)
:
be considered as weak acids or bases, and as

such they act as buffers, but the amounts used are so small they do not
affect the accuracy of a determination. For methods of measuring the
pH of unbuffered solutions see Snell and Snell (1948). The property of
these indicator buffers which distinguishes them from other buffers is
that the colors of the salts and free acids or bases (nondissociated) are
different. Within the usable pH range, the color of the indicator is a
function of the hydrogen-ion concentration of the medium. For exam-
ple, bromocresol purple (p/va, 6.3) is yellow in solutions having pH values
of 5.2 or less and purple at pH Within the pH range 5.2
6.8 or more.
to 6.8 the color changes from yellow to purple. To determine the pH
value of an unknown solution within this range, the indicator is added to
equal amounts of standard buffers and the unknown solution, and from
the color of the standard buffers of known pH, the pH value of the
unknown may be estimated to within 0.1 pH unit. By a suitable choice
of indicators the pH range of interest may be covered. A few indicators
with their pH ranges are listed in Table 32.
Two methods of color comparison are in general use. The first involves
.. .
HYDROGEN -ION CONCENTRATION 157
the use of the familiar comparator block. A slight color or turbidity
of the medium may be compensated by the use of suitable blanks. A

for
porcelain spot plate may be used instead of a comparator block with
considerable saving of time and materials, although the accuracy is some-
what less. Drops of the indicator are added to the depressions in the
spot plate. A drop of the medium is added to one depression, and drops
of standard buffers to the other depressions. The pH of the medium
is estimated from the pH of the buffer which yields a color matching that
developed in the medium.
Table 32. The pH Range and Color Changes of Various Indicators

(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Company.)
Indicator pH range Color change
Bromophenol blue 3.0-4.7 Yellow-blue

Bromocresol green. 3.8-5.4 Yellow-blue
Chloro phenol red .
4.8-6.8 Yellow-red
Bromocresol purple 5.2-6.8 Yellow-purple
Bromothymol blue 6.0-7.6 Yellow-blue
Phenol red 6.8-8.4 Yellow-red
All colorimetric measuring pH require the use of standard

methods of
buffers (buffers of or permanent standards.
known pH) Buffers may be
prepared in the laboratory or purchased from laboratory supply houses.
It is convenient to use prepared buffer tablets, which need only to be
dissolved in a measured amount of water before use. Potentiometric
pH meters also require the use of a standard buffer for calibration.
The easiest of these to prepare is a saturated solution of potassium hydro-
gen tartrate (pH 3.57). The use of this buffer was recommended by
Lingane (1947). It is simple to prepare, and temperature affects the pH
very little.
From Table 32 it will be noted that the pH range of a single indicator
is less than two pH units. Much time can be saved in pH determinations
by the use of a wide-range indicator to determine the approximate pH
before using a single indicator for the final measurement. Wide-range
indicators (pH range 2 to 10) may be purchased or prepared by mixing
suitable indicators (Snell and Snell, 1948). The pH value of a medium
may easily be determined within 0.5 pH unit by the use of a wide-range
indicator. Either the comparator block or the spot-plate method may
be used. For detailed information about indicators, see Kolthoff and
Rosenblum (1937).
Potentiometric methods. The potential difference which develops
between certain pairs of electrodes when they are dipped into a solution
is a function of the hydrogen-ion concentration. Solutions which give
rise tothe same potential difference have the same pH value. Modern
pH meters are calibrated in pH units so that direct readings are obtained.
Color or turbidity does not affect potentiometric measurement of pH.
The glass electrode in conjunction with the calomel half cell is the most
commonly used for liquids of biological interest. The glass electrode
consists of a bulb blown from a special glass. The bulb is filled with
O.IA'^ hydrochloric acid.A potential difference develops between the
inside and the outside of the electrode; the magnitude of this potential
difference depends upon the hydrogen-ion concentration of the liquid
in which the bulb is dipped. Measuring the potential difference which
develops between the glass electrode and the calomel half cell is equivalent
to determining the pH value of the unknown solution. Sensitive auxiliary
electrical equipment is required to measure this potential difference.
For a discussion of the glass electrode, see Dole (1941).
Many suitable pH meters are available. The trend appears to be
toward instruments which use alternating current rather than batteries
as a source of power. Since the details of operation are somewhat dif-
ferent for the various makes, the directions of the manufacturer should
be consulted.
The pH of media should be determined before autoclaving and the
reaction adjusted by the addition of acid or alkali if necessary. The pH
of a sample of a medium should also be determined after autoclaving and
before inoculation. The pH value at this time is known as the initial
pH. Alkaline media absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, causing
a slow decrease in pH, Pritham and Anderson (1937) reported that the
pH of uninoculated alkaline media may decrease as much as two units
during the course of an experiment. This factor is of particular impor-
tance when upper pH limits are being investigated. For methods of
adjusting pH, see Suggested Laboratory Exercises.
EFFECTS ON FUNGI
Hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are present in all media and in substrates
upon which fungi grow in nature. The pH of the medium exerts a
decided effect upon the rate and amount of growth and many other life
processes. A medium may have a pH which is favorable for growth and
unfavorable for sporulation or other processes. The production of pig-
ments, vitamins, and antibiotics may be influenced by the pH of the
medium. As a result of metabolic activity a fungus ordinarily changes
the pH of the medium upon which it grows.
pH limits. The upper and lower pH values between which a fungus
grows form the pH range of that species. The pH values which inhibit
growth vary with the species. Between the limiting pH values there is
a pH range which allows optimum growth. An initial pH of 5 to 6 is
satisfactory (not necessarily optimum) for the majority of the fungi.
The optimum pH ranges for Blastocladia pringsheimii, Allomyces arhus-

cula, and narrow (Emerson and Cantino,
Blastocladiella simplex are rather
1948) (see Fig. 23). Most of the pH
optima reported in the literature
are less than 7. Meacham (1918) reported pH 3 to be optimum for
Lenzites saepiaria, Fomes roseus, Merulius lacrymans, and Coniophora
cerebella. Wolpert (1924) found the pH optimum of various Basidio-
mycetes to be in the neighborhood of 5.5. Johnson (1923) reported that
the upper pH limit of Penicillium varidbile is 10.1 to 11.1, which is con-
Blastocladfa Allomyces Blastocladiella
Fig. 23. Relation of pH of the medium to growth of Blastocladia -pringsheimii,

Allomyces arbuscula, and Blastocladiella simplex. (Courtesy of Emerson and Cantino.
Am. Jour. Botany 35: 162, 1948.)
siderably higher than that of most fungi. The lower pH limits reported
vary from 5.3 for B. simplex (Emerson and Cantino, 1948) to 0.5 for
Acontium velatum and an unidentified imperfect fungus (Starkey and
Waksman, 1943).
The method used to determine the pH limits of a fungus is to inoculate
a series of nutrient solutions having pH values spaced 0.2 to 0.4 unit
apart. Growth may be observed visually, or the mycelium may be
weighed. Such media should be well buffered. The pH limits for a
given fungus as determined in different laboratories are frequently at

variance. This is not unexpected, since the composition of the medium
and the nature of the buffer influence the tolerance of fungi to hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions. The behavior of Marasmius graminum is revealing
(Lindeberg, 1944). Calcium ion was effective in overcoming the toxic
effect of an initial pH of 3.3. The weight of M. graminum after 12 days
was 0.4 mg., but when calcium sulfate was added to the medium, the
yield was 8.0 mg. Tamiya (1928) also found calcium ion to protect
some extent against high concentrations of hydrogen
Aspergillus oryzae to
ion. The optimum pH for Gibber ella saubinetti is lower when calcium is
present in the medium (Lundegardh, 1924). Wolpert (1S24) also found
the pH range of many

fungi to vary on different media and concluded
that the widest pH
range was obtained on favorable media.
The temperature of incubation may influence the optimum pH as well
as the pH range of a fungus. The optimum pH for Phacidium infestans
is 4.5 at 5°C., 5.0 at 10°C., 5.5 at 15°C. and 6.0 at 20°C. (Pehrson, 1948).
The pH range of Armillaria mellea on a sucrose-peptone medium was

reported to be 2.5 to 7.5 at 15°C., 2.0 to 7.8 at 25°C., and 2.5 to 7.4 at
35°C. (Wolpert, 1924).
21
180
150
.120
o
.^ 90
o
60
30
to make a trace of growth in an alkaline medium, the carbon dioxide

produced will lower the pH. Organic acids may also be produced. Car-
bon dioxide from the air will be absorbed by alkaline media.
0.08
c
"e
t 0.06
0)
0)
a.
I 0.04
_>i
2
•o
>«
% 0.02
•a
m
a.
ief2 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
between these limits. The effects of pH upon the activity of urease

(Van Slyke, 1942) and upon the rate growth of Neurospora crassa
of
(Ryan et al., 1943) are shown in Figs. 25 and 2G. From the general
similarity of these two curves it appears probable that pH affects the rate
of growth of fungi, at least in part, by modifying the rate of certain
enzymatic reactions.
pH changes in media during growth. Fungi, as a result of their
metabolic activities, ordinarily change the pH of the media in which
they grow. These changes cannot be studied by making a single deter-
8.0r
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
Doys of incubation
Fig. 27. Changes in pH during incubation of Sordaria fimicola in different volumes of

liquid glucose-casein hydrolysate medium at 25°C.
mination of pH at any fixed time. Just as it is necessary to study growth

as a function of time of incubation (growth curve), it is necessary to deter-
mine the pH changes in an inoculated medium day after day to obtain a
complete representation of these changes (pH curve). The pH of the
medium should be followed in connection with the other functions being
studied. Since fungi differ in their metabolic activity and rate of growth,
the pH changes produced in the culture medium will differ. The pat-
terns of pH changes for the same fungus will depend upon the composition
and concentration of the media used.
As an illustration of the effect of the composition of the medium upon
the pH changes, some of our data for Sordaria fimicola are given in Fig.
24. The correlation of the pH changes with the rate and amount of
growth of this fungus may be obtained by comparing the growth curves
obtained at the same time. From Fig. 27 it is evident that the hydrogen-
ion concentration of a nutrient solution may change 10,000-fold during a

few days as a result of the metabolic activities of a fungus. These
changes in pH are due to changes in the relative amounts of acids and
bases formed or withdrawn and to the ionization constants of these
compounds. Some of the metabolic processes which result in a change in
pH of a nutrient solution are discussed below.
utilization of cations, such as ammonium ion, for the synthesis of
The
protoplasm or for any other purpose whereby essentially non-ionic com-
pounds are formed, leaves an equivalent number of anions in the nutrient
solution. Since solutions are electrically neutral, an equivalent number
of both cations and anions must be present. Thus, when an equivalent
of ammonium ion is transformed into non-ionic compounds, an equivalent
of some other cation or cations will be formed in the nutrient solution.
These ''new" cations are usually hydrogen ions, which are formed from
water. If it is assumed that both cations and anions are adsorbed on
the protoplasmic membrane, the process may be thought of as replace-
ment. The production of acid would result from the utilization of other
cations as well.
The utilization of nitrate ion or other anion such as phosphate or
sulfate for the formation of non-ionized compounds has the effect of
increasing the hydroxyl-ion concentration of the medium. We may
assume the same type of mechanism as before, except that the anion
released to the nutrient solution is the hydroxyl ion.
Fungi produce acids from nonacidic nutrients such as carbohydrates.
Among these acids are carbon dioxide and various organic acids such as
pyruvic, citric, and succinic acids. Carbon dioxide combines with water
to form carbonic acid, which is unstable in the presence of stronger acids
and decomposes to set free carbon dioxide. Under alkaline conditions
carbonic acid reacts with bases to form bicarbonates. Pyruvic acid
accumulates in the nutrient solution in which many fungi are grown, and
in some instances the formation of this acid accounts for a considerable
part of the early depression of pH. The eventual utilization of pyruvic
acid causes the pH of the nutrient solution to rise. Other metabolizable
acids behave similarly. Ammonia is, perhaps, the most common basic
substance produced by fungi. Piricularia oryzae produces ammonia in
considerable amounts (Henry and Andersen, 1948). The production of
ammonia results from the deamination of amino acids and proteins. The
processes discussed above may occur simultaneously. Whether a culture
solution becomes more acid depends upon the extent of these
or alkaline
various processes. In general, the processes which produce acid pre-
dominate during early growth, especially when ammonium nitrogen is
used.
The importance of the composition of the medium in determining what
changes in pH will take place during growth is illustrated by the work of

Dimond and Peltier (1945), who studied the pH changes produced by
Penicillium notatum as a function of the carbon and nitrogen nutrition.
When the initial pH was 6.0 and sodium nitrate was the nitrogen source,
the lowest pH values attained on different sugars were glucose, 5.1;
sucrose, 4.0; lactose, 3.2; maltose, 4.8; and These were
galactose, 4.8.
the lowest pH values attained under these conditions.
In another experi-
ment a mixture of tryptophane, asparagine, and cystine wâs used as the
nitrogen source. The pH again varied with the sugar used in the medium
The lowest pH attained with fructose was 5.3; glucose 3.5; sucrose, 4.0;
and an equimolecular amount of fructose and glucose, 3.5. When lactose
wâs used in combination with these amino acids, the pH of the culture
medium remained essentially constant at 7.0
Any changes in environmental factors which affect the rate of growth
of a fungus may also affect the changes in pH of the culture medium.
Robbins and Schmitt (1945) found that the time required for Phycomyces
blakesleeanus to lower the pH of a glucose-asparagine medium to a given
level was a function of temperature of incubation. Growth and the
production of acid were more rapid at 26°C than at 20°C. The rate at
which the pH of a culture medium is changed by a fungus is also depend-
ent upon the volume of medium used in flasks of the same size. Some of
our data which illustrate this for Sordaria fimicola are shown in Fig. 27.
The time required for these cultures to attain maximum weight and to
produce perithecia correlated with the changes in pH.
Effect of acidity on media. The composition of a medium may be
changed as a result of changing the pH. The various cations and anions
may combine to form insoluble compounds at certain pH values. Mag-
nesium and phosphate ions are compatible in acidic solutions, but as the
concentration of hydrogen ion is decreased, these ions combine to form
an insoluble compound, the solubility of which becomes less as the pH is
increased. Calcium phosphate is likewise less soluble in alakline solu-
tions. Ferric iron may be largely removed from media as either the
hydroxide or the phosphate, by making the media alkaline. If an alkaline
medium is filtered, removed to a greater or
certain constituents will be
lesser extent. Lilly and Leonian (1945) found that by making a medium
alkaline to pH
8 and filtering, the iron concentration wâs lowered to such
levels thatRhizohium trifolii made about one-fifth as much growth as
when 250 jug of iron per liter was added to the medium. If a precipitate
is not removed by filtration, the situation is different. Any insoluble
precipitate is in equilibrium with the dissolved compound, as indicated
below.
FeP04 ^ FeP04 ^ Fe+ + + + PO4"
solid in solution ionized
HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION 1C5
As the more and more of the precipitate will dissolve.

ions are utilized,
The change in pH of the solution as a result of the metabolic
effect of a
activities of the fungus must be considered. An acid reaction will hasten
solution of the precipitate, while an increase in alkalinity will delay the
process. It is possible that the harmful effects sometimes noted in
alkaline media may be due, in part, to an induced iron deficiency.
The influence of pH on the solubility of certain ions may be modified
by the presence of other compounds, especially those which form com-
plexes. The solubility of iron in alkaline solutions is greatly increased in
the presence of hydroxy organic acids such as citric, tartaric, and malic
acids. Ammonia and amino acids also form complexes with certain ions,
e.g., copper. The presence of any complex-forming compound may
modify the availability of the ions with which it forms complexes. The
chemical changes in media due to alteration of pH, whether imposed
from the outside or caused by the fungus, affect metabolic processes.
The pH of a culture medium changes during the growth of a fungus, and
these changes may affect the composition of the medium and thus the
response of the fungus.
pH and oxygen supply. The solubility of oxygen in water is slight,
being than 10 mg. per liter at 20°C. The rate of diffusion of oxygen
less
into media is dependent upon the composition and the pH. Rahn and
Richardson (1941) have described a simple and elegant method of measur-
ing the rate of diffusion of oxygen into agar media. Methylene blue, an
organic dye which is colorless when reduced and blue when oxidized, wâs
used as an indicator. When this dye (1/200,000) is autoclaved with
media which contain easily oxidized constituents such as glucose, the dye
is reduced to the leuco, or colorless, form. As oxygen diffuses into the
medium, the reduced dye is oxidized, and the rate at which the blue zone
advances into the medium is a measure of the rate of oxygen diffusion.
The pH medium also affects the ease with which certain constitu-
of the
ents are oxidized. Some data of Rahn and Richardson (1941) on the rate
of oxygen diffusion into a peptone medium are shown in Fig. 28. The
amount of oxygen available to submerged mycelium is greater in acidic
than in alkaline media.
Effect of pH on utilization of nutrients. Before any substance (ion
or molecule) is utilized, it must first pass through the cell wall and the
protoplasmic membrane. The cell wallnonliving and consists of
is
polysaccharide-like compounds. For a discussion of the nature of the

cell wall and literature citations, see Brian (1949). The protoplasmic
membrane appears to be composed of proteins and lipoid-protein com-
plexes. Proteins are colloidal amphoteric compounds. An amphoteric
compound possesses both acidic and basic properties and may form salts
with either acids or bases. The protoplasmic membrane has acidic
properties due to carboxyl and sulfhydryl groups and basic properties by

virtue of having amino and other basic groups. The protophismic mem-
brane, therefore, should form salt-hke compounds with both cations and
anions.
Bacteria are considered by McCalla (1940) to act as ion-exchange sub-
stances,and fungus spores have been shown to act in the same manner.
McCalla investigated ion replacement by saturating cells of Escherichia
60
Time in hours
Fig. 28. The effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on the rate of diffusion of oxygen
into 1 per cent peptone in phosphate buffer. Leucomethylcne bkie was used as an
indicator. The rate of penetration of oxygen with time was followed by measuring the
depth of the blue zone. (Drawn from the data of Rahn and Richardson, Jour. Bad.
41 240, 1941. By permission of The Williams & Wilkins Company.)
:
coli with magnesium ion and tested the replacing effects of other cations.
Sodium and potassium ions replaced only a little magnesium, while hydro-
gen and calcium ions were much more effective.
From this viewpoint the relative amounts of the various cations
adsorbed from a medium would be a function of the concentration of the
ions present and the relative affinity of the membrane proteins for the
different cations. The concentrations of the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions
in a culture medium change during growth and may act to regulate the
adsorption of other ions. The pH of the culture medium may alter the
relative adsorption of other ions which are essential to nutrition or which
are toxic. At the lower pH membrane may be so
limit the protoplasmic
thoroughly saturated with hydrogen ions that the essential cations are
unable to enter the cell in adequate amounts. The same situation would
HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION 1G7
exist at the limiting alkaline pH values, except that it is the adsorption of

essential anions which would be hindered by hydroxyl ions.
A satisfactory explanation of all the phenomena involved in cell perme-
ability is lacking. It is known that
the external pll affects the absorption
of various compounds, particularly those which ionize. The mycelium
of Aspergillus niger takes up acid dyes, such as light green and methyl
orange, when the external pH is 3.1 or less. Basic dyes such as methylene
blue and neutral red are absorbed only when the external pH is greater
than 3.1 (Biinning, 193G). These dyes escaped from the cells only when
the external pH was in the same range in which these dyes were absorbed.
Wyss ct al. (1944) found the utilization of p-aminobenzoic acid by a
deficient mutant of Neurospora crassa to be greatly increased in acidic
media. The ionization constant of p-aminobenzoic acid is about
2 X 10'"'' {pKa, about 4.8). Therefore, at pH 3.8 about 90 per cent of
the metabolite would exist in the form of the free acid, and at pH 5.8 only
10 per cent would be in this form. It was found that about eight times
as much of this vitamin was required at pH 6.0 as at pH 4.0 to support the
same amount of growth (see Fig. 41). On theoretical grounds, it is
probable that the pH of the medium would affect the utilization of other
vitamins which are weak acids (biotin, pantothenic and nicotinic acids).
The external pH of the medium has been shown to affect the internal
pH of fungus cells. By changing the external pH and by using indica-
tors, Biinning (1936) found the internal pH of Aspergillus niger cells could
be changed between 4.2 and 5.0 without injuring the cells. Greater
changes in internal pH were possible, but injury and death ensued.
Armstrong (1929) crushed the fruit bodies of a number of fleshy fungi
and measured the pH of the expressed juice. The pH range of these
liquids was 5.9 to 6.2. At best these are but average values.
It is well known that the external pH may affect certain processes
within the fungus For example, growth of Sordaria fimicola in
cells.
glucose-casein hydrolysate medium was slow when the initial pH of the

medium was 4.0, but when the initial pH of the medium was 3.6 to 3.8,
normal development did not occur (Lilly and Barnett, 1947). This
failure to grow was traced to a thiamine deficiency, for when thiamine
was added to the medium (initial pH 3.6 to 3.8), normal growth and
perithecial formation took place. It appears possible that the low exter-
nal pH may have lowered the internal pH to such an extent that the
synthesis of thiamine was prevented (this fungus is self-sufficient for
thiamine when the pH of the medium is 4 or greater). These effects are
shown in Figs. 38 and 40. Additional evidence indicated that these
conclusions are correct, for pyruvic acid accumulated in the culture
medium when the initial pH was 3.6 to 3.8. On the addition of thiamine
this acid disappeared from the culture medium.
:
SUMMARY
All aqueous solutions contain hj^drogen and hydroxyl ions. Hydrogen-
ion concentration is most often expressed in terms of S0rensen's scale of
pH. The pH scale is logarithmic. Acidity and alkalinity are expressed

on the same scale. A pH of 7 indicates equivalent concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Values of less than 7 indicate acidity, and
pH values greater than 7 indicate alkalinity. The smaller the pH values,
the greater the concentration of hydrogen ions.
Buffers are substances which tend to maintain the pH of a solution
constant when either strong acid or strong alkali is added or when the
solution is Mixtures of weak acids or bases and
diluted with water.
their soluble salts, and amphoteric compounds such as amino acids and
proteins act as buffers. The pH range over which a given buffer is effec-
tive is a function of the ionization constant of the weak acid (Ka) or base
(Kb) from which the buffer is made. The effective pH range of a simple
buffer is two pH units.
The upper and lower pH values between which a fungus is able to grow
is called the pH range. The pH ranges of various species are different.
Fungi generally tolerate more acid than alkali. The optimum pH range
may be different for growth and sporulation. The pH of a medium in
which a fungus is growing may change. High buffer concentration and
limited growth may keep the changes in pH at a minimum. To follow
the changes in pH of a culture medium, frequent determinations should
be made.
Four metabolic processes operate to change the pH of a culture medium
(1) utilization of cations, (2) utilization of anions, (3) formation of acids
from neutral metabolites (especially carbohydrates), and (4) formation
of bases (especially ammonia) from amino acids and proteins. The net
change in pH is the result of the interaction of all of these processes,
REFERENCES
Armstrong, Hydrogen-ion phenomena in plants. Hydrion concentration and
J. I.:
buffers in the fungi, Protoplasma 8: 222-260, 1929.
Brian, P. W.: Studies on the biological activity of griseofulvin, Ann. Botany (N.S.)
13:59-77, 1949.
BiJNNiNG, E, Ueber Farbstoff- und Nitrataufnahme bei Aspergillus niger, Flora
:
131:87-112, 1930.
Canting, E. C: The physiology of the aquatic Phycomycete, Blastocladia Pring-
sheimii, with emphasis on its nutrition and metabolism, Am. Jour. Botany 36:
95-112, 1949.
*DiMOND, A. E., and G. L. Peltier: ControUing the pH of cultures of PenicilUum
notatum through its carbon and nitrogen nutrition. Am. Jour. Botany 32 46-50,
:
1945.
Dole, M.: The Glass Electrode. Methods, Applications, and Theory, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1941.
HYDRUUEN-ION CONCENTRATION 169
Êmerson, R., and E. C. Canting: The isolation, growth, and metabohsm of Blasto-
cladia in pure culture. Am.Jour. Botany 35: 157-171, 1948.
GoRTNER, R. A.: Outhnes of Biochemistry, 3d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New-
York, 1949.
Haldane, J. B. S.r Enzymes, Longmans, Roberts and Green, London, 1930.
Henry, B. W., and A. L. Andersen: Sporulation by Piricularia oryzae, Phytopathol-
ogy 38: 265-278, 1948.
Johnson, H. W.: Some relationships between hydrogen ion, hydroxyl ion and salt
concentration and the growth of seven soil molds, loiva State Coll. Ayr. Mech,
Arts Research Bull. 76, 1923.
KoLTHOFF, I. M., and C. Rosenblum: Acid-base Indicators, The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York, 1937.

*LiLLY, V. G., and 11. L. Barxett: The influence of pH and certain growth factors
on mycelial growth and perithecial formation by Sordaria fimicola, Am. Jour.
Botany 34: 131-138, 1947.
Lilly, V G., and L. LI. Leonian: The interrelationship of iron and certain accessory
factors in the growth of Rhizobium trifolii strain 205, Jour. Bad. 50: 383-395,
1945.
Lindeberg, G.: Ueber die Physiologie Ligninabbauender Bodenhymenomyzeten,
Symbolae Botan. Upsalienses 8(2): 1-183, 1944.
LiNGANE, J. J. Saturated potassium hydrogen tartrate solutions as a pH standard.
:
Anal. Chem. 19: 810-811, 1947.

LuNDEGARDH, H. Dcr Einfluss der WasserstofRonenkonzentration in Gegenwart
:
von Salzen auf das Wachstum von Gibherella Saubinetti, Biochem. Zeit. 146:
564-572, 1924.
McCalla, T. M.: Cation adsorption by bacteria. Jour. Bad. 40: 23-32, 1940.
Mathur, R. S., II. L. Barnett, and V. G. Lilly: Sporulation of Colletotrichum
Imdemuthianum in cultvire. Phytopathology 40: 104-114, 1950.
Meacham, M. R.: Note upon the hydrogen ion concentration necessary to inhibit
the growth of four wood-destroying fungi, Science 48: 499-500, 1918.
Pehrson, S. O.: Studies on the growth physiology of Phacidium infestans Karst.,
Physiologia Plantar um 1: 38-56, 1948.
Pritham, G. H., and A. K. Anderson: The carbon metabolism of Fusarium lyco-
persici on glucose, Jour. Agr. Research 55 : 937-949, 1937.
Rahn, O., and G. L. Richardson: Oxygen demand and oxygen supply. Jour. Bad.
41: 225-249, 1941.
RoBBixs, W. J.: Isoelectric points for the mycelium of fungi, Jour. Gen. Physiol.
6: 259-271, 1924.
*RoBBiNS, W. J., and M. B. Schmitt: Factor Z2 and gametic reproduction by Phy-
comyces, Am. Jour. Botany 32 320-326, 1945.
:
Ryan, J. F., G. W. Beadle, and E. L. Tatum: The tube method of measuring the
growth rate of Neurospora, Am. Jour. Botany 30 784-799, 1943.
:
*Scott, I. T.: The influence of hydrogen-ion concentration on the growth of Fusarium

lycopersici and on tomato wilt, Missouri Coll. Agr. Research Bull. 64, 1924.
Snell, F. D., and C. T. Snell: Colorimetric INIethods of Analysis, 3d ed., D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1948.
Starkey, R. L., and S. A. Waksman: Fuiigi tolerant to extreme acidity and high
concentrations of copper sulfate, Jour. Bud. 4C 509-519, 1943.
:
Tamiya, H.: Studi^n liber die Stoffwechseiphysiologie von Aspergillus oryzae. II.
Acta Phyiochim. {Japan) 4: 77-213, 1928.
Umbreit, W. W., R. IL Burris, and -J. F. Staufjês? Manomptrjc Techniques and
Related Methods for the Study of Tissue

MetaboUsm, Burgess Publishing Co,
Minneapolis, 1945. , . , ..1 j
and their bearmg on methods
,
Van Slyke, D. D.: The kinetics of hydrolytic enzymes

of measuring enzyme activity,
Advances in Enzymol. 2 33-47, 1942.
:
XVII. The growth of

WoLPERT F. S.: Studies in the physiology of the fungi.
fungi in relation to the H-ion concentration of the
certain wood-destroying
43-97, 1924.
media, Ann. Missouri Botan. Garden 11:
effect of pH on the availability of
Wyss, O., V. G. Lilly, and L. H. Leonian: The
Science, 99 18-19, 1944.
p-am'inobenzoic acid to Neurospora crassa, :
CHAPTER 9
VITAMINS AND GROWTH FACTORS

normal growth and development, animals and
It is kno^\^l that, for
man require in their diet minuteamounts of certain organic compounds,
in addition to those which yield energy or are used for structural purposes.
Similarly, certain fungi must obtain from the substrate some of the same
substances for growth, reproduction, and other vital functions. Other
fungi are able to synthesize these compounds, which are called groivth
factors, or vitamins. Both terms have often been applied to the same
compounds, although the terms are not always synonymous. Originally,
the term vitamin was applied to the accessory factors in animal nutrition,
and some workers would restrict its use to animals and man. The term
growth factor has a somewhat broader connotation than vitamin. It
includes the components and derivatives of some vitamins, as well as
other compounds which cannot be classified otherwise at present. The
chemical names of the vitamins also may be used.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
A number of vitamins, such as thiamine and biotin, have been shown
to perform definite functions in fungi as well as in animals, and there is
no reason to assume that the fundamental functions in the two groups
of organisms are essentially different. The characteristic features of a
growth factor (vitamin) include the following: (1) its organic nature; (2)
its activity in minute quantities; (3) its catalytic action;
(4) the specificity
of its action. It is known that some vitamins are components of enzyme
systems, and it may be assumed that all act in this way.
In the fungi the relative effects of the presence of vitamins in the
medium usually are measured by the resultant vegetative growth,
although vitamins are known to affect reproduction and other processes.
Needless to say, studies of vitamin deficiencies must be carried out under
carefully controlled conditions, using clean glassware, purified chemicals,
and precaution against contamination. Despite all precautions possible,
variable results often occur, and tests may need to be repeated several
times before the vitamin deficiencies of some fungi can be definitely
determined.
SYNTHESIS OF VITAMINS BY FUNGI
Many fungi are able to grow and develop normally on a substrate con-
taining no vitamins. For example, Aspergilhis niger grows well on a
171
medium composed of pure chemicals (glucose, asparagine, salts,

synthetic
and micro elements). Phycomyces hlakesleeaniis makes no growth on
this medium unless thiamine is added. We may conclude that A. niger
either does not need thiamine in its metabolism or iscapable of synthesiz-
ing from the compounds of the medium all vitamins in sufficient quantities
to meet its needs. The growth of P. blakesleeanus on the culture filtrate
of A. niger is proof that thiamine is synthesized by the latter species.
Thus, A. niger may be called a self-sufficient fungus with respect to

vitamins. Schopfer (1943) has applied the term autotrophic with respect
to vitamins to this group of organisms. The detection of self-sufficient
fungi in the laboratory is dependent upon their ability to grow on vitamin-
free synthetic media containing suitable sources of carbon and nitrogen.
A discussion of the economic importance of certain vitamins as metabolic
products of fungi is given in Chap. 13.
Some fungi which have been reported to be self-sufficient with respect
to vitamins are listed below:
Aspergillus (most species tested) H. victoriae

Basisporium gallarum Monascus purpurea
Botrytis allii Monilinia fructicola (some isolates)
Cercospora apii Neocosmopara vasinfecta
C. beticola Penicillium (most species tested)
Chaetomium globosum Phoma betae
Cordyceps militaris Rhizopus nigricans
Daldinia concentrica Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Fusarium (most species tested) Septoria nodorum
Glomerella cingulata Sphaeropsis malorum
Helminthosporium gramineum Ustilago striiformis
Growth curves of Chaetomium globosum are presented in Fig. 29, as an

example of a self-sufficient fungus. It is evident that good mycelial
growth was made in the vitamin-free medium and that the addition of
four vitamins caused no significant increase in the rate of growth at any
time.
VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES IN FUNGI
As pointed out above, some fungi do not grow on synthetic media
composed of pure chemicals, because they are unable to synthesize certain
vitamins. These fungi have been called variously vitamin-deficient,
vitaminless, or heterotrophic with respect to one or more specific vitamins.
We prefer to use the term vitamin-deficient, following Robbins and
Kavanagh (1942). Vitamin deficiencies among the fungi have been
detected only for certain members of the water-soluble B-complex group.
The most common vitamins involved are thiamine, biotin, inositol,
pyridoxine, nicotinic acid, and pantothenic acid. Vitamin deficiencies
can be detected accurately only on synthetic media which, other than
VITAMINS 173
O
174 I'HYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
vitamins, meet the requirements for normal growth and development

all
of the fungus under study. The effect of one deficient fungus on another
is shown in Fig. 30.
Methods of detecting vitamin deficiencies.Tests for vitamin deficiencies
of fungi are not difficult to perform, but they do require clean glassware
and careful preparation of media. It is convenient to conduct pre-
liminary experiments using only the four vitamins (thiamine, biotin,
inositol,pyridoxine) for which fungi are most frequently deficient. A

greater number of vitamins may be included in subsequent tests if a
fungus does not grow well on any of the media first used. Either agar
or liquid media may be used, and the visual measure of growth is satis-
factory for the screening tests. A simple and convenient method for
preliminary tests for deficiencies in filamentous fungi isolated from nature
is by the use of agar media in test tubes, as shown in Fig. 31. Slight
growth on agar media without added vitamins may be due to impurities

in the medium. A high percentage of the deficiencies will be detected
by this method, since deficiencies for only one or two vitamins are com-
mon among the filamentous fungi. After the deficiencies have been
identified by preliminary experiments, it is then highly desirable to grow
a fungus in liquid media, so that the mycelium may be harvested and
dry weights determined (see Suggested Laboratory Exercises for direc-
tions). The casein hydrolysate-glucose medium, given in Chap. 10, has
proved quite satisfactory for accurate vitamin studies. From the dry
weights of cultures determined at intervals throughout the growth period
of a fungus, growth curves may be plotted. Such curves are necessary
for accurate interpretations of the effects of vitamins in the medium.
A somewhat different used by Burkholder (1943) for defi-
method is
ciency studies of yeasts, where deficiencies for more than two vitamins
are common. This method is illustrated in Fig. 32. A deficiency is

detected by the inability to grow in a medium which is complete except
for one vitamin. Failure to grow in a medium indicates a deficiency for
the vitamin omitted. Liquid media in test tubes are used for yeasts,
so that growth may be measured by photoelectric colorimeter.
Total and partial deficiencies. Phycomyces hlakesleeanus was widely
used in the early studies of thiamine. Schopfer established the deficiency
for thiamine and determined the requirements for this vitamin. Schopfer's
graph (Fig. 33) shows the growth curves of the fungus over a period when
different amounts thiamine were added to the basal culture medium
of
(Schopfer, 1943). fact that no growth occurred in the medium
The
lacking thiamine is not shown by the graph. An increase in both the
rate and the total amount of growth, as the amount of thiamine is
increased, is clearly shown between the fifth and seventh days. Thus
P. hlakeslseanus is unable to synthesize thiamine, which it must obtain
VITAMINS 175
A B C D E
Fig. 31. Method of detecting common vitamin deficiencies of filamentous fungi.
Deficiencies are evident by failure to grow on media lacking the necessary vitamin or
vitamins. The above media contained: A, no vitamins; B, thiamine; C, bio tin; D,
thiamine and biotin; E, thiamine, biotin, inositol, and pyridoxine. The fungi, from
top to bottom, are Ceratostomella fimbriata, Sordaria fimicola, Pleurage curvicolla, and
C. ulmi.
1
Fig. 32. Method

of detecting multiple vitamin deficiencies of yeasts. Failure to
grow absence of a particular vitamin indicates a deficiency if the culture grew in
in the
a medium supplied with a combination of vitamins. Growth of a strain of Saccharo-
myces cerevisiae (above) and Mycoderma valida (below) after 5 days at 25°C. From
left to right the vitamin supplements were: Tube 1, none; 2, less thiamine; 3, less
pantothenic acid; 4, less pyridoxine; 5," less inositol; 6, less bio tin; 7, less nicotinic
acid ; 8, all six vitamins.
VITAMINS 177
from its substrate. Figure 33 emphasizes two important features which

must be considered in vitamin studies: (1) the effects of different amounts
of the vitamin in the medium, and (2) the response of the fungus over a
period of time sufficiently long to allow maximum growth. The three-
dimensional graph permits one to plot dry weight against both variables.
The failure of a fungus to make an appreciable amount of growth even
after an extended period of incubation on a medium essentially free of a
Asparagine 0.1 %
Mg.
^90
r, 9 ^
Fig. 33. Three-dimensional graph showing growth of Phycomyces blakesleeanus on a,

synthetic medium as a function of thiamine concentration and time. (Courtesy of
Schopfer, Protoplasma 28: 383, 1937; also from the book "Plants and Vitamins,"
p. 102, 1943. PubUshed by permission of Chronica Botanica Co.)
particular vitamin, like the case illustrated by P. hlakesleeanus and

thiamine, indicates that the deficiency is total; i.e., the synthesis of that
vitamin is zero. Vitamin deficiencies of many fungi are only partial, as
shown by a slower rate of growth in a vitamin-free medium than in the
presence of added vitamins. The degree of partial deficiency may vary
M^dely, from slight to nearly total. Partial deficiencies may be easily
overlooked by terminating an experiment too soon. An incubation
period of 1 or 2 months is often required to distinguish between partial
and total deficiencies of some fungi.
An example of partial thiamine deficiency is illustrated by Lenzites
trabea (Fig. 34). In a medium containing thiamine, maximum Aveight
was attained in 20 days, while, in medium lacking thiamine, the fungus

required approximately 40 days to reach the maximum weight. This is
attributed to the slow rate of synthesis of thiamine. Other isolates of
L. trahea showed varying degrees of partial deficiency (Lilly and Barnett,
1948).
Single and multiple deficiencies. The above discussion has dealt with
examples of single deficiencies (for a single vitamin). For example,
Sordaria fimicola is deficient only for biotin (Fig. 31), Lenzites trahea.
EO 30 40
Incubation (days)
Fig. 34. Growth of a haploid isolate of Lenzites trahea and change in pH of liquid
glucose-casein hydrolysate medium at 25°C., with and witliout the addition of
thiamine. These curves illustrate a partial deficiency for thiamine. (After Lilly and
Barnett, Jour. Agr. Research 77: 290, 1948.)
Ceratostomella Hmhriata (Fig. 31), and Phycomyces blakesleeanus for

thiamine only. On the other hand, some fungi have multiple deficiencies
(for two or more vitamins). These may be total or partial. An illustra-
tion of multiple deficiency is furnished by Sclerotinia camelliae (Fig. 35).
Little orno growth occurred on vitamin-free medium or that containing
either thiamine or biotin alone; the fungusgrew well only in media con-
taining both thiamine and biotin. When inositol also was added, growth
was consistently better than in the presence of the two vitamins. This
indicates a partial deficiency for inositol, in addition to the total, or near
total, deficiencies for thiamine and biotin. Pyridoxine, when added to
the other three vitamins, had little or no effect on growth under these
conditions.
Other examples of multiple vitamin deficiencies are common. Pleurage
curvicolla (Fig. 31), Chaetomium convolutum, Coemansia interrupta, and
VITAMINS 179
400
10 12 14 16
Days of incubation
Fig. 35. Growth of Sclerotinia camelliae in 25 ml. of liquid glucose-casein hydrolysate

medium at 25°C. Note the nearly total deficiency for biotin and the partial deficiency
for inositol. Failure to grow in thiamine alone and in the absence of vitamins indicates
total deficiency for thiamine.
6 12 18 24
Days of incubation
Fig. 36. Growth of Lambertella pruni in 25 ml. of liquid glucose-casein hydrolysate
medium containing various vitamins. Partial deficiencies for both thiamine and
biotin are evident, being greater for thiamine. Note that the addition of inositol
and pyridoxine to media containing thiamine and biotin depressed growth.
Ophiobolus graminis are highly or totally deficient for both thiamine and
biotin. Partial deficiencies for both thiamine and biotin are illustrated
by Lambertella pruni (Fig. 36). Slight growth in the control and excellent
growth only in media containing both thiamine and biotin identify the
deficiencies. Intermediate growth in thiamine alone and in biotin alone
shows that the deficiencies are partial. The synthetic capacity is rela-
tively greater for biotin than for thiamine. The deficiencies of Endothia
parasitica are similar to those of L. pruni. Blastodadia pringsheimii was
30
-^ 20
E
o>
E
^^
4*
.5*
A 10
VITAMINS 181
pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, and biotin. S. ludwigii Y-974 and

Kloeckera brevis were totally or partially deficient for six vitamins (thia-
mine, biotin, inositol, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid, and pantothenic acid).
Growth of all of the 38 yeasts reported by Burkholder (1943) was increased
by the addition of liver extract to the medium containing the seven
vitamins.
The preceding
discussion of the effects of added vitamins on the growth
of fungihas been based on the assumption that near-optimum amounts
of the vitamins were present in the media. However, the optimum
20 28
Days of incubation
Fig. 38. The effect of concentration of biotin on the rate and amount of growth ot
Sordaria fimicola in 25 ml. liquid glucose-casein hydrolysate medium, initial pH 4.4.
Growth in this medium containing biotin but no thiamine is evidence that this fungus
can synthesize thiamine under these conditions. (After Lilly and Barnett, Am. Jour.
Botany 34: 134, 1947.)
amount of a vitamin may vary with changes in other conditions and may
be different for different fungi. We have found that the following
amounts per liter of the four commonly needed vitamins are near optimum
for many filamentous fungi: thiamine, 100 Mg; pyridoxine, 100 jug; biotin,
5 /ig; inositol, 5 mg.
The on the growth of Sordaria fimicola
effects of biotin concentration
are illustrated in Fig. 38, which shows a decided increase in growth rate
with greater amounts of biotin. Growth was most rapid in a medium
containing 6.4 jug biotin per liter (0.16
/zg per flask), but a steady slow
increase in dry weight evident in as low as 0.1 ^g biotin per Hter.

is
Absolute and conditioned deficiencies. According to Robbins and

Kavanagh may be
(1942), the deficiency of a fungus for a specific vitamin
absolute or conditioned. Phycomyces blakesleeanus and Ceratostomella
fimbriata show absolute total deficiencies for thiamine. No environ-

mental condition is known to allow the synthesis of this vitamin by these
fungi. In the case of a conditioned deficiency, the synthesis of the
vitamin may be influenced by certain environmental conditions, such as
temperature, composition, concentration, and pH of the medium.
Pythium hutleri failed to grow in a mineral salts-asparagine medium
containing 16.4 g. of salts per liter unless thiamine was added (Robbins
and Kavanagh, 1938). When the salt concentration was reduced to 1.64
g. per liter, this species grew without the addition of thiamine. A defi-
30 35 40 45
Temperature
Fig. 39. Growth-temperature relations for wild-type Neurospora and a temperature-
sensitive mutant deficient for riboflavin. Amounts of riboflavin are indicated on the
curves in micrograms per 20 ml. of medium. Below 25°C. growth was good without
riboflavin, while no growth occurred above 28°C. without added riboflavin. (Courtesy
of Mitchell and Houlahan. Am. Jour. Botany 33: 31, 1946.)
ciency for riboflavin conditionedby temperature was reported by Mitchell

and Houlahan (1946) for a mutant of Neurospora (Fig. 39). Growth was
poor or none at temperatures above 25°C. unless riboflavin was added.
Below 25°C. the fungus was able to synthesize riboflavin. The partial
deficiency of Sclerotinia camelUae for inositol was influenced by tempera-
ture, particularly in the above-optimum range (Barnett and Lilly, 1948).
Low pH of the medium resulted in partial thiamine deficiency of
Sordaria fimicola, while no deficiency for thiamine was apparent at initial
pH above (Lilly and Barnett, 1947). Within the range of 3.8 to

4.0 or
3.4, growth was quite slow, but the addition of thiamine overcame the
inhibition due to the high acidity (Fig. 40). These results indicate that
pH 3.8 or lower inhibits the synthesis of thiamine by S. fimicola. In a
similar way, the availability of p-aminobenzoic acid to a mutant of
VITAMINS 183
10 14
Days of incubation
Fig. 40. Effect of concentration of thiamine on the rate and amount of growth of
Sordaria fiynicola in 25 ml. Hquid glucose-casein hydrolysate medium, initial pH 3.8.
Compare with Fig. 38. (After Lilly and Barnett, Am. Jour. Botany 34: 134, 1947.)
40
30
T5
O20
10
184 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGJ
Neurospora crassa deficient for this vitamin was found to be influenced

by the pH of the medium (Wyss et al, 1944) (Fig. 41).
The abiHty of a mutant of Neurospora sitophila to synthesize pyridoxine
was shown to be dependent not only on the pH of the medium but also
on the source of nitrogen (Stokes et al., 1943). When nitrate, amino,
amide, or certain other nitrogen compounds served as the nitrogen source,
no growth occurred without the addition of pyridoxine. However, in
the presence of ammonium salts, growth occurred at an initial pH range
of 5.6 to 7.3, without added pyridoxine. In this pH range, free ammonia
is formed. In the absence of free ammonia, the pyridoxine synthesized
is unavailable to this mutant (Strauss, 1951).
According to Fromageot and Tschang (1938), the red yeast, Rhodotorula
sanniei, requires thiamine when the carbon source is glucose, but when
redistilled glycerol replaces glucose, thiamine is not needed. It is inter-
esting to speculate whether this fungus is better able to synthesize thia-
mine in a glycerol medium or whether much less thiamine is required to
metabolize glycerol than glucose.
The concentration of the micro essential elements has also been shown
to influence the synthesis of vitamins by microorganisms (see Chap. 13
for specific information).
INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF VITAMINS

In certain cases vitamins may have an inhibitory effect on growth,
particularly when present in excessive dosages. The interrelated effects
of temperature and amount of inositol were described (Barnett and Lilly,
1948) for Sclerotinia camelliae. At a temperature below 26°C. the partial
deficiency was overcome by adding 5 mg. inositol to the medium. Above
26°C. the fungus was highly sensitive to small changes in temperature
and in amounts of inositol in the medium (Fig. 42). The same amount
of inositolwhich stimulated grow^th at or below 26°C. was strongly inhibi-
tory at 27°C. Increased amounts of inositol caused greater inhibition
of growth. Since the maximum temperature for growth is slightly above
27°C., it is believed that, as the temperature approaches this point, the
fungus becomes highly sensitive to the increased amounts of inositol in
the medium.
Some vitamins are known to have a depressing effect on growth of
certain fungi not deficient for these particular vitamins. For example,
Fig. 36 shows that Lambertella pruni produces more dry weight in the
presence of both thiamine and biotin than when inositol and pyridoxine
are also added to the medium. Similarly, it is reported (Elliott, 1949)
that, for a self-sufficient isolate of Fusarium avenaceum, both the rate of
growth and maximum amount of mycelium were greater in vitamin-free
medium than when vitamins were added. The presence of thiamine also
VITAMINS 185
Fig. 42. The interrelated inhibitory effects of high concentrations of inositol and
near-maximum temperatures on the growth of Sclerotinia camdliae, which is partially
deficient for inositol below 26°C. Cultures 19 days old. Thiamine and biotin were
added to all media. Temperatures ±0.3°C. Left to right: 26°C., 26.6°C., 27°C.
Amounts of inositol added per liter were: A, none; B, 1 mg.; C, 10 mg.; D, 100 mg.
has been reported to depress the growth of several fungi, including

Collctotrichum lindemuthianum (Mathur et al., 1950), Rhizopus suinus
(fechopfer and Guilloud, 1945), and Fusarium lini (Wirth and Nord,
1942). Other cases have been observed in our laboratory. In the case
of Rhizopus suinus, the addition of inositol overcame the inhibitory effects
of thiamine, and we believe it to be effective with certain other fungi.
On the basis of these reports, it would seem unwise to add vitamins
indiscriminately to media used for the study of fungi which are self-
sufficient for these vitamins.
VITAMERS
Certain microorganisms are less specific in their vitamin requirements
than are animals, owing apparently to their greater synthetic ability.
Some vitamin-deficient fungi may respond well to one of the vitamin
moieties, as in the case of thiamine, or to a compound similar to the
vitamin. The term vitamer wâs suggested by Burk et al. (1944) to denote
a compound having vitamin activity but differing in molecular structure
from the true vitamin. Usually the structure of a vitamer is closely
related to that of the vitamin. More specifically, these compounds are
known as thiamine vitamers, biotin vitamers, etc. In general, a vitamer
is active for fewer fungi than is the vitamin. Some vitamers are anti-
vitamins. This topic is discussed in Chap. 11.
UNIDENTIFIED GROWTH FACTORS

It is quite probable that some fungi wdll be discovered which are defi-
cient for vitamins or other growth factors w^hich are at present unknown.
Fungi which fail to grow in synthetic media to which all the known growth
factors have been added offer a challenge and an opportunity to the
investigator. Burkholder and Moyer (1943) reported that Candida
albicans 475 and Mycoderma vini 939 did not grow unless liver extract
was added to glucose-asparagine medium containing six vitamins. One
may speculate that the effect of liver extract was due to some amino acid
or to an undetermined growth factor, possibly vitamin B12, which is
known to be present in liver. In view of the common experience regard-
ing the stimulating effect of natural substances on growth of fungi, it is
evident that much more investigation on this phase of nutrition is needed.
SPECIFIC VITAMINS
In the first portion of this chapter the general aspects of vitamins and
growth factors were considered. Different types of vitamin deficiencies
and the methods of detecting deficiencies were discussed. The second
portion deals with the specific vitamins, their characteristics and
functions.
N S
VITAMINS 187
THIAMINE AND ITS MOIETIES
Thiamine (vitamin Bi, aneurine) was the first vitamin shown to be

required by a filamentous fungus. Thiamine deficiency in man is known
as beriberi. Certain fungi and other microorganisms resemble man in
that they are unable to synthesize this vitamin. It is probably required
in the metabolism of all forms of life, and its function, to a large extent, is
believed to be the same in all organisms.
Schopfer (1934) demonstrated that Phycomyces blakesleeanus failed to
grow in a synthetic medium unless thiamine was added. This was a
stimulus for numerous studies on vitamin deficiencies of fungi. The
chemical synthesis of thiamine, in 1936, was another important step in
vitamin research. The student is referred to Williams and Spies (1938),
Rosenberg (1942), and Schopfer (1943) for information on the history,
synthesis, and natural occurrence of thiamine.
The structural formula for thiamine is
CHs
N=C—NHrHCl
c==c— CH2— CH,OH
CH,— C C -CH,—
/
N— CH
Cl CH—
Thiamine chloride hydrochloride
The thiamine molecule contains two ring structures, a substituted

pyrimidine and a substituted thiazole. The pyrimidine moiety has the
following formula:
N====C—NH2
CH, C— CH2X
N CH
Thiamine pyrimidine
2-Methyl-4-amino-5-methylpyrimidine
X in the substituted methyl group on C5 may be hydroxyl, chlorine,

bromine, etc. The thiazole moiety has the following formula:
CH3
C= =C— CH2— CH2OH
N
/
VX
CH-
Thiamine thiazole
4-Methyl-5-/3-hydroxyethylthiazole
These moieties are referred to in the Hterature as the thiamine pyrimidine

and thiamine thiazole, respectively.
Thiamine is somewhat unstable when exposed to alkali and heat, but
at pH 3.5 it is unaffected by autoclaving. Sulfur dioxide and sulfites
are destructive at pH 5 to 6. These factors must be taken into considera-
tion, and it is sometimes desirable to sterilize thiamine separately, either
by filtration or by autoclaving in an acidified solution. For most investi-
gations, however, it is permissible to autoclave thiamine with the medium.
For most fungi 100 fxg of thiamine per liter of medium is near optimum
for growth and sporulation. However, the optimum varies with the
amount of sugar in the medium and with other conditions.
Soon after pure thiamine became available, it was discovered that
certain treatments destroyed its activity for animals but did not greatly
affect the potency when certain fungi were used as test organisms. The
solution to this problem was reached when it became known that thia-
mine, when autoclaved in the presence of alkali, was broken down into
thiamine pyrimidine and thiamine thiazole.
Thiamine-deficient fungi differ in their ability to utilize or synthesize
the moieties of thiamine. These fungi may be classified into four groups
on this basis: (1) The intact molecule of thiamine is required by some
fungi which are unable to synthesize either moiety or to complete the
synthesis of thiamine, even when both moieties are supplied. Examples
of the group are species of Phytophthora. (2) Some other fungi, such as
Phycomyces hlakesleeanus, are capable of utilizing thiamine, or of syn-
thesizing thiamine when furnished with a mixture of the two thiamine
moieties. (3) The addition of thiamine or thiamine pyrimidine satisfies
the need of those fungi which are able to synthesize the thiazole moiety
and combine it with the pyrimidine moiety to make thiamine. Examples
are Parasitella simplex and Rhodotorula rubra. (4) Other fungi are able
to synthesize only the thiamine pyrimidine and complete the synthesis
of thiamine when furnished with the thiazole moiety. Mucor raman-
nianus and Stereum frustulosum are examples.
In the above discussion it was assumed that in every case the intact
molecule was the active product and that neither moiety nor the presence
of the two had any activity until thiamine was synthesized. Leonian
and Lilly (1940) found this hypothesis to be correct. The following fungi
Avere grown in a basal medium to which had been added the minimal
growth factor: Fusarium niveum (none), Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides
(pyrimidine), Mucor ramannianus (thiazole), Phycomyces hlakesleeanus
(both moieties of thiamine), and Phytophthora erythroseptica (thiamine).
After growth, the mycelium and the medium were tested for thiamine
and its moieties by growing fungi of known thiamine or thiamine-moiety
requirements upon media containing the mycelium extract and the
medium. Some of these data are collected in Table 33.
VITAMINS 189
Table 33. Assay for Thiamine and Thiamine Moieties in Mycelium and
Medium Extracts of Some Fungi after Growth on Media Containing
THE Minimum Growth-factor Requirements
Numbers refer to relative growth on the scale of 10. (Leonian and Lilly, Plant
Physiol. 15, 1940.)
molecule. Robbins and Kavanagh (1941) showed that P. blakesleeanus

destroyed the thiazole more rapidly than it did the pyrimidine moiety.
Thus, an excess of thiazole in the mixture of the two moieties was more
effective than equal quantities. They termed this the thiazole effect.
Some thiamine -deficient fungi. A deficiency for thiamine is by far
the most common vitamin deficiency among filamentous fungi isolated
from nature. Fries (1948) states than over 200 fungi are known to be
partially or totally deficient for thiamine. No doubt this is a modest
estimate. Deficiency for this vitamin is more common among certain
groups of fungi than others. For example, all species of Phytophthora
studied have been found to require the intact molecule of thiamine.
Only a few species Basidiomycetes have been reported to be
of the true
self-sufficient for thiamine. Many
of these fungi show only partial
deficiencies, while some are totally deficient. In most cases, however,
there seems to be little or no correlation between thiamine deficiency and
taxonomic relationship.
Some common filamentous fungi (other than Basidiomycetes) which
have been reported to be totally or partially deficient for thiamine or its
moieties, with other deficiencies (if any) indicated in parentheses, are
as follows : and
Blakeslea trispora, Ceratostomella fimbriata, C. ips (biotin
pyridoxine), C. montium and pyridoxine), C. pini (biotin), Chae-
(biotin
tomium convolutum (biotin), Choanephora cucurbitarum, Coemansia inter-
rupta (biotin), Dendrophoma obscurans, Endothia parasitica (biotin),
Hypoxylon pruinatum (biotin), Lambertella pruni (biotin), Lophodermium
pinastri (biotin and inositol), Melanconium betulinum (biotin and inositol),
Melanospora destruens (biotin), Mucor ramaymianus, Nectria coccinia,
Ophiobolus graminis (biotin), Phycomyces blakesleeanus, Phytophthora
spp., Piricularia oryzae (biotin), Pleurage curvicolla (biotin), Podospora
curvida (biotin), Pythiomorpha gonapody aides, Pythium arrhenomanes P. ,
ascophallon, P. butleri, P. oligandrum, Sclerotinia camelliae (biotin and

inositol), S. minor, Sordaria fimicola, certain isolates only (biotin),
Thielaviopsis basicola, Valsa pini (biotin and inositol), and Xylaria
hypoxylon.
Reports of deficiencies for most of the above-named fungi may be found
in the references for this chapter. Some few of these fungi have been
studied in our laboratory and have not been previously reported as being
deficient for thiamine. For thiamine-deficient yeasts see the reports of
Burkholder (1943) and Burkholder et al. (1944).
Mode of action. One of the primary uses of thiamine in plants and
animals is for the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. It is also
probable that thiamine may be involved in other processes. A vitamin
which constitutes a part of an enzyme system is known as a coenzyme.
Generally a vitamin must be combined with organic or inorganic com-
N S
VITAMINS 191
pounds combines with the protein portion (apoenzyme)

(or both) before it
of the enzyme system. The pyrophosphoric

ester of thiamine is known
as cocarboxylase, or as thiamine pyrophosphate. This compound is the
coenzyme of carboxylase.
CH, O O
N=C— NH2
I
C=C— CH2—CH2— O—P~0— P—OH
I II II
CH3— C C— CH2— o i
H H
CI CH—
N—CH
Thiamine pyrophosphate (cocarboxylase)
This substance is as active as thiamine (mole for mole)

Lilly and Leonian .
(1940) compared the action thiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate on

of
several thiamine-deficient fungi. No significant differences were found
in the maximum weights of mycelium formed in the presence of equivalent
quantities of these two growth factors. The rate of early growth was
greater with thiamine pyrophosphate than with thiamine for Phyco-
myces hlakesleeanus and less for Mucor ramannianus and Phytophthora
erythroseptica.
Pyruvic acid, one of the key intermediate products of carbohydrate
metabolism, is transformed into carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde by the
action of the enzyme carboxylase. Pyruvic acid accumulates in the
culture media of many thiamine-deficient fungi when insufficient thiamine
is present. Haag and Dalphin (1940) found that the maximum accumu-
lation in Phycomyces hlakesleeanus cultures occurred when about one-
twentieth of the optimum amount of thiamine was added. Wirth and
Nord (1942) studied the effect of added thiamine upon the accumulation
of pyruvic acid in cultures of Fusarium lini, a self-sufficient fungus with
respect to thiamine. Some of the data are presented in Table 34.
The accumulation of pyruvic acid in the culture medium is common,
especially during the early period of growth. Pyruvic acid may be
detected qualitatively by adding of iodine solution (KI3) to the culture
filtrate and making the solution strongly alkaline with sodium hydroxide.
Iodoform is produced instantly without heating. Acetaldehyde, which is
very volatile, also reacts with iodine and alkali in the cold to produce
iodoform. Sordaria fimicola, Lenzites trahea, or other fungi which produce
acid during the early stages of growth may be used to demonstrate the
production of pyruvic acid.
Specificity. So far as is known, thiamine which occurs in nature has
the structure given in the formula. This vitamin has been isolated from
only a few substances such as wheat germ and rice polish. The ethyl
homologue (ethyl in place of methyl in position 2) of thiamine is slightly
more active for certain fungi than ordinary thiamine. Higher homologues
have been reported to be less active or inhibitory. Whether ethyl thia-

mine occurs in nature is not known. The student is referred to Schopfer
(1943) for further information on thiamine specificity.
Table 34. The Effect of Added Thiamine upon the Accumulation of Pyruvic
Acid in the Culture Filtrate of Fusarium lint Grown on Glucose-
Nitrate Medium
(Wirth and Nord, Arch. Biochem. 1, 1942. Published by permission of Academic
Press, Inc.)
Days of
VITAMINS 193
Among the first investigators to test the action of biotin on filamentous

fungi were Kogl and Fries (1937), who showed that Nematospora gossypii
did not grow in the absence of biotin. As httle as 0.4 ^g of biotin per
liter permitted almost as much growth as did ten times that amount. For
most filamentous fungi 5 /xg of biotin per liter is adequate. The effects
of biotin deficiency on the development of the ascospores of Sordaria
fimicola are shown in Fig. G8.
Some filamentous fungi reported as being partially or totally deficient
for biotin, with other deficiencies (if any) given in parentheses, are as
follows: Chaetomium convolutum (thiamine), Coemansia interrupta (thia-

mine), Diplodia macrospora, Endothia parasitica (thiamine), Hypoxylon
pruinatum (thiamine), Lamhertella pruni (thiamine), Melanospora destru-
ens (thiamine), Memnoniella echinata, Neurospora spp., Ophioholus
graminis (thiamine), 0. oryzinus, Ophiostoma catonianum, Penicillium
digitatum (thiamine, pyridoxine, pantothenate), Piricularia oryzae (thia-
mine), Pleurage curvicolla (thiamine), Podospora curvula (thiamine),
Pseudopeziza ribis, Rosellinia arcuata, Sclerotinia camelliae (thiamine,
inositol),Sordaria fimicola, Sporormia intermedia, Stachybotrys atra,
Thraustotheca clavata.
Specificity. The biotin molecule is not separable into moieties as is
thiamine. One of the first related compounds to be studied was desthio-
biotin. As the name indicates, the molecule no longer contains sulfur.
The structure of the desthiobiotin molecule is as follows:
CO
NH
/ \ NH
CH— (CH2)6— COOH
I I
CH3— CH
Desthiobiotin
The removal of sulfur from the biotin molecule destroyed the tetrahydro-
thiophene ring and introduced a methyl group. In addition, the acidic
chain of desthiobiotin contains one more methylene group than does that
of biotin. Stokes and Gunness (1945) tested the growth of some biotin-
deficient microorganisms on desthiobiotin and found that this compound
was by Neurospora sitophila and three strains of Saccharomyces
utilized
but Rhizobium trifolii 209, Lactobacillus casei, and L. arabinosus
cerevisiae,
17-5 were unable to utilize desthiobiotin. From further experiments it
was concluded that the yeast synthesized biotin, or some other compound
which replaced from desthiobiotin, rather than utilizing desthiobiotin
it,
directly. The medium was found to influence the

source of sulfur in the
amount of desthiobiotin converted into biotin, with methionine and
sodium sulfate being better sources than cystine, sulfanilamide, or
thiamine thiazole.
Lilly and Leonian (1944) studied the effect of desthiobiotin on 45
biotin-deficient microorganisms and found that it replaced biotin for

some acted as an antibiotin for some few others.
fungi, while it Desthio-
biotin replaced biotin quantitatively for Ceratostomella ips. Goldberg
et al. (1947) found some homologues of biotin to inhibit growth of yeast
139 and Lactobacillus casei. Whether any of these biotin homologues
will replace biotin for other microorganisms must await further testing.
These preliminary results indicate that the length of the acidic side chain
of the biotin molecule is of great importance in biological activity.
Oxybiotin is also known as 0-heterobiotin and has the same structure

as biotin except that the sulfur in the tetrahydrothiophene ring has been
replaced by oxygen. Pilgrim et al. (1945) found oxybiotin to be active
and a strain of Saccharomyces cere-
for Lactobacillus casei, L. arabinosus,
visiae. Oxybiotin is apparently used as such and is not converted into
biotin by the organism (Axelrod et al., 1947). This is the only instance
that has come to our attention where a vitamer is used directly instead
of being converted into the vitamin. Rubin et al. (1945) had previously
reported that oxybiotin was converted into biotin. The cause of this
disagreement is unknown.
Pimelic acid is a growth factor for certain strains of the diphtheria
bacterium (Mueller, 1937). It is reported (Du Vigneaud et al., 1942)
that pimelic acid replaced biotin and was probably the precursor in the
synthesis of biotin by a strain of the diphtheria organism. The higher
and lower homologs of pimelic acid were ineffective. The formula for
pimelic acid is HOOC— CH2— CH2— CHa—CH2— CH2— COOH. At
present there no evidence that pimelic acid replaces biotin for the
is
fungi. This observation is supported by the findings of Robbins and Ma

(1942), who studied 13 biotin-deficient fungi. A favorable effect of the
presence of pimelic acid was reported by Eakin and Eakin (1942), who
found that Aspergillus niger synthesizes much more biotin in the presence
of pimelic acid than in its absence. Cysteine and also cystine increase
the synthesis of biotin. The lower homologues of pimelic acid (adipic,
glutaric, and succinic) were without effect, while the higher homologs
(suberic and azelaic) were as effective as pimelic acid. This is interesting,
inasmuch as homobiotin and bishomobiotin are reported inactive for
yeast growth (Goldberg et al., 1947).
Mode of action. It has been assumed that biotin acts as a coenzyme
for various enzyme systems, but definite proof seems to be lacking,
Winzler et al. (1944) found that, when biotin was added to a biotin-
starved yeast, some time elapsed before any effect was noted. The order
of response was fermentation, respiration, and growth. The assimilation
of ammonia did not take place unless biotin was added.
The presence of aspartic acid in the culture medium has been shown
to reduce the amount of biotin required by Torula cremoris (Koser et al.,
VITAMINS 195
1942) and by Memnoniella echinata and Stachyhotrys atra (Perlman,

1948). There is also evidence (Stokes et al., 1947) that biotin plays a
role in the synthesis of aspartic acid by certain bacteria. Thus, it appears
probable that one of the functions of biotin is connected with the synthesis
of aspartic acid. When added to the medium, it is
aspartic acid is
unnecessary for the organism to perform this synthesis and the need for
biotin is greatly reduced. However, it should be noted that, although
the absolute amount of biotin needed is reduced, exogenous biotin is still
required by these biotin-deficient organisms. From this it may be
deduced that biotin has a multiple role in the cell.
INOSITOL
meso-Inositol (also known as inactive inositol, isoinositol, inosite, or
dambose) is widely distributed in both plants and animals. It was first
isolated in 1850. It was not until 1928 that Eastcott (1928) showed that
it was a growth factor for a strain of yeast. Later, Woolley (1940)
recognized it as a vitamin for animals. meso-Inositol is a hexahydroxy-
cyclohexane. It has the following configuration:
H H
Q Q
OH/i i\ H
1/ OH 0H\|
c c
:\ H OH/1
H \| 1/ OH
C C
OH li
meso-Inositol
There are seven different cis-trans isomers, which are optically inactive,
and a pair of optically active d and I forms. The available evidence
indicates that the stereochemical configuration of weso-inositol is specific
for vitamin activity. Some of the isomers
have only slight activity.
Inositol is active only in high concentrations as compared to the other
vitamins. The usual amount added is around 5 mg. per hter of medium.
Fungi deficient for inositol. Many strains of yeast are deficient for
this vitamin, while others are not. In most cases the deficiency appar-
ently is partial rather than total. Partial deficiencies for various yeasts
are reported by Leonian and Burkholder (1943), and Burk-
Lilly (1942),
holder and Moyer (1943). In the two references total deficiencies
last
for inositol are reported for Saccharomyces uvarum Y 969 and Schizosac-
charomyces pomhe.
Kogl and Fries (1937) were apparently the first to investigate the
action of inositol on various filamentous fungi. They found that Nemato-
spora gossypii was totally deficient and that Lophodermium pinastri was
196 »
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
partially deficient for this vitamin. The partial deficiency of Sclerotinia

camelliae shown in Fig. 35. Deficiencies for inositol are commonly
is
accompanied by deficiencies for thiamine and biotin. Trichophyton

discoides is reported as being totally deficient for inositol, pyridoxine, and
thiamine (Robbins et at., 1942). Totally deficient mutants of Neurospora
crassa have been developed. Their use in bioassays for inositol was
described by Beadle (1944) and by Leonian and Lilly (1945).
Some filamentous fungi reported to be partially or totally deficient for
inositol, with other deficiencies given in parentheses, are as follows:
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (certain strains only), Epichloe typhina
(thiamine), Lophodermium pinastri (thiamine, biotin), Melanconium
hetulinum (thiamine, biotin), Nematospora gossypii (thiamine, biotin),
Sclerotinia camelliae (thiamine, biotin), Trichophyton discoides (thiamine,
pyridoxine), Valsa pini (thiamine, biotin).
The temperature upon the synthesis of inositol by Sclerotinia
effects of
camelliaeand upon the toxicity of high concentrations of inositol at high
temperatures were described by Barnett and Lilly (1948) and are illus-
trated in Fig. 42.
Mode of action. The addition of inositol overcame the inhibition of
growth Rhizopus suinus due to excess thiamine (Schopfer and Guilloud,
of
1945). In part, the inhibition was due to an increased production
of alcohol (pyruvate ^
acetaldehyde—^ alcohol). Similarly, we have
observed in our laboratory the same favorable effect of inositol on growth
of certain fungi which are inhibited by the presence of excess thiamine.
NICOTINIC ACID
A deficiency for nicotinic acid, or nicotinic acid amide, leads to pellagra
in man and blacktongue in dogs. The structural formulas of these com-
pounds follow:
/\^r.f^c^vi /\ -CONH2
Nicotinic acid Nicotinic acid amide
Nicotinic acid was obtained by the oxidation of nicotine in 1867. Knight

(1937) and Mueller (1937o) recognized that nicotinic acid amide was a
growth factor for certain bacteria. So far as is known, the amide is the
form utilized by organisms. Some microorganisms can convert nicotinic
acid into its amide with ease, others with difficulty; still others are unable
to use nicotinic acid but require either nicotinic acid amide or a coenzyme
containing the amide.
Fungi deficient for nicotinic acid. Rogosa (1943) tested 114 strains of
yeast that ferment lactose and found that all of them required an exoge-
VITAMINS 197
nous supply of nicotinic acid for growth. Rogosa used the technique
of serial passage in a medium devoid of nicotinic acid. It is possible to
overlook a vitamin deficiency by failure to observe this precaution.
Yeasts found to be deficient for this vitamin include Saccharomyces
anamensis 154, S. lactis 131, S. fragilis 15, Zy go saccharomyces lactis (two
strains), Torida lactosa 168, T. sphaerica 13, T. cremoris 2, Torulopsis
kefyr 149, Mycotorula lactis 130. Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
failed to show deficiency for nicotinic acid (Rogosa, 1943; Leonian and
Lilly, 1942; Burkholder, 1943).
Until recently, nicotinic acid deficiency among filamentous fungi iso-
lated from nature was unknown.Cantino (1948) has shown that Blasto-
cladia pringsheimii is completely deficient for nicotinamide and partially
deficient for thiamine and biotin. Some of Cantino's results are pre-
sented in Fig. 37. A second filamentous fungus, a strain of Microsporum,
audouini,is reported as deficient for nicotinic acid (Area Leao and Cury,
1949). Mutants deficient for this vitamin have been developed in

Neurospora by Bonner and Beadle (1946) and in Penicillium by Bonner
(1946).
Specificity. In so far as the fungi are concerned, nicotinic acid replaces
nicotinic acid amide, but few critical studies in this connection have been
made. Various studies have been made of the specificity for bacteria
of the compounds related to nicotinic acid. Bovarnick (1943) reported
that heating asparagine and glutamic acid together produced a compound
which replaced nicotinic acid or its amide for various species of bacteria.
This author later showed that this substance was nicotinic acid amide.
This is an unsuspected way of adding a vitamin to a basal medium.
Mode of action. Nicotinic acid amide is a constituent of two or more
coenzymes. Codehydrogenase I on hydrolysis yields adenine, nicotinic
acid amide, and two molecules of D-ribosephosphoric acid. Codehydro-
genase II yields the same products as codehydrogenase I except that three
molecules of phosphoric acid, instead of two, are produced. In the
literature codehydrogenase I is often referred to as DPN
(diphospho-
pyridine nucleotide) and codehydrogenase II as TPN
(triphosphopyridine
nucleotide). These coenzymes in combination with specific proteins
form enzyme systems which transfer hydrogen (oxidation-reduction).
Apparently the amide of nicotinic acid is reversibly oxidized and reduced
in the process.
One organism. Hemophilus parainfluenzae, requires codehydrogenase
I as a growth factor. This organism
is unable to form the coenzyme
u'hen furnished with the moieties, nicotinic acid amide, adenine, D-ribose,
and phosphate. DPN is also known as factor V (Gingrich and Schlenk,
1944). Other bacteria are known which require preformed coenzymes
as growth factors. While no fungus isolated from nature has yet been
shown to require such growth factors, it is possible that some do exist.

Such requirements may be found among the artificially induced mutants.
PANTOTHENIC ACID
Pantothenic acid was first discovered (Williams et al., 1932) as a growth
factor for the Gebriide Mayer strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The
and synthesis of this compound was complete by
isolation, identification,
1940. It was later shown to be a vitamin for animals. Pantothenic
acid consists of two moieties joined together by means of an amide link-
age. The chemical formula for this vitamin is given below:
CH3
HO— CH2— C— CHOH— CO—NH— CH2—CH2— COOH
I
CH3
Pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid may be hydrolyzed to form /3-alanine (jS-amino-

propionic acid), the formula of which is H2N — CH2— CH2— COOH, and
a,7-dihydroxy-/3,;5-dimethylbutyric acid, a substituted butyric acid that
forms a lactone by elimination of one molecule of wâter between the
carboxyl and the gamma hydroxyl (pantoyl lactone). Pantothenic acid
is thus analogous to thiamine, in that the molecule may be split into two
moieties. We might expect to find different pantothenic acid-deficient

organisms which require the intact molecule or one or both moieties. It
was found that the Gebriide Mayer strain of Saccharomyces cerevisae was
stimulated by /3-alanine and that this yeast completed the synthesis of
pantothenic acid when furnished with )8-alanine in the medium (Wein-
stock et al., 1939). Most yeasts deficient for pantothenic acid are unable
to synthesize the j8-alanine moiety of this vitamin. In general, this
moiety is not used so efficiently as pantothenic acid, and more than an
equivalent amount is required to support the same amount of growth.
The composition of the medium affects utilization, since, in the presence
of sufficient asparagine, /3-alanine is not utilized (Atkin et al., 1944).
So far as is known, none pantoyl lactone as a growth
of the fungi require
factor, but this compound was found (Ryan et al., 1945) to replace panto-
thenic acid for Clostridium septicum. It was shown by microbiological
tests that this bacterium completed the synthesis of pantothenic acid.
Fungi deficient for pantothenic acid. Of the 10 strains of Saccharo-
myces cerevisiae tested for vitamin deficiencies by Leonian and Lilly
(1942), 9 wêre highly deficient for this vitamin. Burkholder (1943) found
14 of the 38 species and strains tested to be deficient for pantothenic acid,
9 of these being species of Saccharomyces. It appears that deficiency
for this vitamin is more common in Saccharomyces than in other genera
of yeasts. Varying degrees of pantothenic acid deficiency were found in
:
VITAMINS 199
species of Zygosaccharomyces (Lockhead andLanderkin, 1942). /S-Alanine

could be used in place of pantothenic acid for the deficient species of
Zygosaccharomyces.
Growth of Penicillium digitatum is reported (Wooster and Cheldehn,
1945) to be stimulated by pantothenate, as well as by pyridoxine, biotin,
and thiamine. To our knowledge this is the only report of a filamentous
fungus isolated from nature being stimulated by the presence of this
vitamin. Tatum and Beadle (1945) reported a mutant of Neurospora
which was deficient for pantothenic acid.
Specificity. As in the case of thiamine and inositol, the structure of
pantothenic acid is almost specific for activity. A hydroxypantothenic
acid synthesized by Mitchell et al. (1940) has a varying ability to replace
pantothenic acid for some organisms. The activity of this compound
for the Gebriide Mayer yeast was low as compared with pantothenic acid.
Mode of action. Pantothenic acid was found to favor the accumula-
tion of glycogen by yeasts (Williams et al, 1936), and to increase markedly
the rate of carbon dioxide evolution by the pantothenic acid-deficient
Gebriide Mayer yeast (Pratt and Williams, 1939). More recent work
(Novelli and Lipmann, 1947) has show^n that pantothenic acid is phos-
phorylated and acts as a coenzyme. This enzyme system performs vari-
ous oxidations and acetylations in the cell.
PYRIDOXINE
Pyridoxine is also known
as adermin or as vitamin Be. While inositol
and pantothenic acid were first investigated as growth factors for micro-
organisms, pyridoxine was discovered as a result of animal research.
This vitamin was isolated independently by five groups of workers in
1938 and was synthesized the next year. The structural formula is given
below
HO- ^ n— CH2OH
CHs-
Pyridoxine
Pyridoxine is quite soluble in water and is stable to acid and alkah but is
destroyed by light.
Fungi deficient for pyridoxine. Partial or total deficiencies for this
vitamin have been reported for various species and strains of yeasts
(Eakin and Williams, 1939; Burkholder, 1943). Among these are Sac-
charomyces carlsbergensis var. mandshuricus Y-379, S. chodati Y-140, S.
oviformis, S. ludwigii,and Mycoderma valida Y-7.
Leonian and Lilly (1942) found that the omission of either thiamine or
pyridoxine alone from themedium was without effect on 9 of the 10 strains
:
of yeast tested. However, the omission of both pyridoxine and thiamine

caused a decrease in the growth of two of these strains. Apparently
these two yeasts were capable of synthesizing either thiamine or pyri-
doxine, provided that the other vitamin wâs present. This is a common
effect among fungi partially deficient for two or more vitamins. The
presence of one vitamin for which a fungus is partially deficient may
enable the fungus to synthesize other vitamins with greater ease.
Among the filamentous fungi, deficiency for pyridoxine seems to be
characteristic of certain species of Ceratostomella and a few other fungi
(Robbins and Ma, 1942o, 19426). Some species reported to be deficient
for pyridoxine, with other deficiencies given in parentheses, are Cerato-
stomella ulmi, C. ips (thiamine, biotin), C. pseudotsugae (thiamine), C.
piceaperda 240 (biotin), C. pini (thiamine, biotin), C
montium (thiamine,
biotin), C. pilifera, C. multiannulata (thiamine), C. pluriannulata (thia-
mine), C. microspora (thiamine, biotin), Ophiostoma catonianum (thia-
mine), Trichophyton discoides (thiamine, inositol).
Specificity. One of the important uses of vitamin-deficient organisms
is for the purpose of vitamin assay. Certain vitamin-deficient fungi
and bacteria are used to determine the vitamin content of foodstuffs and
other natural products. For such tests to be of any value, it is necessary
to know if the organism used responds to substances other than the
vitamin itself. Snell et at. (1942) found that Streptococcus faecalis gave
much greater apparent yields of pyridoxine when used for assay than did
yeast. It was then discovered (Snell, 1942) that autoclaving pyridoxine
with the basal medium for 20 min. increased the activity of pyridoxine
forty-one times, and that this change in activity for certain organisms
was correlated with oxidation and heating with certain amino acids.
Snell (1944) then postulated that vitamers of pyridoxine were formed
by these treatments. When
problem was under investigation, these
this
vitamers of unknown structure were called "pseudopyridoxine," which
was later found to consist of either one or both of the following compounds
HO- ^^— CHoOH HO—r^^— CH2OH

CH3
Pyridoxal Pyridoxamine
These two compounds were synthesized by Harris et al. (1944) and tested
by Snell.
It was concluded that this vitamin consists of three or more closely
related compounds. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis responds about equally
to the three compounds, while the reaction of certain bacteria is much
greater to pyridoxal and pyridoxamine than to pyridoxine, Ceratosto-
VITAMINS 201
mella ulmi grew at a more rapid rate with pyridoxamine than vvith pvri-
doxal or pyridoxine (Snell and Rannefelt, 1945). All three forms of this
vitamin occur in natural products. Assays for this vitamin are discussed
in Chap. 10.
Mode of action. One of the earliest clues to the action of pyridoxine

was discovered by Snell and Guirard (1943) in the interrelationship
among glycine, alanine, and pyridoxine and growth of Streptococcus
faecalis R.They found that alanine could replace pyridoxine for this
organism and that glycine caused inhibition which was overcome by
the addition of either alanine or pyridoxine. It was also found that
/3-alanine, serine, and threonine inhibited growth. It is possible that
alanine serves as a precursor for pyridoxine in this organism, or that one
function of pyridoxine is the synthesis of alanine. At any rate the action
of pyridoxine appears to be connected with either amino-acid synthesis
or amino-acid utilization, or both. Like other vitamins, pyridoxine (or
its conversion products) has been assumed to function in the cell as a
part of a coenzyme.
Pyridoxal phosphorylated before it functions in enzyme systems.
is
In this it is thiamine and pantothenic acid. Pyridoxal phosphate

like
is said to function as a coenzyme in the transformation of tryptophane
into indole by Escherichia coli (Wood et at., 1947). We may assume that
the function of this vitamin is the same in the fungi as in the bacteria.
p-AMINOBENZOIC ACID
p-Aminobenzoic acid has the following structure:
COOH
NH2
p-Aminobenzoic acid
Rubo and Gillespie (1940) found p-aminobenzoic acid to be a growth

factor for nine strains of Clostridium acetohutylicum. Most of the interest
in this compound centers in its antagonistic action to sulfonamides. A
discussion of this subject is presented in Chapter 11.
Fungi deficient for p-aminobenzoic acid. Robbins and Ma (1944)
reported Rhodotorula aurantica to be deficient for p-aminobenzoic acid
and thiamine. Concentrations of as low as 0.03 /xg per liter had a positive
effect on the growth of this yeast, while maximum growth was attained
in the presence of 3 /zg per liter. The intensity of the pink color developed
by this yeast was a function of the p-aminobenzoic acid content of the
medium.
In so far as we are aware, no filamentous fungus isolated from nature

has been shown to be deficient for p-aminobenzoic acid. Tatum and
Beadle (1942) described a mutant of Neurospora which was unable to
synthesize this vitamin. Wyss et at. (1944) found that the availability
of p-aminobenzoic acid to the deficient mutant of Neurospora crassa was
a function of the pH of the medium (see Fig. 41).
Mode of action. The functions of p-aminobenzoic acid are unknown.
We may assume, on the basis of the behavior of other vitamins, that it
functions as a coenzyme, or as a part of a coenzyme. Recent work

indicates that p-aminobenzoic acid is a constituent part of folic acid.
RIBOFLAVIN
The structure of riboflavin is given below:
CH2OH
HC—OH
I
HC— OH
I
HC— OH
I
CH2
I
N N
\c^ \c=o
N C
s
Riboflavin
Many bacteria, especially species of Lactobacillus are unable to synthe-

size riboflavin (Peterson and Peterson, 1945). So far as we are able to
determine, none of the fungi isolated from nature have been found to be
deficient for riboflavin. This vitamin is synthesized by the fungi.
Mitchell and Houlahan (1946) described a mutant of Neurospora which
required the addition of riboflavin to the medium for growth at tempera-
tures above 28°C. Between 15 and 25°C. the growth rate of the mutant
without added riboflavin was equal to that of the wild type. The rate
of growth decreased rapidly as the temperature increased from 25 to
28°C.
SUMMARY
It is assumed that all living organisms require a number of vitamins, or
growth normal growth, reproduction, and other vital proc-
factors, for
esses. However, organisms differ widely in their synthetic capacities
for the various vitamins. Some fungi are self-sufficient with respect to
vitamins, being able to synthesize their vitamins from pure chemicals
of a synthetic medium. Others lack the ability to synthesize sufficient
VITAMINS 203
quantities of one or more vitamins and are called vitamin-deficient fungi.

The deficiency may
be single or multiple, complete or partial. Partial
deficiency may vary from nearly complete to nearly self-suflficient and
is more pronounced during the early stages of growth.
A single deficiency for thiamine has been more commonly reported

among filamentous fungi than any other type. Biotin deficiency is like-
wise commonly found, often in combination with thiamine deficiency.
Deficiencies for inositol and pyridoxine are less common. Two filamen-
tous fungi isolated from nature are reported to be deficient for nicotinic
acid. Numerous other deficiencies have been induced in mutants by ir-
radiation. Some yeasts show complete or partial multiple deficiencies
for three to six vitamins, while relatively few filamentous fungi are
deficient for as many as three vitamins.
Absolute deficiencies are not known to be influenced by the environ-
ment, while conditioned deficiencies may be affected either by nutritional
factors or by factors of the physical environment. Among these, tem-
perature and the composition and pH of the medium seem to be the most
important.
Methods of detecting vitamin deficiencies are exact, and accurate
determination depends on the ability or inability of a fungus to grow on
a synthetic medium composed of pure chemicals,
to which known amounts
of the various vitamins to be tested are added. Vegetative growth,
measured by dry weight, is apparently the most useful criterion of the
utilization of vitamins, although reproduction and other processes are
likewise affected.
Compounds having vitamin activity but differing in molecular struc-
ture are called vitamers. In general, only compounds of closely related
structure have vitamin activity.
The inhibitory effects of vitamins in excess quantities are apparently
common. They are usually evident by slight reduction in rate or maxi-
mum amount of growth and are more common with self-sufficient fungi
than with those deficient for the vitamin in question. Thiamine is more
commonly reported as a growth depressor than other vitamins. One
instance of severe inhibition due to excess inositol and temperatures near
maximum for growth is discussed.
The known effects of vitamins on the growth of fungi emphasize the
important fact that growth is a result of a number of interacting factors,
among which are the vitamins. A proper balance between the different
vitamins and with the other nutritional and environmental factors must
exist if maximum rate of growth is to take place.
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:
;
CHAPTER 10
FUNGI AS TEST ORGANISMS
Numerous problems are accessible to investigation

physiological
through the use of microorganisms. By the proper choice of deficient
organisms, it is feasible to detect minute amounts of physiologically active
compounds such as the vitamins and amino acids. Knowledge has been
gained of the way vitamins and amino acids are synthesized and destroyed
by various organisms. The amino-acid composition of proteins and the
availability of certain essential elements in soil may be determined by the
use of fungi and bacteria. These highly practical studies are based upon
a knowledge of the compounds and elements essential for the nutrition
of microorganisms. Since these are, in general, the same elements and
compounds needed by animals, there is a very close relation between
fungus and animal physiology in nutritional problems. Foodstuffs for
man and animals are the most common materials analyzed in routine
assays.
Some of the advantages which have contributed to the widespread use
of microorganisms for assay purposes are simple technique and apparatus,
sensitivity, specificity, and the short time required. Perhaps the most
important single factor is the small sample needed and the fact that little
or no purification or concentration of the active material is required.
These advantages are to be compared with chemical methods or the use
of animals for obtaining the same information. All analytical methods
have advantages and disadvantages. A knowledge of the limitations of
any method is essential for valid results.
Most microbiological assays depend upon the proportional response of
deficient test organisms to the substances for which they are deficient.
This proportional response occurs only for a limited range of concentra-
tions. The usable range of concentration depends upon the substance
being assayed, the test organism, and the basal medium. In theoiy,
any organism may be used to assay any substance for which it is deficient,
but in practice not all organisms having the same deficiency are equally
suitable. For example, Rhizohium trijolii 205 is about 100 times as sen-
sitive to biotin as Sordaria fimicola.
The following are essential to any quantitative microbiological assay:
(1) a suitable test organism; (2) the preparation of a basal medium ade-
quate but essentially free from the substance to be assayed
in all respects,
(3) liberation, from the material to be analyzed, of the substance to be

208
FUNGI AS TEST ORGANISMS 209
assayed, in a water-soluble condition; (4) a standard sample of the sub-

stance to be analyzed (5) preparation of a range of concentrations of the
;
known and unknown substances in the basal medium (6) uniform inocula-
;
tion; (7) incubation under uniform conditions;

measuring the response
(8)
of the test organism; (9) construction of the standard curve from the
response of the test organism to kno\\Ti amounts of the substance under
test; (10) calculating the content of the substance contained in the sample.
The above discussion assumes the use of pure
compounds in obtaining
standard curves. The assay methods is not
utility of microbiological
confined to the assay of known compounds. They are of great utihty
in studies of methods of isolation of new growth factors and other active
compounds. These occur in complex natural products and, before they
are isolated, are known only by the physiological effects they produce in
living organisms. Given a deficient fungus, or other organism, it is pos-
sible to follow the efficiency of the various steps in an isolation procedure.
The isolation of many of the water-soluble vitamins has been facilitated
by the use of test fungi. The use of a biotin-deficient yeast enabled
Kogl and Tonnis (1936) to isolate biotin for the first time as a pure
compound.
GENERAL PROCEDURES
The following discussion of the steps involved in microbiological assay
may serve also as a guide to the quantitative study of the physiology of
fungi. Such studies are the surest way to gain knowledge and under-
standing of the physiology of the fungi.
Selection of test organisms. The first requirement of a test organism
is specificity for the compound under assay. A fungus which responds
to either or both moieties of thiamine is less suitable than one which
requires the intact thiamine molecule. Other considerations may out-

weigh the advantages of strict specificity, but the response of the test
organism to moieties, vitamers, and related compounds must be known.
Other considerations besides specificity enter into the selection of test
organisms. Test organisms should be easily maintained in culture,
easily handled in the laboratory, and have stable biochemical character-
istics. Rapid and uniform growth is desirable. The habit of growth is
important. A fungus which forms mucilaginous colonies which adhere
to the walls of the flasks is difficult to harvest, and yeasts which clump
are difficult to determine by turbidimetric methods.
The basal medium. Except for the compound or element under
investigation the basal medium should be complete and balanced. If a
test organism is deficient for more than one factor, all the factors except
the one under investigation should be present in optimum amounts.
Other requirements are easily available sources of carbon and nitrogen
and a medium which is adequately buffered in the optimum pH range.
The basalmedium should be essentially free from the vitamin or other

factor under test. The response of the test organism to the basal
medium should be slight; this value is known as the blank, or control.
The size of the blank depends upon the residual concentration of the
factor in the basal medium and the amount and kind of inoculum used.
The degree to which a basal medium should be freed of the substance
under depends upon the sensitivity of the test organism.
test
The best basal medium for any test organism can be determined only
after a prolonged investigation of the nutritional requirements of the
organism. This arduous task is too infrequently attempted. Fre-
quently, it is desirable to use some natural material medium. A
in the
complex medium which supplies several sources of carbon and nitrogen
as well as other organic compounds may support more rapid growth than
a simple minimal medium.
The sample being analyzed may contain compounds which stimulate
or depress growth. Stimulation of growth due to the presence of acces-
sory factors, is perhaps more often encountered than growth depression.
The adequacy of the basal medium may be tested by comparing the
growth curve obtained on the sample with the standard curve. If the
response of the test organism to the sample is due solely to the factor con-
tained in the sample, the two curves will be identical. The presence of
inhibiting substances in the sample is detected when the sample curve
fallsbelow the standard curve. Stimulating substances are revealed by
an upward drift of the sample curve.
If biologically pure compounds were available, the preparation of basal
media for assay purposes would be greatly simplified. No general
method of purification is useful for all purposes. Riboflavin is destroyed
by light, and media can be freed of this vitamin by exposure to strong
illumination. Activated charcoal (Norit or Darco) is very useful in
adsorbing residual traces of many vitamins. Recrystallization of sugars,
asparagine, and mineral salts is helpful in some instances. Casein is
extracted with hot alcohol to remove vitamins. The essential micro
elements may
be removed in the ways discussed in Chap. 5. Frequently
reagents made by one manufacturer are purer in certain respects than
those of another.
Three basal media which have been used for fungi in microbiological
assays are given below.
Glucose-Asparagine
Glucose 30 e,
Asparagine 1 g.
MgS04-7HoO 0.5 g.
KH2PO4 1.5 g.
Distilled water to make 1 liter
This medium was used for thiamine assay using Phycomyces blake-
sleeanus as the test fungus (Schopfer, 1945).
Sucrose-Ammonium Tartrate-Ammonium Nitrate

Sucrose 20 g.
KH2PO4 1 g.
MgS04-7H20 0.5 g.
Ammonium tartrate 5 . g.
NH4NO3 1.0 g.
NaCl 0.1 g.
CaCli 0.1 g.
B 0.01 mg.
Mo 02 mg.
.
Fe 0.2 mg.,
Cu 0.1 mg.
Mn 0.02 mg.
Zn 2.0 mg.
Bio tin 5 Mg
Distilled water to make 1,000 ml.
This medium was used by Horowitz and Beadle (1943) and by Beadle
(1944) for the assay of choline and inositol by biochemical mutants of
Neurospora crassa.
Glucose-Casein Hydrolysate
Glucose 25 g.
Casein hydrolysate equivalent to 2 g. casein
MgS04-7H20 0.5 g.
KH2PO4 l.Og.
Fumaric acid 1 32 g.
.
NaaCOs 1.12 g.
Fe+ + + as sulfate 0.2 mg.
Zn+ + as sulfate 0.2 mg.
Mn+ + as sulfate 0.1 mg.
This medium was used by Leonian and Lilly (1945) for the assay of
certain vitamins. Various deficient yeasts and filamentous fungi were
used as test organisms. This medium is suitable for testing fungi for
vitamin deficiencies.
Preparing for an assay. In general, the compound being assayed
should be brought into aqueous solution before assaying. Many vita-
mins occur in a ''bound" condition and must be liberated before analysis.
The procedure used to liberate bound vitamins depends upon the vita-
min involved, as well as the nature of the substance being assayed.
Snell (1948) has listed tentative methods for the liberation of the various
vitamins. In general, acid or enzymatic hydrolysis is used. Proteins
are hydrolyzed before amino-acid assay. Acid hydrolysis is destructive
to certain amino acids, especially tryptophane. Alkaline hydrolysis of

proteins has been recommended for this amino acid (Greene and Black,
1944).
The concentrations of the standard compound and of the sample for
assay should be so chosen that the response of the test organism is roughly
linear. Every concentration should be run in duplicate. Control flasks
to which neither the standard compound nor the assay sample have been
added should form a part of every assay. This provides a means of
evaluating the basal medium and should never be omitted.
The type of culture vessel and the volume of the basal medium used
will depend upon the test organism. Bacteria are frequently cultured
in test tubes. These are also useful for yeasts. Uniform test tubes
which can be used in a photoelectric colorimeter allow measurement of
turbidity without transfer (Lindegren and Raut, 1947). The filamentous
fungi are usually cultured in Erlenmeyer flasks. The volume of medium
should be so chosen that the liquid is less than 1 cm. deep. All glassware
must be clean. Accuracy in measuring the basal medium and the known
and unknown solutions is essential.
Inoculation and incubation. The medium upon which the inoculum
is grown should be complete and contain an adequate but not excessive
amount of the factor under investigation. Certain fungi, especially the

yeasts, cease to be deficient for certain vitamins when continuously cul-
tured upon media free from these factors.
Spore inoculum may be used with advantage with many filamentous
fungi. Frequently it is desirable to use germinated spores for inoculum.
Phycomyces blakesleeanus spores require the Z factors for rapid germina-
tion (Robbins, 1940). If the test sample contains these factors and the
basal medium does not, early growth will be more rapid in the sample
series. It is convenient to germinate the spores of this fungus and others
by preparing a spore suspension in dilute peptone solution a few hours
before inoculation. These germinated spores grow essentially without
interruption and shorten the time of incubation. Fragmented mycelium
may also be used to advantage. A uniform amount of inoculum must be
used. This is easy to achieve when a suspension of spores or fragmented
mycelium is used. Inocula of these types provide a multitude of growing
points, which results in uniform growth. Disks of mycelium on agar
are, in general, unsatisfactory.
An obvious advantage of using a large amount of inoculum is the
shorter time required for an assay. However, there is danger of intro-
ducing with a large inoculum enough of the substance under investigation
to give abnormally high blanks. Washing the inoculum with sterile
distilled water reduces this hazard but increases the work and multiplies
the chances of contamination. A very small inoculum results in a longer
lag period, and the time required for analysis may be prolonged.
Test organisms during an assay should be cultured under uniform

conditions with respect to light and temperature.In general, the fila-
mentous fungi should not be agitated during the period of incubation.
Yeasts are frequently grown with continuous or intermittent shaking.
There are two schools thought concerning the time of incubation
of
for assay. The first recommends a uniform short period
of growth and
determination of the yield before the organism reaches its maximum
development. There is a saving in time in this method, but the influence
of accessory factors in the sample may make such results unreliable. A
comparison should always be made between the analytical data for a
short and a long period of incubation before choosing the length of incu-
bation period. In general, we feel that assays tend to be more reliable
when the period of incubation is long enough to allow maximum
development of the test organism.
Measuring the response. The methods used for measuring the
response of test organisms vary. The growth response of bacteria may
be measured either by titrating the acid produced or by determining the
turbidity with a suitable photoelectric colorimeter. The growth response
of yeasts may be measured as turbidity, or the cells may be weighed.
The first procedure is by far the simpler. The growth of filamentous
fungi is commonly measured by collecting the mycelium and determining
the drj^ weight (see discussion in Chap. 3).
Calculation of results. A growth curve (acidity, turbidity, or weight)
is plotted from the response of the test organism to the different concen-
trations of the standard substance. The concentration of the substance

in the sample is then calculated from the standard curve. It is necessary
to use a new standard curve for each series of assays. Unsuspected
variations in the basal medium and in technique from day to day make
this precaution necessary. In making the calculations, it is assumed that
equal amounts of the substance, whether as a pure compound or in the
sample, will cause the same amount of response by the test organism.
It is customary to report the concentrations of vitamins and micro essen-
tial elements in micrograms per gram of original sample.
As an example of the type of calculation involved in an assay, the

standard curve (Fig. 43) and protocol of a biotin assay are given below.
The substance assayed was air-dry yeast cells. Biotin was liberated
from the sample by acid hydrolysis, and the cell extract was neutralized
and made up to such volume that 1 ml. of hydrolysate was equivalent
to 50 mg. of original yeast cells. The
test organism, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae,Gebriide Mayer strain, was incubated for 72 hr at 25°C.
Twenty-five milliliters of glucose-casein hydrolysate medium was used
per 250-ml. flask. The cultures were agitated 10 min. every hour. The
data for the response of the test organism to varying amounts of yeast
hydrolysate are given in Table 35.
Table 35. Yield of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cells Produced when Different

Amounts of Yeast Hydrolysate Were Added to 25 Milliliters of a
Biotin-free Glucose-Casein Hydrolysate Medium
Yeast hydrolysate,
FVNGI AS TEST ORGANISMS 215
when different test organisms are used. The review of Snell (1948)
represents the critical judgment of an active investigator in this field.
While the filamentous fungi are frequently passed over in favor of
bacteria and yeasts, they offer certain advantages when only simple
apparatus is available, or where occasional assays are to be made. The
test organisms for the specific vitamins listed below are in part those
recommended by Snell (1948).
Thiamine. Phycomyces hlakesleeanus. This fungus responds to the
two moities of thiamine. Schopfer (1935, 1945) used a glucose-asparagine
medium and used dry weight of mycelium to measure growth. This is
an excellent organism to use in gaining experience with a microbiological
assay. Schultz et al. (1942) used Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Fleischmann's
baker's yeast) and measured the evolution of carbon dioxide, which was
proportional to the thiamine content of the sample.
Pyridoxine. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Snell (1945a) found that
this yeast responds about equally to pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxa-
mine. Growth may be measured turbidimetrically or by weighing the
cells. Differential assays for these three vitamers have been devised.
p-Aminobenzoic acid. Neurospora crassa mutant. Various labora-
tories have used this organism (Tatum et al, 1946). For the effect of
pH on utilization of this vitamin see Wyss et al. (1944).
Pantothenic acid. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Most, if not all,
yeasts respond to the )3-alanine moiety of pantothenic acid. Atkin et al.
(1944) noted that the incorporation of Z-asparagine in the basal medium
reduced interference due to /3-alanine.
Nicotinic acid. Lactobacillus
arabinosus. This organism responds
equally to nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. Growth may be measured
either by titrating the acid produced, or turbidimetrically (Krehl et al.,
1943). Zygosaccharomyces marxianus was used by Leonian and Lilly
(1945).
Inositol. Neurospora crassa mutant. This mutant was first used by
Beadle (1944) to assay inositol. It is an easy organism to handle, and
since this mutant forms few conidia, it is not a great source of contamina-
tion to a laboratoiy. Snell (1948) recommends the use of Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis for inositol assay.
Biotin. Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Various strains have been used.
Many, not all, strains respond also to desthiobiotin (Lilly and Leonian,
if
1944). The existence of many biotin vitamers makes the choice of a test
organism difficult. Neurospora crassa and N. sitophila may also be used.
It is probable that some of the divergence of assay values obtained when
different test organisms are used is due to biotin complexes. Such a
complex, biocytin, has been isolated by Wright et al. (1950). The
analytical results were unchanged by acid hydrolysis when Lactobacillus
casei was used but were increased when L. arahinosus was the test
organism.
Riboflavin. Lactohacillus casei. Fatty acids stimulate growth.
Growth may be measured by titrating the acid formed, or turbidimetri-
cally (Roberts and Snell, 1946). It is probable that mutants of Neuro-
spora deficient for this vitamin may also be used in assay.
AMINO-ACID ASSAYS
The importance of the amino-acid composition of proteins used in
animal nutrition makes any advance in analytical methods of great
interest and value. The general techniques for amino-acid determina-
tions by microbiological procedures are the same as for other assays.
The first requirement of this type of microbiological assay is a suitable
test organism. Few fungi isolated from nature are deficient for amino
acids. For this reason bacteria have been extensively used. The follow-
ing references will give an entry into the literature on the use of bacteria
for amino-acid assay: Hutchings and Peterson (1943); Shankman (1943);
Dunn et at. (1944); Snell (1945); and Horn et at. (1950).
Some mutants of N'eurospora have been found to be deficient for amino
acids. Mutants having the following amino-acid deficiencies have been
studied: leucine, isoleucine, valine, lysine, methionine, serine, or glycine.
Only the mutant have been much used in
deficient for leucine appears to
microbiological assay (Ryan and Brand, 1944; Brand et al., 1945). The
growth of a lysine-deficient mutant was completely inhibited by arginine
when the molecular ratio of arginine to lysine was 2 to 1 (Doermann,
1944).
Ryan (1948) has considered the possibility of microbiological assay
of amino acids by observing the percentage of germination of conidia
from deficient mutants in the presence of different concentrations of the
specific amino acid. An assay can be completed within a few hours by
this method. Unfortunately the inhibiting action of certain amino acids
introduces complications into the proposed method.
Mutations of Neurospora and certain other fungi have been induced
by chemicals, such as nitrite or nitrous acid, colchicine, nitrogen mustard
gas, and hydrogen peroxide, or by irradiation with ultraviolet and X rays.
These mutants are frequently characterized by inability to synthesize
various metabolites. They differ from the parent wild type in that one
or more genes have been inactivated. It is thought that each gene con-
trols a single biochemical reaction. Mutants having the same gross
deficiency may differ in the specific gene inactivated.
Horowitz (1947) studied four mutants of Neurospora which were unable
to synthesize methionine from inorganic sources of nitrogen and sulfur.
One of these mutants was able to grow in the presence of cysteine, cysta-
thionine, homocysteine, and methionine. The second was unable to

utihze cysteine but was able to utilize the other three compounds. The
third isolate utilized either homocysteine or methionine, while the fourth
isolate utilized only methionine. From these results the steps in the
synthesis of methionine and the genes inactivated may be summarized as
gene 4 gene 3 gene 2 gene
follows :
> cysteine > homocysteine
cystathionine -^ methi-
> — 1
onine. From similar studies Srb and Horowitz (1944) concluded that
Neurospora synthesizes arginine as follows: ornithine -^ citrulline —>
arginine.
Fungus mutants have proved to be powerful tools for investigating
pathways of synthesis and utilization of vitamins, amino acids, and other
compounds, and in studies of biochemical mutations. From these studies
also comes the realization that each step in the synthesis or utilization of
a compound may be controlled or limited by a specific gene. The review
papers of Bonner (194G) and Beadle (1945, 1945a) should be consulted
for further information and literature citations.
ASSAYS FOR ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Microorganisms may be used to determine the presence of essential
elements. In view of the speed and accuracy of chemical and spectro-
scopic methods, it might be assumed that microorganisms would be of
little value in such applications. The value of microbiological tests
would appear to be in applications where availability as well as total
amounts are of importance. Problems of this sort frequently arise in
connection with mineral deficiencies in soil. It is recognized that the
absolute content of an essential element in a soil may not measure the
availability of that element for green plants. Microbiological and chem-
ical methods of analysis must be correlated with plant tests before they
are of much value.
The number of test organisms is unlimited except for the
possible
important considerations of sensitivity, ease of handling, and time
required to make an assay. In practice, only a few organisms have been
used. There exists a wide field for investigations dealing with the cor-
relation between availability to microorganisms and availability to green
plants of certain essential elements in soil.
Copper. Mulder (1939-1940) used Aspergillus niger to determine
copper in soil. The range of concentrations in the standard series was
0.0 to 2.5 Mg Cu++ per culture; 40 ml. of medium was used in liter flasks.
One gram of sterile soil was used as the sample. The method of measur-
ing the response of A. niger to copper was very simple, inasmuch as the
number and color of the spores produced were functions of the copper
content of the medium. No spores developed on the control medium, but
with increasing concentrations of copper the spores were yellow, yellow-

brown, gray-brown, brown, and black.
The color of the spores produced on copper-deficient media by different
isolates of A. niger varied. Excellent correlation between the copper
content of various soils as determined by this method and the incidence
of copper deficiency in grain was found. Some of Mulder's results are
presented in Table 36.
Table 3G. The Correlation of Copper Deficiency in White Oats and the
Copper Content of the Soil as Determined by Aspergillus niger Method
All soil was from the same field. (Mulder, Antonie van Leeuwenhock 6, 1940.)
Available Copper,
Condition of Oats Mg per G. of Soil
Severely diseased .25
Less severely diseased 0.8
Healthy (from a portion of the field not showing the disease) 1.7
Healthy (copper sulfate added to the soil) 2.5
Magnesium. Smit and Mulder (1942) postulated that a microbio-

logicalmethod would show better correlation with magnesium deficiency
in green plants than chemical methods. This was confirmed for the
Netherlands soils investigated. Azotobacter chroococcum and Aspergillus
niger were used as test organisms. Preference wâs given to the fungus
inasmuch as only 4 to 5 days w-ere required for an assay. A simple
technique was used, and visual comparison wâs sufficiently accurate to
diagnose magnesium deficiency in soils.
Potassium. Aspergillus niger was used by Niklas and Toursel (1940)

to determine available potassium and other elements in soils. These
authors weighed the mycelium produced. Rogosa (1944) has shown that
Lactobacillus casei may be used to determine small amounts of potassium.
rABLE 37. The Effect of Molybdenum Content of a Glucose-Nitrate Medium

UPON Yield of Mycelium and Sporulation of Aspergillus niger
(Mulder, Plant and Soil 1, 1948.)
Mg Na2Mo04-2H.A
in 50 ml. medium
before analysis. It is probable that amino acids and other nitrogen

sources containing reduced nitrogen would also affect the amount of
molybdenum needed. Mulder (1948) investigated the use of Aspergillus
niger as a test organism (Table 37). For further discussion and refer-
ences to the use of microorganisms in essential-element assay see Vande-
caveye (1948).
SUGARS
Yeasts and other microorganisms have been used to separate optical
isomers and complex mixtures of sugars. Pasteur (18G0) used Pemcillium
glaucum to obtain the "unnatural" isomer of tartaric acid from rfZ-tartaric
acid. Fischer and Hertz (1892) used brewer's yeast to ferment D-galac-
tose, while L-galactose in the same medium was not utilized. Auernheimer
el al. (1948) used the specific fermentative powers of Hansenula suaveolens
and Candida guilliermondi in the separation of L-arabinose and D-xylose

obtained from the hydrolysis of straw and corn cobs. H. suaveolens does
not utilize L-arabinose, while C. guilliermondi utilizes both pentoses.
Saccharomyces carlshergensis was used to demonstrate the absence of
D-glucose in the hydrolysates. These yeasts were used in conjunction
with chemical methods of analysis. Appling et al. (1947) found Sac-
charomyces carlshergensis var. mandschuricus to ferment D-galactose but
not L-galactose. Similarly, H. suaveolens utilized D-xylose but not
L-xylose.
These citations indicate the usefulness of yeasts and other organisms
in the solution of problems difficult to solve by other methods. The
value of microorganisms in such applications is due to their specificity.
TESTS FOR CERTAIN METABOLIC PRODUCTS

Fungi excrete into the media in w^hich they grow various physiologically
active substances. In the older literature these are referred to as staling
'products. Among the metabolic products are those which may stimulate
or inhibit growth and reproduction. The kind and the amount of com-
pounds excreted depend upon the particular fungus involved as well as
the composition of the medium. The effect of the metabolic products ot
one fungus upon another is simply demonstrated when fungi are gro^vn
in association. The beneficial effect of one fungus upon another was
demonstrated by Kogl and Fries (1937). Neither Nematospora gossypii
or Polyporus adustus grew when inoculated alone into a synthetic medium,
but when both fungi were inoculated together in the same flask, both
began to grow rapidly after about a week. N. gossypii is deficient for
biotin but synthesizes thiamine, while P. adustus
is deficient for thiamine
but synthesizes biotin. Kogl and Fries called this artificial symbiosis.
Schopfer and Guilloud (1945) cite other examples in connection with
work on strains of Candida guilliermondi involving vitamin deficiencies.
By using a series of test organisms of known deficiencies, it is easy to

demonstrate that fungi excrete vitamins. It is a common experience to
find deficient fungi growing in association with contaminants. The
method is simple and consists of inoculating plates of vitamin-free medium
with two test fungi (Fig. 44). Not all fungi excrete the same amount of a
Fig. 44. Test demonstrating the excretion of biotin by Aspergillus 7'ugulosus (right),
whengrownwith Sordariafimicola (biotin-deficient) on vitamin-free glucose-asparagine
medium. Sordaria (left) made only slight growth until it approached the colony of
Aspergillus, where a zone of stimulated growth is evident.
given vitamin. This may be shown by choosing test fungi such as

Sordaria fimicola, which requires more biotin for fruiting than for growth.
Some fungi excrete enough biotin to allow grow^th of S. fimicola, while
others excrete enough biotin to allow reproduction also. Other com-
pounds besides the vitamins may
be excreted and favor the growth of
other organisms. Further instances of the favorable effect of one fungus
on the sporulation of another are discussed in Chap. 14.
The metabolic products of one fungus may inhibit the growth of
another. This phenomenon may be frequently observed on contaminated
plates (Fig. 45). Fleming (1929) discovered the action of penicillin in
this way.
Many fungi apparently produce substances which inhibit the germina-
tion of their spores. Schopfer (1933) found that spores of Phy corny ces
blakesleeanus would not germinate on agar media upon which this fungus
had grown. If such a "staled" plate was autoclaved, the medium would
then allow germination and growth of P. blakesleeanus. These results
indicate that the spore-inhibiting substance was either volatile or

unstable. This inhibitory substance was not identified.
Fig. 45. Test for antibiotic production by growing two organisms in association on
the same agar plate. Helminthosporium sativum on the left and an unidentified
actinomycete on the right.
TESTING FABRIC PROTECTANTS

While the deterioration exposed to the weather
of cellulosic materials
or in contact with the soil not solely due to the action of bacteria and
is
fungi, these organisms are the chief agents of destruction. The problem
of deterioration of cellulosic materials has received a vast amount of
attention, especially in connection with military materiel in humid tropic
climates. Work on this problem involves the identification of the respon-
sible microorganisms, laboratory tests, and use of test fungi in evaluating
protectants.
The basis of the various methods for determining cellulolytic activity
consists in inoculating cotton duck or other test material with the fungi
under test. The degree of cellulolytic activity is determined by measur-
ing the decrease in tensile strength of the test specimen. The test
medium used is usually an inorganic salt solution having pH 6.8. It is
desirable to use a buffered medium inasmuch as cellulasemost active
is
around pH 7. White et at. (1948) note that many fungi which are
strongly cellulolytic under laboratory conditions cause but httle damage
in the field. They believe that, under a given set of natural environ-
mental conditions, the actual decay of fibers is caused by a relatively
few species of fungi. Among the strongly cellulolytic fungi are Mem-
noniella echinata (the variability in strains in laboratory tests is possibly

correlated with biotin deficiency), Chaetomium spp., especially C. glo-
bosian (Greathouse and Ames, 1945), Myrothecium verrucaria (as strong
a cellulose decomposer as yet found in laboratory tests), Trichoderma
viride, and Thielavia sepedonium.
The reduction in tensile strength of cotton duck maintained under
specified conditions is used as a measure of the destructive effects of
fungi on fabrics. The data in Table 38 are taken from White et al. (1948).
Table 38. Assay of Fungi for Cellulolytic Activity Based upon Loss of
Tensile Strength of Cotton Duck
(White et al, Mrjcologia 40, 1948.)
Strength retained, %
Species
PQMD 25a
Aspergillus niger
A. terreusPQMD 72f
Chaetomium funicolum PQMD 351.
C. globosum PQMD 32b
Fusarium oxysponim Fla C-8
Gliomastix convoluta PQMD 4c
Myrothecium verrucaria PQMD 70h
Thielavia sepedonium PQMD 47g. .
Trichoderma viride PQMD 6a

T. viride PQMD 63d
test substance present in the medium. Among the substances for which
quantitative assay procedures have been developed are the vitamins,
amino and essential elements. Microorganisms have also been
acids,
used to discover pathways of biochemical synthesis and degradation, to
separate isomers, and for other analytical purposes.
The essential features of a microbiological assay are (1) a suitable test
organism, (2) a suitable basal medium essentially free from the substance
under test, (3) preparation of the sample, (4) a reference standard (a
pure compound where possible), (5) two series of cultures to which a
known range of concentrations of the standard and unknown have been
added, (6) uniform inoculation, (7) incubation under uniform conditions,
(8) measuring the response of the test organisms, (9) construction of a
standard curve, and (10) calculating the results.
When microbiological assay procedures are used, it is unnecessary to
isolate the compound being assayed from the other constituents present
in the sample. The preparation of the sample for assay is usually simple
and ordinarily involves hydrolysis. Microbiological procedures usually
require a short time to complete. The amount
of sample needed is small,
which isan important consideration in some problems. Microbiological
assays are invaluable, provided that suitable test organisms are available,
in devising chemical procedures for the isolation of new vitamins and
other physiologically active compounds.
Biochemical mutants of Neurospora and other fungi are particularly
useful in determining the pathways of synthesis of amino acids and other
compounds.
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Appling, J. W., E. K. Ratcliff, and L. E. Wise: Chemical and microbiological
differentiation of enantiomorphs of galactose and xylose, Anal. Chem. 19 496- :
497, 1947.
Atkin, L., W. L. Williams, A. S. Schultz, and C. N. Frey: Yeast microbiological
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Anal. Ed. 16: 67-71, 1944.
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Beadle, G. W. An inositoUess mutant strain of Neurospora and its use in bioassays,
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Bonner, D.: Biochemical mutations in Neurospora, Cold Spring Harbor Symposia
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Brand, E., F. J. Ryan, and E. M. Diskant: Leucine content of proteins and food-
stuffs, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 67: 1532-1534, 1945.
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Arch. Biochem. 5 : 373-384, 1944.
Dunn, M. S., S. Shankman, M. N. Camien, W. Frankland, and L. B. Rockland:
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requirements of Leuconostoc viesenteroides P-60, Jour. Biol. Chem. 156: 703-713,
1944.
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and foods. Jour. Biol. Chem. 155 1-8, 1944. :
Horn, M. J., D. B. Jones, and A. E. Blum: Methods for microbiological and chemi-
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Agr. Misc. Pub. 696, 1950.
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thionine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 171 : 255-264, 1947.
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synthesizing deficiencies of microorganisms, Ann. Missouri Botan. Garden 34:
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magnesium and molybdenum in soils. Anionic van Leeuwenhoek 6: 99-109,
1939-1940.
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:
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Bodenkunde und Pflxinzen erndkr. 18 79-107, 1940. :
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Roberts, E. C, and E. E. Snell: An improved medium for microbiological assays
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RoGOSA, M.: Microbiological method for the quantitative determination of small

quantities of potassium, Jour. Biol. Chem. 154: 307-308, 1944.
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Ryan, F. J., and E. Brand: A method for the determination of leucine in protein
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ScHOPFER, W. H. Les Tests microbiologiques pour
: la determination des vitamines,
Experientia 1 : 1-68, 1945.
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microorganismes explique par une action vitaminique, Verhandl. naturforsch.
Ges. Basel 61: 299-314, 1945.
ScHULTZ, A. S., L. Atkin, and C. N. Frey: Determination of vitamin Bi by yeast
fermentation method. Improvements related to the use of sulfite cleavage and
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150:305-310, 1943.
Smit,J., and E. G. Mulder: Magnesium deficiency as the cause of injury in cereals,
Mededeelingen van de Landbouwhoogeschool, Deel 46, Verhandeling 3, 1942.

Snell, E. E. The microbiological assay of amino acids. Advances in Protein Chem. 2
:
85-118, 1945.
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*Snell, E. E.: Use of microorganisms for assay of vitamins, Physiol. Revs. 28: 255-
282, 1948.
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CHAPTER 11
METABOLITE ANTAGONISTS
This chapter and the one following will deal with chemical compounds
which inhibit, injure, or kill fungi. Much can be learned about "normal"
physiological processes by studying the factors which interfere with them.
The ideas to be discussed here are applicable to the entire field of phys-
iology, and some of our illustrative material will deal with organisms
other than fungi. The reviews of Woolley (1944), Welch (1945), Wright
(1947), Mcllwain (1947), and Roblin (1946, 1949) are extensive and well
documented and should be consulted for additional references.
Metabolites are chemical substances which are essential for the func-
tioning and maintenance of living cells. Metabolites may be synthesized
by the organism or obtained from the medium, e.g., vitamins, amino
acids, etc.
An antimetabolite, or antagonist, is a compound which interferes with
the utilization of a normal metabolite. Wright (1947) has classified
antagonists (more specifically antivitamins) on the basis of their mode of
action: (1) those which act by virtue of destroying or inactivating a
metabolite; (2) those which combine irreversibly with enzymes (non-
competitive inhibition) and (3) those which combine with enzymes but
;
w^hich may be displaced by increased concentration of the normal metabo-

lite (competitive inhibition).
Noncompetitive enzyme inhibition is so called because an increase in
the concentration of the normal coenzyme or metabolite molecules does
not reverse the inhibition. Inhibitors of this type act by combining
with some atom or molecular group of either a coenzyme or an apoenzyme.
Among inhibitors of this type we may list the heavy metals, various
organic mercury and arsenic compounds, iodoacetate, and quinones,
which inactivate enzymes by combining with free sulfhydryl groups (see
Singer, 1945, and McElroy, 1947, for references). Among the inhibitors
which act on the iron-porphyrin enzymes are cyanide, azide, hydrogen
sulfide, and carbon monoxide. Most of the discussion to follow will deal
with competitive antagonists.
Metabolite antagonists are analogues of normal metabolites, but not
all analogues of a metabolite are necessarily antagonists. These "for-
eign" molecules, because of their close resemblance to normal metabolites,
combine with enzymes in the same manner as normal metabolites. How-
226
METABOLITE ANTAGONISTS 227
ever, these foreign molecules are not transformed by the enzyme to which
they are bound. If the antagonist is an analogue of a coenzyme, it
presumably forms a pseudoholoenzyme which is unable to function. The
close structural relation between a metabolite (p-aminobenzoic acid) and
its antagonist (sulfanilamide) is shown in Fig. 46.
H H
N
6.7 A.
J A !
—|2.3A.|-^ —[2.4 A.
p-Aminobenzoate Ion Sulfanilamide
Fig. 46. Interatomic distances and structural relationships of p-aminobenzoate ion
and sulfanilamide. (Courtesy of Roblin, Chem. Eng. News 27 3624, 1949. Published
:
by permission of American Chemical Society.)
In spite of the large number of compounds which have been tested for
antagonism, it is not possible to specify exactly what changes in metabolite
molecules are required to produce antagonists. A single modification of a
metabolite molecule is more hkely to produce an antagonist than two or
more changes in structure. This is to be expected, for an antagonist
must closely resemble the corresponding metabolite. Replacing a
carboxyl group with a sulfonic-acid group has been effective in many
instances.
The enzymes has been likened to the relation of a
specific action of
lock and its Unless an enzyme and a substrate molecule are related
key.
in this fashion, no reaction will take place. A modern diagrammatic
representation of the lock-and-key simile is shown in Fig. 47. The
mechanism may be visuahzed by referring to
of competitive inhibition
this figure. Metabolite antagonists may be thought of as "wrong" keys,
which jam the lock mechanism. As long as a false key is in the lock,
it prevents the true key from entering and opening the lock.
Compounds which resemble coenzymes in structure compete for the

active surface of apoenzymes. Because of similarity in structure, an
apoenzyme-foreign molecule complex, or pseudoholoenzyme is formed.
Such a pseudoenzyme is unable to function. The reversal of enzyme
inhibition in such instances is caused by the addition of more coenzyme
molecules. The argument is the same when substrate analogues are
involved. For example, 3-fluorophenylalanine inhibits the utihzation
of phenylalanine (a normal metabolite) by Neurospora crassa (Mitchell

and Neimann, 1947).
The effect of an antagonist will depend upon the concentration of the
normal metabolite present in the medium and cells and upon the organ-
ism. In general, enzymes have a greater affinity for metabolites than
for antimetabolites. Since both metabolite and antagonist compete
for the same enzyme, the amount of inhibition will depend upon the
relative concentrations rather than upon the absolute amounts of these
compounds present. The amount of an inhibitor required to reduce the
nAPSubstrate
Products
free enzyme
Enzyme -substrate
complex
Fig. 47. A diagrammatic illustration of Fischer's simile that an enzyme and its
substrate are related as are a lock and its key. (Courtesy of McElroy, Quart. Rev.
Biol. 22 : 26, 1947. Published by permission of The Williams & Wilkins Company.)
amount of growth to one-half will depend upon the ratio of inhibitor and
metabolite present. In simple instances, at least, this ratio is equal to a
constant and is called the inhibition constant, or index. The amounts
of sulfadiazine and p-aminobenzoic acid required to reduce the amount
of growth R to one-half the normal value gave an
of Streptococcus faecalis
inhibition index of 333 (Lampen and Jones, 1946).
The inhibition index is valid only for the particular conditions used
in an experiment and for the particular strains of the organism used. In
the case of self-sufficient organisms the use of an amount of inhibitor less
than that required for total inhibition will only decrease the rate of
growth, and thus the inhibition index will change with the time of incuba-
tion. This is due to the synthesis of the metabohte by the organism.

Sulfanilamide inhibits the growth of Aspergillus niger, but the fun-
gus overcomes this inhibition as the time of incubation is prolonged
(Hartelius, 194G). The concentration of a metabolite in the control
cultures should be less than the amount which allows maximum growth,
because of the nonlinear response of an organism to the metabolite at
high concentrations.
The composition
of the medium is an important consideration in any
investigation metabolite antagonism. If adequate amounts of a
of
natural metabolite are present, the action of an inhibitor may be over-
looked. Synthetic media should be used. The composition of the
medium used may also affect the action of
an inhibitor in another way.
If metabolite Atransformed into metabolite B by an organism, the
is
presence of metabolite B in sufficient amount for optimum growth may be

expected to nullify any amount of an antagonist for metabolite A. An
antagonist of metabolite B, however, would exhibit normal competitive
inhibition, Shive and Macow (1946) have pointed out that, by the use
of a suitable series of inhibitors, it is possible to follow the transformations
of a given metabolite step by
These authors designate this use of
step.
metabolite antagonists as inhibition analysis. Rydon (1948) found
Bacterium typhosum to synthesize tiyptophane by the following steps:
anthranilic acid —> indole —> tryptophane. The 2- and 4-methylanthran-
ihc acids were potent inhibitors against anthranilic acid but not against
indole or tryptophane. Certain analogues of indole and tryptophane
were inhibitors of these metabolites.
In discussing metabolite antagonists in a general way, it should be
borne in mind that these compounds may inhibit only certain organisms,
or a particular organism only under certain conditions. For example,
desthiobiotin is a biotin antagonist for Ceratostomella pini and Lacto-
hacillus casei, while this compound replaces biotin for many strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Lilly and Leonian, 1944). Woolley (1944,
1946) is of the opinion that the established facts of inhibition and reversal
are more important than the hypotheses which are adopted to explain
these phenomena. However, the concept of competitive metabohte
antagonism has been very useful in correlating a vast amount of experi-
mental work in apparently unrelated fields.
ANTIVITAMINS
Antivitamins are known for all the water-soluble vitamins which have
been synthesized and for at least one of the fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin
K).
p-Aminobenzoic acid antagonists. When the sulfonamides were intro-
duced into medicine, it was quickly found that serum and other natural
products antagonized the inhibitive action of sulfanilamide on the growth

of certain bacteria.Rubbo and Gillespie (1940) discovered that p-amino-
benzoic acid was a growth factor for certain bacteria. Woods (1940)
found that p-aminobenzoic acid in low concentration overcame sulfanila-
mide inhibition. A general theory was proposed by Fildes (1940) to
explain the antagonism between metabolites and compounds having
closely related structures.
1400
8 10 12 16 18 20
Doys of incubotion
Fig. 48. The effect of various concentrations of sulfanilamide (amounts per flask)
upon the time of spore germination and upon the rate and amovnt of growth of
Aspergillus niger in flasks containing 55 ml. of sucrose—ammonium sulfate medium at
32°C. (Drawn from the data of Hartelius, Compt. rend. trav. lab. Carlsberg, S^r.
physiol. 24: 181, 1946.)
Sulfanilamide was first considered to be antagonized by p-amino-

benzoic acid, rather than the reverse. This was due to the discovery
of the therapeutic value of sulfanilamide before it was known that
p-aminobenzoic acid was a vitamin. The structural relation between
these compounds has already been noted. The literature dealing with
the sulfonamides is abundant, but most of it relates to bacteria and
medicine. Relatively few papers have been published on the effects
of these compounds on the growth of fungi.
Hartelius (1946) investigated the effect of sulfanilamide upon the
growth of Aspergillus niger and found that the amount of inhibition was
dependent upon the amount of inoculum used, the concentration of
sulfanilamide in the medium, and the time of incubation. The curves
in Fig. 48 illustrate the effect of time of incubation on inhibition, a factor
which is too often overlooked in experiments of this kind. The curves
in Fig. 48 indicate that A. niger synthesizes either p-aminobenzoic acid

or some other compound which reverses the inhibitory action of sulfa-
nilamide. When p-aminobenzoic acid was added to the medium, sulfa-
nilamide no longer inhibited the growth of yl. niger (Hartelius and Roholt,
1946). Other fungi have been shown to react like A. niger when cultured
in media containing sulfanilamide (Fourneau et al., 1936).
It has been assumed that self-sufficient fungi require the same vitamins
as the deficient species. The synthesis of a vitamin may suggest its
need but does not demonstrate it. Antivitamins (or other antimeta-
bolites) provide a way of demonstrating the need of self-sufficient fungi
for the vitamins they synthesize. Thus A. niger requires p-aminobenzoic
acid just as Rhodotorula aurantica does, but this need can be demonstrated
only in the presence of a specific reversible inhibitor such as sulfanilamide.
This technique offers a possible way of discovering new vitamins and
other metabolites. If a compound inhibits growth, it is worth while to
search for compounds which overcome this inhibition reversibly.
For most purposes sulfanilamide has been replaced by other sulfona-
mides. However, sulfanilamide appears to be the most active sulfona-
mide against fungi. For a review of the clinical aspects of the sulfona-
mides in mycoses and for literature citations, see Wolf (1947).
Stoddard (1947) has reported the sulfonamides to be of some value in
controlling the X disease of peach (a virus). Addition of p-amino-
benzoic acid lessened the effectiveness of the treatment.
It is recognized that the simple Woods-Fildes theory of competitive
inhibition is inadequate to explain completely the mechanism of sulfona-
mide therapy. In vivo the environment is much more complex than in
simple laboratory media. For further information and references to the
Sevag et al. (1945) and Mudd (1945).
literature, see
Thiamine antagonists. Thiamine may be inactivated by an enzyme,
thiaminase, which is found in fish viscera (Sealock et al., 1943) and prob-
ably occurs in other organisms. Foxes which are fed raw fish may
develop a thiamine-deficiency disease (Chastek paralysis). The mode of
inactivation was further investigated by Krampitz and Woolley (1944),
who found that thiamine was destroyed by a process of enzymatic hydrol-
ysis whereby the thiazole and pyrimidine moieties were formed. Mucor
ramanniamis (thiazole-deficient) and Endomyces vernalis (pyrimidine-
deficient) were used as test organisms in the preliminary work. Another
thiamine antagonist of unknown nature has been reported to occur in
bracken fern (Weswig et al., 1946).
Pyrithiamine, an analogue of thiamine, has been used in studies of
competitive thiamine inhibition. Unfortunately, the exact structure of
this compound is not known. In papers published before 1949 it was
assumed that pyrithiamine had the structure now assigned to neopyri-
232 PHYHIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
thiamine (Wilson and Harris, 1949). Pyrithiamine appears to differ

from neopyrithiamine in the amount of pyrimidine moiety it contains.
The formula for neopyrithiamine is given below.
N=C— NH2-HBr CH3 CH2— CH2—OH
CHs— C C — CHj
N— CH Br
Neopyrithiamine
Robbins (1941) found low concentrations of pyrithiamine to replace

thiamine for Pythiomorpha gonapodyoides (pyrimidine-deficient), while
high concentrations inhibited growth. Pyrithiamine did not replace
thiamine for Phycomyces blakesleeanus (requires both moieties) or Phyto-
phthora cinnamomi (requires intact thiamine). The inhibition of growth
of various fungi and bacteria caused by pyrithiamine was overcome by
increasing the thiamine content of the medium (Woolley and White,
1943). The inhibition index is given in Table 39. The efficiency of
pyrithiamine as a thiamine antagonist is related to the specific vitamin
requirements of the organisms tested. The inhibition index was low for
those species which require intact thiamine, intermediate for those which
require either or both moieties, and high for self-sufficient species.
Table 39. The Efficiency of Pyrithiamine as an Inhibitor of Fungus and

Bacterial Growth
(Woolley and White, Jour. Exptl. Med. 78, 1943.)
Organism
Pyrithiamine causes a thiamine deficiency disease in mice, which may

be cured or prevented by the administration of sufficient thiamine (Wool-
ley and White, 1943). Neopyrithiamine is reported to be four times as
active as pyrithiamine for the rat (Wilson and Harris, 1949).
Biotin antagonists. Many biotin vitamers are known which are highly
specific. The efficiency of an antibiotin in some instances may depend
upon whether biotin or one of its vitamers is the competing metabolite.
The formulas of two of the compounds are given below. Compare with
the formulas of biotin and desthiobiotin given in Chap. 9.
CO CO
HN
/ \ NH HN
/ \ NH
CHs— CH Cn(CH.2)5— SO3H H2C CH(CH2)5— COOH
Sulfonic-acid analogue of desthiobiotin Imidazolidonecaproic acid
Desthiobiotin and imidazolidonecaproic acid differ only by a methyl

group. Desthiobiotin was found to act as a biotin vitamer for Saccha,
romyces cerevisiae and other yeasts (Dittmer et al., 1944; Lilly andLeonian-
1944), while imidazolidonecaproic acid is an antibiotin for S. cerevisiae
(Dittmer and Du Vigneaud, 1944). Both compounds are antibiotins
for Lactobacillus casei. The was
sulfonic-acid analogue of desthiobiotin
shown by Duschinsky and Rubin (1948) to be more active against desthio-
biotin and oxybiotin than against biotin for S. cerevisiae. The replace-
ment of a carboxyl group by a sulfonic-acid group appears to be a rather
general method of changing a metabolite into an antagonist. Further
examples of this will be cited in connection with pantothenic and amino-
acid antagonists.
Egg white contains a specific protein which combines with biotin and
thus renders this vitamin inactive. This inactivity is due to the molecu-
lar size of the avidin-biotin complex, which prevents its absorption by
organisms. Raw egg white may be used to produce experimental biotin

deficiency in animals. Avidin is no longer active after heating, and
bound biotin is released by this treatment. This specific protein has
been used to separate biotin vitamers into two groups, for avidin com-
bines only with those compounds w^hich have an intact urea ring structure.
The papers of Eakin et al. (1941) and Burk and Winzler (1943) may be
consulted for further details.
Pantothenic acid antagonists. Yeasts are the only fungi which have
been reported to be deficient for pantothenic acid, and in most instances
/3-alanine replaces the intact vitamin molecule. One of the commonly
studied pantothenic acid antagonists is the compound called pantoyl-
taurine. The formulas for pantothenic acid and pantoyltaurine are

given belo'rt
HO— CH2— C(CH3)2- CHOH— CO— NH- CH2— CHo— COOH
Pantothenic acid
HO— CH2— C(CH3)2- -CHOH— CO— NH- -CH2— CH2— SO3H
Pantoyltaurine
Pantoyltaurine is the analogue of pantothenic acid.

sulfonic-acid
Snell (1941) studied the competitive inhibition of yeastgrowth by pan-
toyltaurine and found that this compound was effective when pantothenic
acid was the metabolite supplied in the medium but that pantoyltaurine
did not compete with /3-alanine. The data in Table 40 illustrate this
difference.
Table 40. The Effect of Pantoyltaurine on the Growth of Saccharomyces

cerevisiae in the Presence of Pantothenic Acid and (3-Alanine
Inoculum used, 0.02 mg., time of incubation, 16 hr. (Snell, Jour. Biol. Chem. 141,
1941.)
Calcium
pantothenate,
yug/lO ml.
Martin et at. (1948) found desoxypyridoxine to be slightly more effec-

tive against pyridoxal than pyridoxine, when Saccharomyces cerevisiae
was used.
Vitamin K antagonists. There are at leasttwo naturally occurring
compounds which have vitamin K activity. Certain synthetic analogues
are used in medicine to replace the natural vitamins. All these com-
pounds are substituted 1,4-naphthoquinones. The structural formula
for vitamin K2 is given below:
-CHs CH3 CH3

-CHo— (CH=C— CH2— CH2)6— CH=C— CH3
I I
O
Vitamin K2
Horsfall (1945) has reported 2-methyl-l,4-naphthoquinone to be a weak

fungicide, although this compound replaces natural vitamin
medi- K in
cine. On the other hand, 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone (Phygon) is
a potent fungicide (Ter Horst and Felix, 1943).
— CHa —CI
—CI
O o
2-Methy 1- 1 4-naphtho quinone
,
2 3-Dichloro- 1 4-naphtho quinone
, ,
Phygon may act as a fungicide by virtue of combination of the quinone

with free amine or sulfhydryl groups. This mechanism probably inac-
tivates certain enzymes noncompetitively. On the other hand, Phygon
is structurally related to vitamin K, and a competitive type of inhibition
should also be possible. Woolley (1945) investigated the inhibitory effect

of 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone and 2-methyl-l,4-naphthoquinone on
the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Endomyces vernalis. The first
compound was more toxic than the second. In less than toxic concen-
trations, the second compound partially overcame the toxicity of the
first. The amount of 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone required to
inhibit yeast (half maximum
growth) was 1.7 jug per liter, while 230 ng
of 2-methyl-l,4-naphthoquinone were required to produce the same
amount of inhibition. Some of Woolley 's data are presented in Table 41.
Many potent antimalarial drugs are 1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives
(Fieser et al., 1948).
It has been assumed in our discussion of the effects of antagonists on
;
organisms that antimetabolites are active by virtue of interfering with

various enzymatic processes. It is also interesting to note that com-
petitive inhibition has been demonstrated with isolated enzyme systems,
Schopfer and Grob (1949) found the action of urease to be inhibited by
2-chloro-l,4-naphthoquinone. Most of the activity was restored by the
addition of 2-methyl-l,4-naphthoquinone (vitamin K3).
Table 41. The Reversal of Inhibition Caused by 2,3-Dichloro-1,4-naphtho-

QuiNONE by 2-Methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone
Test fungus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Concentration of 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphtho-
quinone, 0.005 jug/ml. (Woolley, Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 60, 1945. Published
by permission of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.)
2-methyl-l,4- Turbidity
naphthoquinone, ^g/ml. (100 = no growth)
0.0 93
0.04 60
0.02 68
0.01 77
0.005 85
Other vitamin antagonists. The sulfonic-acid analogue of nicotinic

acid inhibits the growth of certain bacteria (Mcllwain, 1940). Appar-
ently this analogue has not been tested in nicotinic acid-deficient fungi.
Woolley (194Ga) has reported maize to contain a "pellagragenic" agent
which may tentatively be considered as a naturally occurring anti-
nicotinic-acid factor.
Among the recently developed insecticides, 7-hexachlorocyclohexane
is of considerable value. Kirkwood and Phillips (1946) have shown that
the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is inhibited by thiscompound, and
that the inhibition is overcome by meso-inositol. The other isomers of
hexachlorocyclohexane were not very effective inhibitors of yeast growth
neither are they of much value as insecticides. These observations point
to competitive inhibition as a possible mechanism of insecticidal action
of this compound.
AMINO-ACID ANTAGONISTS
Organisms must either synthesize or obtain from exogenous sources
the differentamino acids they require for the synthesis of protein. Anti-
metabolites which antagonize the synthesis or utilization of essential
amino acids would have a profound effect upon growth or other functions
of organisms. The role of amino acids is not confined to the synthesis
of proteins but extends to the synthesis of other essential metabolites.
An amino-acid antagonist may act in two ways, (1) by inhibiting protein
synthesis and (2) by inhibiting the synthesis of essential metabolites
which are derived from amino acids, either directly or indirectly. If
an amino aîd functions in more than one way, the action of an amino-
acid antagonist may be overcome, at least in part, by the action of second-

ary metabolites as well as the primary metabolite. The toxic effect of
3-acetylpyridine on rats is reversed by either nicotinic acid amide or
tryptophane (Woolley, 1945a).
Analogues. Mitchell and Niemann (1947) found that the halogenated
derivatives of phenylalanine and tyrosine competitively inhibit growth
of the wild strain of Neurospora crassa (Table 42). The most effective
of these inhibitors was 3-fiuoro-DL-phenylalanine. The structural form-
ulas for this analogue and the natural metabolite are shown below:
^^-CHo— CHNH2— COOH CHo— CHNH2— COOH

/\
V Phenylalanine 3-Fluorophenylalanine
Table 42. Inhibition of Growth ofNeurospora crassa by Some Halogenated

Alpha-amino Acids
Basal medium contained 30 mg. of DL-phenylalanine or 20 mg. L-tyrosine per liter
depending upon the antagonist tested. (Mitchell and Niemann, Jour. Am. Chem.
Sac. 69, 1947. Published by permission of the American Chemical Society.)
Compound
containing the vinylene group may be cited. Dittmer et al. (1948) found
methallylglycine, allylglycine, and crotylglycine to inhibit the growth of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli. The effects of these three
antimetabohtes on the growth of yeast are shown in Fig. 49.
50 100 150 200 250 300

Micrograms of unsoturoted amino acids per 7.5 ml.
Fig. 49. The growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, strain 139, by DL-allyl-
inhibition of
and DL-crotylglycine. (Courtesy of Dittmer, Goering,
glycine, DL-methallylglycine,
Goodman, and Cristol, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 70: 2501, 1948. Published by permis-
sion of the American Chemical Society.)
Natural amino acids. Antagonism among the amino acids is not

limited to competitive inhibition between naturally occurring amino
acids and their analogues. Robbins and McVeigh (1946) found hydroxy-
proline to inhibit the growth of several dermatophytes: Tricho-phyton
mentagrophytes, T. gypseum (granular form), T. purpureum, Epidermo-
phyton fiocculosum, and Microsporum canis. This inhibition was over-
come by proline. The relationship of these two naturally occurring
amino acids is shown below:
H2C- -CH2 HOHC- -CHo
H.C CH— COOH H2C in- COOH

N N
H H
Proline Hyd ro xy proline
Low concentrations of hydroxyproline stimulated growth of Tricho-
phyton purpureum, while higher concentrations inhibited growth. Addi-
tion of hydroxyproline to a glucose-asparagine medium increased the
growth of Polyporus squamosiis. Hydroxyproline was without effect
on the growth of 19 other species of fungi. Whether amino-acid antago-
nisms may limit the nitrogen utilization of natural mixtures of these
N
compounds is unknown, but the possibility of inhibition should be kept

in mind when only a few amino acids are used in a medium. The effect
of any single compound upon a fungus may be modified by the other
constituents of the medium.
Harteiius (1946a) found glutamic and aspartic acids, glutamine, and
asparagine to inhibit the growth of a strain of yeast when suboptimumal
amounts of /^-alanine were used in the medium. These amino acids did
not inhibit growth when pantothenic acid was used. In fact, these com-
pounds stimulated growth under these conditions. The inhibitory effect
in the presence of /3-alanine was overcome by increasing the concentration
of this provitamin. To obtain maximum growth in the presence of 50
mg. of glutamic acid per flask (55 ml.), twenty times as much j9-alanine
was required as when glutamic acid was omitted from the medium.
Harteiius attributed this effect to the combination of /3-alanine and
glutamic acid to form an inactive dipeptide.
Among the naturally occurring amino acids, L-canavanine is found
free in jack beans. Canavanine is an analogue of arginine; the formulas
are shown below.
HjN— C(=NH)— NH— CH2—CH2— CH,— CH(NH2)— COOH
Arginine
H2N— C(=NH)— NH— O— CH2—CH2— CHCNH,)— COOH
Canavanine
Horowitz and Srb (1948) studied the effect of canavanine on three

wild-type strains of Neurospora and found one strain to be inhibited
completely by concentrations greater than 1.25 mg. per liter; another
strainwas only partially inhibited, while the third strain was tolerant.
Genetic analysis indicated that tolerance and susceptibility segregated
by alternative forms of a single gene. L-Arginine was effective in over-
coming canavanine toxicity, while L-lysine was less effective. Three
molecules of arginine overcame one molecule of canavanine in the strain
of Neurospora most sensitive to this inhibitor. A similar competitive
inhibition between canavanine and arginine
in various bacteria has also
been observed (Volcani and Snell, 1948).
Other metabolite antagonists. Woolley (1944a) found benzimidazole
to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Endomyces vernalis.
This inhibition was overcome by adenine and guanine. The structural
relationship between benzimidazole and adenine is shown below:
N=C—NH2
HC C— NH
\ CH
— C—
Benzimidazole Adenine
DEVELOPMENT OF FASTNESS
An organism which has become tolerant, or resistant, to an inhibitor
is said to be fast, or more
(analogue, drug, antibiotic, etc.) after exposure
specifically pyrithiamine-fast, sulfanilamide-fast, or penicillin-fast, as
the case may be. Fastness is a very common phenomenon, although it
appears to have been but little studied in fungi. It is an important factor

which limits the use of many antibiotics and the sulfonamides in medicine.
This phase of fungus physiology deserves more attention than it has
received. It is conceivable that the prolonged use of a single fungicide
to control a fungus pathogen could lead to the development, or selection,
of a strain which would be relatively tolerant to the effect of the fungicide.
Such findings do not appear to have been reported from field studies, but
this possibility should be kept in mind.
Fungi do become fast to various antagonists. WooUey (19446), by
repeatedly subculturing Endomyces vernalis in a medium containing
pyrithiamine, developed a strain which withstood twenty-five times the
concentration of pyrithiamine which served to reduce the growth of
the parent strain to half the maximum. In this instance, fastness was
correlated with the ability of the pyrithiamine-fast strain to cleave the
inhibitor molecule into its cyclic moieties. Thus, the development of
pyrithiamine fastness may
be ascribed to the formation of an adaptive
enzyme which destroyed the antagonist. Escherichia coU, which is not
inhibited by pyrithiamine, also hydrolyzed this compound. These
results indicate that adaptive enzymes may play a role in the develop-
ment of fastness.
In addition to resistance or fastness which develops in organisms cul-
tured in the presence of an inhibitor, it has been found recently that
various bacteria not only develop resistance but may develop strains
which are actually dependent upon the presence of the "inhibitor" before
they can grow. Yegian et al. (1949) have found that culturing Myco-
bacterium tuberculosis in the presence of streptomycin gave rise to strains
which were fast to this antibiotic and also produced strains which cannot
grow unless streptomycin is present in the medium.
SUMMARY
The normal utilization of a metabolite may be prevented or inhibited
in three (1) destruction or removal in an unavailable combination
ways:
of a metabolite; the enzymatic hydrolysis of thiamine and the combina-
tion of biotin with avidin are representative examples of this mode of
inactivation(2) the noncompetitive inhibition of various enzymes by
;
such compounds as iodoacetate, cyanide, and azide; (3) competitive

inhibition due to metabolite antagonists. This type of inhibition is
overcome by increasing the concentration of the normal metabohte.

Antagonists are known which inhibit the functioning of vitamins, amino
acids, and other metabohtes.
It is postulated that a metabolite and its antagonists compete for the
active surface of specific enzymes. The ratio of inhibitor to metabolite
required to reduce growth to one-half its normal value is called the inhibi-
tion index. Effective inhibitors have small inhibition indexes. The

same compound may act as an antagonist for some fungi and as a metabo-
lite for e.g., desthiobiotin.
others; The medium used for investigating
inhibition is important, for the presence of a normal metabolite, or a
secondary metabolite derived from it, may prevent inhibition, A given
compound may be considered as an antagonist, but it is only an antagonist
for certain species, and then only under certain conditions. Organisms
may acquire a tolerance or resistance to inhibitory agents and become
fast. In extreme instances they become dependent upon the inhibitor,
which then acts as a kind of growth factor.
The competitive nature of many inhibitions is firmly established. In
most instances there is a close structural relation between a metabolite
and its antagonists. The theories which have been advanced to explain
these phenomena have been useful in correlating the results of research
and for increasing our insight into metabolic processes,
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CHAPTER 12
THE ACTION OF FUNGICIDES
The never-ending warfare which man must wage against parasitic fungi
in order to protect his crops hasbeen ably chronicled by Large (1940).
The saprophytic species which decay wood and other cellulosic materials
cause great economic loss, although these species perform a necessary
and indispensable role in maintaining the carbon cycle in nature. It is to
man's interest and profit that the deterioration of textiles and lumber be
prevented or delayed and that his crops be protected from pathogenic
fungi. This is done by the use of fungicides, which either kill or inhibit
the action of fungi.
By definition, an agent which kills fungi is a fungicide. A fungistatic
agent merely causes inhibition. The same agent is commonly capable of
producing both actions. A discussion of the terms fungicidal and fungi-
static is given by McCallan and Wellman (1942). These authors point
out that the fungistatic activity of an agent is broader than its fungicidal
activity.
Both physical and chemical agents may be fungicidal and fungistatic.
Of the physical agents, heat and ultraviolet radiation are probably most
commonly used, while many chemical compounds are ''toxic" to fungi.
Whether an agent is fungicidal or fungistatic is primarily a matter of
degree of intensity and duration of exposure. We may assume that these
agents, whether chemical or physical, act directly upon certain specific
enzymes or enzyme systems. If the action is less severe and may be
reversed, the result is fungistasis, while if it is irreversible, the action is
fungicidal. Since most of the agents employed by man are chemical
compounds, much of the following discussion will be limited to the
mechanism of action of these compounds.
Chemical fungicides may be applied as eradicants or as protectants. A
protectant is applied to the plant or other material before the inoculum
arrives at the infection court and often functions only after the fungus
spore germinates. An eradieant kills the fungus already present on or in
the substrate material.
The lethal action of a chemical depends upon both the concentration
of the active compound or ion and the time of exposure. Species of
fungi exhibit great variation in ability to resist the action of certain
fungicides. Many fungi are killed by exposure to a few parts per million
245
of cupric ion, while a few species have been reported to grow in a saturated
solution of copper sulfate (Starkey and Waksman, 1943). There is no
useful universal fungicide.
The intelligent choice of a fungicide depends upon a number of factors,
the major ones being the species of fungus to be controlled and the nature
of the material tobe protected. The solubility of the fungicide is of great
importance. For most efficient preservation of wood or protection as a
spray, a fungicide must have a low solubility in order that the protection
may extend over a long period of time. For surface sterilization a highly
soluble fungicide is used. When a fungicide is to be used on a living
plant (or other organism), the relative sensitivity of the host and of the
fungus to the fungicide must be considered. Host sensitivity limits the
use of many potent fungicides. A useful fungicide must be more toxic
to the fungus than to the host. For example, copper fungicides are quite
toxic to cabbage, cucumber, and pea seed, while beet, eggplant, pepper,
and spinach seed are relatively tolerant to copper.
Although there is an enormous accumulation of literature on fungicides,
their composition, application, limitations, and economic value (see
Frear, 1948, and Horsfall, 1945), relatively little has been published on
the mechanism of fungicidal action. This is a practical as well as an
academic question, for the intelligent use of known fungicides and the
search for new and better ones are based upon a knowledge of how they
act.
In the past the most important inorganic fungicides have contained
compounds of copper, mercury, or sulfur.
In the future, however, excel-
lent fungicides may
be made from other toxic elements. For example,
cadmium is of potential interest, but the present supply is limited. In
controlling fungi and other pests, there is always the danger that they
will become tolerant, or fast, to a given toxicant. This means that the
more susceptible individuals are killed and that a greater amount of a
given fungicide is required to control the more tolerant population which
is then built up. It is desirable from several viewpoints to have satis-
factory reserve fungicides in the armory of the plant pathologist.
COPPER
The first copper salts to be used as fungicides were the sulfate and
acetate (Prevost, 1807). These salts are soluble, and even in low con-
centration they are too toxic for many uses. Since all the copper is
available at once, these salts are toxic to plants, especially to young parts.
These soluble salts have a further disadvantage when used as a spray, for
a heavy dew or rain will easily wash them off. However, these salts,
especially copper sulfate, were successfully used for treating seed grain to
destroy surface contaminants. This treatment was devised by Prevost
to control bunt.
ACTION OF FUNGIDICES 247
The next advance copper fungicides was not until 1885, whei
in
Millardet published formula for making the famous fungicide
the
Bordeaux mixture. Millardet recommended that 8 kg. of copper sulfate
pentahydrate (bluestone) be dissolved in 100 liters of water. This solu-
tion was then mixed with 15 kg. of quicklime slaked in 30 liters of water.
The chemistry of Bordeaux mixture is more complicated than was
assumed at first. Instead of cupric hydroxide, a series of basic sulfates
are formed, the composition being dependent upon the ratio of coppei
sulfate and calcium hydroxide used (Frear, 1948). Bordeaux mixture is
a copper compound or compounds of low solubility. According to
Goldsworthy and Green (1936), Bordeaux mixture in equilibrium with
water yields a solution containing about 4 p. p.m. of copper. However,
McCallan and Wilcoxon (1936) found that well-washed 4-4-50 Bordeaux
mixture was soluble only to the extent of furnishing 1 p. p.m. of copper.
After this material was thoroughly dried, as in a spray film, the solubihty
in terms of copper decreased to 0.2 to 0.3 p. p.m. McCallan and Wilcoxon
have reported a comparison between the amounts of Bordeaux mixture
and copper sulfate required to inhibit the germination of 90 per cent of
the spores of a few species. These data are given in Table 43.
Table 43. The Relative Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture and Copper Sulfate
IN Inhibiting Spore Germination
(McCallan and Wilcoxon, Contribs. Boyce Thompsori Inst. 6, 1936.)
of the copper compound to dissolve until the spore was no longer able to
take more copper from the solution. This theory is attractive because
of its simplicity, but there seems to be no very good evidence for it
(McCallan, 1929).
In practice, Bordeaux mixture and other "insoluble" copper sprays
act as if they were more soluble than is indicated by chemical tests.
However, in practice the fungicide is exposed to the action of the atmos-
phere, the host plant, and the fungus spores. This is a more complicated
situation than that found in the chemical determination of solubility.
Barker and Gimingham (1911) found that intact leaves increased the
soluble copper from Bordeaux mixture to some extent but were of the
opinion that the host plant had only a slight influence on the solubility
of such sprays. However, if the leaves were injured, they were quite
effective in bringing copper into solution. The possibility that the spores
exert a solvent action on "insoluble" copper compounds has long been
considered by plant pathologists. The spores of at least some species
do exert a solvent action on Bordeaux mixture. McCallan and Wilcoxon
(1936) showed that the amount of copper brought into solution by the
soluble materials washed from or excreted by 100 million spores of some
species varied as follows: Uromyces caryophyllimis, 1.01 mg.; Sclerotinia
fructicola, 0.76 mg.; Neurospora sitophila, 0.12 mg.; Botrytis paeoniae,
0.10 mg.; Glomerella cingulata, 0.046 mg. Aspergillus niger, 0.023 mg.;
;
and Alternaria solani, 0.013 mg. Enough spores of Neurospora sitophila

were collected so that the nature of the soluble materials from the spores
could be identified chemically. Malic acid was isolated and identified.
The presence of amino acids also was detected. Both malic acid (or
malates) and various amino acids dissolve "insoluble" copper compounds
under nevitral or alkaline conditions with the formation of soluble complex
copper compounds. McCallan and Wilcoxon showed that sodium
cuprimalate and a copper-glycine compound were about as toxic as copper
sulfate. On the other hand, Goldsworthy and Green (1936) were of the
opinion that spore secretions played a minor role in increasing the solu-
bility of Bordeaux mixture, but the evidence of McCallan and Wilcoxon
seems quite conclusive.
Basic copper carbonate (malachite, Cu(OH)2-CuC03) and cuprous
oxide (CuiO) are used in treating seeds. Since the seed covered with
these materials is planted in soil which contains a variety of protein
degradation products, it is easy to understand how these substances are
made sufficiently soluble to be fungicidal. Marten and Leach (1944)
studied the effect of various nitrogenous compounds upon the solubility
of cuprous oxide. Gelatin and peptone were less efficient in dissolving
cuprous oxide than were glycine, aspartic acid, asparagine, or cystine.
Ammonium hydroxide was also a solvent for cuprous oxide. With all
ACTION OF FUNGICIDES 249
these "solvents" the solutions were blue in color, which indicates that
the copper was oxidized to the cupric state. Marten and Leach investi-
gated the toxicity of the copper-glycine compound to Pythnim debaryanum.
It was noted that an excess of glycine protected the fungus from the
action of the copper. Some 200 times as much copper was required to
inhibitgrowth when glycine was present in the medium as when it was
absent. Thus, it seems that whether a given amount of copper is toxic
or not depends upon the nature and amount of certain constituents in
the medium or substrate.
One may ask, By what mechanism does the copper ion cause fungistasis,
or how does the copper kill? The common explanation of the toxic
action of the heavj'^ metals (copper, mercury, and silver)
is based upon the
property of these ions of precipitating or denaturing proteins. Enzymes

are proteins, and it would be expected that the heavy metals would
inactivate these catalysts. However, not all enzymes are equally inac-
tivated by low concentrations of heavy-metal ions. The enzymes which
require free sulfhydryl groups for activity appear to be especially suscepti-
ble to inactivation by ions of heavy metals. It is probable that copper
causes fungistasis by combining with the sulfhydryl groups of certain
enzymes. At this stage, the action of copper is reversible. Goldsworthy
and Green (1936) found that spores of Sderotinia fructicola which had
been treated with insufficient copper to kill made normal growth when
sown on copper-free medium. As long as an inhibition is reversible, the
process is one of fungistasis. Death of the spore results when irreversible
changes occur.
There is reason to believe that the injurious effect of copper fungicides
upon the host plant is due to the same mechanism that operates in fungus
spores. Foster (1947) attributed the sensitivity to copper of certain
seeds to their content of sulfhydryl enzymes.
mercury'
While a number of inorganic salts of mercury have been used as anti-
septics, only two have had wide application as fungicides. Mercuric
chloride (corrosive sublimate, bichloride of mercuiy, HgCl2) is a soluble,
highly poisonous compound. It is commonly used for surface steriliza-
tion in a concentration of 1/1,000. Mercuric chloride is occasionally
used as a special-purpose fungicide.
Mercurous chloride (calomel, HgCl or Hg2Cl2) is essentially insoluble
in water, sufficiently so to be used in medicine. Calomel slowly decom-
poses into mercury and mercuric chloride. This decomposition is accel-
erated by sunlight, which may account for the successful use of calomel
to control dollar spot, brown patch, and other turf diseases.
The organic mercury compounds have won wide acceptance in the
—
treating of seed to control the attack of fungi which cause damping-off

and of certain seed-borne pathogens. The organic mercurials are free
from many of the objections inherent in the inorganic compounds of
mercury. In general, they combine less avidly with proteins, are more
selective in their action, and are far less toxic to animal life. As used for
seed protection, they are commonly diluted with an inert carrier. Most
if not all such organic mercury compounds are sold under trade names,
but the active components are required by law to be stated on the label.
Among these organic mercury compounds are ethylmercury phosphate
(Semesan Jr. and New Improved Ceresan), ethylmercury chloride
(Ceresan) and hydroxymercurichlorophenol (Semesan).
The organic mercury compounds used as sprays and for treating seeds
are in general related to mercuric chloride in the following way:
C2H6— Hg— CI CI— Hg~Cl

Ethylmercury chloride Mercuric chloride
The ethyl group has replaced a chlorine atom

in mercuric chloride.
The type formula for compounds like thisbe written as R Hg X,
may —
where R may be any alkyl or aryl (or other) group and X
represents any
anion, I~, Cl~, 0H~, NOs", P04~. The anion greatly modifies the solu-
bility of the compound in water. In general, this type of organic mer-
cury compound is volatile, and this property may be assumed to aid in
penetration. Other organic mercury fungicides are derivatives of alkjd
and aryl mercuric hydroxides. These compounds can react with organic
acids to form salts. The relation of these compounds to mercuric hydrox-
ide is shown below:
CeHs— Hg— OH HO— Hg— OH
Phenylmercury hydroxide Mercuric hydroxide
Compounds of this type are used to protect cellulose and leather products.
Parker-Rhodes (1942) investigated the toxicity of the following mer-
cury compounds to Macrosporium sarcinaeforme and Botrytis allii: mer-
curic acetate, mercuric chloride, methylmercury nitrate, and tolylmer-
curic nitrate. All these compounds were toxic to M. sarcinaeforme, and
all except methylmercury nitrate were toxic to B. allii. Perhaps methyl-
mercury nitrate is not soluble enough in fat for the spores of this fungus
to absorb a toxic amount of the compound. Dillon- Weston and Booer
(1935) found that vapor of ethylmercury iodide was toxic to TiUetia spores
in the laboratory but afforded no control in the field.
The soluble inorganic mercury salts are protein precipitants, and this
property may explain in part their mode of action when used in high
concentrations. These salts are frequently fungistatic or bacteriostatic,
since the very firmness of the union between the mercuric ion and the cell
membrane may form a barrier to further penetration. The first action

of mercuric ionis to cause stasis, which may be reversed by treating the
cellswith reagents which have a high affinity for mercury. McCalla

(1940) demonstrated that cells of Escherichia coli which had been treated
with mercuric chloride could be revived by hydrogen sulfide. If stasis
due to mercury is not overcome within a certain time, irreversible changes
occur and death of the cells results.
Organic mercury compounds are not protein precipitants, and this is
one of their advantages as disinfectants and fungicides. Fildes (1940)
ascribed the action of mercury compounds to combination of mercuric
ion with the sulfhydryl group of essential metabolites and enzymes.
Others have shown that organic mercury compounds act similarly.
According to this view, enzyme inhibition is the basis of the action of
mercury compounds. Fildes found that the action of mercury was
antagonized by compounds which contained free sulfhydryl groups
(thioacetate, cysteine, glutathione). Neither cystine ( S S ) nor ———
——
methionine ( S ) was effective in overcoming mercury toxicity.
Organic mercury compounds appear to act by the same mechanism as
the mercuric ion. p-Chloromercuribenzoate was found to inhibit the
action of various sulfhydryl enzymes which take part in carbohydrate
metabolism, e.g. succinic acid oxidase, yeast carboxylase, malate oxidase,
and ketoglutarate oxidase. This organic mercury compound also inhib-
ited the action of c?-amino acid oxidase, transaminase, Z-glutamate oxidase,
and other enzymes (Barron and Singer, 1945; Singer and Barron, 1945).
In many instances the inhibitory action of p-chloromercuribenzoate on
these enzymes could be reversed by glutathione, cysteine, or hydrogen
sulfide.
Cook et at. (1946) found phenylmercuric nitrate to depress the respira-
tion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This depression in rate of respiration
was overcome by various compounds having a free —
SH group; e.g.,
cysteine and homocysteine, while cystine and methionine were without
effect. The work of these investigators and of others makes it highly
probable that mercury compounds are toxic because they inactivate
certain essential enzyme systems. The enzyme inhibitions discussed
above are examples of noncompetitive inhibition. These inhibitions are
reversible, as in the case of competitive inhibition, but the reversing
agents are nonspecific, or not limited to a single metabolite.
SULFUR
Of the nonmetallic elements, sulfur and certain of its compounds are
widely used as protective and eradicant fungicides. The toxicity of the
nonmetallic elements is dependent upon the state of oxidation. In many
instances, compounds in the higher states of oxidation are the least toxic.
For example, sulfur in the form of the free element (S) and of sulfide
(S=) forms excellent fungicides, while sulfites (SOa^) are only slightly-
toxicand sulfates (SO 4=) are nontoxic.
According to Large (1940), elemental sulfur has been used to control
powdery mildew for slightly over 100 years. The effectiveness of sulfur
increases as the particle size diminishes. Finely divided sulfur adheres
to plant surfaces much better than larger particles. In addition, the
distance between particles tends to be decreased when fine particles are
used, and the infection court is thereby better protected. The odds are
increased that a fungus spore falling upon a treated leaf will be within the
range of action of a particle of sulfur. An example of the effect of particle
size of sulfur on toxicity is given in Table 44. The greater toxicity of
Table 44. The Relation between the Particle Size and Toxicity of a Sulfur
Dust to the Conidia of Sclerotinia americana
(Wilcoxon and McCallan, Phytopathology 20, 1930.)
Treatment
account satisfactorily for the toxic properties of sulfur, it must be demon-

strated that the toxic agent is produced under the conditions which
prevail in the field in quantities sufficient to account for the observed

effects. Any evaluation of these hypotheses must take into account all
the variables involved. The caution of Wilcoxon and McCallan (1930)
is pertinent:
In making comparisons of the toxicity of chemical substances to fungus spores,
there are two requisites for obtaining accurate results which, though quite
obvious, have not always received the consideration they deserve, (a) The
substance whose toxicity is to be measured must be available in a pure state
and of known concentration, and (6) the technique employed must be capable of
distinguishing between the toxicity of the substances it is desired to compare.
It is agreed that elemental sulfur is not the toxic agent and that sulfur is
transformed into the toxic agent. There are three possible agencies for
such transformations: the atmosphere, the plant on which the sulfur is
dusted, and the fungus spores or mycelium. Sulfur acts at a distance,
and since sulfur is volatile at room temperature, this property offers an
explanation. Sulfur vapor is a gas, and in this state it should be more
easily transformed into the toxicant.
Sulfur
slowly oxidized by the oxygen of the atmosphere to form sulfur
is
dioxide, but the rate atwhich this reaction occurs at ordinary tempera-
tures makes it impossible for this reaction to account for all the toxic
properties of sulfur, even though sulfur dioxide is toxic to fungus spores
(McCallan and Weedon, 1940).
Young (1922) set forth the hypothesis that pentathionic acid is the
toxic agent formed from sulfur. It is agreed, even by those who do not
support Young's hypothesis, that this acid formed on the surface of
is
sulfur dust. A considerable number were published during

of papers
the next decade which gave support to this view (Liming, 1932). Wil-
coxon and McCallan (1930) investigated this theory thoroughly and
concluded that pure pentathionic acid had no toxic properties for the
spores of Sderotinia americana, Botrytis sp., Macrosporium sarcinaeforme,
and Uromijces caryopJujUinus. If sufficient pentathionic acid was used
to reduce the pH to about 4, spore germination was inhibited. Solutions
of sulfuric acid having the same pH were equally toxic. Neutral salts
of both acids were nontoxic. Roach and Glynne (1928) likewise found
pentathionic and sulfuric acids to have the same toxicity when tested
against the winter sporangia of Synchytrium endohioticum. Wilcoxon
and McCallan (1930) performed a decisive experiment when they washed
one lot of sulfur dust with alkali to remove pentathionic acid and com-
pared this pentathionate-free dust with the original sample, which con-
tained a trace of this acid. No difference in toxicity of the washed and
control samples of this sulfur dust was found.
There is now general agreement that hydrogen sulfide is the common
toxic compound produced from sulfur. Not only is hydrogen sulfide

toxic to fungus spores, but the mechanism for its production is also pres-
ent. It is known that hydrogen sulfide is produced from sulfur both by
the treated plant and by the fungus spores,
McCallan and Wilcoxon (1931) made qualitative tests for the ability
of the spores of 17 species of fungi to produce hydrogen sulfide from sulfur.
All produced this substance, but in
varying amounts and at varying
rates. They showed that the spores
LEAD ACETATE need not be in direct contact with
PAPER WHITE
solid sulfur to produce hydrogen
LEAD ACETATE sulfide. Figure 50 illustrates the
PAPER BLACKENED
method used by these investigators
COLLODION SAC to demonstrate this phenomenon.
SPORE SUSPENSION These authors investigated the

hydrogen sulfide to the
toxicity of
SULPHUR PASTE
spores of eight species of fungi.
These experiments were performed
in a flowing stream of air which con-
Fig. 50. The production of hydrogen
sulfide by Sclerotinia spores separated
tained known amounts of hydrogen
from sulfur by a collodion membrane. sulfide, and the concentration in the
Note that the production of hydrogen water droplet in which the spores
sulfide takes place on the spore side of
the membrane and not on the sulfur
were suspended was calculated from
side. (Courtesy of McCallan and Henry's law. These precautions are
WUcoxon, Contribs. Boyce Thompson necessary because hydrogen sulfide is
Inst. 3: 26, 1931.)
unstable. Neglect of this fact by
earlier investigators led to an underestimation of the toxicity of hydrogen
sulfide. These results of McCallan and Wilcoxon are presented in Fig.
51. From these curves it is seen that spores of Venturia inaequalis,
Uromyces caryophyllinus, and Puccinia antirrhini are inhibited by very
low concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, while the spores of Botrytis sp.
and Glomerella cingulata are scarcely affected by ten times as much
hydrogen sulfide. By increasing the hydrogen sulfide concentration to
60 p. p.m., complete inhibition of germination of the spores of these two
species was obtained. The spores of these eight fungi were shown to
produce varying amounts of hydrogen sulfide per unit weight of spores.
Whether hydrogen sulfide produced by spores would prove toxic would
therefore depend upon the ability of the particular spores to produce
hydrogen sulfide and the sensitivity of the spores to this substance. The
correlation is shown in Table 45.
The actions of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide are parallel, and it may be
concluded that sulfur is toxic to the spores of certain species by virtue
of absorption of sulfurvapor and its reduction to hydrogen sulfide within

the spore. Thus, the spores of susceptible species destroy themselves.
It is not thought that the hydrogen sulfide evolved from leaves or other
spores is absorbed in lethal quantities under natural conditions.
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Concentration -milligrams per liter
Fig. 51. Toxicity of hydrogen sulfide to urediospores of Uromyces caryophyllinus

and Puccinia antirrhini and to conidia of Venturia inaequalis, Sclerotinia americana,
Macrosporiuni sarcinaeforme, Pestalotia stellata, Glonierella cingulata, and Botrytis sp.
(Courtesy of McCallan and Wilcoxon, Contribs. Boyce Thompson Inst. 3: 31, 1931.)
Liquid lime-sulfur is a common spray material and is prepared by

boiling sulfur and calcium hydroxide together. The chief active ingre-
dient is calcium polysulfide. After deposition on leaves the calcium
polysulfide is quickly decomposed, yielding sulfur and calcium sulfide,
Table 45. Comparison between the Toxicity and the Production of Hydrogen
Sulfide, Expressed in Units Equal to the Amounts of Hydrogen Sulfide
Required to Reduce Germination 50 Per Cent
(McCallan and Wilcoxon, Contribs. Boyce Thompson Inst. 3, 1931.)
Species
which in turn may decompose by hydrolysis to yield hydrogen sulfide

and calcium hydroxide. At the same time some of the calcium poly-
sulfide is oxidized to calcium thiosulfate and sulfur. See Frear (1948)
for a discussion of the chemistry involved.
It is known that lime-sulfur exerts an eradicant action on some fungi,
including Venturia inaequalis, when first applied. After a few days
this spray exerts only a protective action like that of elemental sulfur,
which probably depends on the elemental sulfur set free by the decom-
position of various constituents comprising lime-sulfur. The eradicant
action, then, depends upon either the calcium polysulfide or calcium
sulfide. We may consider that sulfide ion (S=) is the toxic agent.The
alkalinity of the spray may aid in penetration into the mycelium already
present.
Lime-sulfur solution may
be treated with ferrous sulfate or aluminum
sulfate in the spray tank to produce colloidal sulfur and hydrogen sulfide.
Aluminum sulfate, AI2 (804)3, hydrolyzes to form aluminum hydroxide
and sulfuric acid. A lime-sulfur spray so treated has only a protective
action. It has lost its eradicant value. We may assume, therefore, that
the decomposition of lime-sulfur in spray tanks when treated with acid
(aluminum sulfate) and the decomposition on the leaf follow a somewhat
similar pattern. This scheme of producing colloidal sulfur has the draw-
back that the added iron, when ferrous sulfate is used, is toxic to vegeta-
tion, and dangerous amounts of hydrogen sulfide are evolved.
We may assume that hydrogen sulfide exerts its toxic action on fungus
spores by inactivating certain enzymes. Hydrogen sulfide is known to
inactivate many enzymes, including catalase, cytochrome oxidase, dopa
oxidase, lactase, and others. Generally, hydrogen sulfide and cyanide
inhibit the same enzymes. It is thought that these metalloenzymes are
inhibited by sulfide or cyanide because these agents react with iron or
copper to form highly insoluble or little-ionized compounds or complexes.
ORGANIC FUNGICIDES
The newer fungicides, with few exceptions, are either organic or organo-
metallic compounds. The organic mercury compounds were considered
with the inorganic compounds of mercury, since the mechanism of action
appears to be the same in both types of compounds. Many of the
organic fungicides exhibit greater specificity than the inorganic fungicides.
The possibilities of modification in the structure of organic compounds
are almost unlimited. The study of organic fungicides, therefore, offers
the opportunity of correlating structure with type and intensity of fungi-
cidal action.
Aldehydes. The first organic fungicide to attain wide acceptance was
formaldehyde. At one time this compound was used for the surface
sterilization of grain and potato tubers, but at present formaldehyde is
H
little used. Formaldehyde reacts with free amino groups, and it is

probable that its fungicidal action depends upon this property. Some
other aldehydes also have fungicidal properties (Uppal, 1926).
Quinones. While there are two series of quinones (ortho, or 1,2, and
para, or 1,4), we shall consider only the 1,4-quinones as fungicides. The
simplest quinone is p-benzoquinone. Quinones are cyclic compounds
which possess a characteristic pair of double bonds. Such a configuration
of double bonds is called quinoid and is possessed by many dyes, some
of which are fungicides. If a considerable series of toxic compounds
possess a common functional group or groups, it may be assumed that
these groups are involved in fungicidal activity. According to Horsfall
(1945), 1,4-benzoquinone has a slight toxicity to fungi. The four hydro-
gens in 1,4-benzoquinone can be replaced by chlorine to form chloranil
(Spergon), which greatly increases the fungicidal properties. The struc-
tural formulas for these compounds are given below:
O O
— CI— — CI
-H Cl- -CI
o o
1,4-Benzoquinone Chloranil (Spergon)
Spergon has been used as a seed protectant.

Substituted naphthoquinones are more important fungicides than,
the benzoquinones. Among these, 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone
(Phygon) is reported to be five to eight times as effective as Spergon (Ter
Horst and Felix, 1943). Some of the naphthoquinones synthesized by
plants are fungicides. Juglone, 5-hydroxy-l,4-naphthoquinone, is found
in walnut hulls and is secreted by walnut roots. The isomeric 2-hydroxy-
1,4-naphthoquinone (lawsone) is found in henna leaves. Juglone is
reported to be as toxic to fungus spores as Bordeaux mixture. Juglone
controls black spot of roses as well as sulfur does (Gries, 1943, 1943a).
It is also toxic to many plants. Little et al. (1948) isolated 2-methoxy-
1,4-naphthoquinone from Impatiens balsamina. This compound was an
active fungicide which exhibited no phytotoxicity toward tomato and
bean plants. The formulas of two naphthoquinone fungicides are given
below:
O O
-OCH3
o OH O
2-Methoxy-l,4-naphthoquinone Juglone
The fungicidal action of substituted quinones may be due in part to

their property of reacting with free amino groups of proteins (Theis,
1945). Substituted naphthoquinones as antagonists of vitamin K were
discussed in Chap. 11. Most of the available evidence indicates that
the principal mechanism of quinone toxicity lies in its noncompetitive
inhibition of sulfhydiyl enzymes.
It has been suggested that the mechanism of inhibition is dependent
upon the structure of the substituted naphthoquinones. Colwell and
McCall (1946) found the fungistatic and fungicidal concentrations of
2-methyl-l,4-naphthoquinones to be the same when Aspergillus niger
and an unidentified fungus were used as test organisms. Addition of
sodium thioglycolate or cysteine antagonized the toxic action of this
naphthoquinone. These authors postulate that only naphthoquinones
unsubstituted in position 3 react wdth sulfhydryl groups, for 2-methyl-3-
methoxy-l,4-naphthoquinone was not antagonized by thioglycolate or
cysteine. The reaction between certain naphthoquinones and sulfhydiyl-
containing compounds can be demonstrated in vitro.
The amounts of various substituted 1,4-naphthoquinones required to
cause a 50 per cent inhibition of isolated yeast carboxylase and similar
reduction in the germination of Monilinia fructicola spores wêre roughly
parallel (Foote et al., 1949). Carboxylase is a sulfhydryl enzyme. It is
probable that other sulfhydryl enzymes are also inhibited by naphtho-
quinones. For further information on the mechanism of quinone inhibi-
tion, see Geiger (1946).
Dyes. Various dyes are fungistatic compounds. Malachite green
and crystal violet are used to control various fungus infections of the
skin. Both these dyes have a benzoquinoid structure, as is shown below:
^ ^ -N(CH3)2
(CH3)2N='
/
CI
\/ ^
Malachite green
Leonian (1930) made a study of the toxicity of malachite green to many

species and strains of Phytophthora and found only three species {P.
hydrophila, P. melongenae, and P. sp.) able to grow in the presence of
1 p. p.m. of malachite green. Other species were more sensitive to this
dye. P. colocasiae and P. richardiae failed to grow in nutrient solutions
containing 1 part of malachite green in 16 million parts of medium.
Leonian (1932) investigated the growth-inhibiting properties of malachite
N(CH3)2
CI
(CH3)2N =C
N(CH3)2
Crystal violet
green and crystal violet upon 26 species and isolates of Trichophyton.

Malachite green proved greatly superior to crystal violet. Over half
the isolates tested failed to grow in the presence of 1 part of malachite
green to 50,000 parts of medium, and many failed to grow in the presence
of 1 p.p.m. of this dye. Crystal violet allowed some growth in all isolates
tested at a concentration of 1 part in 50,000 parts of medium. Placing

the inoculum in direct contact with the medium containing the dye was
more than placing the agar inoculum plug with the mycelium upon
lethal
the surface of the test medium. Some other dyes such as methylene
blue are also toxic to fungi. Both malachite green and methylene blue
inhibit carboxylase (Horsfall, 1945).
Dithiocarbamates and related compounds. and Horsfall Barratt
(1947) have reported extensive investigations on the homologuesand
analogues of disodium ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (Nabam). In gen-
eral, these compounds are formed when primary and secondary amines
react with carbon disulfide. The formula for Nabam is given below:
S H H S
Na— S— C— N— CH2— CH2— N— C— S— Na

Disodium ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (Nabam)
The zinc (Ziram) and ferric (Ferbam) salts of dimethyldithiocarbamate

are effective fungicides for the control of certain fungus pathogens. The
formula for dimethyldithiocarbamate is given below:
S
(CH3)2— N— C— SH
II
Dimethyldithiocarbamate
The is tetramethylthluram
oxidation product of dimethyldithiocarbamate
which has some value as a seed protectant.
disulfide (Thiram),
The dithiocarbamate fungicides, such as Nabam, yield hydrogen sulfide
on hydrolysis. This reaction takes place spontaneously in the presence
of moisture. The mechanism of hydrogen sulfide toxicity has already
been discussed. The second mechanism which has been proposed
involves the formation of insoluble mercaptides of certain essential metals.
2G0 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
In addition, Nabam on decomposition yields an unidentified toxic gaseous

compound, which is neither hydrogen sulfide nor sulfur dioxide (Rich
and Horsfall, 1950).
Specific organic reagents for metals. The essential nature of certain
micro elements for fungus growth and the role of these elements in
enzymes were discussed in Chaps. 4 and 5. The chemistry of these
specific organic reagents is treated by Yoe and Sarver (1941). These
reagents form insoluble or slightly ionized compounds with metals.
Zentmeyer (1944) tested various organic analytical reagents and found
8-hydroxyquinoline (Oxine) and ammonium nitrosophenylhydroxylamine
(Cupferron) to be fungistatic. 8-Hydroxyciuinoline inhibited the growth
of Fusarium oxysporum var. lycopersici, Ceratostomella ulmi, and a species
of Penicillium. The effectiveness of 8-hydroxyquinoline in forming
chelate salts increases as the pH values increase. Below pH 3.5 complex
formation does not take place with zinc, copper, iron, and manganese.
Zinc ion reacts with 8-hydroxyquinoline as shown below:
+ H+
r
O— Zn
I I
OH
8-Hydroxyquinoline Zinc complex of 8-hydroxyquinoline
The Fusarium oxysporum

fungistatic effect of 8-hydroxyquinoline on
var. lycopersiciand Ceratostomella ulmi was overcome by increasing the
zinc content of the medium. In the presence of 8-hydroxyquinoline
there was competition between this compound and one or more enzyme
systems for the zinc present in the medium. Whether or not an organic
compound such as 8-hydroxyquinoline will act as a fungistatic agent
depends upon the concentration of the amount of fungus
reagent, the
mycelium, and the concentration of the metallic ion for which the two
sj^stems compete. One would expect that such fungicides, in common
with all others, would be more effective when the mass of the fungus is
small.
Other organic fungicides. Many other types of organic compounds
are fungicides, and an intensive search for new ones is in progress. Brief
mention of some of these developments is made below. Geiger (1948)
reports various unsaturated ketones to be active against Aspergillus
niger, Trichoderma koningii, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Trichophyton
mentagrophytes. The mode of action resembles that of the naphtho-
quinones in that sulfhydryl enzymes, including succinic acid dehydro-
genase, triose phosphate dehydrogenase, and urease, are inhibited. The
fungistatic activity of ethylenic and acetylenic compounds has been
tested on Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium digitatum, and Botrytis

aim (McGowan et al., 1948). The fungicidal action of substituted
pyrazoles was tested on spores of Alter naria oleracea and Sclerotinia
americana in the laboratory, and for the control of apple scab, cedar-apple
rust, and late blight of potato and tomato. Some of these compounds
show promise, although the mechanism of action is not known (McNew
and Sandholm, (1949). For a survey of the newer fungicides see Well-
man (1948).
EVALUATING FUNGICIDES
The preliminary tests of fungicidal activity are made in the laboratory
in order to eliminate inactive compounds or to compare the activities
of differentcompounds under identical conditions. Evaluation in the
greenhouse and field is the final test of a new fungicide. This discus-
sion will be limited to a general consideration of laboratory testing of
fungicides.
Fungus spores rather than mycelium are used in most laboratory tests
because it is the function of a protectant fungicide to kill or inhibit spore
germination. Three basic types of procedures may be used in laboratory
tests (McCallan, 1947): (1) Spores are suspended in solutions or suspen-
sions of the fungicide under test, and the inhibition of germination is
noted as a function of time of exposure and concentration of the fungicide.
This is a modification of the Rideal- Walker method of evaluating anti-
septics. (2)The compound to be tested is incorporated in a suitable
solid or liquid medium, which is then inoculated with spores of the test
fungi. The amount of inhibition of germination or growth is determined.
(3) Glass slides are covered uniformly with the fungicide, and after dry-
ing, the spores are sown on the treated slides. The inoculated plates
are then placed in constant-humidity chambers and the percentage of
germination determined after 20 to 24 hr. or the effectiveness of a fungi-
;
cide may be studied as a function of time of exposure.

The second and third methods appear to be the most useful. Fleury
(1948) studied the fungistatic action of thiourea on Aspergillus niger
by adding this substance to a liquid basal medium. Thiourea was a
much more potent inhibitor w^hen nitrate nitrogen was used than when
ammonium or organic nitrogen was present in the medium. Agar
medium has been used by Leben and Keitt (1949) to assay the amount of
toxicant on leaf surfaces. A suspension of spores of Glomerella cingulata
was prepared in warm (38 to 40°C.) agar medium. Five milliliters of
this seeded medium was added to Petri dishes which contained 15 ml. of
solidified agar medium. After the seeded agar had solidified, leaf disks
of uniform size were cut from sprayed leaves and placed on the agar. The
amount of toxicant present on the leaf surface was determined by measur-
ing the diameter of the zone of inhibition. Disks of blotting paper to

which fungicides have been added may be used to determine their potency.
Thornberry (1950) has suggested the use of filter-paper disks for the
evaluation of fungicides and bactericides. Filter-paper disks appear
to be more suitable than blotting paper. In this method seven filter-
paper disks are uniformly spaced on a Petri dish, and 0.09 ml. of the
toxicant in aqueous solution is added per disk. The zone of inhibition
is a measure of the effectiveness of the fungicide.
The glass-slide method appears to simulate more closely the conditions

under which the spores of plant pathogenic fungi germinate in nature.
The Committee on the Standardization of Fungicidal Tests of the Ameri-
can Phytopathological Society has considered this method important
enough to publish a detailed and documented summary (1943), to which
the student is referred for further information and references. This
committee recommended the use of spores of the following species for
this test: Alternaria solani, Glomerella cingulata, Macrosporium sarcinae-
forme, Sclerotinia fructicola, Penicillium expansum, and Rhizopus nigri-
cans. For accurate work, at least two of these test fungi should be used.
The effectiveness of a fungicide is determined by calculating the percent-
age of inhibition of spore germination. The methods of evaluating data
obtained in fungicide tests are discussed by Horsfall (1945).
SUMMARY
A fungicide is an agent capable of killing some fungi. Fungicides may
be either water-soluble or nearly insoluble. The action of fungicides
of the first class is immediate; that of the second class is delayed. Eradi-
cant fungicides are of the first class, w^hile protective fungicides are of
the second. Fungistasis is the complete or partial inhibition of one or
more life processes of a fungus. This inhibition is reversible. The same
chemical compound may cause fungistasis or may be a fungicide, depend-
ing upon the concentration and time of exposure. The same substance
may be a fungicide for one species, cause fungistasis of a second, and be
without effect upon a third. Fungistasis precedes fungicidal action.
Before a fungicide can act upon a fungus, the toxicant must get into
the fungus cells, or at least reach the protoplasmic membrane. While
other factors undoubtedly enter into the mechanism of fungicidal action,
the principal point of attack appears to be enzyme systems. The heavy-
metal fungicides appear to act by inhibiting various sulfhydryl enzymes.
Fungus spores transform sulfur into hydrogen sulfide, which inhibits the
metalloenzymes. Organic fungicides, so far as is known, are also enzyme
inhibitors.
In the past, fungicides containing copper, mercury, and sulfur have
been the most useful. Recently, organic fungicides have become impor-
:
tant and promise to be used even more extensively in the future. Organic
fungicides are generally more specific than inorganic fungicides. Satis-
factory fungicides for the control of certain diseases are still undiscovered.
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100 : 294-295, 1944.
CHAPTER 13
METABOLIC PRODUCTS
The most important product of fungus metabolism is carbon dioxide,

and the most important function of the fungi in the economy of nature
is the destruction of plant and animal remains. The use of fungi for
food antedates written history. The use of fvmgi for the preparation
of bread and wine developed as a household art. From the time of
Pasteur, the study of fermentation has led to an ever-increasing knowl-
edge and understanding of the activities of microorganisms. The pro-
duction of antibiotics and vitamins, alcohol and organic acids, and the
potential utilization of waste agricultural products are current fields of
research and industrial activity. For extensive treatment of these
subjects the reader is referred to Prescott and Dunn (1949) and Foster
(1949).
DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATERIALS

Brefeld (1908) called fungi "Organismen der Verwesung" and con-
sidered them to be indispensable agents in maintaining the essential-
element balance of nature. Saprophytic fungi and bacteria prevent the
accumulation of plant and animal debris and return the elements that
compose these materials to the storehouse of nature, where they are
reused by new generations of plants and animals. In this role, sapro-
phytic fungi are designated as "vegetable vultures" by Rolfe and Rolfe
(1926), for they act as scavengers in the plant world.
Green plants assimilate carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. Waks-
man (1938) has assembled the data with regard to the amount of carbon
in the biosphere. It is estimated that the atmosphere contains 600
billion tons of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide, and plants are esti-
mated remove 16 billion tons yearly. Thus, the carbon content of the
to
atmosphere is sufficient for about 40 years, if no carbon dioxide were
returned to the air.
The complete destruction of plant and animal remains by fungi and

bacteria requires a long time, although some plant constituents, such as
soluble sugars and other carbohydrates, are quickly utilized. Presum-
ably the fungi are the most important organisms in this process. Other
plant constituents, such as the waxes and lignin, are attacked more
slowly. The more resistant constituents are slowly modified to form
266
METABOLIC PRODUCTS 267
humus. Someof the carbon and other essential elements is converted

into bacterial and fungus protoplasm, which after death is subject to
decay. In the end, humus is converted into carbon dioxide, water, and
other simple compounds, which are used again. The importance of
humus as a soil constituent is ably discussed by Waksman (1938). In
addition to the carbon cycle, the fungi also play an important part in the
cycles involving the release and utilization of the other essential elements.
FUNGI AS FOOD
Many curious details about the early use of fungi as food have been
collectedfrom classical and other sources by Buller (1914) and by Rolfe
and Rolfe (192G). The mushrooms were no doubt among the first fungi
used as food by man. Yeast became part of his diet when the arts of
brewing and baking were discovered. The widespread use of fermented
beverages, under certain dietetic circumstances, has an important bearing
on nutrition and health. J. S. Wallerstein (1939) has discussed primitive
brewing practices and the geographical distribution of the art. The beer
of the Middle Ages Avas turbid, owing to its content of suspended yeast
cells (Thaysen, 1943).
The nutritive value of any food depends upon its composition and
digestibility and the assimilability of its hydrolytic products. The early
writers, in the absence of precise information, were of the opinion that
fungi had little value as food. The nutritive value of fungi, of yeast in
particular, will be discussed from the standpoint of protein content and
value, vitamins, fats, and minerals.
Assuming good digestibility, the value of fungus protein is determined
by its amino-acid composition. Rose (1938), in a long series of careful
experiments, has determined which amino acids are essential for man and
animals. Some nine or ten amino acids were found to be essential (Table
20). If the protein part of a diet is deficient in a single essential amino
acid, nitrogen is lostfrom the body, or inefficient utilization of protein
results. More poor protein must be consumed in order to increase
of a
the intake of essential amino acids to satisfactory levels. The amino-
acid composition of yeast and some other proteins is given in Table 46.
Yeast protein compares favorably w4th casein or meat with respect to
essential amino acids.
Less complete data are available for the amino-acid composition of
fleshy fungi. According to Lintzel (1941), the proteins of Psalliota
campestris, Cantherella cibarius. Boletus edulis, and Morchella esculenta
are about equal to animal protein. From 100 to 200 gr. (dry weight) of
these mushrooms was required to maintain the nitrogen balance in a man
weighing 70 kg. Fitzpatrick et al. (1946) found the tryptophane content
of P. campestris to be 5 mg. per 100 g.
..
Table 46.Approximate Amino-acid Composition (in Per Cent) of Some Plant

AND Animal Proteins Calculated to 16 Per Cent Nitrogen
(Block and Boiling, Arch. Biochem. 7, 1945. Published by permission of Academic
Press, Inc.)
Yeasts *
Amino acid
Arginine
Histidine
Lysine
Tyrosine
Tryptophane
Phenylalanine
Cystine
Methionine . .
Threonine. . . .
Leucine
Isoleucine ....
Valine
A dramatic demonstration of the value of yeast as a source of vitamins

is reported by Bray (1928), onetime medical officer, Nauru, Central
Pacific. The mandating government prohibited the brewing of toddy
(palm wine) and allowed the sale of refined sugar. The results of these
dietary changes were appalling. Soon, 40 per cent of the infants born
in 1 year perished of infantile beriberi (thiamine deficiency) before reach-
ing the age of 6 months. The restoration of toddy and enforced con-
sumption of the dregs, i.e., the yeast, reduced the incidence of beriberi
to one death in 16 months. Truly, Bray was right in calling toddy the
elixir of life of the Nauruans. Piatt and Webb (1945) have noted that a
simple maize diet which was inadequate with respect to riboflavin and
nicotinic acid was made adequate in these respects by converting a por-
tion of the dietary maize into maize beer.
The vitamin content of yeasts depends upon the species or strain and
the conditions of cultivation. Some representative data are presented
in Table 47.
Table 47. Vitamin Content of Seven Food Yeasts

Results in milligrams per 100 g. of dry yeast. (Von Loesecke, Jour. Am. Dietet.
Assoc. 22, 1946. Published by permission of the American Dietetic Association.)
Nicotinic Pantothenic
Species Thiamine Riboflavin
acid acid
Torula utilis 1.7 4.7 19.0 86.0

Saccharomyces cerevisiae* 17.0 8.0 25.0 112.0
S. cerevisiae 20.5 7.6 29.0 122.0
S. cerevisiae f 17.5 4.2 48.0 86.0
S. cerevisiae^ 17.5 4.5 37,0 72.0
S. cerevisiae f 16.0 3.6 32.0 74.0
S. cerevisiaeX 3.0 7.5 38.0 13.5
* Six per cent salt added.

t Debittered brewer's yeast.
t Primary yeast.
The production of fats by fungi is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.

The usual fatty acids, including palmitic and oleic acids, are found in fat
synthesized by fungi. Apparently few studies have been made on the
value of fungi as sources of fat and essential minerals in human nutrition.
CULTIVATION OF FUNGI FOR FOOD

The ants were perhaps the first to cultivate fungi as a source of food
(see Leaoii, 1940, for discussion and references). Fungi have been used
for centuries in the Orient as food for man. The Chinese grow Hirneola
polytricha and the Japanese grow Armillaria shii-take on oak saplings.
The mushroom cultivated almost exclusively in the Occident is Agaricus
(Psalliota) campestris. The method of cultivating this species on com-

posted horse manure was developed near Paris before 1700. For informa-
tion on mushroom growing the reader is referred to Duggar (1915).
While attempts to replace composted horse manure by other substrates
have been made, none appears to be entirely satisfactory. Humfield
(1948) has suggested that Psalliota campestris be grown in large fermentors
and the mycelium rather than the fruit bodies be used for food. Aspara-
gus butt juice, a waste agricultural product, is a suitable medium. The
chemical composition of mycelium and that of the fruit bodies is similar
and the flavor comparable. This approach perhaps offers a way to culti-
vate other desirable species, including the morels and the truffles. Nord
(1948) has suggested that the mycelium of Fusarium lini be used for food.
The use of yeasts to convert low-grade carbohydrates, such as wood
sugar and molasses, into food has interesting possibilities. It is necessary
to fortify these carbohydrates with other nutrients for the cultivation of
yeast. Phosphates, a source of potassium, and nitrogen, in the form of
urea, ammonia, or ammonium salts, are added. The function of yeast is
to convert inorganic nitrogen into protein. Animals are unable to
assimilate ammonia or urea directly but require nitrogen in the form of
protein or amino acids. Inorganic nitrogen may be converted into
proteins by green plants or by certain microorganisms. The use of urea,
a derivative of ammonia, as cattle fodder is an example of the synthesis
of protein by the microflora of the rumen.
The possibility of using wood waste for yeast propagation was investi-
gated in Germany during the First World War. In 1944 it is reported
that 9,000 tons of food yeast were produced in Germany. Fermentable
carbohydrates are obtained from wood as a by-product of sulfite paper
manufacture, or by direct hydrolysis. Before sulfite liquor or wood
hydrolysate is used for yeast culture, it is treated with calcium carbonate
to adjust the pH and precipitate impurities. After the addition of
nutrients the solution is heavily inoculated with the desired strain of
yeast. Aeration is necessary for high yields of yeast. The weight of
yeast produced amounts to about half the weight of sugar utilized. Such
yeast is approximately 50 per cent protein (Harris et al., 1948). The
economics of fodder-yeast production from sulfite liquor have been studied
by Schleef (1948). The use of by-product molasses for the production
of food and fodder yeasts should offer fewer technical difficulties than the
use of wood sugar.
FAT PRODUCTION
Serious efforts to utilize fungi for the synthesis of fats were made in
Germany during the First World War and continued thereafter. The
technical problems encountered proved difficult, but some success was
achieved by 1942 (Hesse, 1949). The controHing factor in fat production
appears to be the carbon-nitrogen ratio. As long as an adequate supply

of nitrogen is present, little fat is synthesized.
the carbohydrate sup-
If
ply is high when the nitrogen
exhausted, assimilable fat is synthesized.
is
Linder (1922) termed these two phases 'protein generation and Jat genera-
tion. Fat-laden cells of many fungi appear to be incapable of cell division.
Fat formation takes place only in the presence of an abundant supply
of oxygen. The relation between sugar concentration and amount of fat
synthesized by Penicillium javanicum is illustrated in Fig. 52.
2500
C7>
2
crude lipide. A list of species of Penicillium and Aspergillus which syn-

thesize considerable fat is given in Table 48.
Table 48. The Crude Fat Content op Dried Mycelium of Various Species op
PeniciUiuin and Aspergillus as Determined by Extraction with Ether
(Ward et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 1935. Published by permission of the American
Chemical Society.)
Species Crude Fat, %
Penicillium flavo-cinereum 28.5
P. piscarum 26-28
P. oxalicum 24.4
P. roqueforti 22.9
P. javanicum 22.
Aspergillus flavus 16.0
Various theories of the mechanism of fat synthesis have been published

and are reviewed by Foster (1949) and Hesse (1949). Most of these
consider acetaldehyde or acetate to be the product of intermediary metab-
olism used in fat synthesis. This emphasizes the importance of pyruvic
acid in fungus metabolism. Various investigators have shown that
acetaldehyde may be converted into fat by yeasts. The glycerol required
for fat synthesis thought to arise from the reduction and hydrolysis of
is
dihydroxyacetone phosphate or 3-phosphogly eerie aldehyde (scheme VI,

Chap. 7).
PRODUCTION OF VITAMINS
Only a few species of fungi and bacteria produce vitamins in large
enough amounts to be of interest in industry. Biological synthesis must
compete with chemical synthesis on a cost basis. The recovery of vita-
mins as a by-product of commercial processes or the use of waste materials
as the basis of a cheap medium may make biological synthesis attractive.
Riboflavin is produced so abundantly by Candida guilliermondi under
certain cultural conditions that it crystallizes in the medium (Burkholder,
1943). Among
the factors found to influence the amount of riboflavin
synthesized, the sources of carbon and nitrogen and aeration are impor-
tant. Various investigators have found the concentration of iron in the
medium to have a profound influence on the amount of riboflavin syn-
thesized by various organisms. Iron concentrations in excess of 10 ^g
per decreased the amount of riboflavin synthesized by C. guillier-
liter
mondi and C. fiareri (Tanner et al., 1945; Tanner and Van Lanen, 1947).
The optimum iron concentration for riboflavin synthesis by Clostridium,
acetobutylicum is said to be 1 mg. per liter. Hickey (1945) has suggested
the use of 2,2'-bipyridine to inactivate excessive concentrations of iron
in industrial fermentations. By maintaining the iron concentration
between 40 and 60 ng per liter, Levine et al. (1949) found the maximum
yields of riboflavin produced by C. guilliermondi and C. fiareri to be 175
and 567 ng per ml., respectively. Pilot-plant yields were somewhat less.
Eremothecium ashbyi was shown to produce as much as 157 mg. per

when cultivated on glucose-peptone medium (Renaud
liter of riboflavin
andLachaux, 1945). Aeration was necessary. Foster (1947) has recom-

mended a molasses medium for the commercial production of riboflavin
by E. ashbyi. The closely related species, Ashbya gossypii, also synthe-
sizes riboflavin in large amounts (Tanner et al., 1949).
Peltier and Borchers (1947) determined the amount of riboflavin
produced by 240 isolates of soil fungi when grown on wheat bran. Forty-
five isolates produced 2 mg. or more of riboflavin per 100 g. of dry mold
bran. An unidentified species of Aspergillus produced 5.8 mg. of ribo-
flavin per 100 g. of substrate. Species of Fusarium and Aspergillus were
outstanding producers of riboflavin.
The commercial microbiological synthesis of riboflavin depends upon
the use of either E. ashbyi or C. acetobutyliciim (Tanner et al., 1949).
Vitamin B12 was isolated form from liver and shown to
in crystalline
contain cobalt (Rickes 1948; Smith, 1948).
et al., It is the only vitamin
so far discovered which contains a metal as an integral part of the mole-
cule. Streptomyces griseus and other microorganisms synthesize this
vitamin. Sheep and cattle pastured on cobalt-deficient soils (Florida,
Australia, New Zealand) develop a deficiency disease. Ingested cobalt
is more effective than injected cobalt in overcoming this condition. It
may be assumed that cobalt is used in the synthesis of vitamin B12 by the
action of the microorganisms of the rumen and intestine. Vitamin B12
appears to be the anti-pernicious-anemia factor (West, 1948). Whether
it is the animal protein factor is undecided. The cow-manure factor may
be vitamin B12 (Lillie et al., 1948).
Until the structure of vitamin B12 determined and methods of syn-
is
thesis developed, certain natural products will remain the only source
of this vitamin. The only organic moiety of vitamin B12 so far disclosed
is l-a-D-ribofuranosido-5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole (Brink et al., 1950).
Vitamin B12 is obtained as a by-product from various industrial processes,
especially streptomycin production. It is evident that the medium must

contain cobalt; within limits, the amount
vitamin B12 synthesized by
of
Streptomyces griseus is a function of the cobalt content of the medium.
Maximum synthesis was observed when the medium contained 1 to 2 mg.
of cobalt per liter (Hendlin and Ruger, 1950).
None of the other vitamins appears to be synthesized by fungi in
amounts which would make the latter attractive sources for the isolation
of pure vitamins. The value used for food was
of these vitamins in fungi
discussed previously. Yeast can bewith thiamine so that it
fortified
may serve as a therapeutic agent. By adding synthetic thiamine to an
aerated yeast culture, yeast was produced which contained 6 mg. of
thiamine per g. (Van Lanen et al., 1942).
ENZYME PRODUCTION
The industrial production and use
of enzymes from microorganisms
in the Occident is although the use of fungi as amylolytic
fairly recent,
agents by the peoples of the Orient for the preparation of koji and other
foods an old art. For this purpose, mixed cultures of species of Asper-
is
and Rhizopus are grown upon the rice or soybean substrates, the
gillus
enzymes being used without separation. The pioneering work of Taka-
mine (1914) on the amylases of A. oryzae was especially important.
The ability of fungi to produce amylase is widely distributed, but only
a few species are used commercially for this purpose. The amount of
amylase produced varies with the species or isolate and the cultural condi-
tions. Le Mense et al. (1947) screened 359 isolates of Penicillium and
Aspergillus and found 42 isolates to produce amylase in submerged
culture. The activity of the species of Penicillium ranged from 0.1 to
0.6 enzyme unit per milliliter of culture medium. One isolate of A.
niger (NRRL 337) was found to be especially adapted for the production
of amylase in submerged culture. The production of amylase was highly
dependent upon the composition of the medium. Corn meal was espe-
cially valuable in increasing amylase production when added to basal
media composed of corn steep liquor, dried tankage, soybean meal, or
thin stillage. Amylase production was stimulated by the addition of 10
to 20 mg. of sodium chloride per liter of culture medium. Addition of a
mixture of chlorinated phenols (Dowcide G) inhibited sporulation and
increased amylase production (Erb et al., 1948).
Others have found different isolates of the same species to produce
varying amounts of amylase. Hao et al. (1943) studied the production
of amylase by 27 isolates of various species of fungi when grown upon
wheat bran. A. oryzae, Rhizopus delemar, and R. oryzae produced the
largest amounts of amylase. A. oryzae was the fungus of choice because
of ease of handling.
In practice, fungus amylases are produced and utilized in three general
ways. (1) In the amylo process, starch is solubilized by autoclaving with
a trace of a mineral acid, and the mash is inoculated with a species of
Rhizopus, which produces amylase abundantly, and a species of yeast.
The function of the Rhizopus species is to convert the starch into ferment-
able sugars, from which the yeast produces alcohol. For a description
of this process see Owen (1933). (2) The fungus may be grown upon a
solid substrate such as bran and the resulting moldy mass (mold bran)
dried (Underkofler et al., 1946). The fresh material may be used without
drying (Roberts et al., 1944). (3) Fungus amylases may be produced in
submerged aerated cultures much as antibiotics are produced. The
culture medium may be used directly to replace malt as a saccharifying
agent.
Fungus amylases are used to replace malt amylase for the saccharifica-
tion of starch, Myrback (1948) is amylase from A.
of the opinion that
niger is an a-amylase, but from a-amylase of malt in that it has a
it differs
higher capacity for saccharification. For a comparison of fungus and
malt amylase and the economic considerations involved, see Underkofler
et al. (194G). The yield of alcohol is said to be slightly higher when
fungus amylase is used in place of malt for saccharification.
Fungi are the source of other enzymes of commercial interest, including
pectinase and sucrase. Pectinase is used in the clarification of fruit
juices. For a survey of the commercial production of fungus enzymes
seeL. Wallerstein (1939).
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
Yeasts are used almost exclusively for the commercial production of
fermentation alcohol, but alcoholic fermentation is not restricted to these
fungi. Pasteur (1872) observed that Penicillium glaucum, Aspergillus
glaucus,and Mucor raceniosus produced alcohol under anaerobic condi-
tions. Further information on alcohol production by filamentous fungi
may be found in the monograph of Raistrick et al. (1931), who determined
complete carbon balances for 96 species of Aspergillus, 75 species of
Penicillium, 8 species of Citromyces (Penicillium) 23 species of
, Fusarium
and 36 miscellaneous species. The original report should be consulted
for details and the quantitative methods used. All the 23 species of
Fusarium studied produced alcohol. From this and other reports in the
literature, it must be concluded that this property is common among
species of this genus. Many species of Aspergillus and Penicillium pro-
duced alcohol, as did species of other genera. Only a few of the species
studied failed to produce detectable amounts of alcohol. The apparatus
used in these studies is shown in Fig. 53.
The concentration of alcohol which inhibits the growth of fungi varies
with the species or strain. In general, yeasts are more tolerant of alcohol
than the filamentous fungi. The upper limit for most yeasts is about 12
per cent alcohol, although some strains are more tolerant. The suscepti-
bility to alcohol limits the alcohol concentration of naturally fermentt>?
beverages. The rate of fermentation decreases as the concentration (k
alcohol increases.
Not all isolates of a species are equally efficient in producing alcohcu
For example, eight isolates of Fusarium lini produced varying amountfe
of alcohol on the same medium. The more virulent pathogens on flax
produced the most alcohol (Letcher and Willaman, 1926). A correlation
between sporulation and alcohol production by Aspergillus flavus was
noted by Yuill (1928). In general, sporulating cultures produced less
alcohol than nonsporulating cultures.
The most important condition w^hich governs alcoholic fermentation
^^
r^HI
sterilization
Cone. Cotton wool
mh:
Fig. 53. Apparatus for studying the metabolic products of fungi and other micro-
organisms. The apparatus consists of five units: A gasholder, P; a train for the puri-
fication and sterilization of air or other gases, A-E\ the culture flask, F; a train for the
quantitative absorption of carbon dioxide, H-M; an aspirator, Q, for the collection
of gaseous products of metabolism other than carbon dioxide. (Redrawn from Birkin-
shaw and Raistrick, Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), Ser. B, 220: 14, 1931. Published by
permission of the Royal Society.)
is the supply of oxygen. The relation between fermentation and anaero-

bic conditions was recognized by Pasteur, who summarized his extensive
investigations on fermentation as "la vie sans air." The essential feature
of fermentation is anaerobic dissimilation of carbohydrates. Growth and
fermentation are competitive processes, for fungi require oxygen for
growth. In practice it is advantageous to carry out fermentations in the
presence of someair, especially at the start. This allows some increase

number of cells and reduces the amount of inoculum required. The
in the
amount of oxygen available to submerged mycelium or cells, unless
vigorous aeration is used, is insufficient to inhibit alcoholic fermentation
by certain species.
Alcoholic fermentation has been studied since the time of Lavoisier.
Few study have been so valuable in increasing our understanding
fields of
of the life processes of microorganisms. Harden (1932) has concisely
reviewed the early work and theories on fermentation. The idea that
yeasts as living fungi were the proximate cause of fermentation did not
gain acceptance for many The eminent Wohler (1839) ridiculed
decades.
which he declared that he had followed the
this idea in a lively skit, in
entire process microscopically. Briefly, he states that the responsible
organism developed from an egg and had the shape of a Beindorf distilling
flask; "... diese Infusorien fressen Zucker, entleeren aus dem Darm-
kanal Weingeist, und aus den Harnorganen, Kohlensaure."
The enzymatic nature of alcohol fermentation was established by
Buchner (1897). The enzymatic transformations involved in fermenta-
tion were discussed in Chap. 7. Further information and references may
be found in Summer and Somers (1947), Tauber (1949), Prescott and
Dunn (1949), Meyerhof (1944, 1949), Nord and Mull (1945), and Foster
(1949).
The larger part of the world-wide fermentation industry is devoted
to the production of ethyl alcohol. During the war year of 1945 some
600 million gallons of 95 per cent ethyl alcohol was produced in the United
States alone. Less than one-third this amount was produced in 1948.
Of this amount 64 per cent was produced by fermentation (Lee, 1949).
While any source of fermentable sugars may be used for the production
of alcohol, the more common raw materials include molasses, starch from
various sources, hydrolyzed cellulose or wood sugar, and fruit juices. It
is beyond the scope of this text to discuss the commercial production of
industrial and beverage alcohol. For information on these subjects see

Prescott and Dunn (1949).
ORGANIC ACIDS
Many fungi synthesize organic acids, which accumulate in the medium.

These acids include oxalic, citric, succinic, fumaric, malic, lactic, itaconic,
kojic, gluconic, and others. Commonly, a species may synthesize a
variety of related acids. The isolates of a given species may differ widely
in synthetic capacity. To obtain maximum yields, it is necessary to
control nutritional and environmental factors closely. The optimum
conditions for one isolate may differ from those of another isolate of the
same species. is discussed in detail by Foster

Acid production by fungi
and Dunn (1949), and Wallvcr (1949).
(1949), Prescott
The meaning of the term fermentation has been expanded by most
authors to include aerobic as well as anaerobic processes. The produc-
tion of most organic acids and antibiotics Ijy fungi takes place in the
presence of oxygen, and these processes are not fermentations in the
restricted (anaerobic) sense of the term.Indeed, adequate aeration is
one of the salient features of such processes. Aeration may be achieved
by cultivating the fungi on the surface of shallow layers of medium in
pans or trays or the fungi may be cultivated in closed tanks, which may
;
contain as much as 15,000 gal. of medium. Aeration is provided by

mechanical stirring and blowing in sterile air under pressure.
The organic acids discussed in this chapter are derived from carbo-
hydrates present in the medium. In general, media highly unbalanced
with respect to carbohydrates are used. The balanced medium devel-
oped by Steinberg for the cultivation of Aspergillus niger (Chap. 2) has
a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 29 to 1, while the medium recommended by
Currie (1917) for the production of citric acid by ^.
niger has a carbon-to-
nitrogen ratio of 72 to 1. A
fungus first utilizes the nutrients in the
unbalanced medium for the production of mycelium (growth phase).
The excess carbohydrate which remains when the nitrogen is exhausted
is dissimilated ("fermentation" phase). Advantage is taken of such
preformed mycelium, for if the original medium is replaced by fresh
medium, the mycelium continues to dissimilate carbohydrate. The

replacement medium is frequently more unbalanced than the growth
medium. For example, Karow and Waksman (1947) used for A. wentii
a growth medium with a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 135 to 1, while the
replacement medium had a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 270 to 1.
Economic amounts of organic acids may accumulate in the medium
because the normal use of these compounds for the synthesis of mycelium
is prevented by the imposed experimental conditions. If the nitrogen
supply is exhausted, no more protoplasm can be formed. The mycelium

then dissimilates sugars enzymatically. Enough nutrients are supplied
in replacement media to repair and maintain the enzyme systems of the
fungus in a vigorously functioning state. The enzymes, other than those
concerned with certain phases of carbohydrate dissimilation, are largely
idle because of the lack of suitable substrates.
A fungus commonly produces several organic acids at the same time.
Citric and oxalic acids are produced by many isolates of A niger, and the.
relativeamounts of these acids may be varied by controlling the pH of
the medium. In general, a highly acid medium (pH 2.0 to 3.0) favors the
synthesis of citric acid, while less acid media favor the production o/
oxalic acid.
Citric acid. Wehmer was the first to recognize the commercial possi-
bilities of citric acid synthesis by two species of Citromyces {Penicillium).
Selected isolates of Aspergillus niger appear to be used in industry,
although the propertj^ of producing citric acid is common to many fungi.
The following fungi have been suggested for commercial citric acid pro-
duction (Von Loesecke, 1945): Citromyces pfejferianus, C. glaber, C.
citricus, Aspergillus carhonarius, A. glaucus, A. clavatus, A. cinnamomeus,
A.fumaricus, A. awamori, A. aureus, Penicillium arenarium, P. olivaceum,
P. divaricatum, P. sanguifluus, P. glaucum, Mucor pyriformis.
The production of citric acid in the United States increased from about
5 million to 26 million pounds between 1935 and 1945 (Von Loesecke.
1945). Presumably most of this was "fermentation" citric acid. At
present it is beheved that most citric acid is produced by surface cultures.
Citric acid is formed from many sources of carbon. Sucrose is said
to be the best carbon source for the production of citric acid. There is
less agreement upon the value of other sugars. Different investigators
have found glucose, fructose, and maltose to vary from good to poor. In
part, this is to be attributed to the use of different isolates and different
experimental conditions. Beet molasses is used in industry. The
suitability of this substrate is said to vary with the source and year of
production (Bernhauer and Knobloch, 1941). The evaluation of carbon
sources is complicated by the metallic elements they contain, especially
iron and manganese. Methods of treating beet and cane molasses to
remove inhibiting impurities are described by Perlman et al. (1946),
Gerhardt et al. (1946), and Karow and Waksman (1947). The inhibiting
effect of metallic ions on the production of citric acid from sugars is illus-
trated by the data in Table 49.
Table 49. The Effect of Removing Metallic Contaminants from Three
Sugars, by the Process of Cationic Exchange, on the Prodlction of
Citric Acid by Aspergillus niger, Wisconsin Strain 62
(Perlman et al., Arch. Biochem. 11, 1943. Published by permission of Academic
Press, Inc.)
Sugar used
ture indicates that submerged culture may be the preferred process in

the future. Average yields of 72 g. of anhydrous citric acid per 100 g.
of sucrose in the medium have been obtained in the laboratory (Shu
and Johnson, 1948).
The formula for citric acid is given below:
CH2— COOH
HO— CH— COOH
I
CH2— COOH
Citric acid
Any theory of formation must take into account the following

citric acid
branched-chain compound, is synthesized from carbon
facts: Citric acid, a
sources containing from two to seven carbon atoms. Yields of citric
acid may approach 90 per cent of the sugar used (Wells et al., 1936).
The amount carbon dioxide evolved is low, which suggests either
of
reutilization or a mechanism of producing the necessary intermediates
without the production of carbon dioxide. Reutilization of carbon
dioxide seems the more probable, for Foster et al. (1941) showed Asper-
giUus niger to utilize radioactive carbon dioxide in the synthesis of citric
acid. The more probable pathway of synthesis is via the Krebs cycle
(Chap. 7) and the supplementary formation of oxalacetic from pyruvic
acid and carbon dioxide (Wood-Werkman reaction).
Gluconic acid. A considerable number of fungi produce gluconic acid.
These include Aspergillus niger (various isolates), A. fuscus, A. cinna-
momeus, A. oryzae, Penicillium glabrum, P. glaucum, P. purpurogenum
var. ruhrisclerotium, P. chrysogenum, P. crustaceum, and Fumago vagans.
Most investigators have used selected isolates of A. niger for the produc-
tion of gluconic acid. Details of laboratory and semi-pilot-plant investi-
gations may be found in the papers of Wells et al. (1937), Gastrock et al.
(1938), and Forges et al. (1941).
Many factors influence the formation of gluconic acid. Isolates of
A. niger differ in ability to synthesize this acid. Not all isolates produce
the maximum amount of acid under identical conditions. Adequate
aeration is necessary for the enzymatic conversion of glucose to gluconic
acid. Gluconic acid is produced most abundantly when the pH of the
medium is kept near 5. Calcium carbonate is used for neutralizing the
gluconic acid formed. This is advantageous, for calcium gluconate is
used in medicine as a source of readily assimilable calcium. Frecipitation
of calcium gluconate during formation may be prevented by the addition
of boric acid or borax to the culture medium in amounts vaiying up to
2,000 p. p.m. (Moyer et al., 1940). Boron compounds are added after
the growth of mycelium is essentially complete. The mycelium may be
used as many as thirteen times by removing the spent medium and adding
fresh medium with a high glucose content but low in other nutrients
(Forges et al, 1940, 1941).
The production of gluconic acid appears to be a direct oxidation of
glucose. The enzyme responsible for this transformation is called glucose
aerodehydrogenase. This enzyme, when free from catalase, catalyzes a
reaction between glucose and oxygen.
Gluconic acid and hydrogen
peroxide are the products formed. Glucose aerodehydrogenase was first
isolated from Penicillium chrysogenum and was called notatin, or penicil-
lin B, at first. Its antibiotic activity is due to liberation of hydrogen
peroxide. For recent papers on this enzyme see Keilin and Hartree
(1948, 1948a).
Lactic acid. Various lactic acid bacteria are used in the commercial
production of lactic acid. These bacteria require a complex natural
medium, which makes the purification of lactic acid laborious. Many
Phycomycetes produce lactic acid, and species of Rhizopus are
species of
noteworthy in this respect. The following fungi produce lactic acid:
Rhizopus arrhizus, R. chinensis, R. elegans, R. japonicus, R. nodosus, R.
oryzae, R. pseudodiinensis, R. salehrosus, R. shanghaiensis, R. stolonifer,
R. tritici, Mucor Monilia tamari, and Blastocladia pringsheimii.
rouxii,
Most appear to synthesize c?-lactic acid, although R.
of these fungi
chinensis synthesizes Wactic acid (Saito, 1911).
The use of R. oryzae for production of lactic acid has been intensively
investigated (Lockwood et al., 1936; Ward et at., 1936, 1938). Glucose
appears to be the best sugar. Nitrate nitrogen is not used by this fungus.
Calcium carbonate is used in the medium to neutralize lactic acid as it is
formed. Yields increase when the cultures are aerated. As much as
75 per cent of the glucose utilized is converted into lactic acid. The
presence of added zinc increases mycelial growth but depresses the yield
of lactic acid.
The mechanism of lactic acid production by fungi is ably discussed by
Foster (1949). Under anaerobic conditions, ethyl alcohol, carbon
dioxide, and lactic acid are produced in equimolecular amounts. The
amount of lactic acid produced under aerobic conditions increases, while
the amount of alcohol decreases (Waksman and Foster, 1939). The
most probable intermediate for the production of lactic acid is pyruvic
acid.
Itaconic acid. Aspergillus itaconicus was the first fungus reported to
synthesize itaconic acid. The structural formula below shows that this
unsaturated acid is related to succinic acid.
CH2=C— COOH
HoC— COOH
Itaconic acid
The fungi which have been tested for itaconic acid production are mainly
selected isolates of A. terreus. Relatively few isolates produce sufficient
itaconic acid to have commercial possibilities (Calam et al., 1939; Moyer
and Coghill, 1945).
Various attempts have been made to produce mutants of A. terreus
by irradiating conidia with ultraviolet light (Raper et al., 1945). Less
success attended these efforts than comparable treatment of conidia of
Penicillium chrysogenum for obtaining mutants with enhanced penicillin
production.
Among the factors which affect the production of itaconic acid by
isolates of .4. terreus are the composition of the medium, hydrogen-ion
concentration, temperature, and aeration. Glucose and ammonium
nitrate appear to be the best sources of carbon and nitrogen. The pH
range in which itaconic acid accumulates is narrow and low, 1.9 to 2.3.
The aluminum ion is toxic to A. terreus, but aluminum trays may be used
if the concentration of magnesium ion in the medium is high. As much
as 4.75 magnesium sulfate heptahydrate per liter of medium may be
g. of
used. probable that this high concentration of magnesium ion also

It is
enables the fungus to withstand low pH values (Lockwood and Ward,
1945).
Fumaric acid. This unsaturated, four-carbon, dicarboxylic acid is
produced by many fungi, although only a relatively few species synthe-
size large amounts. With few exceptions, the fungi which synthesize
fumaric acid in significant amounts are Phycomycetes. The formula for
fumaric acid is given below:
HOOC— CH
HC— COOH
II
Fumaric acid
The factors which affect the production of fumaric acid by Rhizopus

nigricans were studied by Foster and Waksman (1939). The concentra-
tion of zinc was found to be especially important. Optimum production
of fumaric acid occurred in cultures receiving less zinc than that required
for optimum growth. Not all isolates of R. nigricans synthesized fumaric
acid in equal amounts or under the same conditions. One isolate studied
by Foster and Waksman (1939a) produced fumaric acid anaerobically
and aerobically, whereas another produced fumaric acid aerobically only.
Various proposals have been made to explain the mechanism of fumaric
acid formation. Anaerobic synthesis is thought to involve the formation
of oxalacetic acid from pyruvic acid and carbon dioxide (Foster and
Davis, 1948). The follo^^•ing steps would convert oxalacetic acid to
fumaric acid: oxalacetate —^ malate —> fumarate. It is probable that
fumaric acid is produced aerobically from acetic acid as follows: 2 (ace-
cate) —> succinate —> fumarate (Thunberg-Wieland condensation). R.

nigricans produces high yields of fumaric acid from both ethyl alcohol
and acetic acid, which is evidence in favor of this scheme of formation
(Foster and Waksman, 1939).
Other organic acids. Apparently, the first organic acid to be dis-
covered as a product of fungus metabolism was oxalic acid. Many fungi
in nature contain calcium oxalate crystals. This was noted as early as
1887 by De Bary. Many species of Aspergillus and Penicillium produce
large amounts of oxalic acid, especially if enough alkali is present in the
medium to convert the acid into an oxalate. Many species of Aspergillus
which produce oxalate in the presence of a neutralizing agent also produce
citric acid in acid media (Currie, 1917). For a recent discussion of oxalic
acid production by fungi see Foster (1949).
Various species of Aspergillus, including .4. oryzae, A. flavus, A. nidu-
lans, A. giganteus, and some other fungi produce kojic acid. Kojic acid
is a cyclic compound, a pyrone, and has been shown to have antibiotic
properties (Morton et al., 1945).
ESTERS
Among the esters reported to be formed by fungi are ethyl acetate,
methyl cinnamate, methyl p-methoxycinnamate, and isobutyl acetate.
Various reports are in the literature concerning a "banana-oil" odor
being produced by fungi, but apparently amyl acetate has not been
isolated and identified as a product of fungus metabolism. Ethyl acetate
is produced by Penicillium digitatum (Birkinshaw et al., 1931) and by
Endoconidiophora moniliformis (Gordon, 1950).
ANTIBIOTICS AND DRUGS

The inhibition of one organism by another is called antagonism. The
phenomenon has been known since the time of Pasteur, and the subject
has been reviewed by Waksman (1947) in a book containing over 1,000
references. Antagonism occurs in nature as well as in the laboratory
and is of such common occurence that it is frequently overlooked. Exam-
ples are easily found by examining contaminated plates for clear areas
around the contaminants. Antagonism may be due to competition for
nutrients or to toxic substances. This discussion will deal wdth the toxic
substances produced by fungi which inhibit fungi and bacteria.
General discussion. Fungi and other organisms produce a variety
of toxic substances, which include enzymes, alkaloids, toxins, simple and
complex organic compounds, and inorganic compounds. Organic com-
pounds produced by fungi and other organisms, especially bacteria and
actinomycetes, which inhibit the life processes of microorganisms are
called antibiotics. Waksman (1947) would restrict the term antibiotic
to organic compounds produced by microorganisms which inhibit the

functioning of other microorganisms. General usage of the term anti-
biotic is, however, wider than this and appHes the term to those organic
compounds of fairly simple structure produced by organisms which inhibit
microorganisms. These substances are referred to more specifically as
antibacterial, antifungal, or antiviral substances.
There are no universal antibacterial or antifungal substances. Anti-
biotics are specific in action. Penicillin, for example, is active against
A
Fig. 54. Method of assay for antibiotics. A, control culture of Penicillium notatum
on agar medium; radial series of plugs cut at 6 days. B, agar-plug assay plate show-
ing zones of inhibition of Staphylococcus developed after agar blocks removed from A
have been incubated for 16 hr. at 37°C. (Courtesy of Raper, Alexander, and Coghill,
Jour. Bad. 48: 644, 1944. Published by permission of The Williams & Wilkins
Company.)
many Gram-positive bacteria and only a relatively few Gram-negative

organisms.
The occurrence of antibiotics is probably far more widespread than
suspected at present. The reason way in which anti-
for this lies in the
biotics are discovered. Antibiotics are detected by their inhibiting action
on living organisms. A susceptible test organism is essential for the
detection of an antibiotic. For obvious reasons, human pathogenic
bacteria are most used for screening tests. If one desires to obtain anti-
fungal substances active against pathogenic fungi, these fungi should be

used as test organisms.
The same principle underlies all methods for detecting antibiotic action.
The test organisms are brought into contact with the products elaborated
by the organism suspected of producing an antibiotic. This may be done
by growing two organisms on the same Petri dish. A clear zone between
the colonies indicates inhibition (Fig. 45). A second method consists

in growing an organism on agar and cutting radially a series of agar plugs
and placing these agar disks, which contain the antibiotic, on agar plates
sown uniformly with the test organism (Raper et al., 1944). This method
is illustrated in Fig. 54. Other methods of detecting antibiotics have
been summarized by Waksman (1947).
Fig. 55. The antibiotic effect of Streptomyces sp. on two plant pathogenic fungi,
Monilinia fructicola, on the left, and Helminthosporiuin sativum, on the right.
The production of antibiotic substances by fungi is common. In a

screening test of over 400 species, which included over 300 wood-inhabit-
ing fungi and 22 dermatophytes, somewhat over 200 species produced
substances active against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
(Robbins et al., 1945). A large number of Basidiomycetes and other
fungi have been tested for the presence of antibiotics by Wilkins and
Harris (1944). The actinomycetes are the source of many useful anti-
biotics including streptomycin, Chloromycetin, aureomycin, terramycin,
and other unidentified compounds (Waksman, 1947). With the excep-
tion of Phytophthora erythroseptica none of the Phycomycetes appear to
have been reported as producing antibacterial substances. For a survey
of Fungi Imperfecti in the role of producing antibacterial substances
(against Staphylococcus aureus) and antifungal substances (against
Botrytis allii), see Brianand Hemming (1947). The inhibiting effect of
Streptomyces sp. on two plant pathogenic fungi is shown in Fig. 55.
Many soil organisms produce antibiotics. Whether these organisms
produce antibiotics in sufficient amounts to inhibit plant pathogens under
natural conditions in the soil is not certain. It is known, however, that
;
the incidence of certain diseases may be decreased by adding certain

bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi to soil. For references, see Grossbard
(1948), Henry (1931), Waksman (1937), and Anwar (1949).
The influence of various soil-inhabiting organisms in decreasing infec-
tion of barley by Helminthos'porium sativum has been reported by Anwar
(1949). Figure 56 illustrates some of these results. It is by no means
certain that these effects were due to the antifungal substances produced
by the antagonistic organisms.
Fig. 56. The effects of certain soil organisms on the pathonogcnicit}^ of Helmintho-
s'porium sativum on barley. Seedlings grown at 80°F. in steamed soil infested with:
A, no organisms; B, H. sativum and Bacillus subtilis: C, H. sativum and Penicillium sp.
D, H. sativum and Trichoderma lignorum: E, H. sativum. (Courtesy of Anwar,
Phytopathology 39: 1011, 1949.)
The situation in soil is very complicated. Basic antibiotics such as

streptomycin are adsorbed on clay; acidic antibiotics like clavacin are
apparently held less firmly. Gottlieb and Siminoff (1950) are of the
opinion that competition is more of a factor than antibiotic action as the
cause of one organism inhibiting another in the soil. Thus, either As-per-
gillus clavatus or Streptomyces griseus inhibits the growth of Bacillus
suhtilis in soil. No difference was noted between a strain of S. griseus
which produced streptomycin and one which did not.
Schatz and Hazen (1948) reported that 124 of the 243 soil Actiyiomyces
;
tested were antagonistic to four test human pathogens, Candida albicans,

Cryptococciis neoformans, Trichophyton gypseum, and T. rubrum.
Table 50. Antibiotics Produced by Soil-inhabiting Actinomycetes and Fungi
(Brian, Cheni. Industry 1949. Published by permission of the Society of Chemical
Industry.)
Organism Antibiotic Properties
Streptomyces griseus Grisein Antibacterial (Gram positive and

negative) ; antirickettsial ; not
antifungal
Actidione Not antibacterial; antifungal
Streptomycin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative and acid fast)
Nocardia gardneri Proactinomycin Antibacterial (Gram positive)
Actinomyces lavendulae Streptothricin Antibacterial (Gram positive)
antifungal
Proactinomyces cyaneus Litmocidin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative)
Streptomyces venezuelae Chloromycetin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative); not antifungal; anti-
rickettsial
Aspergillus jlavus Aspergillic acid Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative); antifungal
A. terreus Citrinin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
Fusarium orthoceras Enniatin B Antibacterial (Gram positive and
acid fast) ; not antifungal
Penicillium brevi-compactum Mycophenolic acid Antibacterial (Gram positive and
P. chrysogenum Penicillin Antibacterial (Gram positive) ; not
antifungal
P. griseofulvum Griseofulvin Not antibacterial; antifungal
P. janczewiskii Griseofulvin Not antibacterial; antifungal
P. patulum Patulin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative) ; antifungal
Trichoderma viride Gliotoxin Antibacterial (Gram positive and
negative and acid fast) ; anti-
fungal
Viridin Not antibacterial; antifungal
A list produced by some soil-inhabiting actinomycetes

of antibiotics
and fungi is Note that some organisms produce more
given in Table 50.
than one antibiotic and that the same antibiotic substance may be pro-
duced by more than one species. Organisms differ in susceptibility to
antibiotics. This range of effectiveness is frequently called the antibioHc
spectrum. Thus, Penicillum luteum-purpurogenum is some 12 thousand
times as sensitive to gliotoxin as to streptomycin. Not all fungi are
equally inhibited by the same concentration of an antibiotic; some 11
times as much clavacin is required to inhibit the growth of Aspergillus

clavatus as Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Reilly et al., 1945).
Fungi produce substances which are capable of inactivating certain
plant viruses. The Basidiomycetes are especially noteworthy in this
respect (Utech and Johnson, 1950). Extracts of Trichotheciiim roseum
reduce infectivity of southern bean mosaic, tobacco mosaic, and tobacco
necrosis viruses (Gupta and Price, 1950). These authors believe that
this reduced infectivity is due to increased resistance of the host. There
is no evidence which indicates that any of the known antibiotics are
involved in the destruction of plant viruses. However, antibiotics are

known which are effective against virus diseases in man.
Preliminary studies indicate that certain antibiotics may be used to
control fungi which cause plant diseases. Actidione has been reported
by Vaughn et al. (1949) to control powdery mildew on beans and roses.
Actidione was toxic to young rose leaves at a concentration of 2.5 p.p.m.
but less toxic to bean plants. Laboratory tests indicated that actidione
is a fungistatic substance for a considerable number of plant pathogenic
fungi, including Sclerotinia fructicola, Cladosporium cucumerinum, and
Colletotrichum lagenarium. Further data on the effect of actidione on
plant pathogenic fungi are reported by Whiffin (1950).
The protective action of an antibiotic obtained from an unidentified
species of Streptomyces against Venturia inaequalis on apple has been
reported by Leben and Keitt (1949). This antibiotic has been named
antimycin.
been used successfully, to a limited extent, in controlling
Penicillin has
necrosis of giant cactus, caused by Erwinia carnegieana (Boyle, 1949).
Injections of penicillin into the necrotic tissue apparently diffused through
the plant tissues for some distance, killing the bacteria. This is one of
the few cases in which an antibiotic has been used successfully in thera-
peutic treatment of plant disease.
The principal use of antibiotics is to control disease in man and animals.
Only a relatively few antibiotics are useful for this purpose. In addition
to killing or inhibiting pathogenic organisms, an antibiotic, to be useful
in medicine, must be relatively nontoxic to the host. Some of the older
and more useful antibiotics used in medicine will be discussed in greater
detail on the following pages.
Penicillin. This antibiotic drug is produced in industry by selected
isolates or mutants of Penicillium chrysogcnum and P. notatum. The
original isolate of Fleming produced from 2 to 4 units of penicillin per
milliliter of culture filtrate. P. chrysogenum Q-17Q has produced in
excess of 1,000 units per milliliter. The synthesis of penicillin is not
limited to species of the P. chrysogenum-notatum group but includes cer-
tain species of Aspergillus belonging to the A. flavus group. A few fungi
belonging to other genera also produce penicillin. Sterile culture condi-

tions must be maintained at all times, as penicillin is rapidly destroyed
by the enzyme, which is excreted by many bacteria. Peni-
penicillinase,
cillin is extracted from the "fermentation" liquid, or penicillin beer,
either by extraction at pH 2.0 to 2.5 with water-immiscible solvents such
S
R— — CO— NH— CH- -CH C— (CH3)2

0=0— -N CH— COOH
Type formula of the penicillins
asamyl acetate, or by adsorption on activated carbon. The extraction

must be carried out quickly from acid solutions, owing to the instability
of penicillin under these conditions. Penicillin forms crystalline salts
with the alkali metals. The sodium salt is usually produced.
Table 51. Names and American and British-type Designations of Four
Naturally Occurring Penicillins
R
physiology of penicillin-fast bacteria vao^y be abnormal (Bellamy and

Klimek 1948). Penicillin is most active against young cells, in that it
inhibits the process of cell division. For papers on the mechanism of
penicillin action see Cavallito et al. Chain and Diithie (1945);
(1945),
Bailey and Cavallito (1948) and a series of papers by Pratt and Dufrenoy
;
(1949).
Table 52. The Production of Penicillin in the United States for the Years
1943 TO 1948
A unit of penicillin is 0.6 ^g. (Coghill and Koch, Chem. Eng. Neivs 23, 1045; Lee,
Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 1949. Published by permission of the American Chemical
Society.)
Year Billions of Units
1943
:
nose are the best hexoses; maltose is the best disaccharide starch and;
its degradation product dextrin are good carbon sources. Streptomyces

griseus does not utihze nitrate nitrogen. L-ProHne is the most favorable
single amino acid, but addition of this amino acid to other sources of
nitrogen does not increase yields (see also Thornberry and Anderson,
1948). A popular account of the development of streptomycin is to be
found in Epstein and Williams (1946).
Aureomycin. This antibiotic is produced by Streptomyces aureofaciens.
Aureomycin has been prepared in pure crystalline form (Duggar, 1948).
In addition to being effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-
negative bacteria, aureomycin is also active against certain rickettsial
and viral agents. Preliminary reports on the use of aureomycin for
treating Rocky Mountain spotted fever have been favorable (Schoenbach
et al., 1948). Aureomycin appears to be of great clinical value in treating
lymphogranuloma venereum and granuloma inguinale, two virus diseases
of man (Wright et al, 1948).
Chloromycetin. This antibiotic was discovered independently in two
laboratories (Ehrlich et al., 1947, and Carter et al., 1948). It is produced
by Strepto77iyces venezuelae and is the first useful antibiotic to be produced
synthetically on a commercial scale. Chloromycetin is active against
certain Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast bacteria,
and Rickettsia (Smith et al., 1948). It has been reported that this anti-
biotic has been used successfully to treat epidemic typhus (Payne and
Knaudt, 1948).
Chloromycetin contains non-ionic chlorine and a nitro group, two
unusual features in compounds of biological origin. The formula is given
below
O H NHCOCHClo
N— <f >^C— C— CH2OH
O HO H
Chloromycetin (Chloramphenicol)
Ergot. Among the alkaloids produced by fungi, only those obtained

from the sclerotia of Claviceps purpurea appear to be used in medicine.
Seven related alkaloids have been isolated from ergot. These alkaloids
have different pharmacological properties. The most useful alkaloid,
ergonovine, is isolated from the others before use. Certain undesirable
avoided by this procedure. Ergonovine,
effects of the other alkaloids are
and formerly a mixture of ergot alkaloids, is used to stimulate uterine
contraction. At present there is no satisfactory synthetic substitute for
ergonovine (Mass, 1950).
In 1941, 571,000 lb. and in 1944, 85,000 lb. of ergot sclerotia were
imported into the United States. If the sclerotia are consumed in large
enough quantities by man or animals, they cause ergotism, a disease also

known as St. Anthony's fire.
C. purpurea has been cultured under laboratory conditions but forms
neither sclerotia nor alkaloids under these conditions (Michener and
Snell, 1950). Apparently alkaloids are formed only in the sclerotia.
Ergotamine, when added to mycelial cultures of C. purpurea, was largely
destroyed.
TOXINS
Numerous toxic substances are produced by fungi in nature, and their
effects on man and animals are varied. The most severe toxins are
produced by some of the Agaricaceae, particularly by species of Amanita.
It is not known whether the toxins are present in the mycelium of these
species as well as in the fruit bodies. A few of the outstanding examples
of fungus toxins will be discussed briefly.
Amanita toxin (phalloidin) is stable to heat and drying and to the action
of digestive juices. The great majority of the deaths due to mushroom
poisoning are caused by Amanita phalloides, A. virosa, and A. verna,
which contain amanita toxin. The action of this toxin is slow, the symp-
toms being delayed for 6 to 15 hr. after the mushrooms are eaten. By
this time the toxin has been absorbed, and the patient seldom responds
to treatment. antidote for this toxin is known. The mortality rate
No
is from 60 to 100 per cent (Fischer, 1918). In addition to
high, varying
the three species of Amanita mentioned above, the same or a similar toxin
is present in A. spreta, A. porphyria, A. strohiliformis, A. radicata, and
A. chlorinosma. Hygrophorus conicus and Pholiota autumnalis produce

similar symptoms and may contain this toxin (Krieger, 1936).
About 1 g. of pure crystalline toxin can be extracted from 40 kg. of
A. phalloides fruit bodies. The toxic dose for white mice is 50 jug; death
results in from 1 to 2 days. Chemically, phalloidin is a polypeptide
containing six amino-acid residues. Wieland and Witkop (1940) report
that phalloidin, on hydrolysis wdth sulfuric acid, yields 1 mole each of
Z-Q!-oxytryptophane and cysteine, and 2 moles each of ^-hydroxy proline b
(not found in protein digests) and /-alanine. Kuhn et al. (1939) found
methionine in addition to cysteine (ratio 1 to 5) in phalloidin. Among
the antibiotics, gramicidin and tyrocidine are polypeptides which contain
"unnatural" amino acids and are toxic when injected into experimental
animals.
Muscarin isthe principal toxic agent present in A. muscaria. It is a
quick-acting toxin, producing symptoms within 1 to 6 hr. after being
consumed. The patient usually responds well to treatment and recovery
is rapid, although death may occur. Atropin is an antidote for muscarin
which is closely related to choline. Muscarin has also been demonstrated
in A. pantherina, Russula emetica. Boletus luridus, and B. satanas. A
similar or the same toxin is present in Clitocyhe illudens, Inocyhe infelix,

I. infida, Lactarius torminosus, and B. miniato-olivaceus var. sensibilis
(Krieger, 1936; Wolf and Wolf, 1947).
HelveUic acid is known to be present only in Gyromitra esculenta. Ap-
parently there considerable variability in the reaction of individuals
is
who eat this fungus. Many people have eaten it with no ill effects,
although a number of cases of poisoning and even a few deaths have been
reported. Helvellic acid is soluble in hot water. Its toxic action is due
to its blood-dissolving power.
While a number of other toxic substances have been detected in the
fleshy fungi, the exact identity of most of them is not known. For
example, species of Paneolus may cause temporary paralysis or intoxica-
tion similar to alcoholic intoxication. Some species of Amanita have
been reported to contain other toxins in addition to those discussed above
(Fischer, 1918).
The alkaloids produced by Claviceps purpurea and C. paspali are toxic
to man and animals if consumed in large enough quantities. The specific
alkaloids produced were mentioned previously. The production of
toxins is common in the genus Fusarium. Gihberella zeae, the cause
also
of scab of small grains, produces toxic substances which are poisonous
to livestock fed on scabby grain (Christensen and Kernkamp, 1936).
Numerous other fungi which cause plant diseases are known to produce
toxic substances which kill the host or modify its activity (see Chap. 17).
PIGMENTS
Colored compounds produced by fungi and other organisms are called
pigments. In the fungi, some pigments accumulate in the mycelium and
spores, while others diffuse into the culture medium. The pigments
produced by a fungus are in part determined by genetic factors and in
part by the environment. Mycelium, fruit bodies, and spores may be
pigmented, or in some species the pigment is confined to the spores.
Among the fleshy fungi, brown
is one of the most common colors of
with yellow, orange, and red being somewhat less common.

fruit bodies,
Often a number of pigments are obviously present. Few fungi are green.
Yet, Chlorosplenium aeruginosum produces a green pigment, sylindein
(Wolf and Wolf, 1947), which stains the wood in which it grows. Blue-
stain fungi (CeratostomeUa spp.) excrete blue pigments into wood.Some
when bruised or
species of Boletus produce a blue or bluish-green pigment
wounded. Tricholoma personatum and Laccaria amythestina are among
the mushrooms producing purple or violet pigments. It is said that the
red-orange pigment of the fruit bodies of Echinodontium tinctorium, the
Indian paint fungus, was used by the Indians as make-up. Few of the
larger fruit bodies of the fungi are entirely black, although this is a com-
mon color for perithecia, pycnidia, and spores.
Among the nutritional factors which modify the production of pigments
by fungi micro essential elements, the carbon and nitrogen
in culture, the
sources, the initial pH of the medium,and the temperature are important.
Perhaps the first of these factors to be studied was the effect of iron, cop-
per, zinc, and other micro elements upon the spore color of Aspergillus
niger. Copper seems to play an outstanding role in the production of
dark spores by this fungus (Mulder, 1939), but low concentrations of
other micro essential elements also affect spore color of this fungus. The
influence of iron, copper, and zinc on the pigmentation of mycelium and
spores, and the production of soluble pigments by certain species was
studied by Metz (1930).
The investigation of the chemical structure of fungus pigments has
formed an essential part of a comprehensive study of the products of
fungus metabolism at the University of London. The citations in this
paragraph will give the reader entry into this excellent work. Many
fungi produce anthraquinone pigments. Helminthosporium gramineum
stores in its mycelium two pigments (helminthosporin and hydroxyisohel-
minthosporin), which may account for 30 per cent of the dry weight of
the mycelium. Helminthosporin is 2-methyl-4,5,8-trihydroxyanthra-
quinone (Charles et at., 1933). H. cynodontis and H. euchlaenae form
cynodontin, l,4,5,8-tetrahydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone, which is closely
related to helminthosporin (Raistrick et at., 1933). Some 12 anthra-
quinone pigments are produced by fungi (Howard and Raistrick, 1949).
Xanthone pigments are produced by H. ravenelUi and H. turcicum (Rai-
strick et at., 1936). The production of anthraquinone pigments is not
restricted to species of Helminthosporium, for Penicillium islandicum
synthesizes chrysophanic acid, 4,5-dihydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone
(Howard and Raistrick, 1950). In general, the production of these and
other pigments is modified by the cultural conditions used. The produc-
tion of helminthosporin by H. gramineum was increased when nitrate or
organic sources of nitrogen were used. Ammonium nitrogen was not
favorable for pigment production. More pigment was produced when
the initial pH was 8 than in more acid media.
Many of the water-soluble pigments produced by fungi are indicators.
P. phoeniceum and P. ruhrum produce such an indicator pigment, phoe-
nicine (2,2'-dihydroxy-4,4'-ditoluquinone). The color changes of this
indicator are from yellow to red in the pH range of 1.8 to 3.4 and from
red to violet in the range 5.4 to 6.4. As much as 2 g. of this pigment is
produced by P. ruhrum per liter of medium (Curtin et al., 1940).
The functions of fungus pigments are not well understood. It is
known that certain of these pigments are enzyme inhibitors. Others, like
citrinin, are antibiotics. The physiological activity of solanione, a purple

pigment produced by Fusarium growth and the efficiency
solani, decreases
of fat formation by F. lini (Weiss and Nord, 1949). Solanione is a
1,4-naphthoquinone, and this activity is in accord with the effects of other
compounds of this series. graminearum synthesizes an orange-red
F.
pigment, rubofusarin, Avhich is a xanthone (Ashley et at., 1937). Rubo-
fusarin was found to stimulate growth and to inhibit the enzymatic
dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol by F. lini (Sciarini et al., 1943). It
is suggestive that pigment production frequently occurs near the time of
maximum development of mycelium. Perhaps pigments influence

sporulation in some way.
Carotene is produced by Mucor hiemalis and Phycomyces blakesleeanus,
and probably by Mucor mucedo, Pilairia anomala, and Dicranophora fulva
(Schopfer, 1935). The amount of carotene produced by Phycomyces
blakesleeanus was increased by increasing the concentration of asparagine
in the medium. The plus strain of this fungus synthesized more carotene
than the minus strain. Carotene occurs in nature as three isomeric
compounds, all of w'hich may be converted into vitamin A. The carotene
found in M. hiemalis and P. blakesleeanus is ;S-carotene. Emerson and
Fox (1940) found 7-carotene to be associated with the male gametangia
of a certain species of Allomyces. Apparently carotene is also common
among the yellow or orange Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
SUMMARY
The saprophytic fungi play an important, if not indispensable, part
in the degradation and decay and animal residues. The most
of plant
important product of fungus metabolism in nature is carbon dioxide.
Humus is in part a result of the activities of soil-inhabiting fungi.
Various species of fungi have been used for the preparation of food and
beverages. Fungi may be used to increase the world's supply of food.
Yeasts and other fungi are able to convert w-aste carbohydrate and
inorganic nitrogen compounds into protein, fats, and vitamins. Yeast
protein, because of its content of essential amino acids, has value as a
protein supplement.
Alcoholic fermentation is not restricted to the yeasts, although these
fungi are used almost exclusively in industrj^ for this purpose. The
production of alcohol requires anaerobic or partially anaerobic conditions.
Fungi may be used to produce organic acids, of which citric acid is the
most important commercially. In general, a medium high in carbo-
hydrate and low in nitrogen favors the production of organic acids, which
are synthesized in quantity only after growth is essentially complete.
In nature one organism may be antagonistic to another because of the
competition for nutrients or because of the production of antibiotics.
Relatively feAV of the antibiotics known to be produced meet the pre-

requisite of being nontoxic to man, but some of those which do are enor-
mously important.
Ergonovine, one of the ergot alkaloids obtained from the sclerotia of
Claviceps purpurea,is a useful drug for which no synthetic substitute is
available.
A number produce toxins, some of which are deadly to
of fleshy fungi
man if consumed The toxins vary in chemical
in sufficient quantity.
nature, in severity, and in the symptoms they produce.
Pigments are assumed to serve a definite function in fungi, at least in
some instances. Some pigments are known to be antibiotics; others such
as carotene are provitamins; but in general the functions of the fungus
pigments remain unknown.
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CHAPTER 14
FACTORS INFLUENCING SPORULATION OF FUNGI
The life of the individual fungus is usually short and of uncertain dura-
tion. The continuance of the species (in most instances) depends upon
the production and dissemination of sexual or asexual spores. The
importance of spore production in the spread of epiphytotics is sufficient
reason to study the factors which control, modify, or inhibit this stage of
development in the life of the fungi. Some of the most difficult problems
which arise in the study of the life processes of the fungi are to be found
in the events and conditions which control the production of spores.
In nature, we find many examples of the influence of certain environ-
mental and nutritional factors upon reproduction of the fungi. A num-
ber of parasitic fungi produce the perfect stage only in the spring, on or in
dead host tissue. This is true of Venturia inaequalis, Clavtceps purpurea,
Gnomonia ulmi, Monilinia jructicola, Coccomyces hiemalis, Guignardia
bidwelln, and others. Is the production of the sexual stage dependent
upon the pretreatment of cold, or freezing and thawing? Is it dependent
upon a favorable temperature and perhaps favorable intensity and dura-
tion of light? Or is it a matter of the proper nutrients which are made
available only after decay of the host tissues? These are difficult ques-
tions to answer, for it is likely that the production of the sexual stage
depends upon the proper balance of a number of factors. Similarly, we
may speculate about the stimuli involved in the formation of the peri-
thecia by the Erysiphales. Most of these obligate parasites form fruit
bodies late in the growing season. Perhaps, at least in some cases, this
is a reaction to cooler weather or perhaps the formation of perithecia is a
;
result of a decreasing or changing food supply as the host nears maturity.

Other physical factors are probably involved, since we know that the
abundance of perithecia varies from year to year. It is also of physio-
logical interest that many parasitic fungi produce conidia only while the
mycelium is actively attacking the living host.
A critical investigation of the factors influencing reproduction requires
that the fungi be brought into the laboratory or greenhouse where external
factors can be controlled. Only one variable should be studied at a time,
and all other influencing factors must be controlled. It is, therefore, of
great advantage in physiological studies to be able to grow a fungus in
pure culture on synthetic or semisynthetic media. However, it n\ust be
304
SPORULATION 305
pointed out that the responses of a fungus in nature cannot always be

duplicated in the laboratory.
Snyder and Hansen (1947) have given a brief and clear statement
regarding the advantages of culturing fungi on natural media and under
natural environmental conditions. These conditions are important, if
one desires to obtain reproduction of a fungvis which does not sporulate
readily in culture. However, if one desires to study critically the indi-
vidual nutritional and environmental requirements and their effects upon
reproduction of a fungus which sporulates abundantly on the usual
cultural media, it is often necessary to subject the fungus to unfavorable
conditions. Thus, only by preventing sporulation, by varying but one
factor at a time, may we discover the need for that factor.
Riker and Riker (193G) have listed 11 methods which have been suc-
cessfully employed to induce sporulation of different fungi in culture.
Since the writing of their manual much has been learned about this phase
of fungus physiology. A revised list of the conditions known to influence
sporulation of fungi is presented in the summary of this chapter.
Kauffman (1929) called attention to the views of Klebs, who held that
living cells are influenced during their lifetime in three by the ways: (1)
specific structure; (2) by the internal conditions; and (3) by the external
conditions. Kauffman equated the first of these to heredity and the last
two to environment. The external environment comprises the various
physical and chemical factors, such as temperature, light, composition
of the medium, and the like. Kauffman used the term internal environ-
ment to designate the complicated influences and reactions between cells
wdthin the organism. The physical and chemical effects of the external
environment may be transmitted through the cells and become evident at
some distance from the point of the stimulus.
The meaning of these statements may be clearer if we consider the
effect of various external environmental factors upon fruiting. It is well
known that various external stimuli may which lead
initiate the reactions
to reproduction. These stimuli must act through the internal environ-
ment. Most of the discussion that follows will be concerned with the
external environment and the resulting development of the fvmgus.
Some external factors may so modify the internal milieu as to favor
sporulation, w^hile others may inhibit or prevent sporulation.
Not all fungi respond in the same way to the external factors such as
light, temperature, or nutrition. Each species produces spores when the
internal environment is suitable, but the external factors do not operate
upon the internal environment of allfungi alike. Thus, there is no univer-
sal set of external conditions which lead to fructification in all fungi. The
external conditions favorable for sporulation must be studied for each
species. This does not imply, however, that no two fungi react alike or
that certain helpful generalizations concerning sporulation cannot be

drawn. It does, however, imply that the only sure way of understanding
the conditions governing reproduction in a specific fungus lies in the
experimental approach.
Again must be emphasized that all the physical and chemical condi-
it
tions may beat the optima, but no reproduction can occur without the
presence of favorable genetic factors. Too often we may fail to realize
the genetic requirements. The appropriate steps should be taken to
determine whether the fungi under study are homothallic or heterothallic.
It may be difficult, indeed, to determine whether failure of a fungus to
reproduce in culture is due to unfavorable environmental conditions or
to unfavorable genetic factors. There is much yet to be learned regard-
ing the physiology of reproduction, but each new investigation is certain
to add to our knowledge of this interesting and important phase of fungus
physiology.
Vegetative growth must precede reproduction. The length of the
vegetative phase varies from organism to organism, and the same organ-
ism may remain in the vegetative phase for a longer or shorter period of
time depending upon the external environment. One of the functions
of the vegetative phase is concerned with the building up of protoplasm
and the storage of energy reserves. Reproduction is a process that draws
heavily on the reserve food. The spore is usually well stocked with these
materials. Asexual reproduction differs less from vegetative growth than
does sexual reproduction. We shall find that the conditions limiting-
sexual reproduction are usually more narrow than conditions which allow
asexual reproduction and growth.
Klebs (1900) summarized his views on reproduction in the fungi in the
form of four laws or principles as follows: (1) Growth and reproduction
are life processes, which, in all organisms, depend upon different condi-
tions. In the lower organisms the external conditions mainly determine
whether growth or reproduction takes place. (2) Reproduction in the
lower organisms does not occur as long as characteristic external condi-
tions are favorable for growth. The conditions which are favorable for
reproduction are always more or less unfavorable for growth. (3) The
processes of growth and reproduction differ, in that growth may take
place under a wider range of environmental conditions than reproduction.
Growth may take place, therefore, under conditions which inhibit repro-
duction. (4) Vegetative growth appears to be mostly a preliminary step
for reproduction in that it creates a suitable internal environment for it.
To a certain degree it is not growth in itself but the prolonged period of
assimilation accompanying growth that is decisive for reproduction.
These generalizations were published in 1900 and were based upon
Klebs's own work, as well as that of others. Many more fungi have been
.
SPORULATION 307
studied during the past 50 years, and some new factors have been brought
to light. would not be surprising if some modifications in these con-
It
clusions would be necessaiy in the light of 50 years of research. We shall
find, however, that, in the main, many of these "laws" are still valid.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Temperature. Temperature was recognized by Bisby (1943) as an
important natural factor governing the geographical distribution of the
fungi. The temperature must be favorable not only for growth but also
for the production and germination of the spores, if the fungus is to
survive. Certain fungi are limited by high temperatures. Among these
are Plasmodiophora brassicae, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, Urocystis
cepulae, and certain Phycomycetes. On the other hand, certain genera
of the Gasteromycetes, such as Podaxis, Battarrea, Chlamydopus, and
Phellorina, are confined to the hot arid regions of southwestern United
States, northern Africa, central Australia, and western India. Between
these extremes we may observe many examples where seasonal tempera-
ture limits or favors reproduction.
Klebs (1900) pointed out that the temperature range which allowed
sporulation was more narrow than the range for growth. In general, the
temperature limits for sexual reproduction are narrower than the limits
for asexual reproduction. Some of Klebs's data are presented in
Table 53.
Table 53. Minimum and Maximum Temperatures (in Degrees Centigrade) for
Growth axd Sporulation of Various Fungi
(Klebs, Jahrb. iriss. Botan. 35, 1900.)
Growth Asexual spores Sexual spores

Fungus
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
Aspergillus repens. . . 7-8 37-38 8-9 35-36 33-34

Sporidinia grandis. . 1-2 31-32 5-6? 29-30 5-6 27-28
Piloholus rnicrosporus 2-4 33-34 10-12 28-30
Saprolegnia mixta. . . . 0-1 36-37 1-2 32-33 1-2 26-27
be noted that the upper temperature which allowed the produc-

It will
tion of oosporesby Saprolegnia mixta is a full 10°C. less than the upper
temperature limit at which growth took place. Coons (1916) found the
temperature limits for the growth of Plenodomus fuscomacidans to be
to 33°C., while pycnidia formed between 6 and 30°C. Perithecia failed
to form in cultures of Ceratostomella fimbriata kept at 18°C. for 60 days
(Barnett and Lilly, 1947a). Cultures of this fungus on the same medium
produced abundant perithecia and ascospores at 25°C. within 11 days.

Conidia were formed at 18°C.
The most noteworthy effect of culturing a fungus at temperatures
below the optimum is the decrease in the rate of growth. It has been
found by various investigators that there is an optimum temperature for
sporulation as well as for growth. The two optima may be different.
Figure 57 shows the effect of temperature on the time required to produce
conidia by Aspergillus repens.
14
12
10
2 6
Q, 4
o
o
SPORULATWN 309
mum, or degrees of fluctuation, IMathur et al. (1950) reported that 15

to 20°C. favors conidium formation by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum in
culture. Sporulation was less at 25°C. and ceased at 30°C. Mrak and
Bonar (1938) found that temperature influenced the relative size of asci
and spores of Debaryomyces. The ascus was much larger than the spore
cluster at 4°C., but the spores nearly filled the ascus at 25°C.
7 9 11 13 15
Incubation period (days)
Fig. 58. The effects of temperature and time of incubation on sporulation of Piri-
rularia oryzae on rice-polish agar. (Courtesy of Henry and Andersen, Phytopathology
38 : 272, 1948.)
An upon type of asexual

interesting selective effect of temperature
sporulation found in Choanephora cucurbitarum (Barnett and Lilly,
is
1950). This fungus produces two types of asexual spores, those produced
in typical sporangia and conidia borne in heads. Only the conidia are
found commonly in nature, while both types are abundant in culture.
When the fungus was grown in Petri dishes at 25°C., 87 per cent of the
reproductive structures were conidial heads, while 13 per cent were
sporangia (Table 54). When the temperature was increased to 30°C.,
this proportion was nearly reversed. At 31°C. many sporangia but no
conidia were formed. No sporulation occurred at 34°C., but mycelial
growth was abundant. Temperature also affected, either directly or
indirectly, the size of the sporangia. Those produced at 25°C. averaged
60 to 90 n in diameter, while those formed at 30 or 31°C. were much larger,
averaging approximately 145 fi. It seems likely that this effect is indirect,
being a reflection of the relative number of conidia, which are formed first
under favorable conditions. We may assume that the production of
abundant conidia uses much of the food materials which might also go
into the formation of sporangia. Under conditions unfavorable to

conidium production, yet favorable to sporangium formation, both the
size and abundance of sporangia are increased. The effect of temperature
was also evident when pumpkin flowers artificially inoculated with C.
cucurbitarum were brought into the laboratory and placed at 30°C.
Under these conditions both conidia and sporangia were produced.
Table 54. The Effect of Temperature upon Asexual Reproduction op
Choanephora cucurbitarum
(Barnett and Lilly, Phytopathology 40: 83, 1950.)
Temperature during
sporulation, °C.
SPORULATION 311
Ascochyta nymphaeae, Cytosporella mendax, Endothia parasitica, Keller-

mania yuccagena, Naemosphaera sp., Plenodomus destruens, and Phoma
urens formed more pycnidia at 30°C. in the dark than in the light at room
temperature. The following fungi failed to fruit in the dark at 8°C. but
fruited at the same temperature in the presence of light: Hendersonia
sp., Melanconium hetulinum, Naemosphaera sp., Pestalotia guepinia,
Phoma urens, Phyllosticta opuntiae, Sphaerographium fraxini and Sphaero-
,
nema pruinosum. Light favored pycnidial formation by Plenodomus

fuscomacidans (Coons, 191G). The above examples make it clear that
light and temperature may serve as interchangeable stimuli to sporulation
in some, but not all, instances. Since the response (sporulation) is the
same whether light or temperature is the stimulus, this means that these
stimuli in some way brought about the same or equivalent changes in the
internal environment of the fungus.
Drayton (1937) was able to produce the perfect stage of Botryotinia
convoluta by controlling light, temperature, and nutrition. The technique
is somewhat involved, but it should be remembered that in nature the
external environment varies a great deal during the course of a year.
Fluctuations in temperature, moisture, light, and food supply are the
normal result of the procession of the seasons. Drayton found autoclaved
W'hole wheat to be an excellent substratum for this fungus. The most
favorable results wêre obtained by allowing the culture to develop at
14°C. in the dark for 45 days. At the end of this time the sclerotia wêre
placed in moist quartz sand at 0°C. for 3 to 4 months, then stored at
5°C. When the apothecial fundaments were 2 to 3 mm. long, the cultures
were moved to a greenhouse and placed under cheesecloth and the tem-
perature held at 7°C. at night and below 15°C. during the day. The
apothecia matured within 4 wrecks.
Yarwood (1936, 1941) observed parasitic fungi under natural condi-
tions and found that the production and liberation of the conidia of
Erysiphe polygoni and the ascospores of Taphrina deformans followed a
definite diurnal pattern in nature.
The combined effects of temperature and light upon sporulation of
Helminthosporium gramineum are clearly shown by Houston and Oswald
(1946). Best sporulation was obtained under outdoor conditions, with
14 to 15 hr. of daylight and the average maximum and minimum tem-
peratures 26.8 and 8.2°C., respectively. No conidia were produced on
potato-glucose agar in the absence of light, either outdoors or inside.
Artificial light apparently was less effective than daylight. However,
continuous light at 13°C. allowed the formation of a few conidia. On
pieces of infected barley leaves, conidia were formed without exposure to
light, over a considerable range in temperature. As an explanation of
these differences, the authors believe that the mycelium in the leaf in
nature stored up the "necessary potentialities," which then permitted

conidium production in darkness. MyceHum growing from the pieces
of leaf into the agar did not produce spores in darkness. This is an
interesting theory regarding a possible delayed action of light upon sporu-
lation. It also seems possible that the leaf tissue of the host may furnish
some nutrient necessary for sporulation which is not contained in potato-
glucose agar. Perhaps light is essential to the synthesis of this material
by the fungus.
was demonstrated recently (Barnett and Lilly, 1950) that an isolate
It
of Choanephora cucurhitarum requires both light and darkness for the forma-
tion of conidia, but these factors have little or no apparent influence upon
the formation of sporangia. This fungus was grown under a number of
conditions, but none was found which overcame the need for either light
or darkness. Cultures incubated in the laboratory under natural alter-
nating light and darkness produced abundant conidial heads during the
second and third nights after inoculation. Exposure to artificial light
for 2 days after inoculation followed by darkness gave similar results, but
an exposure in the reverse order resulted in no conidia. Cultures under
continuous artificial light (65 foot-candles) and those in total continuous
darkness failed to form conidial heads. Continuous light of low intensity
(less than 1 foot-candle) however, did permit the formation of numerous
,
conidial heads in the usual period. A summary of the important results

is presented in Fig. 59, together with an outline of a proposed hypothesis
to explain the results. We may assume that light, or its absence, affects
two metabolic reactions, or groups of reactions, which are essential to
conidium formation by C. cucurhitarum. Light, which is essential to
reaction A, apparently inhibits reaction B, which must occur in darkness
or weak light. The reaction in light must be'^followed by the reaction in
darkness, if conidia are to be formed. Continuous bright light favors
only reaction A, while continuous darkness permits only reaction B.

Both reactions occur simultaneously in continuous light of low intensity.
A different isolate of C. cucurhitarum was studied by Christenberry
(1938), who found that alternating periods of light and dark, 12 hr. each,
gave the best sporulation. Red-yellow light was more favorable to
conidium formation than the shorter rays. This isolate formed conidia
in total darkness.
The beneficial effect of alternating light, or a period of light followed
by darkness, was demonstrated (Timnick et al., 1951) for the formation of
ascospores by Diaporthe phaseolorum var. hatatafis. Cultures grown in
continuous darkness formed only a few perithecia, which contained
abundant ascospores. In continuous bright light numerous perithecia
were formed, but relatively fewer ascospores were produced. A long
period of light followed by darkness gave many perithecia with abundant
ascospores.
SPORULATION 313
Marked morphologic differences were found in strains of Fusarium

subjected to different exposures of light and darkness (Snyder and Han-
sen, 1941). Some of the characters affected were color, zonation, type of
colony, presence or absence of sporodochia, occurrence of the perithecial
stage, and size, shape, and septation of macroconidia. Light was usually
found necessary for the formation of macroconidia. Exposures were
made to continuous total darkness but not to continuous light. Evidence
in these experiments indicated that the effect of light is only upon the
actively growing portion of the mycelium.
Bright light Darkness

= Conidia
Reaction A Reaction B
Continuous bright light
= No conidia
Reaction A
Continuous darkness
= No conidia
Reaction B
Bright light
= No conidia
Reaction A
Continuous light low intensity

Conidia
Reactions A + B simultaneously
Fig. 59. Conidium formation by Choanephora cucurbitarum under different light

conditions, shownig the possible metabolic reactions controlled by light. Under
left) for 2
variable conditions, the cultures were exposed to the first condition (on the
days and to the second condition for 24 hr. (After Barnett and Lilly, Phytopathology
40: 88, 1950.)
The length of exposure necessary to stimulate spore formation may be

very short, as demonstrated by Bisby (1925) for Fusarium discolor sul-
phureum. He observed that brief exposure to light, while Petri dish
cultures were being examined, resulted in the formation of rings of conidia.
Using a photographic shutter, he further demonstrated that an exposure
as brief as sec. to outdoor light on a bright day was sufficient to stimu-
}i
late the formation of a ring of conidia.
Coons (1916), in his work with Plenodomus fuscomacidans, reasoned
that the effect of light might be replaced by various oxidizing agents, since
light is known to promote various oxidations. Cultures treated with
hydrogen peroxide and other oxidizing agents produced a few pycnidia.
The age of the culture when these chemicals were added was important.
For these chemicals to stimulate pycnidium formation, the culture had

to be in such a physiological condition that 1-hr. exposure to light would
induce sporulation.
The sporulation of a number of other species in our laboratory has been
observed to be influenced by the presence or absence of light (Figs. 60,
61). Among these are Dendrophoma obscurans, Trichoderma lignorum,
Fig. 60. The effects of light on the

production of conidia by Trichoderma
lignorum after 3 days at 25°C. A,
exposed to continuous artificial light.
Note the more or less even distribution
of conidia. B, exposed to alternate
ight and darkness, 12 hr. each. Note
the rings of conidia. C, grown in
continuous darkness. Note the ab-
sence of conidia.
Sphaeropsis malorum, Ceratostomella ulmi, Botrytis sp., Endothia para-

sitica, Septoria nodorum. The reaction of some fungi to light is appar-
ently dependent, to a certain extent, upon the composition of the medium.
Stillanother effect of light should be emphasized, i.e., the inhibitory
effect. The depressing effect of strong light upon growth and length of
sporangiophores of Phy corny ces hlakesleeanus is easily demonstrated.
Elfving (1890) noted that the amount of inhibition of growth by light
varied with the composition of the medium.
Ultraviolet light. The destructive action of sunlight upon micro-
organisms, especially bacteria, was recognized about the time that pure-
SPORULATION 315
culture methods came into wide use. The lethal action of ultraviolet
light is conditioned by the wave length of the irradiation, by the time of
exposure, and by the particular nature of the microorganism. A con-
siderable number of investigators have studied the effect of ultraviolet
radiation upon sporulation. Both favorable and unfavorable results
have been obtained. It should be recognized that length of exposure
Fig. 61. The effect of light on the production of pycnidia by an isolate of Dendro-
phoma obscurans when grown on malt extract-agar plates at 25°C. A, grown under
continuous artificial light, .\lternate light and darkness gave similar results. B,
grown in continuous darkness.
is a very important factor in these experiments. In addition, the medium

used, the age of the culture, and the temperature rise during irradiation
also modify the results.
Stevens (1928) found that ultraviolet radiation induced the formation
of perithecia by various isolates of Glomerella cingulata a few days after
irradiation. While old cultures produced a few perithecia without
irradiation, many more were produced by young cultures within a short
time following irradiation. One effect of such irradiation is the killing
of the aerial mycelium. Short exposures allowed the formation of super-
ficial perithecia, while long exposures prevented their formation. The
majority of the perithecia formed following intermediate dosages were
embedded in the medium. It was noted that the age of the mycelium
at the time of irradiation had an on the number of perithecia formed.

effect
Colonies 4 days old when irradiated produced perithecia, which were
most
abundant on mycelium 1 day old at the time of irradiation. Irradiation
of colonies 12 days old led to the formation of but few perithecia. No
evidence was obtained that irradiation of the medium alone had any
effect on perithecium formation. A species of Coniothyrium which
formed pj^cnidia only after the cultures were very old was stimulated to
produce pycnidia within 3 days after irradiation. This work of Stevens
is apparently the first which demonstrated that ultraviolet radiation
stimulated sporulation by fungi.

Spore production by Macrosporium tomato and Fusarium cepae was
by the proper exposure to ultraviolet radiation (Ramsey
greatly increased
and Bailey, 1930). A 12- to 15-fold increase in the numbers of spores
produced by these two species was obtained by the optimum exposure.
These investigators also showed that irradiation of the medium before
inoculation had no subsequent effect on sporulation by these two fungi.
The range of wave lengths which stimulated the most abundant sporula-
tion was found to be 2,300 to 2,800 A. Smith (1935) points out that
many workers have neglected the precaution of controlling the tempera-
ture of cultures during irradiation. She found it necessary to control
the temperature of the cultures of Fusarium eumartii in order to separate
the effects of increased temperature and ultraviolet radiation.
Ultraviolet radiation stimulated or depressed sporulation of Diaporthe
phaseolorum var. hatatatis depending on the medium used (Timnick
et al., 1951). Neither stromata nor perithecia were formed on casein
hydrolysate-glucose medium, unless the cultures were irradiated. Cul-
tures grown on potato-glucose agar produced stromata and long-beaked
perithecia without irradiation. Irradiation of cultures on potato-glucose
medium resulted in the formation of fewer and smaller short-beaked
perithecia. Although the mode of action of ultraviolet radiation in
stimulating sporulation is unknown, long exposures are known to be
lethal. We may assume that even short exposures injure or kill some of
the exposed cells. Perhaps some substance is thereby released which
stimulates sporulation. The presence
such a substance in the potato-
of
glucose medium might explain why was not necessary for the
irradiation
production of perithecia by D. phaseolorum var. hatatatis on this medium
Aeration. Although the fungi are aerobic organisms, the amount of
free oxygen that they need to carry out their life processes varies from
fungus to fungus. The amount of oxygen required is less for growth than
for reproduction. The aquatic fungi would be expected to grow and
reproduce in a more limited supply of oxygen than terrestial forms.
While many aquatic Phycomycetes produce their spores under water, a
large number of fungi fail to fruit until some aerial mycelium has been
SPORULATION 317
formed. Examples of the inhibiting effect of insufficient aerationon

sporulation are numerous. Coons (1916) found that lowered oxygen ten-
sion inhibited pycnidium formation by Plenodomusfuscomaculans, though
there was still sufficient oxygen supply to allow some growth. Leonian
(1924) tested the effect of reduced oxygen on pj^cnidium formation by
various Sphaeropsidales. This experiment was carried out by culturing
these fungi in Petri dishes, some of which were placed in desiccators, while
the controls were placed on a table. The following fungi produced fewer
pycnidia in sealed desiccators than in the control cultures: Ascochyta
tiym'phaeae, Phoma urens, Plenodomus destruens, Phyllosticta opuntiae, and
Septosporium acerinum. It is possible that this effect may have been
due to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the closed vessels.
Denny (1933) made an accurate study of the effect of oxygen supply on
growth and formation of perithecia by Neurospora sitophila. Only a
trace of oxygen was required for limited growth, for it was necessary to
keep cultures in the presence of alkaline pyrogallol to inhibit growth
entirely. Oxygen concentrations of less than 0.5 per cent inhibited
perithecium formation for 30 days, while perithecia formed in air within
4 days. This paper should be consulted for the details of conducting
experiments of this nature under closely controlled conditions. Some of
Denny's data are given in Table 55.
Table 55. The Effect of Oxygen Concentration on the Formation of Peri-

thecia BY Neurospora sitophila
(Prepared from the data of Denny, 1933. Contribs. Boyce Thompson Inst. 5, 1933.)
Oxygen Cbncentration, % Days Required to
Form Perithecia
20.8 4
9.4 7
3.75 9
1.5 12
0.24 None at 30 days
Conidium production by Choanephora cucurhitarum was poor in tight-

fitting Petri dishes (Barnett and Lilly, 1950). Sealing the dishes pre-
vented conidium formation, while well-aerated dishes allowed abundant
conidial heads to form. Failure to form conidia under these conditions
may be due to (1) insufficient oxygen supply, (2) the accumulation of
toxic, volatile, metabolic by-products, (3) increased carbon dioxide con-
tent, or (4) unfavorable humidity.
Adequate aeration was one of the most important environmental fac-
tors necessary for conidium formation by Piricularia oryzae (Heniy and
Andersen, 1948). The cultures emitted a strong odor of ammonia after
a few days' incubation. It was believed that aeration removed the
ammonia and other volatile metabolic by-products which prevented
abundant sporulation. Forced aeration of the culture flasks at the rate

of 4 ml. of air per minute per milligram of oats-sorghum medium was
found to be optimum for sporulation. Mader (1943) discussed the
factors inhibiting fruiting of Agnricus campestris and concluded that
volatile substances are important, and that they must be removed by
aeration of mushroom cellars.
Hydrogen-ion concentration. The early workers recognized that the

acidity of the medium Lock wood (1937) studied
influenced sporulation.
the formation of perithecia and asci by Penicillium javanicum, Aspergillus
herhariorum, and Chaetomium. globosum in buffered media of various
Fig. 62. The effect of glutamic acid on gametic reproduction of Phycomyces hlakes-
leeanus at 26°C. Left, basal medium; right, basal medium plus 10 mg. d-glutamic
acid, neutraHzed with CaCOs. Note the line of progametes in the plate on the right.
Age, 6 days. (Courtesy of Robbins and Schmitt, A7n. Jour. Botany 32 321, 1945.)
:
hydrogen-ion concentrations and found that the perithecia produced in

the more acid solutions contained few if any asci with ascospores. The
percentage of fertile perithecia increased as the pH was increased to 7 or
8. Similarly, in our laboratory, we have noted that A rugulosus produces
.
many perithecia and few conidia at an initial pH value of 6 to 8, while

conidia but no perithecia form at pH 3 to 4.
Robbins and Schmitt (1945) studied the sexual reproduction of Phyco-

myces hlakesleeanus on glucose-asparagine medium and found that mature
zygospores did not form at 26°C. Zygospores formed when various
protein hydrolysates, amino acids (especially glutamic acid), or various
organic acids were added to the medium. These buffers prevented the
pH from falling low enough to inhibit zygospore formation (Fig. 62).
These authors also noted that P. hlakesleeanus on glucose-asparagine
medium produced zygospores at 20°C. This is evidence that the com-
position of the medium has a profound effect on reproduction. In this
SPORULATION 319
instance, it was possible to trace the connection between temperature and

the composition of the medium to a specific factor, i.e., acidity
Perithecia were not formed by Sordaria fimicola until the pH of the
culture medium was 6.5 or greater (Lilly and Barnett, 1947). While
acidity of the medium was not the only controlling factor affecting the
formation of perithecia by S. fimicola, perithecia never formed when the
pH was less than 6.5, however favorable the other external conditions
were.
OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS

It has frequently been observed that many species of fungi fruit more
readily when grown upon a solid or semisolid substratum than they do in
liquid media. Leonian (1924) reported that only 6 out of 20 species
studied formed pycnidia as readily in liquid medium as on solid medium.
He concluded that the beneficial effect of solid media was due to better
aeration and free transpiration.
The favorable effect of ozone upon the formation of pycnidia and spores
of a limitednumber of fungi was recently reported by Richards (1949).
The production of viable conidia of three species of Alternaria was greatly
increased on exposure to ozone. Although conidium formation of
Mycosphaerella citrullina was increased by exposure to ozone, the spores
formed did not germinate.
The transformation and elongation of basidia of certain Polyporaceae
in nature and under controlled conditions has been correlated with high
humidity by Bose (1943). It seems likely that the humidity of the
atmosphere may have a greater influence upon conidium formation in the
aerial fungi than is generally supposed. In Rhizopus, for instance, much
more liquid moves upward through the sporangiophore than can be con-
tained within the sporangium. A high percentage of this water must be
transpired in order to condense the protoplasm and food materials stored
in the spores. A change in relative humidity must affect the rate of
transpiration. On the other hand, Ternetz (1900) found that a humidity
of 98 per cent or higher was necessary for fruit-body production by
Ascophanus carneus. Actually, we know little about the influence of
humidity, and much more information is needed on this subject.
Emerson and Cantino (1948) showed that the presence of high concen-
trations of carbon dioxide favored the production of resistant sporangia
by Blastocladia pringsheimii.
Mutilation of the mycelium, which would cause the death and release
of cellular constituents, has been used to stimulate sporulation (see Rands,
1917; Kunkel, 1918; and McCallan and Chan, 1944). Scraping of the
mycelium of Alternaria solani followed by a brief exposure to ultraviolet
rays was used successfully by McCallan and Chan (Fig. 63).
10,000
<n
o
z
<
CO
o
I 1,000 r
o
LJ
cr
o
a.
100 -
20 40 80 160 320 640 1280 2560

EXPOSURE TIME IN SECONDS
Fig. 63. Effect of time of exposure to ultraviolet radiation on the production of
spores from scraped and unscraped cultures of AUernaria solarii. (Courtesy of
McCallan and Chan, Contribs. Boyce Thompson Inst. 13 : 327, 1944.)
NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
The nutritional conditions under which a fungus produces reproductive
bodies and spores are often quite different from those which are optimum
for vegetative growth. Not all media are equally suitable for sporula-
tion. The frequent failure to obtain sporulation of many common fungi
in culture, even though they grow profusely, testifies to the extent of our
ignorance regarding the necessary nutritional factors. However, the
following factors have been shown to be important: concentration of
medium, carbon and nitrogen sources, carbon-nitrogen ratio, micro
essential elements, specific reproductive factors, and vitamins.
Concentration of nutrients. Among
the early workers, Klebs (1900)
gave a great deal of attention to the effect of nutrient concentration upon
reproduction. For most of the fungi with which he worked, exhaustion
of the food supply favored sporulation. Klebs (1899) kept a culture of
Saprolegnia mixta in the vegetative condition for 2^^ years by constant
renewal of the nutrient solution. Yet, this fungus produced spores within
a few days when The same principle
the food supply became exhausted.
holds true for the Myxomycetes as well as the filamentous fungi. Camp
(1937) grew Physarum polycephalum and studied the effect of the number
SPORULATION 321
of feedings upon the time of fruiting. The protoplasm continued to

grow as long as there was abundant food, but when the food was
exhausted, the sHme mold passed into the fruiting stage.
Leonian (1923, 1924) used a technique in studying sporulation which
consisted in growing a fungus in a medium suitable for vigorous vegetative
growth, and then transferring it to solutions of different concentrations
to stimulate sporulation. When
sterile mycelium of Valsa leucostoma
was transferred from a medium containing 1.5 per cent nutrients to a
medium containing 0.37 per cent nutrients the ratio of perithecia to
pycnidia increased. Transferring sterile mycelium to more concentrated
nutrient solutions favored the production of pycnidia and decreased the
number of perithecia formed. Endothia 'parasitica showed a decrease in
the number of pycnidia when the mycelium was transferred from a weak
to a concentrated medium. When the sterile mycelium was grown in a
concentrated medium and transferred to distilled water, the pycnidia
did not mature but an enormous number of pycnidium initials were
formed. If such a culture were then transferred back to a concentrated
medium, maximum sporulation was obtained. A review of the literature
on the effect of concentration on fruiting is given by Leonian (1924).
From the above examples we may conclude that the concentration of
nutrients in a medium may have a profound influence upon fruiting, and
that the different types of fruiting (sexual and asexual) may have different
requirements. Not only the amounts of the different nutrients but the
proper balance between the components of the medium may be essential
for maximum sporulation.
Nitrogen source. The source of nitrogen influenced the formation of
pycnidia and spores by Phyllosticta solitaria (Mix, 1933). The specificity
of the nitrogen source was greater for the production of spores than for the
formation of pycnidia. The different isolates of this fungus responded
differently to the various nitrogen sources. Nitrate nitrogen was the
most favorable. This may have been due to an indirect effect on the pH
of themedium, for this fungus sporulates only between pH 4.2 and 5.8.
In our laboratory we have observed that sporulation of some fungi is
favored by certain sources of nitrogen, which are not necessarily the same
as those which are favorable for growth (Fig. 64) A few of these species
.
with the more favorable nitrogen sources for sporulation are Monilinia
fructicola, ammonium tartrate, glycine; Phoma betae, glycine; Neo-
cosmopara vasinfeda, glutamic acid, glycine; Septoria nodorum, glycine;
Diaporthe phaseolorum var. batatatis, asparagine; Choanephora cucur-
bitarum, organic nitrogen.
Carbon source. Not all carbon sources are equally suitable for fruit-
ing of fungi. Some which are favorable for mycelial growth do not favor
sporulation. Hawker (1939) found the number of perithecia produced
A B C
Fig. 64. The effects of different nitrogen sources on sporulation of three fungi after
19 days on a ghicose-sucrose medium at 25°C. The nitrogen sources are: A, apsaragine;
B, casein hydrolysate; C, potassium nitrate; D, ammonium sulfate; E, ammonium
tartrate; F, glycine. The fungi are: top, Glornerella cingulata; middle, Pleurage
SPORULATION 323
D E F
^^.Jcolla; bottom, Melanospora sp.
curvic Note that asparagine and casein hydrolysate
Discharged spores
are good sources of nitrogen for spore production of all three fungi.
of P. curvicolla are evident only on these two media.
by Melanospora destruens to be influenced by the concentration and kind

of sugar used. Glucose, fructose, or an equimolar mixture of these
sugars, when used at the rate of 5 g. per hter, allowed the production of
perithecia, but no perithecia were formed when 50 was used. Many
g.
perithecia were produced when 50 g. per was used.
liter of sucrose
The favorable effect of sucrose on perithecial formation was replaced
by various hexose phosphate esters. Glucose-1-phosphate and fructose-
1,6-diphosphate were equally active. In view of their ready enzymatic
interconvertibility in organisms, this would be expected. These results
SPORULATION 325
carbon sources for reproduction are Aspergillus niger, glucose, sorbose,

sucrose; Glomerella cingidata, sucrose;Phoma betae, sucrose; Monilinia
fructicola, sorbose, sucrose; Neocosmopara vasinfecta, maltose, starch,
glucose; Pleurage curvicolla, maltose, starch.
Fig. 66. The

by Melanospora
tures 22 days old.

ABC carbon sources and time on the production of perithecia
effect of three
on asparagine medium at 25°C. The carbon sources were: A,
sp.
glucose; B, sucrose; C, maltose. Above, cultures 11 days old; below, the same cul-
Note the poor vegetative growth but presence of perithecia on
sucrose and maltose, and the abundant early vegetative growth but delayed produc-
tion of perithecia on glucose.
For further information on the effects of nutritional factors on sporula-

tion, see Hawker (1950).
Carbon-nitrogen ratio. It seems to be generally held that a proper
balance among
the constituents of the medium is quite important in
growth and sporulation. Westergaard and Mitchell (1947) investigated,
among other factors, the influence of the carbon-nitrogen ratio of the
medium on formation of perithecia by Neurospora crassa. Some of their
data are given in Table 56. It is evident that high concentrations of
glucose and potassium nitrate are unfavorable for the production of

perithecia by N. crassa.
Table 56. The Effect of the Carbon-Nitrogen Ratio of the Medium on the
Production of Perithecia by Neurospora crassa
Production rated on scale of 10. Age, 11 days. (Westergaard and Mitchell,
Am. Jour. Botany 34, 1947.)
Glucose con-
SPORULATION 327
sterile mycelium of P. cactorum was washed in distilled water and trans-

ferred to the optimum concentration of the sexuality factor in 0.1 per
cent agar, oogonia began to appear within 15 hr., reaching the maximum
development This factor was also effective in inducing sexual
in 3 days.
reproduction by P. erythroseptica, P. boehmeriae, and P. megasperma. In
addition, the presence of this sexuality factor induced the formation of
abundant oogonia within a week by 15 of the 20 species of Phythium
tested. However, it failed to induce sporulation of various Zygomycetes,
Ascomycetes, and Basidiomycetes.
7-Carotene is associated with the male cells of the sexual phase and
not with the female cells of Allomyces (Emerson and Fox, 1940). This
specificity of association with the male cells indicates that 7-carotene may
be associated with sexual reproduction in some species of this genus.
No 7-carotene was found in the cells of these fungi in the asexual phase.
Association with other organisms. That one fungus may influence the
sporulation of another has been known for a long time. Sporulation of
Alternaria and Helminthosporium was increased when they were grown
in association with certain other organisms (Porter, 1924). This paper
has a valuable bibliography on associative effects.
The metabolic products of Aspergillus niger are known to promote

conjugation in three species of yeasts belonging to the genus Zygosac-
charomyces (Nickerson and Thimann, 1943). As a result of extensive
investigations, these authors found that part of the activity of Aspergillus
filtrate could be replaced by glutaric acid and riboflavin. While these
substances had some activity w^hen tested separately, the combination of
glutaric acid and riboflavin greatly exceeded the activity of either alone.
Riboflavin was shown definitely to be a component of the Aspergillus
filtrate. An cells had a favorable
autolysate from Zygosaccharomyces
influence on sporulationby the same organism. From this experiment
and from the work of Lindegren and Hamilton (1944), who found that
ascus formation in yeast would take place only in portions of the yeast
colony where autolysis had taken place, it may be concluded that auto-
lytic products favor sporulation in some instances. Lindegren and
Lindegren (1944) found that addition of 2 per cent dried brewer's yeast
to a presporulation medium very favorably influenced the sporulation of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The presence of Bacillus weidmaniensis greatly stimulated growth and
production of macroconidia by Microsporum audouini (Benedek, 1943,
and Hazen, 1947). The addition of yeast extract to the medium had a
similar effect. A part of this stimulating effect was attributed to pyri-
doxine. The addition of yeast extract to a basal medium of honey agar
resulted in a marked increase in vegetative growth and macroconidium
production (Hazen, 1947). This stimulation was attributed to the pres-
ence of growth factors in the yeast extract. The addition of pyridoxine

to the basal medium caused little change in mycelial growth, but a great
increase in abundance of macroconidia resulted. On the other hand, the
addition of thiamine or of a mixture of thiamine and pyridoxine caused
no increase in growth or production of macroconidia.
An interesting observation of the constant natural association between
Nectria coccinea and Gonatorrhodiella highlei is reported by Ayres (1941).
Because of this constant association was believed that G. highlei was

it
either parasitic upon A^. coccinea or dependent upon it for some nutri-
tional substance. On potato-glucose, malt extract, and other common
Fig. 67. The stimulating effect of Aspergillus rugulosus (small colony at the bottom)
on the production of perithecia by Sordaria fimicola grown on glucose-asparagine
medium low in biotin. The zone of black perithecia of Sordaria around the colony of
Aspergillus is attributed to the biotin excreted by the latter fungus.
media G. made only slight growth and formed no conidiophores or

highlei
conidia. However, the fungus grew well and produced numerous conidio-
phores and conidia on the same media in the presence of A^. coccinea, N.
galligena, or N. cucurhitula. Neither N. cinnabarina nor N coryli caused .
stimulation. G. highlei was cultivated successfully with production of

abundant conidia on oatmeal mush, without the presence of other fungi.
These results strongly suggest a nutritional relation between G. highlei
and N coccinea, other than that of parasitism.
.
The beneficial effect of one fungus upon reproduction of another can

easily be demonstrated by placing Aspergillus rugulosus and Sordaria
fimicola on a plate of agar containing little or no biotin (Fig. 67). S.
fimicola, being a more rapid grower, produces a sparse mycelium, which
surrounds the slow-growing colony of Aspergillus. The Sordaria myce-
SPORULATION 329
lium next to the Aspergillus colony soon shows stimulated growth, which
is followed by the formation of abundant perithecia in this area. Since
we know that Sordaria is deficient for biotin and requires an exogenous
supply of this vitamin for reproduction, we may assume that the stimulat-
ing effect is due to the extra biotin produced by A. rugulosus diffusing into
the medium.
Many fungi cannot synthesize suflricient amounts of certain
Vitamins.
vitamins and must depend upon an outside source of these vitamins for
optimum growth. Since many nutritional factors may influence both
growth and reproduction, it would be logical to expect that the vitamin
supply would affect the reproduction of vitamin-deficient fungi. Robbins
and Ma (1942) ventured the opinion that, although the sex organs of
certain deficient fungi were formed only in the presence of the growth
factor for which these fungi were deficient, they were doubtful if there
was any direct relation between vitamin supply and the formation of
sex organs. They regarded the failure of Ceratostomella pluriannulata to
produce perithecia in the absence of thiamine to be a disturbance of the
physiology of the fungus and ventured the prediction that the formation
of sex organs in other deficient fungi would be found associated with the
vitamins for which the fungi was deficient.
Melanospora destruens is able to grow in the presence of biotin as the
only growth factor, but it produces perithecia only when thiamine, too, is
added to the medium (Hawker, 1939). The relationship between the
amount of sugar and the amount of thiamine necessary for maximum
fruiting is clearly brought out by the thiamine-deficient fungus, C.
fimbriata (Barnett and Lilly, 1947a). Whether perithecia are formed on a
given medium is determined by the amount of thiamine relative to the
amount of food in the medium (Table 57). In a reduced supply of sugar
the concentration of thiamine necessary to induce fruiting is also reduced.
The abundance of perithecia is conditioned both by the amount of thia-
mine and by the amount of nutrients. Less thiamine is required for
vegetative growth than for the production of perithecia. A similar rela-
tion between amounts of sugar and biotin and sporulation of Memnoniella
echinata was described by Buston and Basu (1948). It should be noted
from Table 57 that, in a medium high in sugar but low in thiamine, no
perithecia were formed even though as much as 30 mg. of mycelium was
present. On the other hand, perithecia were produced on as little as two
mg. of mycelium when the medium contained the same amount of thia-
mine but was very low in sugar. These results are not in accord with the
idea that vigorous or abundant mycelium is essential to the formation of
perithecia; they indicate a more direct relation between vitamin supply
and sexual reproduction.
This direct relationship may be further illustrated by a simple experi-
ment. Sterile thiamine-starved mycelium may be obtained by growing

C. fimhriata on a synthetic medium containing 25 g. glucose and less than
2 ng of thiamine per liter. When a small portion of this sterile mycelium
is transferred to the surface of distilled water, no perithecia are formed.
Howêver, under the same treatment, but with the addition of thiamine
to the water, fertile perithecia are formed within a few days. We may
assume that, when thiamine is added, the fungus uses this vitamin as a
coenzyme in transforming the protoplasmic reserves into perithecia and
Table 57. The Effect of Various Concentrations of Thiamine upon Growth
AND Estimated Abundance of Perithecia Formed by Ceratostomella fimhriata
in the Presence of Various Concentrations of Nutrients
Growth in milligrams. Abundance of perithecia indicated by: = none; + =
lessthan 20; ++ = 20 to 200; +++ = 200 to 1,000; ++++ = more than 1,000.
(Barnett and Lilly, Mycologia 39, 1947.)
Thiamine, /xg per

SPORULATION 331
duction of mature ascospores is greater than the amount required for

the formation of perithecia.
.4 B
Fig. 68. The on the formation of ascospores by Sordaria
effect of biotin starvation
fimicola. A, asci from a perithecium developed in a suboptimum concentration of
biotin. Note the few mature ascospores and the majority of asci in which no spores,
or only aborted ascospores, have formed. B, normal asci with mature ascospores
developed on medium with optimum biotin concentration.
Since the vitamins are not considered as specific reproductive sub-

stances, it may be expected that an adequate vitamin supply may be
necessary for the formation of asexual spores as well as the sexual fruiting
structures. However, it should be kept in mind that asexual reproduc-
tion is more nearly like vegetative growth in its requirements than is
sexual reproduction. A reduction in the supply of a necessary vitamin
to the point where asexual reproduction is inhibited may butalso allow
little vegetative growth. Piricularia orijzae is both thiamine
deficient for
and biotin (Leaver et al., 1947). Conidia did not form unless both
vitamins were present in the medium. The concentration of biotin
could be reduced to such a level that conidial production was inhibited
but some mycelial growth was still allowed. In an adequate supply of
biotin,growth and sporulation were apparently parallel. It is also
Table 58. The Effects of Concentration of Glucose and Thiamine upon the
Number of Conidial Heads Formed by Choanephora cucurbitarum
(Barnett and Lilly, Phytopathology 40, 1950.)
Glucose, Thiamine, Conidial heads

g. per liter Mg per liter per plate
25 8
25 210
25 450
2 2,000
evident that a proper balance between the amounts of vitamins and

supply of nutrients is necessary for maximum production of asexual
spores. The effects of the concentrations of thiamine and glucose upon
the production of conidial heads by Choanephora cucurhitarum are illus-
trated in Table 58. On the other hand, we have observed that an excess
of certain vitamins may cause a decrease in sporulation of some fungi.
OTHER FACTORS
Method of inoculation. The method of inoculation and the type of
inoculum used are often important factors affecting sporulation in cul-
ture. Some fungi sporulate more quickly, and often more abundantly,
on agar when the medium is flooded with a spore suspension than when
the inoculum is placed at only one point. This is particularly applicable
to certain pycnidium- or acervulus-producing fungi, which usually pro-
duce abundant mycelium before fruiting.
It is possible that the spores of certain fungi carry over sporulation-
inducing substances to the next generation. The production of conidia
of CoUctotrichum lindeviuthianum was greater on agar media inoculated
at one point with spores than when bits of mycelium were used as inocu-
lum (Mathur et at., 1950).
Method of sterilizing media. The most common method of sterilizing
culture media is the use of steam pressure in an autoclave. The standard
time is usually 15 to 20 min. at 15 lb. pressure. This temperature is
known breakdown of certain sugars, with an accompanying

to cause a
change in acidity of the medium. When natural media are used, other
chemical changes occur, which may or may not be beneficial to reproduc-
tion of the fungi. Shanor (1936) reported that fruiting structures of
Cordyceps militaris were not formed when autoclaved insects were inocu-
lated, whereas the fungus produced stromata and perithecia when living
pupae were inoculated. A new approach to the problem of sterilization is
suggested by Hansen and Snyder (1947), who propose the use of propylene
oxide. This method has great possibilities but has not been used exten-
sively enough to determine all its virtues and limitations.
Influence of the host. Numerous parasitic fungi which have been
grown on artificial media have not been induced to form the sexual repro-
ductive stages under any conditions in culture. Some of these will
produce the reproductive stages when grown on their respective hosts.
For instance, most smuts will produce mycelium in culture, but few have
produced teliospores (''chlamydospores") under these conditions. Claviceps
has never been induced to form sclerotia (which necessarily precede the
perfect stage) in artificial culture. Other fungi seem to lose their ability
to sporulate profusely in culture but may regain that ability when grown
on the appropriate host. It may be pointed out that many of the fungi
—
SPORULATION 333
pathogenic on man do not produce the same reproductive stages in culture

that they do in their host (Conant et al., 1944). Much more intensive
study needs to be made of these pathogens.
SUMMARY
Reproduction in the fungi, particularly sexual reproduction, with all the
necessary preliminary metabolic activities, is a complex phenomenon.
Some fungi appear to be relatively indifferent to and independent of their
environment with respect to sporulation, while others appear to require
a special combination of environmental conditions. If we assume that
all fungi require similar internal conditions for sexual reproduction
and we do not believe this to be an unreasonable assumption —we must
recognize the existence of numerous fundamental differences in the
metabolic activities of the many different fungi. Some are capable of
creating the necessary internal conditions in spite of external conditions
which may be limiting factors for other fungi. Other species may not
have the ability to create the necessary internal conditions
without
specific action of certain external factors, such as proper nutrients,
light,
vitamins, and others. As has been previously emphasized, these proc-
esses are often dependent upon the enzyme systems of the fungus, and
these systems and their activity vary widely among the different species.
Many fungi reproduce sexually only as the vegetative growth is near or
past the maximum. At this time many of the cells of the mycelium are
dead or dying. Autolysis follows, and the cells that remain alive absorb
certain of these products of autolysis and are thus enabled to increase
their concentration of certain essential substances to such a degree that
reproduction is possible. If these speculations are valid, it might be
expected that nearly any type of injury which causes death of some of the
cells would have a favorable effect on reproduction of some fungi. Ultra-
violet radiation, which inhibits growth and often favors sporulation, may
act by killing some of the cells. Heat may also act by speeding up the
life processes of a fungus so that maturity is reached more quickly, which,
followed by death of cells and autolysis, would furnish the necessary

stimulus for reproduction. Treatment with hydrogen peroxide and
certain other chemicals may also result in death and autolysis of some
cells. No claim is advanced that these speculations are the true explana-
tion in all instances, but they do provide a hypothesis for interpreting
certain puzzling problems connected with sexual reproduction in the
fungi.
Factors which may initiate or stimulate sporulation of fungi which
grow well but fruit only sparingly or not at all under the usual conditions
of artificial culture (assuming that genetic factors are favorable), are as
follows: (1) A change in the concentration of one or more of the nutrients.
:
A reduction in sugar alone may be effective. (2) A change in the source

of carbon. Replacing glucose by the same amount of sucrose, lactose,
starch, or other carbon source may favor reproduction. (3) A change
in the source of nitrogen. (4) A change in the carbon-nitrogen ratio.
(5) The addition of an adequate supply of vitamins for vitamin-deficient

fungi. (6) The addition of certain micro elements to the medium, if it
is made up of highly purified chemicals. (7) The addition to the medium
of certain natural products, such as pieces of stems or leaves. (8) The
addition of culture filtrate containing metabolic products from the same
or other fungus. (9) The addition of special compounds, such as glutaric
acid, which has been shown to be effective in a few cases. (10) The
addition of certain specific sexual factors, or hormones, known to be
effective for certain Phycomycetes. (11) The addition of certain chem-
icals, such as hydrogen peroxide, to the mycelium. (12) Exposure of
cultures to ozone. (13) The use of spores instead of mycelium as inocu-
lum. Flooding of agar plates with spore suspension has given excellent
results with some fungi. (14) The sterilization of media by means other
than heat. (15) Transfer of certain parasitic fungi to their living hosts.
(16) Growing the fungus in the presence of certain bacteria or other
fvmgi. (17) A change in pH of the medium, (18) A change in the
temperature of incubation. (19) Adequate aeration. (20) Exposure to
light or alternate light and darkness. (21) Short exposures to ultraviolet
radiation. and wave length of light. (23)
(22) Variation in the intensity
Mechanical injury to the mycelium. (24) Gradual desiccation of the
cultures. (25) Allowing the cultures to age. (26) The proper combina-
tion of any two or more of the above factors. The secret of the sexual
reproduction of many fungi no doubt lies in the proper combination of
factors which singly are known to favor reproduction in other fungi.
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SPORULATION 337
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:
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CHAPTER 15
SPORE DISCHARGE AND DISSEMINATION
While the production of mature viable spores may be considered the

climax in the a fungus, the wide dissemination of these spores is
life of
often a requisite to the perpetuation of the species. Frequently, this is

assured by the production of enormous numbers of spores, which increases
their chances of falling into favorable environment. The chief agent of
dissemination among the fungi is air currents. and other
Water, insects,
animals play lesser roles in the natural dispersal of spores. Light, dry
spores are usually disseminated by air currents, which may be strong
enough to loosen them from the fruiting structures on which they are
produced. On the other hand, spores borne in a gelatinous matrix are
better adapted to transmission by rain, by insects, or by other animals
which come in contact with them. Of particular interest are those fungi
which possess certain special mechanisms for discharging their spores
away from the fruiting structures. A study of the functions of these
special adaptations must of necessity be based upon a knowledge of the
structure of the fruit bodies which produce the spores.
METHODS OF SPORE DISCHARGE

The discharge or liberation of spores from the reproductive structures
which produce them may take place by (1) violent expulsion of the spores
or sporangia, due to internal pressure, (2) motility, as in the zoospores of
the aquatic Phycomycetes, and (3) external forces of the environment.
The violent discharge of spores, sporangia, or other reproductive bodies
depends upon the development of considerable pressure within the fungus.
The structure of the fungus cell is very similar to that of algae or the
parenchyma of the higher plants. The vacuole is filled with water and
its dissolved compounds, such as sugars, salts, and amino acids. Foods
in the cell mây be in the form of sugar, glycogen, or oil. If the amount of
soluble materials, such as sugar, is increased, the cell has a tendency to
absorb water. As a result, the cell becomes more distended and may
continue to swell until the elasticity of the cell wall is exceeded. The
increase in sugar concentration may be the result of the hydrolysis of
glycogen.
Discharge of sporangia. The genus Piloholus illustrates a remarkable
combination of adaptations for the production, discharge, and subsequent
338
SPORE DISCHARGE AND DISSEMINATION 339
dissemination of its spores. These include (1) the dependence upon Hght
for the production of sporangia, (2) the positively phototropic response
of the sporangiophores (see frontispiece), (3) the violent discharge of the
sporangium into the air toward the source of light, (4) the sticky nature
and the heavy black wall of the sporangium, and (5) the dissemination
of the spores by the passage through the digestive tract of animals which
ingest them.
We owe much of our knowledge regarding the structure of Piloholus, its
physiology, and its life and comprehensive
history to the careful study
descriptions of Buller (1934). Much of his work was done with P. kleinii
and P. longipes. Brefeld (1881) showed that, in the absence of light, no
sporangia were formed, but that the sporangiophores continued to grow
for 10 to 14 days and reached the length of 8 to 10 in. A 2-hr. exposure to
light was sufficient for partially formed sporangiophores to complete their
development in the dark. Sporangiophores and sporangia developed
normally in blue light but did not develop in red-yellow light.
Under natural conditions, Piloholus produces successive daily crops of

sporangiophores and sporangia. Each crop requires approximately 24 hr.
for its development. The sporangiophores begin to form near midday
or early afternoon. By evening they have received enough light to allow
the further development and production of the sporangia during the
night. By
the following morning, the sporangia are completely formed.
During the morning the sporangiophores react phototropically, directing
the sporangia toward the source of light. From midmorning to early
afternoon the sporangia are discharged violently into the air for a con-
siderable distance. The horizontal distance, according to Buller, may
be as great as 8 ft. 7 in.
To understand the mechanism of sporangium discharge in Piloholus, it
is first necessary to know the structure of the sporangium and the spo-
rangiophore (Fig. 69). The entire sporangiophore consists of a single

large cell, with a rather slender lower portion, a subsporangial swelling,
and a conical columella, which projects upward into the sporangium. A
rather thin layer of cytoplasm lies next to the cell wall and surrounds a
large central vacuole. At the base of the subsporangial swelling there is
a thick perforated ring of protoplasm, which is reddish in color, containing
carotene.
When the sporangiophore is pointed directly toward the source of light,
the parallel rays of light which strike the black hemispherical sporangium
are screened out. The subsporangial swelling acts as a lens, and the rays
upon it are bent so that they converge on, or uniformly near, the
falling
red mass of protoplasm at the base of the swelling; this results in an
equilibrium, i.e., no bending occurs. When the sporangium is directed
at an acute angle away from the source of light, the side of the sub-
Fig. 69. A, a median longitudinal section of Pilobolus kleinii just before discharge oi
sporangium. The gun is pointed at an acute angle away from the light source. The
light rays that strike the sporangium are screened out. The rays that strike the side of
the subsporangial swelling are bent and concentrated on the oposite side. This presum-
ably gives a photochemical stimulus which is conducted to the motor region below the
N)
A.H.RB,
B
subsporangial swelling. Bending toward the source of light then occurs until an
equilibrium is reached and the light rays are concentrated at the base of the sub-
sporangial swelling. B, at this time the gun is pointed directly toward the light
source. (After Buller, Researches on Fungi, Vol. VI, pp. 91, 92, 1934. Reproduced
by permission of Longmans, Roberts and Green,)
sporangial swelling, acting as a lens, causes the light rays to converge on

the side of the swelling away from the source of light (Fig. 69A). Pre-
sumably, this causes a photochemical reaction in the protoplasm, and the
stimulus is transmitted downward to the motor region, the portion of the
sporangiophore just below the subsporangial swelling. The growth of
this region is more rapid on the side away from the light source, which
results in a bending of the sporangiophore until an equilibrium of light is
again reached; i.e., when the sporangium is pointing directly toward the
source of light (Fig. 695).
There is a thicker layer of protoplasm near the upper portion of the
subsporangial swelling. This layer also contains some carotene. Buller
believes that it is photochemical ly reactive and may serve to bring about
chemical changes which result in the increase in the osmotic pressure of
the cell. When a culture with nearly mature sporangia is placed in the
dark, amuch greater time is required for the discharge of the sporangia
than when it is left in the light.
The weakest place in the wall of the Pilobolus structure is located just
below the sporangium, and it is here that the wall of the subsporangial
swelling breaks circularly as the sporangium is discharged. The increased
osmotic pressure becomes too great for the resisting elastic wall, and the
system is ruptured. A drop of cell sap is squirted out of the tip of the
subsporangial swelling as discharge occurs. The conical columella is also
carried away with the sporangium.
In nature the sporangia adhere to the surface of vegetation, where they
may be ingested by herbivorous animals. The spores are released in the
digestive tract and pass out in the feces unharmed. It seems probable
that exposure to gastric juices helps to break dormancy of the spores and
favors immediate germination. The sporangium adheres to the vegeta-
tion by the lower gelatinous part, with the black, hemispherical, non-
wettable portion outward. Thus, the injurious ultraviolet rays are
screened out, and the spores remain viable, although they may not be
eaten for weeks or even months.
Basidioholus ranarurti shows a great many characters similar to those of
Pilobolus, namely, the general structure of the sporangiophore, the
mechanism of discharge of the sporangia, the coprophilous habit, and the
general method of dissemination. The sporangiophore consists of a
slender lower portion and cylindrical enlarged upper portion, which
supports a spherical sporangium. The osmotic pressure in the spo-
rangiophore increases to the point that it exceeds the tensile strength of
the resisting wall, which is suddenly ruptured circularly near the base
of the enlarged portion (Ingold, 1934). At this instant, the upper portion
contracts and causes the cell sap to be squirted backward, giving a rocket-
like effect. The dissemination of spores is accomplished after the spo-
rangia are eaten by beetles, which in turn are eaten by frogs or hzards.
After the beetles are digested and the sporangia are released, the spores
are formed. These spores are then capable of germination and produc-
tion of mycelium on frog or lizard excreta.
A somewhat different method of discharge is described for the genus
Entomophthora by Fitzpatrick (1930) and more specifically for E. sphaero-
sperma by Sawyer (1931). Instead of being due to a squirting action of
the cell contents, as in the case of Piloholus and Bastdiobolus, the discharge
of the sporangium in Entomophthora involves the opposing forces of
osmotic pressure and the adhesive power between the two walls separating
the sporangium and sporangiophore. As the sporangium matures, the
pressure on both sides of the separating walls becomes so great that the
outer wall is suddenly broken, and the sporangium is thrown into the
air. The sporangia, being sticky, readily adhere to the objects which
they strike.
The theory of violent discharge of sporangia in certain downy mildews
was advanced by De Bary (1887), using Peronospora parasitica and
Phytophthora infestans as examples. Later, Pinckard (1942) found the
forcible adiection of sporangia in Peronospora tabacina to be the same as
that described by De Bary.
As the mature sporangiophore dries out,
the entire crown, with branches and sporangia, begins a counterclock-
its
wise rotation. Each portion of the sporangiophore, including the

sterigma, rotates independently. The sporangiophore is hygroscopic,
and as the air becomes more moist, the movement is reversed. The effect
isa sudden release of the mature sporangia. During the course of rota-
tion many of the branches become entangled with others, and the spo-
rangia are dislodged by the spring-like action as the branches are dis-
engaged. The discharge of sporangia was verified by observations on
single isolated sporangiophores, showing that it is not dependent upon
the intermingling of the sporangiophores. No sporangia were released
in a saturated atmosphere, since no hygroscopic movement took place.
Other species which were observed to react similarly were Peronospora
parasitica, P. geranii, P. halstedii, and P. effusa. Similar rotation of
conidiophores upon desiccation is apparently not uncommon among fungi
of other groups, particularly those with long conidiophores.
Discharge of ascospores. In the majority of fungi (except those whose
asci deliquesce), ascospore discharge is accomplished by the building up
of osmotic pressure of the ascus to a point where it exceeds the resistance
of the elastic ascus wall. In one type of expulsion, the ascus wall is
suddenly ruptured, usually throwing the ascospores outward into the air
simultaneously. In other species, the ascospores are discharged succes-
sively through an apical pore in the ascus. In the latter case, the ellipsoid
or fusoid shape of the spore is apparently important. The spore pushes
344 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUXGI
pai'tway through the pore to its broadest point and is then suddenly
squeezed out by the contraction of the ascus tip (Ingold, 1933).
The increase in the osmotic pressure within the maturing ascus must
be preceded by an increase in the soluble materials in the cell sap. This
is believed to be accomplished by the digestion of glycogen, which is
known to occur in the young ascus. In the majority of t he Pyrenomycetes

the asci are produced within a spherical or flask-shaped perithecium.
There are three general ways by which the ascospores are released
through the ostiole of the perithecium, two of which depend upon the
explosi^•e rupture of the ascus wall. In the first type, which is the most
common and believed to be the most primitive, the ascus wall remains
attached at its base, while the spores are discharged. This is accom-
plished by the elongation of the elastic ascus. until the tip reaches or
protrudes through the ostiole. The ascus then explodes, throwing the
ascospores into the air. The empty ascus contracts to the
wall of the
base of the perithecium. and another ascus elongates. The process is
repeated successively as the asci mature. This type is illustrated by
Sordaria, Pleurage, and many other common fungi. An interesting
parallelism exists between the method of dissemination of Pilobolus and
that of Pleuragc, Sordaria, and other coprophilous Pyrenomycetes. The
short beaks of the perithecia are positi\ely phototropic and, as they
develop, are directed toward the source of light. In nature the ascospores
fallupon vegetation and are subsequently eaten and disseminated bj'
herbivorous animals. The vertical distances to which ascospores may
be shot have been reported as 6 cm. for S. fimicola and 45 cm. for P.
curvicolla (Weimer. 1920).
A second general type of ascospore discharge occurs more commonly in
species with long perithecial beaks. The asci become detached from the
base of the perithecium and are pushed up through the beak to the ostiole,
where the spores are released simultaneously or successively. This is a
rapid method of spore discharge. Examples of this type are Etidothia
parasitica. Gnomonia rubi, Guignardia bidivcllii, and CcraiosfomclJa anipid-
lax:ea. !Most of these species are adapted to AA"ind dissemination of
ascospores. Some idea of the tremendous numbers of ascospores dis-
charged is given by Heald and Walton (1914), who reported that some
specimens of E. parasitica expelled ascospores every day for 168 days.
The rate of spore discharge from one perithecium was found to be as high
as one ascus explosion about every 2 sec. At this rate approximately
14,000 ascospores may be discharged per perithecium per hour. On the
basis of these figures, it is little wonder that the fungus spread so rapidly
among the American chestnuts.
A third group includes the nonexplosive type of ascus, in which the
ascospores are released by the deliquescence of the ascus wall. Thej' are
embedded in mucilage, and as they accumulate in the body of the peri-

theciu.m, some spores ooze out through the ostiole, much like tooth paste
from the tube. Examples of this type are Chaetomium spp., Cerato-
stomeUa fimhriata, and C. ulmi. These spores are not adapted to wind
dissemination but may be carried in moist weather by insects (C. ulmi),
by other contacts (such as C. fimhriata on stored sweet potatoes), or by
rain.
The Discomycetes, in general, show a marked response to the stimulus
of light in orienting the asci so that the ascospores may be discharged
into the air away from the apothecium. The apothecium of Ascobolus
is small, and only a few asci mature at one time. As an ascus matures,
it enlarges greatl}^ and extends well beyond the surface of the hymenium.
It then reacts phototropically so that the tip is pointed directly toward
the source of light. When
the ascus bursts, the operculum at the tip is
forced open, and the spores are expelled simultaneously. Most species
of Ascobohis are coprophilous and are disseminated in much the same
manner as Piloholus and Sordaria.
The phenomenon of ''puffing" in manj^ of the larger Discomycetes is
described in most textbooks of mj^cology and plant pathology. It is due
to the simultaneous violent spore discharge from many asci, so that a
cloud of spores may be seen to rise a few inches from the apothecium.
This maybe so violent that a faint hissing or fizzing sound can be heard.
If the asci were to explode singly as they mature, the ascospores would
be shot up into the air only bj^ the initial force of the explosion. For most
species, this distance would probably not exceed 1 or 2 in. However,
when a great many asci explode simultaneously, an air blast is created
which carries the ascospores vertically to a much greater height, as great
as 5 to 7 in. (Buller, 1934). This additional distance above the fruit
body, which is commonly located on or near the ground, increases the
chances of dissemination by air currents.
In nature, the puffing of ascospores may be initiated by a sudden
change from shade to open sun, by the passing of a cloud, or by swaying
of a branch. Strong sunlight is not the only stimulus, for the phenomenon
has been observed in the laboratory under uniform light conditions. A
sudden jar of the fruit body, when it is tapped or picked up, may cause
spore discharge in some species. Likewise, an instant's exposure to
alcohol fumes may serve as the stimulus.
Buller (1934) has shown that in the cupulate or V-shaped apothecia,
such as those of Sarcoscypha protracta, many of the asci are pointing
directlytoward the opposite side of the cup; yet the ascospores are dis-
charged upward, free from the fruit body. The operculum of this species,
instead of being centrally located at the tip of the ascus, is obliqueh^
placed toward the upper side of the ascus. As the discharged ascospores
leave the ascus, they are directed vertically. Biiller })elieves that the
oblique position of the operculum a physiological character formed as a
is
response of the ascus end to the stimulus of light. Seaver (1928), how-
ever, believes that the position of the operculum is not determined by
light.
Fig. 70. Sections through the hymeniuni of Ascobolus magnificus, showing the photo-
tropic response of the ascus tips to Hght. Discharge of the ascospores is then directly
toward the source of hght. (After Buller, Researches on Fungi, Vol. VI, p. 272, 1U34.
Reproduced by permission of Longmans, Roberts and Green.)
In the development of the apothecium the paraphyses are formed

before the asci mature, and the developing asci push their way upward
among the paraphyses. In some species (Ascobolus spp., Lachnea scuiel-
lata) the paraphyses are straight, and only the portion of the ascus extend-
ing beyond the paraphyses tips responds phototropically (Fig. 70). The
paraphyses of others {Peziza hadia, Aleuria vesiculosa) bend toward the
light, and the developing asci are likewise bent as they elongate. Aleuria
repanda sometimes shows a coarse adjustment toward light, by the turn-
ing of the entire apothecium, and a fine adjustment, by the bending of the
ascus tips in the same direction.
Discharge of peridioles. The discharge of the peridiole (gleba-con-

taining basidiospores) of Sphaerobolus depends largely upon the unique
structure of the fruit body (Fig. 71). The spherical fruit body measures
but 2 to 3 mm. in diameter. The peridium is made up of six distinct
layers. At maturity, the peridium breaks open at the top, in a stellate
manner, through all but the sixth, or innermost, layer, which surrounds
Fig. 71. Structure of fruit body and mechanism of discharge of peridiole of Sphaero-
bolus stellatus. A, section of mature sporocarp, with six layers (1-6) that invest the
central peridiole (7). B, dehiscence of sporocarp at apex. The inner membrane is
liquefied. C, eversion of the remaining two layers by which the peridiole, D, is sud-
denly discharged. (Reproduced by permission from Wolf and Wolf, The Fungi, Vol.
II, p. 203, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1947.)
the peridiole. This layer deliquesces, and the peridiole then rests in the
watery substance produced. A split then occurs between layers 3 and 4,
beginning at the base but not progressing to the very top. Lajêr 4, the
fibrous layer, is composed of small, rather closely packed cells, while layer
5, the palisade layer, is made up of comparatively large, somewhat
elongated cells. The cells of the palisade, which is on the concave sur-
face, increase in turgor and in size and are held under great tension by
the relatively inelastic fibrous layer. These inner layers are suddenly
everted, acting as a catapult, throwing the peridiole violently upward.
Walker (1927) has reported that the peridiole of S. stellatus may be
thrown to a vertical distance of 14 ft., while Buller (1934) reports a maxi-
mum horizontal distance of 18 ft. 7 in.
The force which causes the discharge is apparently located in the

palisade layer. has been demonstrated by microchemical tests that
It
the palisade cells of the unopened fruit body are densely filled with
glycogen, which disappears before the discharge of the peridiole (Walker
and Andersen, 1925). The glycogen is converted to reducing sugars, one
of which is maltose, and this leads to the increase in osmotic pressure.
Light hastens the opening of the fruit body and the discharge of the
peridiole and is believed to speed up the conversion of glycogen into
sugars. S. stellatus is a coprophilous or lignicolous species, and the
peridioles may be eaten and disseminated by herbivorous animals.
Dodge (1941) reports his own observations as well as those of others
upon the presence of peridioles of the bird's-nest fungi attached to leaves
and branches as high as 10 to 15 ft. above the ground. Dodge describes
the attachment of the peridioles of Cyathus striatus to the peridium but
offers no theory to explain the mechanism of the peridiole discharge or
the force which is responsible. The slender mucilaginous threads which
attach the peridioles in the fruit bodies also serve to attach the discharged
peridioles to certain objects.
Discharge of basidiospores. The mechanism and the force involved
in the discharge of basidiospores in the Hymenomycetes and of the
sporidia of the smuts and rusts have not been satisfactorily explained.
There no evidence that the explanation used for any of the types
is
described above can be applied to the discharge of basidiospores. How-

ever, certain structural features are present which may be adaptations
for this special method of spore discharge.
In all Basidiomycetes in which the spores are shot off forcibly, the
sterigma is attached slightly to one side of the tip of the spore (Fig. 72).
Just before a spore is discharged, a small drop of liquid appears at the
tip of the sterigma. Its invariable presence is believed to be an important
feature in the process of spore discharge. After discharge, there appears
to be no pore present, either in the spore or in the tip of the sterigma.
Buller (1922, 1924) suggests that the spore may be shot from the sterigma
by hydrostatic pressure, but that the amount of liquid ejected as the
explosion occurs at the sterigma may be so minute that it may not be
detected by the microscope. He further suggests that the surface ten-
sion of the drop of water may in some way bring about the abjection of the
spore. While neither theory is completely satisfactory, they are the best
yet offered.
Discharge of aeciospores. Experimental work showing that the
aeciospores of the rust fungi are violently discharged was reported by
Buller (1924) and Dodge (1924, 1924a). They have reported this phe-
nomenon in seven species, including Puccinia coronota, P. graminis, P.
podophijlli, Gytnnoconia peckiana, and Uromyces pisi. The maximum
distance above the aecia to which the spores were shot varied from 6 to
15 mm., being about 8 mm. for P. graminis. The exact mechanism of
aeciospore discharge is not known, but it probably depends largely upon
turgor pressure of the mature aeciospores, which are formed in chains.
The double wall between two aeciospores is at first flat, but near maturity
and tends to make these wâlls
of the spores the osmotic pressure increases
convex. Itassumed that the adhesive force between the two walls is
is
suddenly overcome by the increased osmotic pressure, and the terminal

spore or group of spores is thrown outward into the air.
Fig. 72. Discharge of the third basidiospore from basidium of Agaricus campestris,
following the formation of a drop of water at the tip of the sterigma. (After Duller,
Researches on Fungi, Vol. II, p. 12, 1922. Reproduced by permission of Longmans,
Roberts and Green.)
Liberation of zoospores. In most of the aquatic Phycomycetes and in

some terrestrial forms which show definite aquatic affinity, zoospores are
the primary means of reproduction. The characteristic motility of the
zoospores may be more correctly considered as a means of local dissemina-
tion, but motility is also involved in the liberation from such large spo-
rangia as those of Saprolegnia and related fungi.
INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL CONDITIONS

The upon the discharge of spores by Piloholus, Ascoholus,
effect of light
Sordaria, and Sphaeroholus has been discussed briefly. Light is necessary
for the production of spores in a number of fungi in which it plays no
direct part in spore discharge.
Favorable temperature is a prerequisite for all biological activity.
upon spore formation and discharge is often not clearly defined.
Its effect
The maximum temperature permitting spore discharge is appreciably
Fig. 73. Stills from ultra-high-speed film showing impact of drop of water with a fruit
body of Lycoperdon perlatum and the subsequent puff of spores. The drop, 5.0 mm. in
diameter, fell with a velocity of -440 cm. per sec. The time elapsed between the con-
tact of drop with peridiimi until the last photograph was 0.046 sec. (Courtesy of
Gregory, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 32 14, 1949. Published by permission of Cam-
:
bridge University Press.)

lower than that for viabiht}^ of the fungus. Low temperatures usually
merely slow down spore production and discharge. Duller (1909) found
that Daedalea unicolor, Lenzites hetulinus, Polyporus versicolor, and P.
hirsutus discharged spores when the air temperature was 0°C. Schizo-
phyllum commune shed spores vigorously at 5°C., but not at 0°C.
Andersen et al. (1947) showed that few conidia of Piricularia orijzae
were liberated when the host plants were dry. Continued wetting greatly
increased the secondary spread of the fungus in experimental trials.
Sporidia of rusts are formed and discharged only during periods of high
humidity. The need of the downy mildew fungi for changing conditions
of humidity has been pointed out. The hygroscopic character of the
capillitium of certain slime molds aids in pushing the spores to the surface,
where they may be disseminated by various agents. Many other species
of fungi appear to be independent of the air moisture, as long as there is
sufficient moisture in the fruit body. Gravity is believed to have little
effect upon spore discharge, except in the proper orientation of the fruit
bodies.
The spores of some puffballs are enclosed within the nearly spherical
peridium, which opens by an apical pore. When sudden pressure is
applied to the peridium, the spores are puffed out of the pore in clouds of
"smoke." Gregory (1949) has shown, by use of ultraspeed photography,
that raindrops falling on the thin peridium of Lycoperdon perlatum cause
a puffing of spores (Fig. 73). The velocity of the puff as the spores
emerged from the ostiole was approximately 100 cm. per sec. Under the
conditions of the experiment, it was estimated that a drop of water falling
130 cm. caused the ejection of approximately 15 million spores. The

endoperidium and the spores inside remain dry, and the puffing is not
hindered, even during a rain. The impact of raindrops is believed to
be an important means of spore discharge from the ostiolate puffballs.
SPORE DISSEMINATION
Many other fungi do not have any special method of spore discharge
and must depend upon physical or biotic agents in nature for getting their
spores away from the fruit body where they are produced. Some of these
possess some special adaptations for dissemination by certain agents.
The most important agent of dissemination is air currents. The uredio-
spores of the rusts are not violently discharged. They accumulate in
the sorus and must be dislodged by the wind or movement of the host
plant. Many of the Monihales which produce dry conidia also depend
upon air movement to shake them loose from the conidiophores. Con-
vection currents are responsible for local spread of dry spores, while
splashing rain is important in the dissemination of spores with matrix.
It is well known that spores of some of these fungi may be blown for
hundreds of miles and remain viable.
Dissemination of the zoospores of the aquatic fungi may be accom-
plished locally by means of the flagella or for greater distances by the
movement of water, which may carry the spores both in the motile and
in the encysted stages. The condition of diplanetism, which involves
two motile stages separated by an encysted stage, may be advantageous
for the greater dissemination in water. The translocation of mud and
moist soil by means other than water may also be important. Although
the motility of zoospores of certain parasitic fungi, such as Phytophthora
infestans,can scarcely be considered an important means of dissemina-
tion, does enable the spore to move short distances in a drop of water
it
on the host and facilitate penetration through stomata.

Insects are likewise important agents of dissemination of fungus spores.
The insect may be by odor or color and feed
attracted to spore masses
upon the spores, or the insect may
be merely an incidental carrier of
spores adhering to the external parts of the body. Leach (1940) states
that "in the majority of cases where the question has been investigated,
spores have been found to pass through the intestinal tract of insects
uninjured." The conidia of Claviceps purpurea, being produced in sweet
droplets of liquid, also emit an odor which attracts insects. Similarly,
the stinkhorn fungi produce their spores in a malodorous matrix and are
frequently visited by flies. These adaptations ensure insect dissemina-
tion. The blue-stain fungi {Ceratostomella spp.) produce spores in sticky
droplets in the tunnels of bark beetles, which act as the principal agents
of dissemination.
The symbiotic relationship between species of Septohasidium and scale
insects represents a highly evolved adaptation for the dissemination of
the fungus spores. Although these fungi produce basidiospores, they are
unlike most Basidiomycetes in that the spores are not forcibly discharged
from the basidium. Couch (1938) has made a comprehensive study of
thisgenus and has described the life history in detail. The fungus forms
a layer over the bodies of scale insects, some of which are parasitized,
while others are not. The uninfected female insects under the fungus
may produce young, many of which crawl over the sporulating surface
at the time of sporulation. These may become infected, crawl about, and
settle down some distance away. Such infected young insects are solely
responsible for the dissemination of the fungus.
Spore dissemination is whose
also unique in the Tuberales (truffles),
fruit bodies are formed There
entirely underground. are no direct means
of getting the spores up to the air for dissemination. These fruit bodies,
which give off an odor, are dug up and eaten by rodents. In this process,
pieces of the fruit bodies are dropped, and the spores are thus disseminated.
SUMMARY
Many fungi have no means of forcibly discharging their spores but must
depend upon the physical and biotic factors in nature for liberation and
dissemination of spores. Others possess special mechanisms for dis-
charging their spores away from the fruiting structures which bear them.
In most cases this violent discharge depends upon high osmotic pressure
within certain cells of the fungus. Increased osmotic pressure usually
is a result of the digestion of glycogen to soluble sugars.
Many coprophilous fungi, such as Pilobolus, Ascobolus, Sordaria, and

Pleurage, forcibly discharge their spores for some distance toward the
source of light. In nature this adaptation is of great advantage to the
fungus in its dissemination by animals, which ingest the spores with the
vegetation. Some Discomycetes exhibit a puffing of the spores when
many asci discharge their spores simultaneously.
In Pilobolus, Basidiobolus, and Entomophfhora the sporangia are forcibly
abjected from the sporangiophores. Ascospores may be ejected either
simultaneously or successively from the ascus. The ascus may elongate
to reach the surface of the ascocarp and discharge its spores, or the asci
may become detached in some Pyrenomycetes and, after being forced
through the ostiole, may explode to release the spores. In other species
the ascus walls are deliquescent, and the ascospores ooze out of the
ostiole.
The basidiospores of most Basidiomycetes are forcibly discharged by a
mechanism which is not well understood. A drop of liquid is extruded at
the tip of the sterigma just prior to discharge and is believed to affect the
process in some way. The peridioles of Cijathus and Sphaerobolus may
be thrown several feet away from the fruit bodies. The latter fungus
exhibits a unique catapult action by a portion of the fruit body. Other
mechanisms act in the forcible discharge of the aeciospores of many rusts
and the sporangia of Peronospora.
Air currents are the most common agent of dissemination of dry spores.
Spores borne in a sticky, malodorous, or sweet matrix are well adapted to
insect dissemination. Some fungi, such as Septobasidium, have estab-
lished a symbiotic relationship with certain insects, which are the sole
agents of dissemination.
REFERENCES
Andersen, A. L., W. B. Henry, and E. C. Tullis: Factors affecting infectivity,
spread and persistence of Piricularia oryzae, Phytopathology 37: 9-4-110, 1947.
Brefeld, O.: Botanische Untersuchungen iiber Schimmelpilze, Heft 4, Verlag von
Arthur Felix, Leipzig, 1881.
*Buller, A. H. R.: Researches on Fungi, Longmans, Roberts and Green, London.
Vol. I, 1909; Vol. II, 1922; Vol. Ill, 1924; Vol. VI, 1934.
Couch, N. The Genus Septobasidium, The University of North Carolina Press,
J. :
Chapel Hill, 1938.

De Bary, a.: Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and
Bacteria (trans. H. E. F. Garrney, rev. I. B. Balfour), Oxford University Press,
New York, 1887.
Dodge, B. O.: Aecidiospore discharge as related to the character of the spore wall,
Jour. Agr. Research 27: 749-75G, 1921.
Dodge, B. O.: Expulsion of aeciospores by the may apple rust, Puccinia podophylii
Schw., Jour. Agr. Research 28: 923-92(i, 1924a.
Dodge, B. O.: Discharge of the sporangioles of bird's nest fungi, Mycologia 33:
650-654, 1941.
FiTZPATRiCK, H. M.: The Lower Fungi, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1930.
Gregory, P. H. The operation of the puff-ball mechanism of Lijcoperdon perlatum
:
by raindrops shown by ultra-high-speed Schlieren cinematography, Trans.

Brit. Mycol. Soc. 32: 11-15, 1949.
Heald, F. D., and R. C. Walton: The expulsion of ascospores from the perithecia
of the chestnut blight fungus, Endothia parasitica, Am. Jour. Botany 1
499-522, :
1914.
*Ingold, C. T.: Spore discharge in the ascomycetes, New Phytologist 32: 178-196,
1933.
Ingold, C. T.: The spore-discharge mechanism in Basidiobolus ranarum, New
Phytologist 33: 274-277, 1934.
*Leach, J. G.: Insect Transmission of Plant Diseases, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
*PiNCKARD, J. A.: The mechanism of spore dispersal in Peronospora tabacina and
certain other downy mildew fungi. Phytopathology 32: 505-511, 1942.
Sawyer, W. H. Studies
: in the morphology and development of an insect-destroying
fungus, Entoniophthora sphaerosperma, Mycologia 23: 411-432, 1931.
Seaver, F. J.: The North American Cup Fungi. Operculates, published by the
author, New York, 1928.
* Walker, L. B.: The development and mechanism of the discharge in Sphaerobolus
iowensis and S. stellatus, Jour. Elisha Mitchell Set. Soc. 42 : 151-178, 1927.
Walker, L. B., and E. N. Andersen: Relation of glycogen to spore ejection,
Mycologia 17: 154-159, 1925.
Weimer, J. L.: Some observations on the spore discharge of Pleurage curvicolla,
Am. Jour. Botany!: 75-77, 1920.

York, 1947.
CHAPTER 16
SPORE GERMINATION
Spore germination, a change from an inactive to an

in general, implies
actively growing condition. accomplished in most fungi b}^ the
This is
formation of a germ tube, which continues to elongate and ultimately

leads to the formation of the vegetative body of the fungus. In the
Phycomycetes the germination of oospores and of some sporangia may
take place by the internal formation of zoospores. Certain higher fungi
also produce secondary spores externally without the formation of
mycelium.
Among the universal requirements for the germination of spores are
(1) suitable temperature, (2) adequate moisture supply, (3) adequate
oxygen supply, (4) suitable hydrogen-ion concentration, and (5) viable
spores.
Some of these factors may be measured quantitatively, and for each
there is an optimum for germination for a given fungus. The maximum
percentage of spore germination in the shortest time will occur when all
the influencing factors are at or near the optimum. This is a situation
which might seldom occur in nature. Germination will occur or not
depending upon the number and relative importance of the favorable
factors.
Clayton (1942) suggests that the differences in nutritional require-
ments for germination shown by the various species may be due to dif-
ferences in the spore wall and in the composition and quantity of reserve
foods. Some spores contain stored food in the form of oil, while others
contain glycogen. It is believed that water enters the spore by imbibition
or osmosis and activates the enzyme, glycogenase, which hydrolyzes
glycogen to sugars.
Spores which do not germinate after being exposed to the usually
favorable conditions for a reasonable length of time are said to have a
period of dormancy, which may be broken by the presence of a special
set of conditions. Among these are (1) exposure to high or low tempera-
ture, (2) the presence of certain nutrients or stimulants in natural prod-
ucts, (3) exposure to chemical stimulants, (4) alternate wetting and dry-
ing, and These same factors may also influence the percentage
(5) aging.
of spore germination of many species which do not have a definite dormant
period. Dormancy may be due, at least in some cases, to the failure of
355
the usual favorable conditions to activate a certain enzyme. Some

special stimulus may then be required to perform this function.
The present discussion deals primarily with the factors which influence
some physiological phase of spore germination. The main emphasis
will be placed upon a discussion of these factors and how they act, or
what part they play in germination. Doran (1922) gives a good discus-
sion of the more important factors affecting germination and lists many
references to the earlier work. A more recent discussion of this subject
is given in the excellent review by Gottlieb (1950).
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Temperature. Temperature one of the most important external
is
factors which influence germination. It not only affects the percentage

of germination but also the length of time required for germination, and,
in certain fungi, it often determines the method of germination. The
literature contains a great many references to spore germination at dif-
ferent temperatures, but none of these have attempted to explain the
intricate effects or responses within the spore. We may assume that a
favorable temperature permits certain enzymatic activities essential to
germination. Different species of fungi have different temperature
requirements for germination. The cardinal temperatures (minimum,
optimum, and maximum) for spore germination may be found for many
fungi in scattered reports. These are based mainly on casual observa-
tions made during the study of other problems. Few comprehen-
sive studies have been made of the effects of temperature upon spore
germination.
The cardinal temperatures of a few selected species are presented as
examples: AUernaria solani, 1 to 3°C., 26 to 28°C., 37 to 45°C. Cronartium
;
rihicola aeciospores, 5°C., 12°C., 19°C.; Phyllosticta antirrhini, 18°C.,

25°C., 'i7°C. ,Phytophthora infestans, 2 to 3°C., 12 to 13°C., 24 to 25°C.;
Puccinia graminis teliospores, 5 to 9°C., 20 to 22°C., 23 to 25°C. Venturia ;
inaequalis conidia, 3°C., 14 to 15°C., 31°C. For other examples, see

Doran (1922).
The general optimum temperature for spore germination of certain
species of Agaricaceae and Nidulariaceae is near 30°C. (Kauffman, 1934).
Walker and Wellman (1926) found that, when the soil temperature was
above 25°C., there was low percentage of "chlamydospore" germination
of Urocystis cepulae, while spore germination ceased entirely at 29 or
30°C. They attribute the low percentage of infection above 25°C. to the
direct inhibitory effect of the higher temperature upon the parasite.
The presence of nutrients and the supply of oxygen caused variation
in the minimum temperature for spore germination in Colletotrichum
lagenarium (Gardner, 1918). The minimum was 14°C. in water with the
SPORE GERMINATION 357
hanging-drop technique, 7°C. in exposed drops of water, and 4°C. in

prune decoction. This may serve to exphiin, in part, the differences in
cardinal temperatures reported by different authors.
The method of spore germination may be determined by temperature.
Below 20°C. the sporangia of Phytophthora infestans germinate more
frequently by the formation of zoospores, while above this temperature
production of a germ tube is more common.
The optimum temperatures for germination for the various species of
Myxomycetes were from 22 to 30°C., with an over-all range of 2 to 36°C.
Certain species had narrower ranges. Below 10 and above 30°C. the
rate of germination was greatly reduced. When the spores of Enteridium
rozeanum were held for a time at a temperature above maximum and then
returned to optimum, the spores germinated explosively through a thin
area in the wall (Smart, 1937). Under uniform optimum temperature
an irregular pore was formed and the protoplast slowly squeezed out.
It must be emphasized that temperature affects the time required for
germination, as well as the percentage of germination and the growth
rate of the germ tubes. All three have been used as measurements of
spore germination. It seems likely that temperature might have a
greater effect upon the time of germination than upon the percentage
of germination.
Heat treatment and breaking of dormancy. The effectiveness of pre-
heating ascospores of Neurospora tetrasperma in breaking their dormancy
has been discussed by several authors. Heating the spores to 50°C. for
a few minutes induced germination 2 or 3 hr. after they were returned to
a favorable temperature. Goddard (1935) found that spores thus
"activated" could be "inactivated" (returned to the dormant condition)
by placing them under anaerobic conditions for a short time. They
remained dormant when brought back into air. The respiration rate of
the activated spores was greatly increased and germination occurred
only after 2 to 3 hr. of continuous high respiration. Further work by
Goddard and Smith (1938) led to the conclusion that the heat activated
carboxylase, which is latent in the dormant spores, and that two different
respiratory systems are in operation : one, the dormant system, functions
in the absence of carboxylase; and the second, the active system, functions
after the spores are heated. Similar stimulation of germination of
Ascoholus ascospores by heat was found by Dodge (1912).Only a few
spores germinated in water without being preheated. Heating the spores
to 65 to 75°C. for approximately 15 min. and then returning them to
favorable temperature allowed good germination of most species.
Moisture. The spores of many species of fungi will not germinate
unless they are in contact with liquid water. Others are capable of
germination on dry surfaces in an atmosphere of high humidity, usually
95 per cent or above. A third group is represented by some of the pow-

dery mildews, whose spores are able to pat out short germ tubes under
conditions of extremely low relative humidity. Comparatively little
careful work has been done to determine the moisture requirements for
spore germination. Doran (1922) reviewed some of the earlier reports
and gives the results of his own experiments. Among the species whose
spores have been reported as requiring contact with liquid water for
germination are the following: Sderotinia Jnicticola, Peronospora pygmaea,
Phyllosticta antirrhim, teliospores of Gymno sporangium juniperi-vir-
ginianae, Cylindrocladium scoparium, and Plasmopara viticola.
Numerous fungi whose spores may germinate in the absence of liquid
water have been reported. Some of these have been germinated on a dry
glass slide in a moist chamber, where the humidity is assumed to be at
100 per cent, the saturation point. However, Clayton (1942) showed
that a humidity of 100 per cent sometimes gave visible condensation of
water vapor, w^hereas a relative humidity below 99.85 per cent gave no
condensation at constant temperature. The spores of this group of
fungi usually show a much higher percentage of germination in liquid
w'ater if a plentiful supply of oxygen is present. Some representative
fungi reported in this group with the approximate minimum humidity
are Puccinia glumarum urediospores, 99 per cent; Venturia inaequalis
ascospores and conidia, 98.7 per cent; Ustilago nuda, 95 per cent; and
Penicillium glaucum, 84 per cent. The minimum relative humidity for
Aspergillus niger is near 70 per cent (Bonner, 1948). Figure 74 shows
germination curves.
The germination of the conidia of certain species of the Erysiphaceae
in relative humidity at or near zero has been reported by several investi-
gators (Brodie, 1945; Brodie and Neufeld, 1942; Yarwood, 1936; and
Clayton, 1942). These species are Erysiphe polygoni, E. graminis, and
Microsphaera alni. The mechanism for spore germination under these
very dry conditions must be quite different from that of other spores,
which require liquid water or high humidity for germination. The
"apparent osmotic pressure" of the cell sap of the conidia is reported by
Brodie (1945) as about 63 atm. for E. polygoni and 68 atm. for E. graminis
hordei. It is likely that these high osmotic pressures may be an aid in
absorbing moisture from a relatively dry atmosphere. Brodie believes
that the conidia contain little free water but that imbibition may be
partly brought about by hydrophilic colloids.
Brodie and Neufeld (1942) offer a tentative theory to explain "germi-
nation" under conditions of per cent humidity. They believe that, as
germination begins, free water is released by respiration and by changes
in colloidal materials containing bound water. No changes in the length
or width of the conidia could be detected during germination. The
formation of the germ tube was calculated to add approximately 2 or 3

per cent to the volume of the ungerminated conidium. It is believed
possible that this slight increase in volume might be accounted for by
one or both of the above factors. Yarwood (1936) offers no explanation

of the process of germination at such a low humidity but reports a decrease
10
15
3
•*-
O
a.
£
for germination. Brief reports of a number of observers on oxygen

requirements are given by Doran (1922). It is generally agreed that
reduced oxygen supply decreases spore germination. Spores germinate
better on or near the surface of a li(iuid than when submerged deep in the
liquid. In some cases the spores may germinate under water, but only
abnormal germ tubes are formed. Aerated water gives better germina-
tion than nonaerated water. The spore load in a drop of water, whether
all of the same species or of mixed spores, influences greatly the percent-
age of germination. This is believed to be due primarily to the competi-

tion for the limited supply of oxygen, rather than to toxic substances
produced by other germinating spores.
According to Jones (1923), spore germination of Ustilago avenae is
greatest in soil with 30 per cent of water-holding capacity and is greatly
reduced at 80 per cent. This was probably due to the amount of avail-
able oxygen. spores failed to germinate in water when exposed to
The
an oxygen-free atmosphere. The " chlamydospores" of Ustilago zeae
do not germinate in the absence of oxygen, and at least 5 per cent oxygen
must be present to allow germination as high as in the open air (Platz
et at., 1927).
The supply of oxygen may influence the method of spore germination
(Uppal, 1926). Germination by zoospores was possible in the absence
of oxygen for the sporangia of Phytophthora mfcstans, P. colocasiae, P.
palmivora, and P. parasitica. Germination by germ tubes does not take
place in these species in the absence of oxygen. However, the presence
of oxygen is essential for zoospore formation by sporangia of Alhiigo
Candida, Plasmopara viticola, and Sclerospora graminicola. The two
methods germination are different processes, the direct method more
of
nearly resembling vegetative growth.
Hydrogen-ion concentration. Under natural conditions acidity is not
usually a limiting factor for spore germination. In general, spores will
germinate within a wide pH range. It seems significant that, in most
species of fungi, germination is favored by an acid medium, often at a
pH considerably lower than the optimum for vegetative growth or sporu-
lation. The effects of acidity of the medium upon a number of species,
including Botrytis cinerea, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium cyclopium, P.
italicum, Puccinia graminis urediospores, Lenzites saepiaria, Colleto-
trichum gossypii, and Fusarium sp., are reported by Webb (1921). The
spores of the Fusarium germinated equally well in alkaline and acid
media, while CoUetotrichuni gossypii was the only species of the group
studied in which germination was better in an alkaline medium. At
pH 2.5 spore germination was prevented in all species, and the optimum
formost species was 3.0 to 4.0. In sucrose-nitrate (Czapek's) solution,
two maxima usually occurred, the primary one at pH 3.0 to 4.0 and a
secondary one between G.O and 7.0. Of all the media tested, beet decoc-
tion gave the maximum germination imder the widest range of conditions.
Webb also clearly demonstrated that the range of pH favoring germina-
tion is influenced by temperature and by the constituents of the medium.
All the species of Myxomycetes studied by Smart
(1937) germinated
within a pH range of 4.0 to Spores of Fuligo septica germinated
8.0.
from pH 2.0 to 10.0. Optimum for all species ranged from 4.5 to 7.0,
with some germinating better near 4.5 and others near 7.0. The spores
of Urocystis occulta germinated between pH 5.0 and 8.9, with the optimum
at 6.8 (Ling, 1940). This optimum is higher than those for most fungi.
Kauffman (1934) found the range for spore germination of several species
of Basidiomycetes (Agaricaceae and Nidulariaceae) to be pH 5.0 to 8.5
with the optimum near 7.5.
It is interesting that Doran (1922) in his review of spore germination
makes no mention of acidity as a factor. It would appear that acidity
is of more or less importance as a modifying factor, even though it is
seldom a limiting factor for spore germination. This may explain, at

we often find abundant ungerminated spores
least in part, the fact that
in fruiting liquid cultures. Some fungi sporulate only in neutral or
alkaline media, which, in general, are not favorable to spore germination.
NUTRIENTS AND STIMULANTS

The constituents of the substrate are known to influence spore germina-
tion of some species of fungi. Some species germinate well in distilled
or tap water, while others require certain special nutrients such as sugar,
salts, or even a particular nitrogen source. No one medium has been
found which will allow good germination of all fungi, although certain
natural media, such as beet or bean decoction and soil infusion, seem to
favor germination in a large number of fungi. When such media con-
taining natural products are used, it is difficult to determine whether the
higher percentage of spore germination is due to the nutrients or to some
stimulant which is not used in the metabolism of the fungus.
Duggar wâs one of the foremost American workers interested in spore
germination as a primary subject of experimentation. Prior to his work,
most of the study on spore germination was only incidental to other
problems. Duggar (1901) demonstrated that species differ in their
nutrient requirements for germination by placing spores in water, bean
decoction, nutrient-salt solution, and cane-sugar solution. A portion of
his data showing the percentage of germination after 15 hr. is given in
Table 59.
Among some of the compounds Duggar found to influence sporulation
of Aspergillus flavus and A. niger were varying amounts of peptone,
ammonium nitrate, and magnesium sulfate. Ammonium nitrate at a
362 PHWSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
particular concentration gave abundant germination of A . flavus but had

no effect upon ^4. niger.
Brefeld (1905) was perhaps the first to observe the germination of the
spores of various smuts in culture. He noted that the spores germinated
poorly or not at all in water, while excellent germination occurred in
nutrient solutions (probably dung infusion). Brefeld expressed surprise
at the vigorous saprophytic development which followed, especially since
the species had previously been known only as obligate parasites.
More recently it was noted that pretreatment with dung infusion
markedly stimulated germination of spores of Ustilago striiformis (Cheo
Table 59. Percentage of Spore Germination after 15 Hours
(Duggar, Botan. Gaz. 31, 1901.)
Bean Xutrient-salt Sucrose

Spores of Water
decoction solution solution
Aspergillus niger 100 100 75

Penicillium glaucum 100 100 1
Monilia fructigena 75 100 100 100

Mucor spinosus 100 100 1
Phycomyces nitens 100 100 2-10

Coprinus jimetarius 5-10
C. comatus
C. micaceus 100
Uromyces caryophyllinus 100 75 100
and Leach, Untreated spores in distilled water germinated only

1950).
after 5 to 8 days, total germination was less than 1 per cent.
and the
Spores soaked in a concentrated horse-dung infusion for 15 days or more,
then placed in distilled water, germinated within 5 hr., with a total
germination of 50 per cent or higher. The exposure to the dung infusion
is believed to increase the permeability of the spore wall, allowing the
more rapid absorption of water. It might also be pointed out that the
dung infusion evidently contains substances which prevent spore germina-
tion until highly diluted or removed entirely.
Although the spores of the Myxomycetes germinate in distilled water,
the percentage may be greater in weak decoctions of the natural sub-
strate, such as rooting wood, bark, leaves, or humus (Smart, 1937).
Similarly, the conidia of PhyUosticia solitaria germinate more profusely
in apple-bark decoction and potato-dextrose broth than in distilled water
(Burgert, 1934). While it is possible that increased spore germination
is due primarily to some stimulating substance, it seems likely that certain
nutrients are also involved.
The conidia of Glomerella cingulata apparently have special nutritional
requirements for germination. There was little or no germination in
distilledwater and in dextrose solution lacking minerals (Lin, 1945).

From hisexperiments involving various inorganic compounds, Lin
concluded that carbon, magnesium, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are
required (Table 60). The need for sulfur was not so evident as that for
the other elements, and sulfur was not essential. The minimum require-
ments of nitrogen and phosphorus were calculated to be of the order of
10"' Mg per spore. No evidence was found that an external supply
of any organic substance, other than sugar, is necessary for spore
germination.
Table 60. The Essentiality of Various Ions for the Germination of the
CoNiDiA OF GlomereUa cingulata
(Lin,Am. Jour. Botany 32, 1945.)
Chemical substance applied*

has been identified as hypoxanthine, while the identity of factor Z2 i»

still unknown. An explanation of the effects of these stimuli is given by
these authors:
The dormant Z factors for

spores are considered to lack sufficient available
germination. The Z factors furnished in the
extracts of natural products or the
medium supply this deficiency, which may also be met by treatment with heat,
cold, acetate or pyridine. These treatments are thought to change the Z factors
in the spores from an unavailable to an available form.
The effects of certain gases volatile compounds upon germination

and
have also been demonstrated. has been observed that spores of num-
It
erous fungi germinate better in a container in which some living plant
part is also present. This was demonstrated for Basisporium gallarum
by Durrell (1925), who also found that the introduction of carbon dioxide
T.ÊLE 61. The Effect of Various Media and Plant Tissues on Spore Germina-
tion OF Colletotrichuni lindemuthianum
(Leach, Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 14, 1923.)
Medium Germination, %
Distilled water 3-6
Sucrose-nitrate (Czapek's) solution 5-11
Sucrose-nitrate (Czapek's) solution plus bean decoction 10
Bean decoction 8
Distilled water plus fresh bean tissue 83-95
Distilled water plus sunflower tissue 5
Distilled water plus wheat tissue 12
Distilled water plus corn tissue 10
Distilled water plus tomato tissue 2
Sucrose-nitrate (Czapek's) solution plus bean tissue 95
Green-bean agar 97
Potato-glucose agar 98
into the container enclosing the spores gave the same increase in germina-
tion. The same effect was demonstrated for Ustilago zeae (Platz et at.,
1927). An atmosphere containing 15 per cent carbon dioxide was found

to be optimum for spore germination. Such a condition gave a pH of
the medivmi from 4.9 to 5.6. These authors conclude that the stimulating
effect is apparently due to "a definite action of carbonic acid." Is it
possible that this is an example of heterotrophic utilization of carbon

dioxide?
While the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere by various
living plant parts may explain the stimulation of spore germination in
many cases, the presence of carbon dioxide alone will not explain certain
results obtained by some workers. For instance, spore germination of
Botrijtis cinerea was stimulated by the presence of living tissues of apples
or leaves ofRuta or Eucalyptus in the same container, while tissues of
potato tuber and onion scales inhibited germination (Brown, 1922).
Distillates of these leaves increased germination four to ten times. Ethyl

acetate likewise gave similar results. The possibility of specific activity
was suggested by the fact that apple tissues distinctly stimulated germina-
tion of B. cinerea spores, while they inhibited germination of spores of
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. The stimulation was greater with old
spores.
Presoaking and the subsequent addition of a stimulating volatile agent
gave optimum germination of Urocystis tritici spores (Noble, 1923).
The expressed sap of wheat placed in the same container with germinating
spores, but in separate dishes, proved to be a good stimulating agent.
Uninjured seedlings of certain nonsusceptible hosts likewise stimulated
spore germination. Benzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, butyric acid, and
acetone in certain concentrations stimulated germination of presoaked
spores. Noble believed that presoaking increased permeability of the
spore and allowed the more rapid intake of the stimulatory volatile sub-
stance, which increased the permeability of the protoplasmic membrane
by changing its physical condition.
Likewise, a solution of benzaldehyde (3/2,000,000) stimulated germina-
which germinated very poorly in water
tion of Urocystis occulta spores,
(Ling, 1940). Ethyl alcohol stimulated spore germination in Aspergillus
flavus; methyl alcohol was slower and less effective (Duggar, 1901). A.
niger was stimulated by oxalic acid, whereas .4. fiavus was not. It is
understood that the stimulatory power of these chemicals depends upon
the concentration.
An interesting situation exists in the germination response of some
spores to the presence of other fungi, or even to the medium in which
other fungi have grown. The few experiments conducted along this line
suggest that the constant association with other organisms may be highly
beneficial to spore germination as well as subsequent growth of some fungi
in nature.
The germination of a number of species of Myxomycetes was increased
by the addition of the filtrate of a medium in which spores had previously
been germinated (Smart, 1937). Smart calls the stimulatory factor an
"autocatalytic agent." A portion of Smart's data is presented in Table
62.
Fries (1941, 1943) obtained almost phenomenal results with spores of a
number ofHymenomycetes, which previously had germinated poorly
or not at all, by sowing the spores on malt agar with living cultures of
Torulopsis sanguinea. Spores of ten species of Tricholoma, which ger-
minated only with without the yeast, were found to germinate
difficulty
readily in its presence. One
species of Tricholoma gave only negative
results. In Amanita mappa, A. porphyria, and A. rubescens germination
occurred only when Torulopsis was present. Germination of two other
species of Amanita was considerably improved by the presence of the
yeast. None seven species of Boletus germinated on malt agar

of the
without the yeast. On the same medium and in the presence of Torulopsis
sanguinca, germination was obtained with spores of B. bovinus, B. elegans,
B. flavidus, B. granulatus, B. luteus, B. variegatus, and B. viscidus. Some
germination of Boletus spores was also obtained in the presence of living
colonies of certain other fungi, but none was so effective as Torulopsis.

Spores of certain other fungi {Hijdnum repandum, H. imhricatum, Craterel-
lus lutescens, Lycoperdon umhrinum, L. echinatum., L. nigrescens, L. pra-
tense, L. pyriforme, and Scleroderma aurantium) germinated in Fries's
Table 62. Germination of Single Myxomycete Spores

(Smart, Aryi. Jour. Botany 24, 1937.)
'
3G8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
LONGEVITY OF SPORES
The length of Hfe of spores is usually measured by their ability to
germinate after various periods of time. It is affected by environmental
conditions, principally temperature and moisture. The greatest period
of longevity reported for fungus spores appears to be among the Myx-
omycetes. Smith (1929) succeeded in germinating spores from herbarium
specimens of Myxomycetes 5 to 32 years after they were collected. A
few of the common species whose spores germinated after approximately
30 years are Physarum cinereum, Fuligo septica, Hemiirichia clavata, and
Stemonitis ferruginea. Smut spores also have a long period of viability
(Lowther, 1950). Spores of Aspergillus orijzae germinated after 22 years
in a sealed tube at room temperature (McCrea, 1923).
In contrast to long periods of longevity, some fungus spores die very
soon after they are liberated. The sporidia of Cronartium rihicola lived
less than 10 min. at room temperature with a humidity of 90 per cent
(Spaulding, cited by Doran, 1922). Sporidia of Gymno sporangium
juniperi-virginianae lived no longer than 6 days in dry air. Eight weeks
is reported as the maximum longevity of aeciospores of C. rihicola, with
only 5 per cent germination after 7 weeks. In general, aeciospores of the
rust fungi remain viable about 50 per cent longer than the urediospores,
whose average longevity ranged from 30 to 60 days (Doran, 1922).
Other factors have been reported to influence longevity of spores.
Ascospores of Endothia parasitica remained viable for a year when dried
in the bark, but when removed from the bark, they lost the ability to
germinate within 5 months (Anderson and Rankin, 1914). Similarly,
conidia in dry spore horns retained viability for at least a year, but when
placed in water, separated, and then dried, the time was less than 1
month. It seems likely that one of the functions of the gelatinous matrix
of the conidia of certain fungi, such as Gloeosporium, Colletotrichum, and
Cytospora, is to increase the longevity of the spores through its water-
holding capacity.
Light is apparently only of minor importance as a factor influencing
longevity. No doubt ultraviolet light in nature plays an important part
in reducing the period of viability and even in killing many of the hyaline
spores. Spores having dark walls are protected somewhat against the
penetration of the ultraviolet rays.
SUMMARY
Spore germination represents a change from an inactive to an active
phase in the life cycle of a fungus. Since it involves the first stages of
growth, it is reasonable to expect that many of the factors which influence
vegetative growth also affect spore germination. On the other hand,
the spore, being a resting cell, may contain stored materials not usually
present in appreciable quantities in vegetative cells. Since the metabolic

activity of a resting spore is at a minimum in contrast with that of actively-
growing vegetative cells, the internal responses to the environmental
factors may be quite different.
The variability of the needs of spores of different fungi for germination
is adequately illustrated in the literature. Certain general conditions
are essential for some require a special set of conditions.
all spores, while
Water is enzyme systems, to initiate other
essential to activate certain
internal chemical changes, and to increase the volume of the germinating
spore. WTien the temperature is near the optimum, the enzymatic
activity and the rate of spore germination are increased. The supply of
oxygen must be adequate to meet the demands of the greatly increased
rate of respiration. The acidity of the substrate must be favorable.
Variability in the period of viability of spores is striking, but longevity
is greatly influenced by the environment. Much information is yet to be
gained regarding the longevity of spores, particularly of the plant

pathogens.
Certain special conditions are required for germination of some spores.
These may act as a stimulant in breaking dormancy or may supply needed
nutrients. The effects of other living organisms, or even of the substrate
upon which they have grown, are of particular interest, for such associa-
tion is the usual condition under which germination occurs in nature
One might suppose that the secretions of certain plants would exert a
selective action on spore germination and affect the pathogenicity of
certain fungi, but evidence on this point is lacking.
The production of short germ tubes by spores of some species of Ery-
siphe in an absolutely dry atmosphere is unusual. If this is to be con-
sidered as true germination, it must represent a unique method among
fungi. The Erysiphales, however, are excellent examples of fungi whose
spores germinate in atmospheres of lower relative humidity than most
fungi can endure.
Under the changing conditions of nature, the period of time during
which a factor is active is of utmost importance. Germination is the
result of the action of all the influencing factors operating at the same
time. Most vary in intensity or concentration, so that
of these factors
the combined optima of all factors are seldom, if ever, reached at any
given time in nature. As a result, an extremely low percentage of the
spores formed by a fungus ever germinate, while still fewer give rise to
extensive mycelium.
REFERENCES
Anderson, P. J., and W. H. Rankin: Endothia canker of chestnut, Cornell Univ.
Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 347, 1914.
Bonner, J. T. A study of the temperature
: and humidity requirements of Aspergiltus
niger, Mycologia 40: 728-738, 1948-
Brefeld, O.: Die Brandpilze IV. in Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der
Mykologic, Heft 13, Muenster, Heinrich Schoningh, 1905.
*Brodie, H. J.: Further investigations on the mechanism of germination of the
conidia of various species of powdery mildew at low humidity, Can. Jour.
Research 23: 198-211, 1945.
Brodie, n. J., and C. C. Neufeld: The development and structure of the conidia of
Enjsiphe polygoni DC. and their germination at low humidity. Can. Jour.
Research 20: 41-61, 1942.
*Brown, W. Studies in the physiology of parasitism. IX. The effect on the germi-
:
nation of fungal spores of volatile substances arising from plant tissues, Ann.
Botany 36: 285-300, 1922.
BuRGERT, I. A.: Some factors influencing germination of spores of Phyllosticta
solitaria, Phytopathology 24: 384-396, 1934.
*Chbo, p. C, and J. G. Leach: The stimulating effect of dung infusion on the germi-
nation of spores of Ustilago striiformis, Phytopathology 40 584-589, 1950. :
*Clayton, C. N.: The germination of fungous spores in relation to controlled humid-

ity, Phytopathology 32: 921-934, 1942.
Dodge, B. O.: Methods of culture and morphology of the archicarp in certain
species of the Ascobolaceae, Bull. Torrey Boian. Club 39: 139-197, 1912.
DoRAN, W. L. : Effect of external and internal factors on the germination of fungous
spores, Bull. Torrey Botan. Club 49: 313-336, 1922.
DuGGAR, B. M.: Physiological studies with special reference to germination of
certain fungous spores, Botan. Gaz. 31: 38-66, 1901.
DuRRELL, L. W. Basisporium dry rot of corn, Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 84, 1925.
:
Emerson, M. A.: Chemical activation of ascospore germination in Xeurospora

crassa, Jour. Bad. 55 327-330, 1948. :
Fries, N.: Ueber die Sporenkeimung bei einigen Gasterromyceten und mykor-
rhizabildenen Hymenomyceten, Arch. Mikrobiol. 12: 266-284, 1941.
Fries, N.: Untersuchungen iiber Sporenkeimung und Mycelentwicklung boden-
bewohnender Hymenomj'ceten, Symholae Botan. Upsaliensis 6: 1-81, 1943.
Gardner, M. W. Anthracnose of cucurbits, U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 727, 1918.
:
GoDDARD, D. R. The reversible heat activation inducing germination and

:
increased respiration in the ascospores of Neurospora tetrasperma, Jour. Gen.

Physiol. 19 : 45-60, 1935.
GoDDARD, D. and P. E. Smith: Respiratory block in the dormant spores of
R.,
Neurospora tetrasperma, Plant Physiol. 13: 241-264, 1938.
*GoTTLiEB, D.: The physiology of spore germination in fungi, Botan. Rev. 16 229-257, :
1950.
Jones, E. S. : Influence of temperature, moisture and oxygen on spore germination
of Ustilago avenae, Jour. Agr. Research 24: 577-591, 1923.
Kauffman, F. H. O. : Studies on the germination of the spores of certain Basidio-
mycetes, Botan. Gaz. 96 282-297, 1934. :
Leach, J. G.: The parasitism of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, Minn. Agr. Expt.

Sta. Bull. 14, 1923.
*LiN, C. K.: Nutrient requirements in the germination of the conidia of Glomerella
cingulata, Am. Jour. Botany 32 296-298, 1945. :
Ling, L. Factors affecting spore germination and growth of Urocystis occulta in

:
culture. Phytopathology 30: 579-591, 1940.

Lowther, C. v.: Chlamydospore germination in physiologic races of Tilletia caries
and Tilletia foetida, Phytopathology 40 : 590-603, 1950.
McCrea, a.: Spores of Aspergillus oryzae alive after 22 years stored in test tube.
Science (N.S.) 58: 426, 1923.
Noble, R. J.: Studios on the parasitism of Urocystis tritici Koern, the organism
causing flag smut of wheat, Jour. Ayr. Research 27 : 451-489, 1924.

Platz, G. a., L. W. Durrell, and M. E. Howe: Effect of carbon dioxide upon the
germination of chlamydosporcs of Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) Ung., Jour. Agr.
Research 34 137-147, 1927.
:
RoBBiNS, W. J., V. W. Kavanagh, and F. Kavanagh: Growth substances and

dormancy of spores of Phycomyces, Botan. Gaz. 104 224-242, 1942.
:
Ryan, F. J.: The appHcation of Neurospora to bioassay, Fed. Proc. 3 365-369, 1946.
:
*Ryan, F. J.: The germination of conidia from biochemical mutants oi Neurospora,

Am. Jour. Botany 35: 497-503, 1948.
Smart, R. F.: Influence of certain external factors on spore germination in the
Myxomycetes, Am. Jour. Botany 24: 145-159, 1937.
Smith, E. C: The longevity of Alyxomycete spores, Mycologia 21: 321-323, 1929.
Uppal, B, N.: Relation of oxygen to spore germination in some species of Perono-
sporales, Phytopathology 16 285-292, 1926.
:
Walker, J. C., and F. L. Wellman: Relation of temperature to spore germination

and growth of Urocystis cepulae, Jour. Agr. Research 32: 133-146, 1926.
^Webb, R. W.: Studies in the physiology of fungi. XV. Germination of the spores
of certain fungi in relation to hydrogen-ion concentration, Ann. Missouri
Botan. Gardens: 282-341, 1921.
York, 1947.
Yarwood, C. E.: The tolerance of Erysiphe polygoni and certain other powdery
mildews to low humidity, Phytopathology 26 845-859, 1936.
:
CHAPTER 17
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PARASITISM AND RESISTANCE
A discussion of parasitism occupies an important position in any

treatiseon the physiology of fungi, particularly for those students who are
interested in plant diseases or the fungi which cause them. This phase
of study offers many challenging unsolved problems. Parasitism involves
primarily two living organisms, the parasite, whose actions are offensive,
and the host, whose reactions are defensive. If the defenses of the host
plant, either before or after penetration by the parasite, are successful,
the plant is resistant; if not, it is susceptible. To be successful, a parasite
must find the nutritional and environmental conditions favorable for its
development. even a single important factor is unfavorable to the
If
parasite, the fungus may fail to establish a parasitic relationship with its
proposed host. Such factors may exert their influence either before or
after penetration by the fungus. Environmental factors acting before
penetration may in reality bring about an escape from a disease rather
than true resistance to it.
The present discussion is divided into three main parts: (1) penetra-
tion; (2) parasitism, the action of the parasite in becoming established and
obtaining its food (3) resistance of the host to penetration or against the
;
parasite after penetration. The comprehensive reviews of the physiology

of the host-parasite relationship given by Brown (1936, 19-48) should be
read by all students. Similar reference is made to Arthur et al. (1929),
who give an excellent discussion of the parasitic relations of the rusts,
and to the treatise of Gaumann (1946, 1950) on the principles of plant
infection,
PENETRATION
A parasite may gain entrance into the host (1) through the natural
openings, such as stomata or lenticels, (2) by direct penetration through
the uninjured epidermis, or (3) through wounds.
Through stomata. Viable spores may fall upon a host plant and pro-
duce germ tubes, which by chance grow over or near stomata. The
outer walls of the epidermal cells of aerial plant parts are covered with
cutin,which is somewhat resistant to penetration by some fungi. The
germ tube which enters through a stoma may then be favored by the moist
atmosphere in the substomatal cavity. In some cases, the unspecialized
hyphae may penetrate the host cells; in other fungi, haustoria, which
372
PARASITISM AND RESISTANCE 373
arise intercellular mycelium, penetrate the host cells and absorb

from the
food. Water vapor has been suggested as the stimulus which causes the
germ tube to turn inward and enter a stoma. This, however, cannot be
the case with zoospores which are immersed in water and which have been
noted to cluster around stomata. The fungi which normally enter the
host plant through stomata include the cereal rusts (aeciospore and
urediospore stages), Cercospora heticola, Phytophthora infestans (zoospore
stage), the Peronosporales, Albugo Candida, and others.

The cereal rusts have received a great deal of attention in resistance
studies. It has been reported (Hart, 1929) that Puccinia graminis
apparentl}^ requires the open stomata of wheat plant for penetration.
On the other hand, Caldwell and Stone (1936) have shown that the germ
tubes of Puccinia triticina are able to force their way between the guard
cells of closed stomata of wheat leaves. A germ tube from a urediospore
may start to enter an open stoma, but as it forms an appressorium, the
stoma closes. Further penetration is accomplished between the guard
cells by a slender hypha. Allen (192G) believes that the appressorium
probably secretes some toxin which harms or even kills the guard cells,
causing the stoma to close. Caldwell and Stone, however, do not believe
that this injury to the guard cells is necessary for entry of germ tubes.
The appressorium seems to function as a special organ to apply the pres-
sure needed for the forced entry between the closed guard cells.
Penetration through lenticels more often occurs in the underground
parts of the host which are in a more or less moist situation. Potato
tubers may become infected by Actinomyces scabies and by germ tubes
from sporangia of Phytophthora infestans, chiefly through the lenticels.
Direct penetration. A large number of fungi are capable of penetrating
the unbroken epidermis of a plant, directly through the cutinized outer
walls. The spore may germinate on the surface of the plant in a drop of
water. The germ tube grows over the epidermis and by some stimulus
iscaused to turn inward and penetrate the cell. Brown (1922) demon-
strated that there is a certain amount of exosmosis of materials from host
tissue into a drop of liquid on the surface. In some cases this may lead
to a chemotropic response by the fungus. However, in most cases the
stimulus of contact is believed to initiate appressorial formation and
penetration.The formation of appressoria is common among many fungi
when the germ tubes come in contact with the epidermal cells. The
fact that the appressoria are often formed on a glass slide is further
evidence that their formation is in response to contact with a solid sur-
face. Appressoria are usually bulb-like or disk-like in shape and are

believed to serve as an adhesive disk against which the slender infection
hypha may push in penetrating the cell wall. Brown (1915, 1922)
presents evidence that the host cells are not killed by Botrytis cinerea,
Sclcrotinia sclerotiorum, and Collctoirichum lindemuthianum until after the

fungus penetrates the cuticle of the host. In other words, there is little
or no diffusion of the toxic materials through the cuticle. Direct penetra-
tion through cutinized walls is believed to be entirely by mechanical
pressure, since no cutin-dissolving enzyme has been demonstrated in the
fungi.
The rhizomorphs of Armillaria mellea usually gain entrance directly
through the sound cork layer of comparatively old roots (Thomas, 1934).
Penetration is believed to be accomplished partly by mechanical pressure
and partly by chemical means. There is evidence that a suberin-dis-
solving enzyme aids in the destruction of some of the cork cells. Some
fungi may enter the same host by more than one method. Fusarium
lint may enter through young epidermal cells of the root, root hairs,
stomata of seedlings, and perhaps through wounds.
The penetration of noncutinized cell walls may be either by mechanical
pressure orby the dissolving action of enzymes secreted by the fungus.
Hawkins and Harvey (1919) concluded that the hyphae of Pythium
debaryanum penetrated the cell walls of susceptible potato tubers by
mechanical pressure, and that the resistant varieties in general showed
greater resistance to mechanical puncture. They found no evidence of
cellulases which might aid in penetration by dissolving the cellulose cell
wall. Using cane sugar as the plasmolyzing solution, they found that
the hyphae of P. debaryanum were capable of exerting as high as 54 atm.
osmotic pressure. These hyphae would have a strong tendency to absorb
water, and as a result greater internal pressure would be exerted against
the hyphal wall. Apparently the hyphal wall is capable of withstanding
this pressure at all points except its tip, where growth occurs. The
pressure exerted by the growing tip is believed to be sufficient to cause
penetration of the host cell wall. By direct microscopic examination
Hawkins and Harvey observed that, just after the hyphal tip came in
contact with the host cell wall, it formed a swelling, back of which a bend
developed. This was followed by penetration of the wall by a small tube.
Penetration through noncutinized cell walls by chemical means has
been described for Spongospora suhterranea by Kunkel (1915). It seems
likely that other nonfilamentous fungi penetrate cell walls in the same
way. Likewise, wood rot fungi penetrate the cellulose and lignified cell
walls by enzymatic action, as evidenced by the boreholes in decaying
wood. It may be significant that the hyphal walls of Pythium, as well
as of other Oomycetes, contain cellulose, while the hyphal walls of other
fungi are composed principally of chitin, which would not be acted upon
by cellulases.
It must be emphasized that penetration of the host in itself does not
necessarily lead to the establishment of the fungus in the host and the
production of a disease. In some cases it is known that a fungus may

enter resistant or immune plants, as well as susceptible ones, but find the
conditions unfavorable for its establishment and further development.
Through wounds. A number of fungi apparently are unable to pene-
trate a healthy plant except through wounds. These may be insect
wounds, broken branches of trees, broken roots, etc. In addition, some
fungi which are capable of entering the host by other means may also
penetrate through wounds. Phymatotrichum omnivorum, the cause of
numerous root rots, commonly enters roots through wounds, although
these are not necessary. Fusarium, causing dry rot of potato, apparently
enters the tubers only after they have been wounded. Likewise most
of the wood-rotting Basidiomycetes enter the host only through wounds,
principally at broken or dead branches and at pruning or lightning and
fire scars. Here, the air-borne basidiospores must find suitable moisture
for germination and for penetration of the wood. Endothia parasitica
is said to enter the chestnut tree only through wounds that extend through
the corky layer. Ceratostomella ulmi is transmitted by the European

bark beetle, which introduces the spores into its feeding wounds. Bruises
and wounds of fruits and vegetables are common ports of entry for numer-
ous rot-producing fungi, such as Rhizopus nigricans on sweet potato.
Monilinia fructicola on stone fruits, Penicillium expansum on apple, and
P. italicîm. and P. digitatum on citrus fruits.
PARASITISM
A discussion of the action of the parasite after it enters the host is so
closely correlated with the defense of the host that it is difficult to discuss
each topic separately. For the sake of convenience, however, it seems

some of the outstanding effects of fungi upon their
desirable to discuss
hosts and the methods by which the parasites obtain their food under a
separate heading of parasitism.
Parasitism in plants. Parasitism may begin as soon as a fungus hypha
enters the host. The primary consideration is the securing of suitable
nutrients and water by the fungus. This may be accomplished by two
general methods, (1) by killing the cells of the host and obtaining food
from the dead cells, or (2) by establishing a close nutritional relationship
with the living host cells and absorbing the soluble nutrients without
causing necrosis. The fungi falling in the first group are the destructive
parasites, while those belonging to the second group have been called the
balanced parasites (Bessey, 1935). The latter group includes those fungi
known at present as obligate parasites (such as the Uredinales, Erysiphales,
and Peronosporaceae), and some other fungi (such as the Ustilaginalesand
Taphrina) which in their hosts obtain food only from living cells.
The destructive parasites, as a whole, are strong producers of enzymet;
and toxins but may be weak in mechanical action. Some of these cause
rapid rots of fruits or vegetables but are unable to penetrate the unbroken
epidermis and must depend on wounds for their entrance. Others, which
are seldom, if ever, found as pathogens in nature, may cause rot when
artificially inoculated into succulent plant tissues.
Rotting due to two distinct effects of the fungus on the
of the tissue is
host: (1) death of the cells,and (2) dissolution of the middle lamellae.
The separation of the cells is due to the action of the enzymes proto-
pectinase, pectinase, and pectase on the middle lamella. These three

enzymes are often collectively referred to as pectinase. There is some
evidence that pectinase may also cause a change in permeability of the
cell membranes and the death of the cells, but it is possible that some
other toxic substance may be closely associated with pectinase. How-

ever, no such substance has been isolated. Extracts of rotted tissues
have been shown to cause the same effects as the fungi themselves. These
effects are described by De Bary (1886) for Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and
by Brown (1915) for Botrytis cinerea. Higgins (1927) believes that
oxalic acid produced by Sclerotium rolfsii is the principal agent of destruc-
tion. The death of the host cells well in advance of the invading hyphae
indicates rapid diffusion of the toxic substance in the case of fungi produc-
ing soft rot. Brown (1948) believes that the enzyme pectinase acts as a
cytolytic toxin. For a discussion of the identity of enzymes and toxins
of species of Clostridium, see Smith (1949).
Thatcher (1942) has shown that B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum cause
a fourfold increase in the permeability to water of the host cells just
beyond the discolored necrotic zone. Some substance other than pecti-
nase may bring about this change in permeability and be a contributing
factor to the "action in advance" of many fungi. PhytophtJwra infestans
caused a change in permeability in host cells beyond the extent of the
hyphae which penetrated the living tissue. The identity of the substance
causing a change in permeability is unknown, but it is likely a weak toxin
or an enzyme which alters the structure or activity of the plasma mem-
brane. The increase in permeability may concern water alone or both
nutrients and water.
An osmotic pressure higher in the fungus cells than in the surrounding
host cells is apparently characteristic of the host-parasite relationship
(Table 63) This is necessary before the parasite can absorb water from
.
the host cells.
The production of pectinase and its activity under different conditions

were studied by Vasudeva (1930) and Chona (1932), who showed that
the amount produced by Botrytis allii varied with the medium in which
the fungus was grown. B. allii did not secrete a demonstrable amount of
pectinase when grown on apple extract, but when asparagine, potassium
nitrate, or ammonium sulfatewas added to the apple extract, there was a

decided increase in the amount produced. This is not surprising, for
there are numerous reports that the available nutrients and the pH of the
culture medium affect both the kind and amount of metabolic products of
a fungus.
The activity of the enzymes produced by a pathogen varies with the
conditions of the host cells. It seems probable that the inhibition of the
fungus enzymes by the host cells is an important factor in resistance.
Klotz (1927) proposed this hypothesis to explain the greater resistance
of sour orange and the greater susceptibility of lemon to Pythiacystis
citrophthora and Phomopsis califor nica, the causes of certain bark diseases.
Table 63. The Osmotic Pressures of Host and Parasite

(Thatcher, Can. Jour. Research 20, 1942.)
Fungus
to rot it.The inhibition in this case was traced to the mahc acid in
the apple. The pectinase produced by Pythium was most active in an
alkahne medium, near pH 8.0, while that of B. cinerea was more active
in an acid medium, at pH 5.0 to 5.5.
In contrast with the destructive fungi which rot the host tissue are
those which cause wilting and certain types of necrosis without disintegra-
tion of the host cells. These fungi produce little or no pectinase. Some
common fungi which cause wilting of mature plants are species of
Fusarium, Verticillium, Cephalosporium, and Ceratostomella. It is now
generally believed that in most cases wilting caused by fungi is due to
toxins or to the plugging of the vessels by polysaccharides or other similar
metabolic products of the fungus, rather than to plugging by the excessive
mycelial growth in the vessels. Extracts of the mycelium or the culture
filtrate of a number of these fungi cause effects that are the same as or
similar to those caused by the fungi themselves in their respective hosts.
A definite correlation between the pathogenecity of two strains of
Fusarium and
lycopersici the toxicity of their metabolic products was
demonstrated by Haymaker (1928). There was similarity of symptoms
and of the effect of temperature on wilting. The culture filtrate was more
toxic when the fungus was grown at 28°C. than that obtained at any other
temperature. The toxic substance was not identified. Other workers
(Plattner and Clausson-Kaas, 1945; Woolley, 1946) have reported that
the wilt-inducing compound produced by F. lycopersici is lycomarasmin,
a peptide of aspartic acid. Gaumann and Jaag (1947) reported that
clavacin exerted a wilting effect on detached tomato shoots similar to
that of lycomarasmin. But, whereas lycomarasmin acted chiefly on the
cells of the leaf blade, clavacin is toxic mainly to the phloem and paren-
chyma of wood and cortex of the stem and petiole. The action of both
compounds is believed to be similar, destroying the semipermeability of
the plasma membranes, thereby decreasing the water-holding capacity of
the cells and inducing wilting.
Various polysaccharides have been shown to produce wilting in tomato
cuttings (Hodgson et al., 1949). Since there was a direct relationship
between molecular weight and wilt-inducing action of these compounds,
it was concluded that their action was mainly by mechanically interfering
with the transportation of water. Dimond (1947) also reported wilting

of elm leaves due in part to a polysaccharide produced by Ceratostomella
ulmi in culture. Its action is believed to be similar in naturally infected
elm trees.
More recently, Feldman et al. (1950) have presented evidence to show
that the primary wilt-inducing agent produced by C. ulmi is not the
polysaccharide, but a toxin. The production of toxin in liquid culture
filtrate was greatly influenced by the pH of the medium, being greater in
buffered media at pH 4.25 than at 5.25, although growth was more rapid
in the less acid medium (Fig. 76). The toxin was shown to be irreversibly-
inactivated at pH G or above. The introduction of calcium hydroxide
into trees of basic chemicals to the soil have been
and the application
somewhat successful in retarding the disease. Presumably, these chem-
icals act by raising the pH of the sap of the tree.
Days
Fig. 76. Growth of Ceratostomella ulmi of toxin, as measured by wilt
and production
of tomato seedlings induced by culture filtrate, in buffered media at different pH
levels. Note that toxin production is favored by the more acid medium, while
growth is greater in the less acid medium. (Courtesy of Feldman, Caroselli, and
Howard, Phytopathology. 40: 348, 1950.)
The varieties of oats susceptible to toxic culture filtrates of Helmin-

thosporium victoriae were the same that were susceptible to the fungus in
nature (Meehan and Murphy, 1947). Plants of Boone variety were
killed, but Clinton plants were unaffected when grown in the same con-
centrations of the filtrate. The toxic substance, which was not identified,
was produced when the media contained either organic or inorganic
nitrogen. This species differs from H. sacchari, which was reported by
Lee (1929) to reduce nitrates to nitrites, which were toxic to sugar cane.
The toxicity of the metabohc products of Fusarium vasinfectum was

found to be dependent upon the medium on which the fungus was cultured
(Rosen, 192G). Filtrates of cultures grown in a medium containing
potassium nitrate and sucrose were highly toxic to cotton plants, while
filtrates from cultures grown in a medium containing ammonium lactate,
sodium asparaginate, and glycerin were not toxic. The filtrate of the
nitrate-sucrose medium contained nitrites. Solutions of chemically pure
sodium nitrite were also decidedly toxic to cotton plants. We may
assume that the action of this fungus in converting nitrates to nitrites
is the same within the host plant as it is in the culture vessel.
Thus, there seems to be abundant evidence that the metabolic products,

including enzymes and toxins, of a given fungus vary both in kind and in
amount with the pH and composition of the culture medium. On the
other hand, the evidence that the same situation exists in nature is
extremely scarce. One may speculate, however, that the types of nutri-
ents furnished by the host cells and the pH of the cell sap may also influ-
ence the metabolic products of the fungus in the host plant. If this is
true, a given fungus may find the nutrients and environment supplied by
one host particularly favorable for the production of a disease-inducing
toxin or enzyme. If the host is unable to inhibit the action of these
substances, disease may result. The natures of both the pathogen and
the host determine the severity of the disease. This hypothesis may
help to explain, in part, the variation in intensity of parasitism of a
fungus on its different hosts. While there is little evidence to support
this idea at present, it is hoped that experimental work will be conducted
to test its merits.
The possibility that the presence of vitamins may affect pathogenicity
has been suggested (Pehrson, 1948; Prasad, 1949). There is no evidence
that deficiencies for vitamins are correlated with either parasitism or
pathogenicity, and vitamin deficiency may be excluded as a factor leading
to the parasitic habit. Likewise, there seems to be little or no correlation
between the nitrogen requirements of fungi and the parasitic habit.
Nonliving organic materials in nature are sources of vitamins and organic
nitrogen just as are the living plants. For example, Ustilago striiformis,
a highly parasitic fungus, is self-sufficient with respect to vitamins, and
some isolates are capable of utilizing nitrate nitrogen, while Phycomyces
hlakesleeanus, an obligate saprophyte, is deficient for thiamine and is
unable to utilize nitrate nitrogen.
Opposed to the destructive parasites discussed above are the balanced
parasites, which, in general, have a strong power to penetrate mechan-
ically but whose chemical actions on the host are relatively weak. Most
of the filamentous balanced parasites produce intercellular mycelium,
sending haustoria into the host cells. These serve as food-absorbing
structures, but the exact mechanism of the transfer of food is not so well
understood. The haustorium of the filamentous parasite is very similar
in its behavior to the intracellular nonfilamentous parasite, being sur-
rounded by the protoplasm of the host cell. Haustoria may be of several
forms, simple and nearly spherical, coiled, and branched in various ways.
Most cytologists agree that there is a cellulose wall, or sheath, around the
older haustoria. It is presumably formed by the host cell and suggests
a weak mechanism of defense against the invading parasite, yet it does
not prevent the diffusion of soluble food into the haustorium.
The haustorium commonly comes into contact with the nucleus of the
host In 23 of the 35 cases (host-parasite combinations) reported
cell.
(Rice, 1927, 1935), habitual contact was observed between haustorium

and nucleus. Two theories as to the meaning of this contact have been
suggested. One is that the haustorium seeks out the region of the cell
nucleus in order to facilitate the absorption of food from the cell. The
second theory is that the action of the cell nucleus is defensive and that
in some cases it may cause the death and degeneration of the haustorium.
In the case of Synchytrium (Chrysophylyctis) endohioticum the swarm
cellsmigrate into close proximity w^th the nucleus of the host cell (Orton
and Kern, 1919). In the majority of cases the nucleus is engulfed at the
time or soon after the swarm cells unite to form the vegetative body of the
parasite. The host nucleus disappears as the sporangia develop. The
exact significance of this close relationship between parasite and host
nucleus is not clear, but it apparently represents a more or less unique
method of parasitism among the fungi.
It is generally believed that thebalanced parasite causes harm to a
susceptible host primarily through its demand upon food and water.
There is little or no evidence that the protoplast is attacked chemically,

although host cells may be killed by growth pressure. There are numer-
ous reports of the disappearance of food in the region of haustoria. Butler
(1918) reported that starch is absent in cells containing haustoria of
Sclerospora graminicola, and at the time of sporulation the host cells
collapseand die. The only abnormal effect observed by Mains (1917)
on the cells of corn parasitized by Puccinia sorghi was the absence of
starch in the bundle sheaths near the rust pustules. He interpreted this
to mean that the parasite uses the food materials before they reach the
bundle sheath where they are normally stored. Similar disappearance
of starch in the host cells near infection by Synchytrium endohioticum has
been reported by Orton and Kern (1919).
On the other hand, starch may accumulate in the infected tissues dur-
ing early stages of development of rusts but usually disappears in later
stages of development. This may be due to some disruption of the host's
physiology. The physiological reactions of the host are known to involve
translocation of food, transpiration, respiration, and photosynthesis.

Increased respiration has been reported for some hosts, while a decrease
has been found for others. The rate of transpiration is usually increased.
An early infection of orange rust on Ruhus may even cause the formation
of stomata on the upper epidermis, where they are normally lacking
(Dodge, 1923).
The reactions of the chloroplasts of the host cells are believed to indicate
the degree of adjustment between the host and parasite (Rice, 1935).
Local chlorosis and streaking are common symptoms of a number of
diseases caused by haustoria-forming parasites.
Thatcher (1939, 1942) has shown that certain obligate parasites cause
an increase in permeability of the cell membranes of susceptible hosts.
There was a decided reduction in osmotic pressure of the tissues of Pisum
surrounding the rust hyphae. If the fungus is unable to bring about an
increase in permeability so that it can obtain its necessary nutrients, the
host is resistant. Thatcher found evidence that the plasma membranes
of some resistant varieties of wheat may actually become less permeable
as a reaction to the rust hyphae, and starvation of the fungus may result.
The change in permeability incited by the balanced parasites seems
to be similar to the action of the destructive parasites, except for the
matter of degree. Thatcher (1939) believes that parasitism in the rusts
has become highly specialized, and the intensity of the effect on permea-
bility of the cell membranes has been reduced. The substance involved
is apparently a metabolic product of the fungus.
If the conditions afforded by a certain variety of host are favorable
for the production of a comparatively large amount of toxin (assuming

that this substance is a toxin) the host cells
, may be killed and the further
development of the obligate parasite would be prevented. The sudden
death of the host cells is the condition described by Stakman (1914) as
hyper sensitiveness. Hypersensitive hosts are highly resistant or immune
to the pathogenic action of the obligate parasites. Stakman reported
that, in varieties of wheat resistant to Pucciiiia graminis tritici, when
the hyphae of the fungus come in contact with the host cells, the latter
often show plasmolysis, disintegration, and finally death. After the
death of a few surrounding cells the tips of the hyphae die. However, it
was discovered that in some cases the hyphae may die before the host cells
are killed. Stakman concluded that the problem of resistance to rvists
is one of toxins of the parasite or the host, or both, and can best
be explained by what he terms the "toxin or enzyme theory." Brooks

(1948) also concluded that the death of the parasite is due to the lethal
action of the host rather than to starvation.
Opponents of the toxin (or enzyme) theory of parasitism in the rusts
point out that no toxin has ever been demonstrated experimentally.

Leach (1919) believes that each physiologic race of Puccinia graminis
has its own characteristic food requirements which are met by only a few
varieties of the host. According to this hypothesis, if a race of rust
enters a host which does not meet its specific nutritional requirements, it
dies, and enzymes which are injurious to the host cells are released. This
hypothesis is supported by Wellensiek (1927) who worked with Puccinia
sorghi.
While it is evident that the food supply varies with the varieties of the
host,it seems equally possible that the difference in nutrients may have a
more indirect effect in determining whether the fungus survives. Is it

merely that the fungus starves if the host does not provide the appropriate
food, or are the conditions in the host unfavorable for the production of
certain metabolic products which are essential to the pathogenic actions
of the fungus?
The type of host-parasite relationship found in Phyllachora graminis
seems to be unique (Orton, 1924) This fungus apparently has the power
.
of digesting and absorbing the tissues within the leaf, producing cavities
in which the ascocarps later form. The hyphae bore their way through
the cell walls of any of these tissues and, in doing so, absorb a portion of
the wall. The parenchyma cells become disorganized, and their contents
disintegrate. The vascular cells may be invaded and partially absorbed
and become filled with hyphae. The most striking physiological charac-
teristic of this fungus is its ability to absorb, replace, and engulf the
tissues of the host leaf without any external evidence of necrosis of the
host. This would seem to indicate the presence of highly active cellulo-
iytic enzymes (and perhaps others) confined to the area near the fungus,
without the presence of toxic substances, which would cause necrosis of
the leaf tissue.
Actually, comparatively little is known about the activities which
lead to parasitism, particularly of the balanced parasites. It is hoped
that more planned experiments will be conducted in an attempt to gain
more knowledge regarding the mode of parasitism of plant pathogens.
Only by understanding the action of the parasite can we understand the
basic facts underlying resistance and susceptibility.
Parasitism and symbiosis with insects. There are numerous reports
of the parasitic and symbiotic relations of fungi with insects. For a
more complete discussion than this text offers, see Leach (1940) and
Steinhaus (1946). In many cases the relationship is solely to the advan-
tage of the fungus (true parasitism), but a number of cases of mutualistic
symbiosis do exist. The fungi may be disseminated by the insects which
serve as their hosts. One can only speculate regarding the basic nutri-
tional requirements of these fungi, since very little is known. We may

assume that rather specific nutritional needs, either for growth or for
reproduction, are satisfied by the relation with insects.
Among the fungi parasitic on insects the genus Entomophthora is the
most common. Various common species attack houseflies, grasshoppers,
and other insects. A direct correlation between the amount of precipita-
tion and the number of infections on houseflies was reported by Yeager
(1939). Massospora cicadina infects the seventeen-year cicada and
produces spores inside the abdomen. The posterior portion of the abdo-
men sloughs away, exposing the spores w^hile the insect is still able to crawl
about. This is apparently the chief method of dissemination of the
spores. The mode and time of infection are unknown. Species of
Cordyceps are common on pupae and larvae of certain insects. The fact
that C. militaris produces abundant mycelial growth on a variety of
synthetic media in the laboratory suggests the possibility that in nature
this fungus may grow on other substrata, requiring the insect association
only to fruit.
Fawcett (1910) described the use of a fungus, which he named Aegerita
webberi, in controlling whitefly in the orange groves of Florida. Ascher-
sonia aleyrodis has also been used for the same purpose. A chytrid,
Myrophagus ucrainicus, is reported (Karling, 1948) as a parasite on scale
insects in Bermuda, Louisiana, and Ontario. In severe outbreaks as
many as 45 per cent of the female insects may be killed. It has also been
transmitted to mealy bugs. Another group on
of fungi parasitic insects
is the Laboulbeniales. These are minute fungi developing almost entirely
on the surface, sending short haustoria into the insect to obtain food.
The symbiotic relationship between Septobasidium and scale insects
is interesting because of the high degree of specialization on the part of
the fungus (Couch, 1938) .The dependence of the fungus for its distribu-
tion upon the migrating young scale insects was previously mentioned in
Chap. 15 under Spore Dissemination. The fungus forms a crust over
scale insects, some of which are parasitized while others are not. The
uninfected females give rise to young insects, which may remain under
the fungus crust, crawl out through tunnels under the fungus, or crawl
out over the sporulation surface of the fungus. The young insects are
infected onlyby the bud cells from the basidiospores, never by the older
fungus hyphae. The bud cells germinate on the surface of the insect and
apparently enter principally through the natural openings. The fungus
then produces coiled haustoria, which absorb food directly from the
circulatory system of the insect, which in turn sucks its food from the
host tree. Some infected insects may settle down on the bark, while
others crawl under a nearby protective fungus colony. Only the former
are responsible for distributing the fungus, while the latter are responsible
for the survival of the ah-eadyformed fungus colonies. Connections are

then made by anastomoses hyphae from the insect and the hyphae
of the
of the fungus crust under which the insect has come to rest. Thus, the
fungus colony does not originate from one individual but from the aggre-
gation of several individuals by anastomosis, or grafting. The parasitized
insects are dwarfed and do not reproduce but may live as long as the
uninfected insects. The fungus covers the insect's body but is in contact
with it only by the numerous coiled haustoria. The insect in turn
receives protection from severe weather conditions, from parasitic wasps,
other insects, and birds. Certain species, particularly S. hurtii, are easily
cultivated on liquid or agar media. Couch believes that failure of the
fungus to fruit in culture may be due to lack of proper nutrition, which
is furnished by insects in nature, or to a complicated heterothallic condi-
tion of the fungus.
The parasitic habit of many of the
Fungi parasitic on other fungi.
chytridsupon other aquatic or semiaquatic fungi and algae is apparently
quite common. A number of these genera are described and illustrated
by Fitzpatrick (1930) and Karling (1942). Practically nothing is known
regarding their nutritional requirements. There appear to be fewer
filamentous fungi parasitic upon fungi. The mention of only a few of
these will serve as examples. Species of Piptocephalis, Chaetocladium,
and Syncephalis are parasitic on other Mucorales. A number of fungi are
reported to be parasitic on members of the Agaricaceae and other higher
fungi. Among these are species of Spinellus, Mycogone, Hypomyces,
Nyctalis, and some Myxomycetes. A species of Penicillium is parasitic
upon an Aspergillus (Thorn and Raper, 1945). Of particular interest
are the hyperparasites, fungi parasitic upon other parasitic fungi. Cicin-
noholus cesatii is parasitic on the Erysiphales, and Darlucafilum is parasitic
on Uredinales. So far as is known, no study of the basic nutritional
requirements of these fungi has been attempted.
Fungi parasitic on man and animals. Many of the fungi which cause
disease of man and animals show distinct differences in morphology when
grown under different conditions. The spore forms produced on artificial
media may be quite different from those developed in the host. This
may be a response to certain nutritional factors, to temperature differ-
ences, or to the presence of certain chemical substances which inhibit
or limit the production of certain spore forms.
In general, the pathogens of man and animals have no unique nutri-
tional requirements. Some are able to utilize inorganic nitrogen, while
others are not; some are deficient for certain vitamins. Nickerson (1947)
points out that there is no direct correlation between nutritional require-
ments and pathogenicity. In fact, there is little concrete evidence
regarding the mode of action of these fungi in causing disease.
38G PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI
In the case of the dermatophytes, Nickerson has suggested that growth

and sporulation in vivo may be affected by a chemical supplied to the
hair and scales of the skin by diffusion from the adjacent resistant tissues.
There is some evidence that resistance of skin to fungus infection may be
influenced by the nutrition of the individual.
For more complete discussions of the fungus diseases of man and
animals, the student is referred to Nickerson (1947), Wolf and Wolf
(1947), Conant et al. (1944), Emmons (1940), and Dodge (1935). The
pioneering work of Sabouraud (1910) should also be consulted.
Cultural characteristics and pathogenicity. Studies of numerous
isolates of a given species or genus have indicated a possible correlation
between pathogenicity and some particular cultural characteristic. The
recognition of such relations and definite knowledge regarding them would
be of great value to plant pathologists. One such study was made by
Houston (1945) on 52 isolates of Corticium solani from various hosts.
These isolates fell into three culture types based upon the characteristics
of the mycelium and sclerotia. There was a certain degree of correlation
between culture type and pathogenicity and symptoms on certain hosts.
He concluded that the culture type of C. solani is more important in
predicting the pathogenicity of an isolate than the host from which it was
isolated.
During a study of the physiological characteristics and pathogenicity
of 143 isolates of Actinomyces,mostly from scabbed potato tubers, it was
found (Taylor and Decker, 1947) that certain isolates produced a dark
ring of growth at the surface of separated milk. This characteristic was
correlated perfectly with the ability to produce typical scab lesions on
potato tubers. No attempt was made to explain the basic relation of
these two apparently unrelated physiological characteristics.
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the ability of a host to prevent or oppose the entrance or
subsequent growth and development of a parasite. It may be effective
either before or after penetration of the host. A host which cannot
successfully prevent such actions of the parasite is susceptible. Studies
in the nature of resistance have been only partially enlightening, and in
many cases the nature of disease resistance is still obscure. Some of the
present theories are based on what might be termed "circumstantial
evidence," such as a general correlation between resistance and some
characteristic of the host. There is sufficient evidence, however, that it
is dangerous to generalize about the nature of resistance. It seems likely
that in many cases the cause of resistance may be specific, being common
perhaps to but one or only a few host-parasite combinations.
The types of resistance may be placed for convenience into three
groups: mechanical, the prevention of penetration or of unlimited

(1)
spread by the structure of the host; (2) functional, the prevention of
penetration by stomatal action of the host; (3) physiological, chemical
action against the parasite or incompatible food relations. The relative
importance of these factors is difficult to determine, but Butler (1918)
states that physiological characters are much more important as a factor
for resistance than the anatomical characters of the host.
Mechanical resistance might be considered as the first line of defense
by the According to Melander and Craigie (1927) resistance of
host.
species of Berheris to infection by sporidia of Puccinia graminis is due
to the thickness of the cuticle. B. thunbergii, which is immune, has a
heavy layer of cutin, while in general the susceptible species have a
thin layer. These conclusions were reached after anatomical studies and
after using a mechanical device to measure the resistance of the epidermis
to puncture. The thickness of the cuticle increases with age, as does the
resistance to mechanical puncture and to infection. The same is true
with the apple scab fungus and powdery mildew of barley; young leaves
are susceptible but become more resistant with age.
Resistance in some cases is apparently due to layers of cork cells formed
by the host in advance of the invading parasite. Varieties of flax resistant
to wilt {Fusarium lini) and of cotton to black root rot {Thielaviopsis
hasicola) seem to be successful in walling off the parasite by forming such
a layer of cork which it cannot penetrate. Varieties of potatoes resistant
to scab {Actinomyces scabies) form cork more quickly when wounded than
do susceptible varieties and are believed to owe their resistance to this
characteristic. Thomas (1934) found that the newly formed layer of
cork cells was penetrated by invading hyphae of Armillaria mellea and
that the cork layer did not successfully stop the advance of this fungus.
Brown (1936) states that there is some doubt as to whether the cork layer
really functions at all or whether it is formed after the fungus has been
stopped by some chemical means.
Lignified tissues offer more mechanical resistance than nonlignified
cells. Certain varieties of wheat resistant to stem rust have a compara-
tively greater amount of sclerenchyma and a correspondingly lesser
amount of collenchyma and parenchyma in the stem, as compared with
susceptible varieties. The maturity of host tissue may be a factor in
resistance, even though the tissue does not become lignified or suberized.
Some of the systemic smut fungi in cereals are able to grow and penetrate
the walls in meristematic tissue but are apparently unable to pene-
cell
trate the cellulose walls of mature parenchyma cells. After infection

in the embryo or seedling stage, the fungus must continue to grow in the
growing tip of the shoot if it is to reach the flower parts. Conditions
which favor slow growth and delay the maturity of the host favor the
fungus, while conditions which favor rapid maturity of the host cells may
cause the fungus to be left behind in the mature tissues which it cannot
penetrate.
Hart (1929) studied the nature of resistance of wheat varieties to stem
rust and described a type of resistance that she terms funciio7ial resistance,
which is dependent upon the stomatal movements of the host, and con-
cluded that the parasite enters the wheat only through open stomata.
There has been frequent discussion regarding the importance of the
acidity of the cell sap of the host and its effect upon resistance. The
effects of cell-sap acidity may be threefold: (1) an increase in the hydrogen
ions; (2) the toxicity of the organic acids; (3) the influence upon the
chemical changes and the possible formation of toxic products by the host
cells. In some cases these effects have not been satisfactorily distin-
guished. Numerous examples may be found in the literature in which
resistance has been attributed to the acidity of the host or host part.
Butler (1918) refers to investigations showing that the leaves of varieties
of grape resistant to powdery mildew contain three to five times as
much
acid as the nonresistant varieties. He also showed that the red rot
fungus of sugar cane, Colletotrichum falcatum, was present in infected

canes from sowing time but usually did not develop severely until matu-
rity of the canes. He attributed this to either the increase in sugar or the
decrease in acid. The more acid lemons are less attacked by the fruit-
rotting fungi. The amount of acid in the fruit, as indicated by chemical
analysis, may be greater than the amount necessary to check the growth
of the fungus in culture (Cook and Taubenhaus, 1911). A number of
workers have considered cell-sap acidity as a possible cause for resistance
of wheat to stem rust, but this factor now is believed to be of little
impor-
tance. No correlation was found between resistance and acidity of the
expressed sap (Hurd, 1924). Similarly, there was no correlation between
resistance and hydrogen-ion values or the titratable-acid values of the
juice ofwheat plants resistant to Ustilago tritici (Tapke, 1929).
Some most complete experimental evidence showing the correla-
of the
tion between acidity and resistance is presented by Reddy (1933) for
Basisporium gallarum. Briefly,
different inbred lines of corn in relation to
he found that when the pH of the cob was below 5.0, resistance to cob
infection was high. Resistance was notably lower at high pH values.
Table 64 gives a summary of some of Reddy's experiments. Reddy also
believes that the influence of pH may explain why the seedlings, which
are acid, are resistant to infection by B. gallarum, while the dry kernels,
which are neutral or alkahne, are susceptible. On the basis of evidence
previously discussed, likely that the pathogenic activities of certain
it is
enzymes produced by B. gallarum are inhibited in media having pH of
5.0 or less.
On the other hand, greater acidity of the cell sap may favor the develop-
ment of some diseases. The susceptibility of certain varieties of grape to
Guignardia bidwellii has been correlated with a greater amount of tartaric
acid (Butler, 1918). This author points out that leaves are susceptible
only while they are young and rich in tartaric acid.
Table 64. Hydrogen-ion Readings of Apparently Healthy Cobs of 75 Inbred

Lines of Corn and Incidence of Basisporium Ear Infection Following
Both Natural and Artificial Inoculation
(Redd3^ loim Agr. Expt. Sta. Research Bull. 167, 1933.)
CobpH
That resistance is due to the presence of some toxic substance, perhaps

an organic acid or some related compound, in the living host cell is one
of the most popular theories. However, detailed proof of the effective-
ness of such a compound, even though present in the plant, is often diffi-
cult to obtain. Cook and Taubenhaus (1911) list some organic acids in
order of their toxicity as follows: tannic, gallic, malic, tartaric, and citric.
They state that vegetable juices contain an enzyme which acts upon
gallic acid to produce tannin or a tannin-like compound which is toxic
to fungi. The amount of the enzyme decreases with maturity and
ripening of the fruits (apples, pears, persimmons, etc.), which accordingly
become more susceptible to rot fungi.
An outstanding example of chemical resistance is that described by
Link and Walker (1933) for onion smudge caused by CoUetotrichum
circinans. The cell sap of the colored varieties (resistant) is much more
toxic to the fungus than the cell sap of the white-skinned varieties (sus-
ceptible) Furthermore, the sap of the colored varieties contains catechol
.
and protocatechuic acid in amounts that would account for the resistance
of these varieties to the fungus. The action of volatile and nonvolatile
antibiotics in the fleshy scales of the onion is believed to be a definite
factor in relative resistance of onion varieties to C. circinans, Aspergillus
niger, and Botrytis allii (Hatfield
et al., 1948). Reynolds (1931) explains
resistance of flax varieties toFusarium lini as being due to the higher
amounts of glucosides, which upon hydrolysis yield hydrocyanic acid.
Similarly, the resistance of species of Solamim to Cladosporiuni fulvum
is believed to be due to the presence of higher amounts of solanine
(Schmidt, 1933; cited by Brown, 1936). Rochlin (1933) believes that

there a direct connection betwêen resistance of crucifers to clubroot
is
and the amount of glucosides, which on fermentation give rise to pungent

mustard The isolation of 2-methoxy-l,4-naphthoquinone from
oils.
Impatiens balsamina was reported by Little et al. (1948). This substance

had a high antibiotic activity against several fungi and was nontoxic to
tomato and bean plants. This may be an example of a naturally occur-
ring antibiotic as a factor in resistance. Fontaine et al. (1947) suggest
that tomatin may be a factor in the resistance of certain tomato varieties
to Fusarium lycopersici.
An interesting theory of resistance to obligate parasites is presented
by Dufrenoy (1936). He divides the hosts into three groups: (1) highly
resistant, (2) moderately susceptible, (3) extremely susceptible. He
believes that, when a fungus enters the highly resistant host, it kills the
cells it penetrates and that the death of these the metabolism
cells alters
of the surrounding cells, becomes rich in phenolic

so that their cell sap
compounds, which prevents the further invasion by the pathogen. In
the moderately susceptible host the host cells and their living contents
are so modified that they revert to the embryonic condition and may even
divide. When the obhgate parasite enters the extremely susceptible
host, it causes so little disturbance that, at least in the first stages of
infection, the metabolism of the host is afTected but little or not at all.
Walker and Link (1935) caution against jumping at conclusions regard-
ing the importance of phenolic compounds as factors in resistance. They
point out that
. .the mere piesence of phenolic substances in a host plant does not warrant
.
the conclusion that they play a role in the resistance of that host to a given
parasite or parasites. Toxic phenolic substances might be present in concen-
trations so low that their inhibitory effects are negligible, or they might also be
present in concentrations that have a stimulative effect. When a phenolic sub-
stance with a specific toxicity toward a given organism is present in the host in an
appropriate concentration, it may be regarded as a part of the disease resisting
mechanism of that host.
The four fungi studied by Walker and Link {Colletotrichum circinans,

Gibber ella saubinetii, Botrytis and Aspergillus niger) reacted quite
allii,
differently to the various phenolic compounds. Protocatechuic acid

inhibited C. circinans at 1/800 and retarded growth at 1/12,800, while
it did not affect A. niger at 1/200. Colored onions containing this acid
are resistant to C. circinans but quite susceptible to A. niger.
The immunity
of monocotyledonous plants to Phymatotrichum omniv-
orum due to certain unidentified toxic materials present in monocots
is
but apparently absent in most or all dicots (Ezekiel and Fudge, 1938).
Growth of the pathogen was prevented by the expressed juices from a
number of monocots but not by juices of susceptible dicots. Ether
fractions of monocot roots, or other underground parts, were highly
potent against the pathogen, while similar extracts from susceptible dicot
plants were uniformly nonpotent.
In some other highly parasitic fungi the action of the fungus causes
the death of the surrounding cells, which then prevents the further spread
of the parasite. Leach (1923) found that in a highly resistant variety
of bean the hyphae of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum seldom attack more
than one or two cells of the host. Both the host cells and the fungus
hyphae then die, and the entire cell contents are stained a reddish brown.
In less resistant varieties the parasite attacks more host cells, but sooner
or later the mycelium disintegrates. Leach interprets this as "a nutri-
tional phenomenon," which results in death of the fungus by starvation,
and the products of autolysis then kill and stain the host cells.
It has been pointed out previously that certain fungi are able to pene-
trate some plants but are then unable to establish themselves (Stakman,
1914; Jones, 1919; Salmon, 1905). These plants may be either closely
related or unrelated to those which serve as the natural host of the fungus.
In such cases the failure to cause disease may be due to unfavoraVjle
nutritional relations. The theory of a toxin-antitoxin, or toxin-counter-
toxin, between parasite and host has been suggested by a number of
investigators (Ward, 1905; Marryat, 1907; Stakman, 1914; Allen, 1923;
Walker, 1924) as a possible explanation for resistance to the rusts.
Cytological studies of Puccinia graminis tritici infections of both
susceptible and resistant varieties of wheat were made by Allen (1923),
who concluded that secretions from the fungus stimulate the metabolic
activities of the susceptible host to produce more food, while in the
resistant host the same secretions cause disintegration and death of the
host cells near the infection. More distant cells may be stimulated.
The haustoria usually die soon after the host cells are killed. Leach
(1919) believes resistance to P. graminis tritici and P. graminis tritici-
compacti can best be explained on the basis of specific food requirements

of the parasite and specific food production by the host. It was sug-
gested that the injury to the host cells might be due to an excess in amount
of enzymes stimulated by a limited supply of food in resistant hosts.
Similarly, Wellensiek (1927) believes that this theory best explains the
resistance of corn to strains of P. sorghi. He suggests that the difference
between susceptibility and resistance is of a quantitative nature and that
the amount of the specific nutrient determines resistance or susceptibility.
Walker (1924) points out that resistance may be due to the action of a
number of factors and that a clear understanding of resistance must be
based upon a thorough understanding of parasitism. Walker's excellent
discussion of the nature of disease resistance gives many references to the
literature on this subject.
Host nutrition and its effect on the development and severity of disease
is new phase of study, and much more investigation is neces-
a relatively
sary before general conclusions can be drawn. The fungi vary widely
in their reactions to differences in host nutrition, the type of parasitism
apparently being a determining factor. The action on the pathogen is
believed to be principally indirectly through the effects of nutrition on
the host, although it is possible that some of the vascular parasites may
be directly affected by the nutrients which pass through the xylem. An
increase in the salt concentration of the nutrient solution increased the
development of clubroot, w^hile it decreased the severity of cabbage
yellows (Walker, 1946). The development of Fusarium wilt of tomato
was affected in a way similar to cabbage yellows. More recently, Gallegly
(1949) reported that the development of Verticillium wilt of tomato was
reduced with a reduction in salt concentration of the balanced solution
used to grow the tomato plants. Stakman (1914) and Ward (1902) came
to the conclusion that deficiencies in nitrogen and phosphorus salts avail-
able to the host had no appreciable direct effect upon the resistance to
rusts. A summary of the work on the effect of soil nutrients and environ-
ment upon resistance to disease has been presented by Wingard (1941).
The carbon metabolism of a plant likewise influences resistance to
certain rusts. Waters (1926) found that urediospores of Uroniyces fabae
developed on detached leaves floating on 5 per cent sucrose solution in the
dark, while none formed when leaves were floated on water. These
observations were confirmed by Yarwood (1934) for rust and powdery
mildew of clover. It follows that active carbon assimilation increases
susceptibility of the host to the obligate parasites.
Although the environmental factors are of great importance in deter-
mining the resistance or susceptibility to a disease, their effects are usually
upon the host and only indirectly upon the parasite. Abundant refer-
ences on this subject can be found in the literature. The effect of tem-
perature upon the metabolism and resistance of certain hosts may be
illustrated by Gihherella zeae on wheat and corn (Dickson, 1923). Seed-
ling infection of wheat was found to occur at high temperatures and of
corn at low temperatures; i.e., the temperatures unfavorable to host
development. In the germination of w^heat at low soil temperatures the
starch of the endosperm is hydrolyzed more rapidly than the proteins,
which results in abundant sugar but little available nitrogen for seedling
growth. Thus, the cell walls are thickened and more resistant. At
higher temperatures both starch and proteins are rapidly hydrolyzed;
there is a greater supply of available nitrogen, and growth is more rapid.
The cell walls remain longer in the pectic condition and are more suscepti-
ble to attack. In corn the situation is reversed. At high temperatures,
which favor the corn, the cell w'alls develop more rapidly and are more
resistant.
Sharvelle (1936) concludes that the resistance of flax to flax rust cannot
be attributed to any single factor but probably results from a number of
factors operating together. Doubtless, the same statement could be
applied to many other diseases to which the nature of resistance is not well
understood.
SUMMARY
Some of the different types of parasitismmay be summarized as fol-
lows: (1) The produces extracellular enzymes, particularly
parasite
pectinase, w'hich dissolves the middle lamellae of the host cells, allowing
the cells to separate (rotting). This may or may not be accompanied
by toxic substances but results in the death of the cells. The soluble
food materials are then free to be absorbed by the fungus. The insoluble
foods stored in the host cells may be digested by other extracellular
enzymes. This type is illustrated by the rots of fruits and vegetables.
;
(2) The parasite may produce toxic materials or other substances whi( ii
may be some distance from the fungus, but it usually does not
active at
cause the rotting of the tissue. This is illustrated by a number of wilt
diseases and by some others. (3) The third type depends upon a con-
genial nutritional relationship between the parasite and the host cells.
In susceptible hosts of this type there is little or no apparent effect upon
the host cells. The resistant hosts may show a high degree of sensitivity
to the parasite, which may result in the death of the invaded cells and
starvation of the parasite. This type of parasitism is characteristic of
the balanced parasites. The balanced parasite enters the susceptible
host cell and establishes a compatible food relationship, absorbing the
soluble nutrients elaborated by the host, without disturbing the metabolic
activity of the host in the early stages. In this respect, the relationship
of parasite and susceptible host represents the most highly specialized
type of parasitism.
The destructive parasites, as a rule, are strong producers of toxins
and exoenzymes, while the balanced parasites must be quite weak in this
respect. In many host-parasite relations studied, there is a change in
the permeability of the host cells surrounding the invading hyphae. This
is believed to be a direct response to substances secreted by the parasite.
Increased permeability would allow greater diffusion of water and nutri-

ents from the host cells to the parasite. The metabolic products of the
fungi involved in parasitism are for the most part undetermined, but they
are known to include toxins, enzymes, and polysaccharides. Since the
kind and amounts of such products are known to vary with the composi-
tion of the medium in the laboratory, it is believed that like variation
may occur in different hosts in nature.
The basis of resistance to disease may
be mechanical, functional, or
physiological. Some of the known or proposed causes of physiological
resistance are (1) cell-sap acidity; (2) toxic substances of the host; (3)
enzymes of the parasite by the host
inhibition of the activity of certain
(4) hypersensitiveness (5) incompatible
;
nutritional relationship; (6)
decreased permeability of the cell membranes of the host, resulting in
partial or complete starvation of the parasite; (7) a combination of
various factors acting together.

The obligate parasites, principally the rusts, offer some challenging
unsolved problems for the future students of parasitism. Probably the
principal one involves the culturing of such fungi under controlled condi-
tions on media of known composition. All of the many attempts to solve
this problem have met with failure, yet few investigators doubt that it
can be solved. The phenomenon of heteroecism among the rusts is of
great interest from the standpoint of food relationships. For instance,
sve must either assume that the wheat and the barberry furnish the same
nutrients for Puccinia graminis tritici, and the white pine and Ribes for
Cronartium ribicola, or that the nutrient requirements of the haploid
mycelium are different from those of the diploid mycelium.
Much more investigation is needed to increase our knowledge of possi-
ble correlations between pathogenicity and metabolic products. This
should lead to a better understanding of parasitism. The possible role
of antibiotics occurring naturally in host plants as a factor in disease
resistance has received some attention recently, but much more knowl-
edge of this type is desired. Many of the problems of today may come
nearer to solution with a clearer understanding of the enzyme systems of
the parasitic fungi and the basic principles of specific enzymatic action.
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CHAPTER 18
PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AND INHERITANCE OF

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS
Variation in the results of experimental work with fungi is of frequent

occurrence;it is perhaps even more frequent than uniformity. Different
investigators conducting the same experiments with the same species of
fungus have often failed to obtain the same results. Such variation may
be attributed to (1) genetic differences in the strains or isolates used, (2)
slight nutritional differences in the experiments, or (3) differences in the
physical environment. Examples of the second and third groups of
factors have been pointed out frequently in the earlier chapters. A brief
discussion of the genetic differences involving physiological expression
and the general mode of inheritance of these factors (in so far as they are
known) will be given.
PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATION
Variation in physiological behavior of different species of fungi has
been noted in the preceding chapters. The present discussion emphasizes
the physiological variation within a species, i.e., between different isolates,
strains, or races, which show little or no morphological difference.
Nutritional requirements. Variations in the nutritional requirements
of different isolates of the same species are numerous. Differences in
vitamin requirements or in carbon and nitrogen utilization may serve as
examples.
Differences in deficiencies for one or more vitamins have been reported
for different isolates of Fusarium avenaceuni (Robbins and Ma, 1941),
Sclerotinia minor (Barnett and Lilly, 19-47), Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(Leonian and Lilly, 1942; Burkholder and Moyer, 1942), Sordaria fimicola
(Hawker, 1939; Barnett and Lilly, 1947a), and numerous others. For
example, certain isolates of Sordaria fimicola from nature are totally
deficient for biotin alone, while others are deficient for both biotin and
thiamine. A somewhat different type of variation is reported by Thren
(1941) for Ustilago nuda. The haploid mycelium showed no deficiency
for vitamins, while the diploid mycelium required an external supply of
thiamine or pyrimidine. The plus and minus strains were also found to
differ in their nutritional requirements.
400
VARIATION AND INHERITANCE 401
Different isolates of Ustilago striiformis have shown strikingly different

responses to sources of carbon and nitrogen (Cheo, 1949). The isolates
from bluegrass segregated into two groups based on mycelial type, ''frag-
menting" and "mycelial." The "fragmenting" type grew well only
on media containing sucrose and organic nitrogen, while the "mycelial"
type could utilize a number of sugars and nitrate nitrogen. Single-spore
(haploid) isolates from the same fruit body of Lenzites trdbea collected in
nature varied nearly fourfold in their ability to synthesize thiamine
(Lilly and Barnett, 1948).
Induced deficiencies for a number of vitamins and amino acids have
been demonstrated by Beadle (1946) in mutants of Neurospora and by
Bonner (1946) in mutants of Penicilliiim. The mutations were induced
by exposure of spores of these fungi to ultraviolet and X-ray radiation.
Mutants that showed deficiencies for thiamine and differences in nitrogen
requirements were also reported for Aspergillus terreus (Thorn and Raper,
1945). One mutant differed from most species of Aspergillus in its
inability to utilize nitrate nitrogen. Fries (1948) describes spontaneous
mutations of Ophiostoma which yield the same strains and in the same
proportion as those induced by X rays. These results lead us to conclude
that similar mutations are the principal cause of variation in the isolates
obtained from nature.
Response to environment. Isolates of the same species frequently
vary in their physiological responses to some environmental factors,
among which are temperature and light. For example, isolates of
Phytophthora infestans were found to vary in their resistance to high
temperature (Martin, 1949). Of the eight isolates studied, four from
Louisiana withstood exposure to 36°C. for 6 days, while three isolates
from Minnesota were killed after 4 days and one isolate from New York
was killed in less than 6 hr. at the same temperature. The presence of
the high-temperature strain is believed to be responsible for the prevalence
of late blight in Louisiana during the past few years. Houston (1945)
found that, for one group of isolates of Corticiiim solani, the optimum
temperature for growth was 24 to 25°C. and the maximum was 33°C.
For two other groups the optimum and maximum temperatures were 28
to 29°C. and 40°C., respectively. The three groups also varied in growth
rates.
Variation in response to light is illustrated by Choanephora cucur-
hitarum. This was indicated first by Wolf (1917) for two isolates. The
isolate used by Christenberry (1938) produced conidia in continuous
total darkness, whiletwo isolates used in our laboratory failed to produce
conidia in continuous darkness (Barnett and Lilly, 1950).
Metabolic products. Both qualitative and quantitative variations in
the metabolic products of different isolates of the same species are com-
mon. Industries involved in the commercial production of alcohols,

certain organic acids, and antibiotics are in constant search for higher
yielding "strains" of the species in present use, as well as of other species
of fungi. Such a search led to the discovery of PenicilHum chrijsogenum
Q176 and its variants, which are high producers of penicillin. Brewer's
yeast is said to grow in media with an alcohol content as high as 14 to
17 per cent, while the baker's yeast is checked in about 4 per cent alcohol
(Wolf and Wolf, 1947). Both yeasts belong to the species Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.
A different type of variation,apparently linked with sexuality, is
reported in Mucor racemosus (Harris, 1948). Here, the production of an
undetermined antibiotic seems to be confined to the minus strain. Varia-
tion in bioluminescence is reported for Panus stypticus (Macrae, 1942).
The fruit bodiesand mycelium of the strain found in North America
are luminescent, while those found in Europe are not (Fig. 77). Variants
of the same species commonly differ in pigment production (Christensen
and Graham, 1934; Leonian, 1929). Mutants, or saltants, are commonly
lighter in color than the parent type.
Sporulating ability. Many investigators have noted the spontaneous
development of nonsporulating cultures or sectors from a sporulating
mycelium. Variation in abundance of spores produced by different
isolates from nature is also common. For example, some of the species
which illustrate this variability are Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp.,
Phoma Gibber ella zeae, Glomerella cingulata, Lenzites trabea,

terrestris,
Monilinia fructicola, and Ustilago striiformis. Variations in fruit bodies

of Cyathus stercoreus produced in culture are described by Brodie (1948).
Variation in production of sclerotia has been observed in isolates of
Sclerotinia trifoliorum by Kreitlow (1949) and of S. sclerotiorum in our
laboratory.
Pathogenicity. Variability in the metabolic products such as enzymes
and toxins and in the ability to establish compatible food relations with
the host may be of great importance in determining pathogenicity. Das
Gupta (1936) discusses the pathogenicity as well as other characteristics
of "saltants." Such soil-inhabiting fungi as Fusarium spp. are notorious
for their variability in pathogenicity within a species. Species of Helmin-
thosporium (Christensen, 1922; Dickinson, 1932) and Cortidum solani
(Houston, 1945) are likewise highly variable. In the highly parasitic
fungi, such as the smuts, rusts, and powdery mildews, there is a high
degree of physiologic specialization of races.
The determination of physiologic races is based on infection types of
several varieties or species of the host. Dickson (1947) reports the
existance of 189 known physiologic races of Puccinia graminis tritici and
128 physiologic races of P. rubigo-vera tritici. Genetic studies indicate
that the physiologic races may vary in Init a single gene and that they may
arise by hybridization or by mutation.
There is abundant evidence that the haploid and diploid stages of some
fungi may differ in pathogenicity. The haploid phase of a number of
Fig. 77. Panus stypticus grown on malt agar. A, diploid mycelium, 4 weeks old, from
a pairing between a haplont of the luminous American form and a haplont of the
nonluminous European form, photographed by reflected light; B, the same culture as A
photographed by its own light; C, a 2-weeks-old pairing between a nonluminous
haplont, on the left, and a luminous haplont, on the right, photographed by reflected
light; D, the same pairing as C photographed by its own light. (Courtesy of Macrae,
Can. Jour. Research, Sec. C, 20: 424, 1942.)
smuts apparently unable to cause infection, while the diploid mycelium

is
is pathogenic. Since the haploid and diploid mycelia of the heteroecious

rusts parasitize different hosts, we must conclude that they also differ in
pathogenicity.
INHERITANCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

The genetics of the fungi has been, in general, a neglected study.
Numerous papers have appeared on the sexuality of the fungi, particu-
larly with regard to the various sexual or compatibility groups in the
Basidiomycetes. The sexuality of the Mucorales has been studied to a
lesser extent. Genetic studies of morphological characters have been
decidedly fewer. Perhaps this is due to the failure to recognize definite
morphological differences betwêen individuals of opposite sex but of the
same species. An equally great handicap to such studies lies in the
difficulty in obtaining the perfect stage of many of the fungi which other-
wise might be suitable. Studies dealing with inheritance of physiological
characters (if sexuality is excluded) are comparatively few and recent.
The basis of inheritance. The physical basis of inheritance is the
gene, located at a specific position on a certain chromosome. In mitosis

the chromosomes and their genes divide, and half of each goes to each
daughter nucleus. With the exception of parthenogenesis, all perfect
stages of the fungi arise as a result of the union of two nuclei. These
two nuclei may arise from the same haploid individual (homothallism)
or from separate haploid thalli (heterothallism). The union of the two
haploid nuclei, each with a single set of chromosomes, initiates the diploid
nucleus, or the syncaryotic stage, in which the chromosomes are paired.
The syncaryotic stage in fungi is usually short in duration, being followed
closely by meiosis, which involves the separation of the two chromosomes
(and genes) of each pair. Certain pairs of chromosomes may separate in
the first division, while others separate in the second. Therefore, two
successive nuclear divisions are necessary to complete the reduction of
all pairs of chromosomes (and likewise all the pairs of genes). In the
Ascomycetes and the Eubasidiomycetes karyogamy and meiosis occur
in the same cell, the ascus and the basidium, respectively. In the smuts
and rusts, meiosis typically takes place in a promycelium, while kary-
ogamy occurs in the teliospore. When a single pair of genes is considered,
half the haploid ascospores or basidiospores carry one gene and half carry
the other gene.
Inheritance in the Ascomycetes. Some of the outstanding genetic
work has been done by Dodge (1927, 1928) and others with Neurospora,
by Ames (1934) and Doweling (1931) with Pleurage anserina, by Edgerton
et at. (1945), Chilton and Wheeler (1949), and their associates with
Glomerella, and by Lindegren (1945, 1948) and his colleagues with yeasts.
Most of these investigations have been concerned primarily with sexual
or morphological characters. The life cycle of Neurospora is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 78.
Beadle and his associates have contributed much to our knowledge
of the inheritance of physiological characters in the Ascomycetes. Beadle

(1946) believed that, if the ability to synthesize a certain amino acid or
growth factor were due to the action of a single gene, it should be possible
to modify the gene in such a way that the fungus could no longer syn-
thesize that compound. Previous work of other geneticists with corn,
Drosophila, and other organisms had shown that exposure to X rays or
ultraviolet radiation caused mutations by either destroying the gene or
modifying it so that it could no longer function normally. Beadle found
that exposure of conidia of Neurospora crassa and A^. sitophila to X rays
or ultraviolet rays had the similar effect of causing mutations that were
Germinating Germinating
aSCOspore- .-^
ascospore
Conidia Conidia
Protoperittiecium A — ~- Protoperithecium a
Hypnal fusion
Fig. 78. Diagram of life cycle of Neurospora. (Courtesy of Beadle, Am. Scientist
34 36, 1946, and Science in Progress, 1947. Published by permission of the Society of
:
the Sigma Xi.)
expressed in the inability of the fungus to synthesize vitamins, amino

acids,and other essential metabolites.
The 'Svild type" of Neurospora is deficient for biotin but is self-suffi-
cient for all other vitamins and for its necessary amino acids. The
conidia were exposed to the ultraviolet rays of a Sterilamp for such a
time that most of the spores were killed. The spores were then
sown over the surface of agar plates in such concentration as to give
individual "colonies," which were isolated and allowed to grow. When
these were transferred to a minimal medium, containing sucrose, nitrate,
mineral salts, and biotin, the failure of an isolate to grow showed an
induced variation from the wild type in its capacity to synthesize essen-
tial metabolites.
The variant cultures were then selected and crossed with the wild
strain of the opposite sex to determine if the changes were inherited. The
ascospores from these crosses were planted on both the minimal medium
and a complete medium. The appearance of the deficiency in half of
the cultures was considered as evidence that the change was of genetic
origin;i.e., a mutation. Transfers of the mutant to four different media
(minimal, with amino acids, with vitamins, and complete) then deter-
mined whether the deficiency was for an amino acid or a vitamin. All
media contained biotin. For a diagrammatic scheme of the procedure
see Fig. 79.
X-ravs or
ultraviolet
J-
-^ © © © -
^
Coniolict Crossed
(asexuoil spores) with wild
Wild fv/pe
O t^pe of
\.y opposite
sex
Frui+inq body
I
-<r-
Sexut^l spore
V.
T T T"
n
Complete
O A
meolium
(with vitoimins,
oimino cicids,
etc.)
\y
MinirriCTl Vitoimins Amino Minim(7il Complete
medium acids
Fig. 79. Experimental procedure by which biochemical mutants are produced and
detected in Neurospora. (Courtesy of Beadle, Am. Scientist 34 37, 1946, and Science
:
in Prug'-ess, 1947. Published by permission of the Society of the Sigma Xi.)
7 he identification of the specific deficiency involved the growth of the

upon the minimal medium plus each of the amino acids and
iiiyt2,nt
vitamins added singly. This procedure is shown in Fig. 80. Figure 81
shows the proof of inheritance of the deficiency for pantothenic acid.
Mutations involving tli'^ following vitamins have been described:
thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxin'^, niacin, pantothenic acid, p-amino-
ben.ôic acid, inositol, and choline. All mutants, as well as the wild
type, are deficient for biotin. In addition, mutations have appeared
which cannot synthesize tlis following amino acids: arginine, isoleucine,
VARIATION AND INHERITANCE 40;
Complete
medium
Q Q Q Q Q I ©
^
Thiamin Ribo- Pyri- Panto- Niacin p-Amino- Inositol Choline Folic Nucleic Minimal
flavin doxin thenif benzoic acid acid control
acid acid
Fig. 80. Tests of mutant on individual vitamins or growth factors. Growth only on
pantothenic acid indicates a single deficiency for this vitamin. (Courtesy of Beadle,
Am. Scientist 34: 39, 1946, and Science in Progress, 1947. Published by permission
of the Society of the Sigma Xi.)
o
QQOOQOQO
Fruiting
I
f Uhu) Mb* iHi iki iSS
|r jF I I p
KJ kJ \J \J kJ
D O With pantothenic oicid
QOOOQOQQ
i } 1 I 1 1 1 1
Wild Panfothenicless
t:ype p ¥ B
Without pantothenic acid
Fig. 81. Scheme by which the inheritance of a mutant type is determined. The 1 to
1 ratio with regard to need for pantothenic acid indicates simple Mendelian inheritance.
(Courtesy of Beadle, Am. Scientist 34: 40, 1946, and Science in Progress, 1947. Pub-
lishedby permission of the Society of the Sigma Xi.)
leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threonine, trypto-

phane, and valine.
Beadle (1946) states:
The list compounds that Neurospora can be made to require from an external
of
source remarkably similar to a list of chemicals that we cannot make and
is
require in our food suppl3^ It is clear, therefore, that the substances the bread
mold needs in its metabolism are very much the same as those we need. The
difference is only an apparent one and results from the fact that bread mold
makes them whereas we let some other organism make them for us. By inacti-
vating the right genes the bread mold can be made very similar to man in its
nutritional requirements.
Using a technique similar to that described above for Beadle's work,

Bonner (1946) exposed conidia oiPeniciUium. notatum and P. chrysogcmnn
to X rays and ultraviolet rays. Of a total of 85,595 "strains" tested,
398 were found to be deficient in synthetic ability. Since these species
ofPeniciUium are imperfect, the genetic basis for the biochemical changes
cannot be proved, but it seems likely that this is the case, just as in
Neurospora.
Inheritance in the Basidiomycetes. In the life cycle of the Basidio-
mycetes there exists a distinct diploid (dicaryotic) vegetative phase of
extended duration, in which the cells usually contain two haploid con-
jugate nuclei. Buller (1941) cites the results of numerous experiments
by himself and others to furnish ample proof that one nucleus of the
conjugate haploid pair in the diploid mycelium may affect the expression
of the other nucleus and thus exhibit dominance. This is true for physio-
logical as well as morphological characters. Experimental evidence
indicates that the genetic behavior of a cell containing two conjugate
haploid nuclei is similar to that of the diploid nucleus, if the two were
fused. Buller believes that the term "diploid cell" can apply equally
well to a cell containing two conjugate haploid nuclei and to a cell con-
taining one diploid nucleus. He prefers to use the terms "haploid" and
"diploid" in describing mycelium or cells to the terms "monocaryotic"
and "dicaryotic" which are also in use. We prefer to follow Buller in
the use of these terms.
In the higher Basidiomycetes, principally the Agaricales, genetic studies
have been chiefly limited to the inheritance of sex factors or compatibility
factors. Fewer studies have dealt with the more strictly physiological
characters. In a heterothallic species, two compatible haploid mycelia
unite to initiate the diploid mycelium, which in many species is recog-
nized by the presence of clamp connections. Usually, the formation of
the diploid mycelium is a prerequisite to the production of fruit bodies.
Exidia, in the Tremellales, Avill serve as an example of the higher
Basidiomycetes. In four species studied (Barnett, 1937) the single-
spore haploid cultures from the same fruit body fell into two compatibility-
groups. Such a condition is described as bipolar. Diploid mycelium
was formed only when two haploid mycelia of different compatibility
groups were paired. If A and a represent the genes for compatibility,
the combination of Aa would be necessary for the formation of diploid
mycelium. AA and aa would be incompatible.
^\^lile body of Exidiaglandu-
the single-spore cultures of a single fruit
losa give rise totwo compatibility groups A and a, a second fruit body
collected at some distance away may give rise to haploid mycelia which
apparently fall into the same groups {A and a). Yet we may find that
all the haploid mycelia of the first fruit bod}^ are compatible with
all the
haploid mycelia of the second fruit body. In other words, the two groups
of the second fruit body are slightly different from the two groups of the
first fruit body. It is, therefore, likely that numerous compatibility
groups even though only two occur in any one fruit body. Com-
exist,
is apparently determined by multiple alleles.
patibility, in this case, The
existence of geographic races has been described for a number of fungi
by Buller (1941) and others.
A somewhat different situation exists in Collybia velutipes and a number
of other species. has been found that each spore on a basidium may
It
differ in its compatibility factors. Compatibility in this case is deter-
mined by two pairs of genes on different chromosomes. These groups
are usually designated as AB, Ah, aB, and ah. The combination of
AaBb is then necessary for compatibility and formation of diploid
mycelium.
Compatibility in itself does not necessarily indicate that fertile fruit
bodies will be formed. For instance, some of the single-spore isolates
of Lenzites trahea were found to produce fertile fruit bodies, while other
cultures failed to do so (Barnett and Lilly, 1949). By pairing compatible
fruiting isolates and also the compatible nonfruiting isolates, it was possi-
ble to establish a correlation between the fertility of the diploid mycelia
with that of the haploid "parents." It seems probable, therefore, that
the ability to produce fertile fruit bodies has a genetic basis, in addition
to that of compatibility.
In Schizophyllum commune the ability to produce normal fruit bodies is
dominant over the formation of abnormal, knot-like fruit bodies (Zatler,
in Buller, 1941). If G represents the factor for normal fruit bodies and
g the factor for knot-like fruit bodies, the results could be expressed as
follows: G crossed with G or G crossed with g gives normal fruit bodies,
while g crossed with g gives knot-like fruit bodies. Zatler also showed
that in Collybia velutipes inheritance of pigmentation of his cultures was
due to two genes located on different chromosomes. A combination of
the two dominant factors in the haploid mycelium resulted in a deep
brown color; one dominant and one recessive factor gave lighter shades
of brown while a combination of the two recessive factors gave pure white
;
mycelium.
The normal haplont of Peniophora allescheri is reported (Nobles, 1935)
as slow-growing with scant mycelium bearing conidia. A mutant grew
rapidly with abundant mycelium but bore no conidia. The combination
of normal haplont and mutant haplont yielded diploid mycelium which
grew rapidly and abundantly and produced conidia. Thus, rapid growth
and conidial production were dominant over slow growth and nonproduc-
tion of conidia.
Bioluminescence of the North American race of Panus stypticus was
found (Macrae, 1942) to be dominant over nonluminescence of the
European race when the two haplonts were crossed (Fig. 77).
The single-spore isolates from a single fruit body of Lenzites trahea were
found (Lilly and Barnett, 1948) to vary nearly fourfold in their ability to
synthesize thiamine. WTien a haplont of low synthetic ability was
crossed with one of high synthetic ability, no definite evidence of domi-
nance was observed. By making other types of crosses it was found that,
in general, the synthetic ability of the Fi haplonts was similar to that of
the "parent" haplonts. Yet, when the "parent" haplonts differed
widely in synthetic ability, the Fi haplonts did not segregate into the
1 to 1 ratio, as would be the case if inheritance were due to a single gene.
Single-spore cultures from haploid fruit bodies produced by certain

haplonts were more uniform in their ability to synthesize thiamine than
were single-spore cultures from diploid fruit bodies of known origin. It
was concluded that the ability to synthesize thiamine by L. trahea is
genetically controlled, and that the mode of inheritance is complex and
not due to a single gene.
The smuts have received much attention in genetic studies by Stakman,
Christensen, and their associates at the University of Minnesota. Such
characters as sex, pigmentation, pathogenicity, and morphological fea-
tures of the mycelium and spores have been included in the study. Little
is known regarding the factors governing the more strictly physiological
or nutritional processes. An excellent review of the genetics of the smuts
isgiven by Christensen and Rodenhiser (1940). These authors discuss
the work of Goldschmidt, who found that the diploid mycelium derived
from two haplonts of different races of Ustilago violaceae was able to
attack the hosts which were susceptible to each parent race. This
indicates that the diplont contained the combined pathogenic characters
of the two haplonts. Hanna (1932) made an interspecific cross between
Tilletia levis, with smooth spores and an odor of trimethylamine, and T.
tritici, which had rough spores and no odor of trimethylamine. The
Fi "chlamydospores" had smooth walls and emitted an odor of tri-
methylamine, showing that both characters were dominant.

Numerous articles on the inheritance of the rusts may be cited. Among

the characters commonly studied are color of urediospores and patho-
genicity. One striking example of inheritance of pathogenicity of races
of Puccinia graminis tritici is reported by Johnson and Newton (1940).
Using pathogenically homozygous mycelia of race 9 and race 36, it was
found that Kanred wheat was not attacked by race 9 but was highly
susceptible to race 36. Urediospores were obtained from a hybrid of
these two races and were sown on different varieties of wheat. No infec-
tion occurred on Kanred, indicating that the nonpathogenicity of race 9
wâs dominant over the pathogenicity of race 36. In the r2 uredio-
spores the pathogenicity to Kanred wheat segregated in a 1 to 3 ratio,
indicating true ]\Iendelian inheritance.
The basis of variation in the imperfect fungi. Any change or variation
in the imperfect fungi may
be either temporary or permanent. Tem-
porary variations do not involve gene changes, ^vhile the permanent
variations are believed to have their basis in the gene, or at least in the
nucleus. The Mendelian inheritance of these variations cannot be proved
in those fungi with no sexual stage.
Most investigators studying the permanent variations which arise in
culture or which are recognized in different isolates of many of the imper-
fect fungi would explain the origin of these variants as mutations. For
example, Dickinson (1932) studied "saltation" in the genera Fusarium
and Helminthosporium and noted frequent anastomoses between hyphae
of different "saltants." This author discussed the possibility of cyto-
plasmic inheritance but concluded that the permanent variations were
due to actual mutations.
Hansen (1938) would explain many such variations in the imperfect
fungi on a different basis and presents abundant evidence to substantiate
his argument. Only the essential features of Hansen's "dual phenom-
enon" will be presented below. The conidia and mycelial cells of many
of the imperfect fungi contain two or more nuclei. These nuclei may
not all be alike. Considering the nucleus rather than the cell as the
basic unit of the individual, an isolate may be composed of two culturally
distinct individuals. This condition is referred to as the dual phenom-
enon. A heterocaryotic fungus, when single-spored, would give rise to
homotypes of each of the individuals and the heterotype like the parent
isolate. One homotype is characterized by abundant mycelium and few
or no conidia and is called the M
(mycelial) type. The other is charac-
terized by abundant conidia and often a lesser amount of mycelium and is
called the C (conidial) type. The heterotype is, in general, intermediate
between the M
and C types and is called the type. MC
Cultures of the
M and C types give only the parent type when single-spored. The
frequency w4th w^hich the dual phenomenon is encountered in the imper-
fect fungi suggests that this is the natural condition for many fungi.
In a later paper, Hansen and Snyder (1943) state that the change from
the M
C to the type is a true mutation. In Hypomyces solani f cucurhitae .
this change also involved the change from the hermaphroditic phase to
the unisexual male phase. They conclude that the M
and C genes are
alleles and are inherited independently of the factors for compatibility.
On the contrary, Robbins and McVeigh (1949) have presented evidence
that variants of Trichophyton mentagrophytes arise as mutations and that
the dual phenomenon does not exist in this fungus.
Nutritional adaptations. Most of our present knowledge regarding
nutritional adaptations has come from experiments with yeasts, and to a
lesser extent with Neurospora and bacteria. Leonian and Lilly (1942)
were able to "train" eight strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae so that they
grew without the addition of one or more of the vitamins which they
formerly required. The techniciue employed consisted in increasing the
amount of initial inoculum, prolongation of the incubation period, and
repeated subculturing on media deficient for one of the necessary vita-
mins. Reversions occurred in most of the strains after being cultured
continuously on media containing all the vitamins. Such adaptations
as these may or may not involve gene changes.
Lindegren and his associates have written numerous articles on the
genetics and adaptations of yeasts. From over 400 isolates of Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae, Skoog and Lindegren (1947) found 12 which could
not utilize glucose. Eleven of these isolates reverted to glucose utiliza-
tion within a period of a few days. One isolate remained glucose-negative
for a period of 3 months when grown on lactate medium. They believe
that the reversion to glucose utilization involves more than a single-step
change.
Spiegelman (1950) points out that "a basic assumption of modern
biology is that genes function by controlling enzyme synthesis. From
this point of view it is obvious that enzymatic adaptation has profound
implications for one of the central themes of biological thinking." This
does not mean that the presence of the gene is always accompanied by
the presence of the enzyme in the cell, but merely that the potentialities
for the production of the enzyme are present. The synthesis of the
specific enzyme, as well as its subsequent activity, depends upon other
factors, a major one being the type of substrate. From numerous experi-
ments it is evident that the specific enzyme either is produced, or becomes
detectable, only when its corresponding substrate is present in the
medium. It appears, however, that the specific enzyme may be formed
even when the corresponding substrate is not present but that, under
such conditions, the adaptive enzymes are usually not detected. In the
course of a "long-term adaptation," there is not only synthesis of the
specific enzyme but also an increase in the rate of enzyme formation. In
'
this respect, Spiegelman states, "In particular, the rate of formation

of a given enzyme is an autocatalytic function of the amount of that
particular enzyme present in the cytoplasm."
Ryan (1946) found that certain adaptations of the " prolineless " and
" thiamineless " mutants of Neurospora are not inherited. For example,
the "thiamineless" mutant may not grow for several days after being
placed on a thiamine-free agar medium and may finally begin to grow.
This is explained on the basis of adaptive enzyme formation. For further
discussion of adaptive enzymes, see Chap. 4. For a more complete
discussion of cytoplasmic inheritance and adaptive enzymes in yeast, the
reader is referred to Lindegren (1945, 1949) and Spiegelman (1950).
Back mutations. The mutations studied by Beadle and others were
those involving deficiencies for growth factors which the wild type was
able to synthesize. It has been shown that, under certain conditions,
there may
be a reversion from the deficient type to the wild type. This
may be a noninherited condition (an adaptation), such as that
clue to
described above, or it may involve a gene change (a back mutation).
Ryan (1946) has discussed at some length the topic of back mutation and
adaptation in certain organisms. Only a few of his ideas will be presented
here, omitting the detailed results of his experiments. He points out
that the change from a deficient to a self-sufficient habit for growth fac-
tors be induced experimentally in both the fungi and the bacteria.
may
In some cases these nutritional changes are inherited, indicating gene
changes. In the case of the "leucineless" mutant of Neurospora the
adaptation back to the autotrophic habit was determined to be due to a
reverse mutation of the leucineless factor to the wild type. Ryan believes
that the ultraviolet rays, in causing the original "leucineless" mutation,
caused a change in the wild-type gene so that it still retained the ability
to reproduce but was unable to act in the synthesis of leucine. He found
that the "adaptation frequency" varied inversely with the amount of
leucine present in the medium. This theory assumes merely the inactiva-
tion and reactivation rather than the destruction of a gene by the ultra-
violet rays.
Lindegren (1949) found that a mutation from pantothenate deficiency
to pantothenate independence was at a different locus, and that the
synthesis of pantothenate by the mutant was by a different route than
in the original wild type.
Giles and Lederberg (1948) have recently studied the effects of various
mutagenic agents in inducing adaptations (reversions) of deficient
mutants of Neurospora crassa. They found that the frequency of adapta-
tion of certain mutants vaay be greatly increased by ultraviolet radiation.
This was true with the "inositolless," "cholineless," "methionineless,"
'
and ribofla vinless mutants. The pantothenicless mutants remained
'
'
'
'
' '
unchanged by the same treatment. Indications are that these changes

represent mutations to the wild type. These adaptations may also be
initiated by X and radiophosphorus.
rays, nitrogen mustard,
Chemically induced mutations. Nitrogen and sulfur mustard gases
have been used to induce mutations in various fungi. The method of
treatment is simple and consists in exposing spores or mycelium to a
buffered solution of the chemical for 30 min. or longer. The spores or
mycelium are then washed and plated out. The methods used in detect-
ing mutants are then the same as when X rays or ultraviolet irradiations
are used. Treatment of young conidia or germinating conidia of Neuros-
pora crassa with nitrogen mustard produced more mutants than treat-
ment of old or ungerminated conidia (McElroy et al., 1947). The tech-
nique of using the vapor of mustard gas to induce mutation is described
by Hockenhull (1948). Mustard gas in a buffered solution (pH 6.9 to
7.0) was used by Hockenhull (1949) to produce mutants of Aspergillus
nidulans.
The mustard gases, in common with nitrous acid, react with proteins.
For example, casein which has been treated with mustard gas no longer
supports the growth of the chick or rat. This is due to the inactivation
of certain essential amino acids (Kinsey and Grant, 1946).
Mutation-inducing chemicals may be encountered by fungi under
natural conditions. It was shown that toxic metabolic products of
Bacillus mesentericus affected the production of mutants by certain strains
of Helminthosporium sativum (Christensen and Davis, 1940). The
filtrate of B. mesentericus cultures induced sectoring of H. sativum. These
mutants differed from the parent in morphology, pathogenicity, and other
physiological characters.
Among the chemical compounds which induce mutations in fungi, the
action of nitrous acid has been especially studied (Thorn and Steinberg,
1939; Steinberg and Thom, 1940, 1942). Mutants of Aspergillus niger,
A. amstelodami, A. variecolor, A. fumigatus, A. fischeri, A. flavus, A.
alliaceus, and A. nidulans wêre produced with ease by growing fungi on
mannitol-nitrite medium. Some of these mutants wêre stable in culture
for over 20 years. In addition to morphological changes, these nitrous
acid-induced mutants were characterized by reduced ability to sporulate
and other physiological changes, especially ability to utilize certain amino
acids and a reduced rate of growth. It was postulated that nitrous acid
reacted with free amino groups of the proteins of the genes. Evidence
supporting this hypothesis was obtained when it wâs found that other
chemicals which also react with free amino groups (ninhydrin, chlora-
mine-T, potassium iodide, and hexamethylenetetramine) induced similar
mutations in A. niger.
Certain amino acids, when added to the medium on which these
mutants were cultured, induced partial or complete reversion to the

morphology of the parent type. Of the single amino acids tested, only
lysine, cystine, /3-phenyl-/3-alanine, threonine, and vahne induced com-
plete reversion with the mutant of A. nigcr studied. Nicotinic acid,
lysine, and valine in combination gave the best results. Complete
reversion of a mutant of A. amstelodami was obtained only with a mixture
of lysine and threonine.
It should be pointed out that, although the mutants of Aspergillus
have been apparently stable for a long period of time, proof of the inherit-
ance of these characters by crossing the "mutants" with the parent type
isnot available.
SUMMARY
Some knowledge of physiological variation and of the inheritance of
the underlying factors is of great importance to the investigator who
cultures fungi. The plant pathologist is greatly interested in knowing
the stability of the pathogenicity of the plant pathogenic fungi and in
learning whether the variations which he finds are apt to be permanent
or only temporary. Considerable effort has been made toward an under-
standing of the genetics of the smuts, the rusts, and the yeasts. A few
other fungi, such as Neurospora, Glomerella, and Phycomyces, have received
attention because they are particularly adapted to genetic studies.
However, the work up to the present leaves much to be desired regarding
the relation between genetics and physiology.
The genetics of sex and compatibility has been most frequently studied.
It is only natural that such is the case, for much of the understanding
of a fungus depends upon the completion of its sexual life cycle and a
clear knowledge of the various stages. Studies on the inheritance of
morphological characters are represented by numerous isolated reports
on characters more or less clearly defined. The reasons for the limited
number of investigationson the genetics of physiological characters are
numerous. Perhaps the principal reason is our meager knovvledge of the
intricate physiological processes of the fungi. The difficulty in obtaining
strains of the different sexes of suitable fungi which have clear-cut physio-
logical differences is great. The actual difficulty in carrying out the
physiological tests has no doubt discouraged work along this line.
Studies on the inheritance of induced deficiencies for a number of
vitamins and amino acids have indicated that such deficiencies may be
inherited in a simple Mendelian fashion. On the other hand, the inherit-
ance of partial thiamine deficiency in Lenzites trabea is complex and does
not follow the simple Mendelian pattern. Studies of the yeasts have
indicated that some physiological characters are inherited through, or
influenced by, the cytoplasm. This possibility should not be overlooked
in the filamentous fungi, where anastomoses of hyphae are common.
:
The basis permanent variation in imperfect fungi (as well as in other

for
groups) is by many to be true mutation. There is circumstantial
believed
evidence that many such sudden changes are mutations, but the inherit-
ance of such a change in the imperfect fungi cannot be proved. Other
variations in the imperfect fungi are explained on the basis of hetero-
caryosis. Separation of such nuclei into different spores would result in
the segregation into different mycelial or sporulating types. Thus, the
dual phenomenon would explain many of the variations in the imperfect
fungi.
The type of variation known as physiological specialization is of prac-
tical interest and importance among the pathogenic fungi. Pathogenicity
on a number of varieties of hosts offers a rigorous test to distinguish races
which differ perhaps only slightly in their physiology. The future of the
work dealing with physiology and genetics of the fungi lies principally
in the hands of competent, well-trained investigators who may be inter-
ested enough to spend much time and effort in this narrow field of investi-
gation. Many problems in this field are waiting to be solved.
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(Jensen) Kellerm. et Sw., Arch. Mikrobiol. 12 :
Wolf, F. A.: A squash disease caused by Choanephora cucurbitarum, Jour. Agr.

Research B: 319-328, 1917.
Wolf, F. A., and F. T. Wolf: The Fungi, Vol, II, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1947.
SUGGESTED LABORATORY EXERCISES
Each of the laboratory exercises is designed to ilKistrate one or more
important principles regarding the phj'siological activities of the fungi.
Each represents a more or less complete unit or phase, but there is neces-
sarily some overlapping and duplication of the techniques. Laboratory
exercises requiring greenhouse space and living plants have been omitted.
This does not mean that an understanding of the cultural activities should
be the only aim of the laboratory work. Rather, it is believed that such
information regarding the nutritional and environmental requirements of
fungi in pure culture will aid in the better understanding of the behavior
of both parasitic and nonparasitic fungi in nature.
The laboratory exercises are planned so as to allow a high degree of
flexibility. The instructor may wish to omit, change, or add to some of
the suggested exercises to suit the equipment and other facilities available.
The exercises are outlined to require a minimum of laboratory equipment.
Any or all of the exercises may be expanded or shortened as desired for a
large or small number of students.
Each student should select one or more laboratory exercises in which
he has a particular interest. He may then be designated as the leader
of that exercise or exercises. His duties would include (1) the general
planning of the exercise in consultation ^^^th the instructor, (2) the direct-
ing of the execution of the exercise, (3) collecting and organization of the
data from other students, and (4) the writing of a comprehensive report
on the subject. References should be read and discussed in comparison
with the results of the experiments in the laboratory.
The supply of test fungi is almost unlimited. In most exercises each
student will use two or more species of fungi. The total number for the
class should be sufficiently large to emphasize the differences as well as
the similarities that existamong various fungi. In many instances our
knowledge is limited, and little or nothing has been published regarding
the physiology of some of the species used. In this sense, much of the
work done in the laboratory will be experimental and should be carried
out with all the care of a research problem. Fungi should be selected
so that both growth and sporulation may be studied in the same experi-
ment. In each exercise are listed a few fungi, some of which have been
used in our laboratory and have given quite satisfactory results. Other
species may be added or substituted.
Notes should be recorded in a full-sized permanent notebook reserved
419
only for the laboratory work in this course. The student should take
notes and record data so that anyone familiar with the subject could
organize the data and write an intelligent summary. Data taken during
the experiments are important and in themselves may be quite convincing
at that time, but data alone without organization and discussion of their
meaning are often sterile and soon forgotten.
The paper should be written as soon as possible after the termination
of the laboratory exercise. It is suggested that all students read the
excellent discussion of Riker (1946) on the preparation of manuscripts.
The student should become familiar with the microscopic character-
istics of the fungi used in the experiments. He should make frequent
microscopic observations during the experiment and look for microscopic
changes, such as abundance and maturity of spores. Contaminants are
often more easily recognized under the microscope. Drawings are often
desirable as records of differences in microscopic characteristics.
EXERCISE 1
General Laboratory Procedure

Exercise 1 is suitably carried out by the instructor as a demonstration
of general laboratory techniques. This affords the instructor an oppor-
tunity to discuss the details of various procedures and to acquaint the
students with the laboratory facilities. It is convenient to prepare suffi-
cient stock culture medium, e.g., medium 1 (Ex. 2), for growing the
inoculum required by the class for the next exercise.
General directions for preparing media. The culture medium should
be selected with the purpose of the experiment in mind. The precautions
to be observed may be elemental or elaborate, depending upon the pur-
pose for which the medium is to be used. The accuracy of one measure-
ment should be consistent with the accuracy of the others. The weights
of each constituent of a given lot of medium should be written in a note-
book. As each constituent is measured, make a check mark against this
constituent.
Never weigh chemicals directly on the balance pans. Use a clean piece
of paper or watch glass. The weights are placed on the right-hand pan
as you face the balance. Be sure the spatula is cleaned between weigh-
ings of different chemicals. If you remove more of a chemical than
necessary, discard the excess. (Material still on the spatula may be
returned to the stock bottle.) Keep the stock bottles closed. This
prevents the entrance of dust and atmospheric moisture. Malt extract,
yeast extract, and peptone quickly absorb water from the air, and when
these substances have done so, an intractable mass results.
For work accuracy use a graduated cylinder for measuring
of ordinary
liquids. Volumetric glassware should be used for precise work. The
;
SUGGESTED LABORATORY EXERCISES 421
chemicals should be dissolved in less than the desired volume of water,

and after they are in solution, the medium should be made up to volume
by the addition of distilled water.
Constituents of media. The salts used in making media should be of
c.p. grade. These will generally contain enough of the micro essential
elements to satisfy the needs of most fungi. Iron, zinc, and manganese
should be added routinely to all synthetic media. It is convenient to
make up a solution containing the above micro essential elements in such
strength that 1 ml. of the master solution will contain 0.1 mg. Fe+ + +,
0.1 mg. Zn+ +, and 0.05 mg. Mn+ +. The following amounts of the given
salts have been found convenient to use: Fe(N03)3-9H20, 723.5 mg.

ZnS04-7H20, 439.8 mg.; MnS04-4H20, 203.0 mg. Dissolve these three
salts in 600 ml. of distilled water, add sufficient c.p. sulfuric acid to yield
a clear solution, and make up the volume to 1 liter with distilled water.
Use 2 ml. of this solution per liter of medium. Add the source of carbon
at the rate of 10 to 25 g. per liter, depending on the use of the medium.
Add the nitrogen source at the rate of 2 g. per liter, or the amount which
will give an amount of nitrogen equivalent to that furnished by 2g . of
anhydrous asparagine (0.425 g. of N).
The activated carbon used in Ex. 9 to absorb residual traces of vitamins
is a commercial preparation, Norit A (pharmaceutical grade). Use at
the rate of 5 g. per liter, or more if necessary. The vitamins used rou-
tinely are thiamine and biotin. Inositol and pyridoxine are also used in
Ex. 9. These vitamins may be purchased from JMerck and Co., Rahway,
N.J., and many other pharmaceutical houses. It is convenient to make
up master solutions of these four vitamins. Make the master solutions

in 20 per cent alcohol, store in 100-ml. volumetric flasks, and keep in a
refrigerator when not in use. It is convenient to make the master solu-
tions of thiamine and pyridoxine to contain 100 /xg per ml. (10 mg. per
100 ml.). The master solution of inositol contains 5 mg. per ml. Biotin
is used at the rate of 5 Mg per liter. Either the contents of an ampule may
be made up, or a microbalance used to weigh this vitamin. A master
solution containing either 1 or 5 jug per ml. is convenient.
For a semisolid medium, agar is commonly used at the rate of 20 g.
per liter. Agar is not a pure compound, and its use introduces various
unsuspected constituents into media. No medium may be said to be of
known composition if agar is used, although such media are very useful.
Some of the impurities in agar may be removed by leaching with aqueous
pyridine solution. Place 1 lb. of agar in a 6-liter flask, add 5 liters of
distilled water and 500 ml. of pyridine. Allow to stand 24 hr. Insert
a piece of 6-mm. glass tubing of sufficient length to admit air to
the flask, tie a piece of cheesecloth over the neck of the flask, invert the
flask, and allow the pyridine solution to drain. Wash the agar three
times with distilled water. Wash the agar twice with 95 per cent alcohol,
allowing the alcohol to stand on agar overnight before draining. Dry
the agar in thin layers between cheesecloth. This procedure takes about
10 days (see Robbins, 1939). In some instances the agar and other con-
stituents of the medium may be autoclaved separately and the two solu-
tions mixed, using antiseptic precautions. This should be done when it
is required to have a very acidic agar medium. A known amount of

sterile acid may be added to the agar medium after sterilization.
pH or reaction of the medium. See Chap. 8 for a discussion of pH.
An approximate method of determining pH is sufficiently accurate for
many purposes. On a white porcelain spot plate place one drop of
Hellige (or other) wide-range indicator in each depression. Have the
drops of indicator of equal size. Then add one drop of the medium to
a drop of indicator in one of the depressions of the spot plate. The color
of the mixed drops indicates the pH of the medium. Thus, red indicates
a pH in the neighborhood of 4, light green 7, purple 10. Standard buffers
(solutions of known pH) may be provided so that the student may have
standards with which to make comparisons.
The buffers used in testing pH are most conveniently made from buffer
tablets (Coleman). Dissolve one tablet in 100 ml. of distilled water.
Add a crystal of thymol as a preservative. Thymol aids in preventing
contamination and does not appreciably affect the pH of the buffer. It
is convenient to store the buffers in brown-glass dropping bottles fitted
with pipettes.
Unless otherwise specified, media used in the laboratory should be
adjusted to pH 6 before autoclaving. This may be done by the use of
the spot plate, adding a drop of pH 6 buffer to a drop of indicator. This
is the standard color to which the media should be adjusted. Add either
QN NaOH or QN HCl to the medium until the color produced by one drop
of medium matches the color produced by the standard buffer. Always
agitate the medium after each addition of acid or base and then test the
pH. The use of concentrated acid and alkali is recommended so that
dilution of the medium may be avoided. More precise methods of
measuring pH may be used if desired.
Autoclaving usually lowers the pH of a medium. In general, this
change will not be great, but the student should never assume that the
pH will remain unchanged in autoclaving.
Sterilization of media and glassware. Except in special instances, the
autoclave may be used to sterilize both media and glassware. Fifteen
minutes at 15 lb. steam pressure is adequate for test tubes and flasks
which do not contain over 150 ml. of medium. Larger lots of media
should be autoclaved 20 min. at 15 lb. steam pressure. Petri dishes may
be sterilized 20 min. in the autoclave. It is convenient to wrap two Petri
dishes in a paper towel or several in a paper bag before placing in the

autoclave. This wrapping should remain on the Petri dishes until they
are used, to prevent contamination. Do not remove wrapped glassware
from the autoclave until several minutes after the pressure is down.
Pipettes should be wrapped and placed in pipette cases. Sterilize in the
same way as Petri dishes.
Use either a water bath or the autoclave for melting agar. Never melt
agar in or sterilize flasks which are more than half full. Test tubes should
not be more than one-fourth full. The reason for this lies in the fact
that the autoclave cools quicker than the medium. This leaves the
medium superheated, and under this condition it is likely to boil violently.
Never remove a flask of melted agar from the autoclave as soon as the
pressure is down. Agitation may cause violent boiling. Your instructor
will give you full instructions for operating the autoclave. Follow these
instructions carefully.
On handling cultures. be necessary for each student to main-
It will
tain the identity of his cultures. This may be done by name or by stock-
culture number. Each medium used in the course will receive a number.
If a medium is used more than once, it will be given another number.
The composition of each medium should be entered in the laboratory
notebook. The name of the fungus (or stock-culture number) and the
number of the medium should be also written on each culture vessel.
The date of inoculation and the kind of inoculum used should be entered
in the notebook. It is convenient to fasten together duplicate or tripli-
cate cultures in test tubes with a rubber band.
Preservation of stock cultures. The maintenance of a stock culture
collection of filamentous fungi for class use is highly desirable. Such a
collection need not be extensive but should include a sufficient number of
selected species of known phj^siological reaction and any others which
may be desired for general use. The method of preserving cultures in
our laboratory has proved quite satisfactory when frequent transfers are
needed for research or class use. Test tubes with constricted tops and
plastic screw caps are used. Malt extract or any other suitable agar may
be used. After inoculation the tubes are allowed to remain at room tem-
perature for a few days until the inoculum starts to grow. Then the caps
are screwed down tightly and the cultures stored at 5 to 10°C. Most
species continue to grow slowly, and under these conditions the tube?
remain freefrom contamination and the agar dries out very slowly. Thi.=
method also excludes mites. Some vegetative cultures have remained
viable for a period of more than 2 years without being transferred. How-
ever, it is suggested that all cultures be transferred every year, and the
entire stock should be looked over carefully every few months, as some
species may require more frequent transfers. The first transfer from
stock culture should be to another stock-culture tube, and the old tube
should be kept until the new culture begins to grow free from contamina-
tion. Other methods of storing stock cultures of fungi are described by
Greene and Fred (1934), Thom and Raper (1945), Fennell et al. (1950),
and Buell and Weston (1947).
Methods of inoculation. It is customary to use a bit of mycelium from
a growing culture to inoculate fresh media. For ordinary uses this is
satisfactory, if only a few cultures are to inoculated at a time and no
special precautions need be taken. Some fungi produce a tough mat of
mycelium difficult to cut with a needle. Often this can be overcome by
growing the mycelium for inoculum on an agar medium quite low in
sugar. A small cork borer may be used for cutting out uniform disks of
mycelium and agar from Petri dishes.
Spores alone may be transferred by a dry needle, or they may be
suspended in water and inoculated by use of a loop or a sterile pipette
with a cotton plug at the upper end. The use of a pipette fitted wîth a
small rubber bulb greatly decreases the inoculation time when many
cultures of the same fungus are made. It is preferable to use spores as
inoculum in studies of vitamins or micro elements, where none of the
previous medium should be added.

Nonsporulating mycelium may be fragmented by placing it with about
50 ml. water in a sterile Waring Blendor jar for about 30 sec. Either
agar or liquid medium may be used if the addition of the medium is of no
consequence. In vitamin studies the mycelium may be grown in liquid
medium and, w^hen ready for use, w'ashed in sterile distilled water and
fragmented in the Blendor. Either a loop or a pipette may be used to
dispense the mycelial suspension.
Methods of obtainmg single-spore cultures. In certain physiological
studies it is desirable to use single-spore cultures. These may be obtained
by a number of different methods. A review of the literature on these
techniques has been given by Hildebrand (1938). Other modified tech-
niques are described by Georg (1947) and Thom and Raper (1945).
Still another modification may be worthy of brief mention. In this
laboratory we have used a specially prepared small sewing needle as a
tool for picking out single germinated spores. The eye of the needle is
rounded and the thick metal portion filed down, making a rather thin
edge for cutting agar. The pointed end is fastened in a convenient
holder, and the needle bent in such a way that, when held over a Petri
dish, the eye portion will be parallel with the surface of the medium so
that can be pushed straight down into the agar. An isolated, germi-
it
nated spore is located on a dilution plate by use of a microscope. The

needle is then held in place under the objective so that the spore is visible
through the eye of the needle. The eye is pressed down around the spore
and up with a bit of agar and the germinated spore. Another

is lifted
needle may
then be used to transfer the bit of agar and spore to a tube or
plate. This method requires a steady hand but has the advantage of
being rapid and simple. It may be employed with high magnification
of the stereoscopic microscope or the low-power objective of the com-
pound microscope.
EXERCISE 2
The Influence of Temperature on Growth and Sporulation

This exercise is outlined to illustrate three main points: (1) the general
effects of temperatures upon growth; (2) the approximate
different
optimum temperature for growth of a few fungi (3) that the temperature
;
limits for sporulation are narrower than those for vegetative growth.
Inasmuch as the composition of the medium may influence temperature
limits, only one medium should be used in this experiment.
Mediimi
1. Malt extract, 20 g.; jêast extract, 2 g. ; agar, 20 g.; distilled water, 1,000 ml.
Adjust the pH, if necessary, to approximately 6, and autoclave. Pour

into sterile Petri dishes, about 20 ml. per plate, and inoculate them at the
center. Inoculate plates in duplicate or in triplicate for each condition.
Incubate the plates at a range of temperatures with con^ênient intervals.
The range and the exact temperatures used will depend upon the facilities
available. Suggested temperatures are 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40°C.
Since light affects some of the species listed below, it is desirable to have
the cultures illuminated for a part of each day.
Records. Observations of growth should be made daily or at least
every 2 days. For the purpose of this exercise the radial extension of the
mycelium may be used as a measurement of growth. This usually can be
easilymeasured by placing a rule (preferable one calibrated in millimeters)
on the bottom of the Petri dish and looking through it towai'd a light. In
order to have an accurate measure of the effect of different temperatures,
the cultures must be compared before the mycelium reaches the edge of
the Petri dish. A more accurate measure of growth may be obtained by
determining the dry weight of mycelium grown in liquid medium. Rec-
ords may be made in table form for each fungus, giving the days of incuba-
tion and the diameter of the colony. The average daily radial extension
of the mycelium may then be calculated for each temperature. The
amount of sporulation should likewise be recorded each time.
List of test fungi: Alternaria sp., Aspergillus rugidosus, Botryis cinerea,
Cephalothecium roseum., Ceratosiomella fimhriala, Choanephora cucur-
hitarum, Glomerella cingulata, Guignardia hidwellii, Monilinia fructicola,
Penicillium expansum, Phytophthora infestans, Sclerotinia sclcrotiorum,
Septoria nodorum.
EXERCISE 3
The Influence of Lighton Growth and Sporulation
This experiment is designed to illustrate the variable effects of visible

and ultraviolet light, particularly upon reproduction of some common
fungi. Exposure to light is essential to spore formation in some fungi,
while other fungi may sporulate abundantly in total darkness. For a
more complete discussion, see Chaps. 3 and 15.
Media
2. Same as medium 1
3. .\ny semisynthetic medium, such as the basal medium in Ex. 4
Adjust the pH of the media to approximately 6.0, autoclave, and pour

into sterile Petri dishes.Inoculate plates in triplicate for each condition.
Place the inoculated plates under the following conditions:
A. Continuous total darkness at 25°C.
B. Continuous artificial light at 25°C.
C. Alternating light and darkness at 25°C.
D. Same as C, but expose to ultraviolet three times for 2 min each time, at intervals
of 2 days
The exposure to ultraviolet light should be made in an inoculating

chamber, with the lids of the dishes removed, at a distance of approxi-
mately 10 to 12 in. from the source (the G.E. germicidal lamp is quite
satisfactory). Wearing of spectacles or sunglasses will protect the eyes
from the ultraviolet rays. The first exposure should be made when the
fungus colony is approximately 1 in. in diameter. Subsequent exposures
should be timed so that the last one is made before the mycelium reaches
the edge of the plate. With rapidly growing species, the interval between
exposures may be At the time of each exposure, use a wax
shortened.
mycelium by marking the bottom of the
pencil to outline the extent of the
Petri dish. The plates kept in total darkness should be wrapped in paper
or stored in a lighttight cardboard box. Examination of most fungi
should be made after about 7 days. The rapidly growing species should
be placed in a separate box which can be opened earlier.
List of test fungi: Botrytis cinerea, Cephalothecium roseum, Cerato-

stomella fimbriata, Choanephora cucurhitarum, Dendrophoma obscurans,
Endothia parasitica, Moniliniafructicola, Neocosmopara vasinfecta,Penicil-
lium expansum, Septoria nodorum, Trichoderma lignorum.
EXERCISE 4
The Effect of the Carbon Source on Growth and Sporulation

This exercise is designed to show that fungi differ in their ability to
utilize certain compounds as a source of carbon. For discussion of this
topic see Chaps. 7 and 14. In this study, the nitrogen source in the
media should be simple and available to as many fungi as possible. For
this purpose, asparagine is quite satisfactory.
Malt extract-yeast extract agar may be used as a standard controi
medium, since this is an excellent natural medium for most fungi. If
desired, any other standard natural medium may be used as a control
medium. All other media used in the exercise will have the same basal
composition, with the carbon source as the only variable. Adjust the
pH of all media to approximately 6.0 before autoclaving.
Basal Semisynthetic Medium

Carbon source 10 g.
Asparagine 2 g.
KH2PO4 1 g.
MgSOrTH.0 0.5 g.
Fe+ + + 0.2 mg.
Zn++ 0.2 mg.
Mn++ 0.1 mg.
Biotin 5 Mg
Thiamine 100 ^g
Agar (for solid media) 20 g.
For the most accurate measure of growth, liquid media should be used,
so that the mycelium may be filtered off, washed, dried, and weighed.
However, agar media are often more satisfactory for reproduction. It is
suggested that this exercise be carried out on agar slants in test tubes.
Media
4. Same as medium 1
5. Glucose. Media 5 to 13 will all contain the basal medium above.

6. Sucrose 7. Sorbose
8. Lactose 9. Maltose
10. Galactose 11. Starch
12. Cellulosei 13. No sugar
Each student should select two or more species of fungi and inoculate
with each fungus three tubes of each of the 10 media listed above. Incu-
bate at 25°C., or at room temperature. Use for inoculum spores or small
bits of mycelium with as little agar as possible.
Records. The student will be responsible for taking notes or data on
the growth and sporulation of the fungi he selects, but he should follow
the form suggested by the leader of the exercise. He should also observe
the results of students who use other species. Records on growth may be
made at the end of 3 to 7 days, depending upon the fungus, while a greater
time should be allowed before making final records on sporulation. For
most purposes a record of the relative amount of growth or sporulation,
' Use good grade of filter paper, add water, and cut to a pulp in a Waring Blendor.
when compared with that on a control medium, is cjuite satisfactory.

Thus, if the growth and sporulation (if any) of each fungus on medium 4
are arbitrarily given the values of 4 + ,
the estimated abundance on other
media may be designated as greater or less than 4, as the case may be.
Such a rough method has been found satisfactory for illustrating principles
and determining the availability of carbon sources utilized by the fungi.
If a more accurate measurement is desired, liquid media should be used
and dry weights of the mycelia obtained. Observations and records

should be made on any other characteristics which are affected by changes
in carbon source.
List of test fungi: Aspergillus rugulosus, Ceratostomella fimbriata,
Dendrophoma obsmrans, Endothia parasitica, Glomerella cingulata, Guig-
nardia bidwellii, Melanospora sp., Monilinia friicticola, Phycomyces
blakesleeanus, Pleurage curvicolla, Sordaria Jimicola, Sphaeropsis malonan,
Ustilago striiformis.
EXERCISE 5
The Effect of the Nitrogen Source on Growth and Sporulation

The purpose of this exercise is to illustrate the utilization of different
sources of nitrogen by different fungi. This exercise should follow soon
after Ex. 4,and the procedure should be the same. The use of some of
the same test fungi in this exercise should emphasize the importance of a
suitable semisynthetic medium for growth and reproduction. In this
case the carbon source (glucose) shall be kept constant and the nitrogen
source varied with each medium. The other constituents of the basal
medium will be the same as listed under Ex. 4. Medium 1 may again
be used as a control, but if a different lot is made, it must carry a new
number.
Media
14.
differences in media. This ma}^ be illustrated by altering the concentra-

tion of one or more components of the medium. It is suggested that this
exercise be carried out in Petri dishes, or in flasks if liquid media are used.
Media: This exercise may be divided into four parts based upon the
variations in media.
A. Dilutions of the entire medium. Either liquid or agar media may be
used.
24. Basal medium, containing asparagine and 20 g. glucose per liter
25. Medium 24 diluted to one-half strength

26. Medium 24 diluted to one-fourth strength
27. Medium 24 diluted to one-sixteenth strength
28. Medium 24 diluted to one sixty-fourth strength
B. Varying concentrations of sugar. Use either liquid or agar media.

The same controls as in A may be used, if the same fungi are tested.
29. Basal medium, with 40 g. glucose

C. Change in medium during incubation. Use liquid media in flasks

(15 ml. in 125-ml. Erlenmeyer flasks, or 25 ml. in 250-ml. flasks).
33. Basal medium, same as medium 24 above. Inoculate 10 flasks; after growth is
near maximum (see instructor), separate the flasks into three groups.
a. Replace old medium with fresh medium
h. Replace medium with sterile distilled water
c. Leave as control
D. Different natural products as media. Use as agar media.

34. V-8 juice (diluted to one-half strength)
35. Potato extract (200 g. potatoes per liter)
36. Malt extract (20 g. per liter)
37. Stems of bean, pea, etc., in water agar
Each student should select one fungus for use in this exercise. It is
suggested that the fungi used should ordinarily produce considerable
mycelium before fruiting.
Records; Careful notes must be taken regarding time of appearance
of fruit bodies and spores. The amount of growth and sporulation may
be compared to that on medium 24. Consult the leader or your instruc-
tor for further details on recording data.
List of test fungi: Aspergillus riigidosus, Ceratostomella Jimhriata,
Choanephora cucurhitarum, Endothia
Glomerclla cingulata,
parasitica,
Guignardia hidwellii, Helminthosporium victoriae, Melanospora sp., Moni-
linia fructicola, N
eocosmopara vasinfecta, Phoma betae, Sordaria fimicola,
and Sphaeropsis malorum.
EXERCISE 7
The Influence of Hydrogen-ion Concentration on Growth and Sporulation

This experiment is outlined to demonstrate (1) that the pH require-
ments optimum growth and reproduction vary with the different
for
species of fungi, (2) that the pH of the culture medium changes during the
growth of the fungus, (3) the techniques by which pH changes may be
followed during growth, (4) that the pH at the time of sporulation may be
considerably different from that during most rapid growth, (5) that the
pH changes are also influenced by the composition of the medium. For a
discussion ofpH, see Chap. 8. The pH of liquid media is more easily
tested than that of solid media by colorimetric methods; hence liquid
media should be used in this exercise. Twenty-five milliliters of medium
in a 250-ml. Erlenmeyer flask gives rapid, even growth of many fungi and
has been found to be quite satisfactory. Two different media are given
below, each set at four different pH values. For convenience each is
given a separate number.
Media
38. Glucose-asparagine (otherwise, basal medium as given in Ex. 4), pH 3.0
39. As above, pH 4.0
42. Sucrose-nitrate (otherwise, basal medium as given in Ex. 4), pH 3.0
Prepare these media, adjust the pH of each, and distribute to flasks

before autoclaving. Then use one flask of each medium to determine the
pH after autoclaving. This value should be considered the "initial pH."
Each student should select one fungus and inoculate eight flasks of each
medium listed above. Incubate the flasks at 25°C. or at room tempera-
ture. The pH of the culture filtrate should be determined at three differ-
ent times during the period of active vegetative growth (about the fourth
and eighth days) and at about the time or shortly after maximum growth
isreached (sporulation of some fungi will occur at this time). Duplicate
cultures should be used for each determination. See your instructor
regarding the method of determining pH of culture medium. The
sucrose-nitrate media may not be favorable for the growth of some of the
fvmgi selected for use in this exercise.
Records. The relative amounts of growth should be recorded at the
time of each pH determination. If more accurate growth measurements
are desired, the mycelium can be dried and weighed. Also record the
time of the earliest sporulation and the amount at subsequent intervals.
Consult the leader of the exercise or the instructor as to when the experi-
ment should be terminated. A portion of these data may be presented
in the form of a graph, plotting changes in pH against time for each
fungus and each medium.
List of test fungi: Aspergillus rugulosus, Cephalofhecium roseum, Cerato-
stomella fimhriata, Glomerella cingulata, Monilinia fructicola, Neocosmo-
para vasinfecta, Penicillium spiculosporum, Penicillium expansum Sordaria ,
fimicola, Sphaeropsis malorum, Phycomyces blakesleeanus (plus and

minus).
EXERCISE 8
Methods of Inoculating Agar Media and Their Effect upon Growth
and Sporulation
This a brief and simple exercise, but it is outlined to demonstrate a

is
principlewhich seems to be fundamental, at least for certain fungi. The

most common way of inoculating agar media is to place a bit of actively
growing mycelium or a few spores at the center of the medium surface.
For most purposes this is entirely satisfactory, but in special cases other
methods may be used. A drop of spore suspension or of finely cut
mycelium may be placed at the center of the agar plate, or the entire
surface may be flooded with heavy spore suspension or suspension of cut
mycelium. The mycelium may be fragmented by cutting in a Waring
Blendor in 50 ml. of sterile water for 30 sec. to 1 min.
For this exercise it is suggested that Petri dishes containing glucose-
asparagine-sucrose agar (such as the basal medium in Ex. 4) be used.
Fungi which ordinarily produce considerable mycelial growth before
fruiting abundantly may give the best results and will provide spore-free
inoculum when cultures are young. Some pycnidium-producing species
should be included.
Each student should choose one or more fungi and inoculate plates in
by the following methods:
triplicate
A. A bit of mycelium placed at the center

B. A few spores transferred by a needle placed at the center
C. A drop of suspension of cut mycelium placed at the center.
D. A drop of spore suspension placed at the center.
E. Flooding the entire plate with suspension of cut mycelium
F. Flooding the entire plate with a heavy spore suspension
G. Diluting the spore suspension 1/1,000 and flooding the plate
Observe the cultures daily and note the abundance of vegetative growth
and the time and abundance of sporulation in each case.
List of test fungi: Alternaria sp., Ceratostomella fimhriata, Dendrophoma
ohscurans, Endothia parasitica, Fusarium sp., Glomerella cingulata, Guig-
nardia bidwellii, Helminthosporium sativum, Monilinia fructicola, Neo-
cosmopara vasinfecta, Phoma bctae, Septoria nodorum, Sordaria fimicoia,

Sphaeropsis malorum.
EXERCISE 9
Vitamin Deficiencies in the Fungi
This exercise is oiithned to demonstrate (a) vitamin deficiencies in the

filamentous fungi, ih) the differences in the needs of the different species
of fungi, (c) the techniques used to determine these deficiencies. For a
discussion of vitamin deficiencies and lists of vitamin-deficient fungi, see
Chap. 9 and Robbins and Kavanagh (1942).
In studying the vitamin requirements of the fungi, great care must be
taken to use glassware and chemicals which are free from vitamins. The
glucose-asparagine medium has the advantage of being a suitable source
of carbon and nitrogen for most fungi. Casein hydrolj'sate may be used
in the place of asparagine. In its preparation, the medium should be
boiled with activated charcoal (Norit, 5 g. per liter), to remove any
vitamins present, and filtered. Thus, the medium is "essentially free"
of vitamins. Contamination may occur from dust, cotton fibers from the
plug, dirty glassware, etc. Micro essential elements and vitamins must
be added after this treatment.
Media. It is best to use litiuid media for this exercise so the mycelium
can be dried and weighed.
46. Basal glucose-asparagine (vitamin-free)
47. As above, with thiamine (100 yug per liter)
48. As above, with biotin (5 ng per liter)
49. As above, with thiamine and biotin

50. As above, with thiamine, biotin, inositol (5 mg. per liter), and pyridoxine (100 pg
per liter)
Adjust the pH to 6.0 and distribute to tubes or flasks (25 ml. per 250-ml.
flasks or 15 ml. per 125-ml. flasks) before autoclaving.
A. Screening test for vitamin deficiencies. Simple screening tests to
determine roughly the deficiencies of fungi may be carried out in either
liquid or purified-agar (see Ex. 1) media. Test tubes may be used for
agar media, but Erlenmeyer flasks are suggested for liquid media. The
student should select four or five species from the stock-culture collection,
and inoculate tubes or flasks of each of the above media, in triplicate,
with each species. Either spores or a small bit of mycelium may be used
as inoculum. Daily observations and records of growth should be made.
Visual estimates of relative amounts of growth are sufficiently accurate
to detect most deficiencies. If liquid media are used, the mycelium may
be weighed.
B. Growth curves of vitamin-deficient fungi. Inoculate 10 flasks each
of media 46 to 50 with a filamentous fungus shown in part ^4. to be defi-
:
cient. The fungus be harvested at intervals and the amount of

will
growth determined by obtaining the dry weight of the mycelium. If

there is sufficient growth in the flasks, the first harvest should be made
after 3 or 4 days.
Harvesting of the mycelium is accomplished by filtering the medium
through a fine cloth and washing the mycelium with distilled water.
Harvest duplicate cultures at each time. The mycelium is then trans-
ferred to small aluminum pans of known weight, dried for 12 to 24 hr. at
90°C., and weighed. The subsequent harvests should be made at inter-
vals of 2 to 4 days, depending upon the growth rate of the fungus used.
A convenient method of presenting the results is in the form of a graph,
ploting time against weight of mycelium for each of the four media used.
EXERCISE 10
The Influence of Vitamin Concentration on Growth and Sporulation
This exercise is designed to illustrate a few important principles regard-

ing the need for an adequate supply of vitamins in the medium for vita-
min-deficient fungi. Some of these points are (1) that vegetative growth
may be limited by an inadequate supply of the needed vitamins ; (2) that
higher concentrations of vitamins are needed for reproduction than for
vegetative growth; (3) that the absolute amount of a vitamin necessary
to induce reproduction varies with the amount of sugar in the medium;
(4) that the number of perithecia (or other reproductive structures) is
dependent upon the concentration of the vitamins in the
partiality
medium (5) that fungi may be used in bioassays for the vitamin content
;
of various products.
The following experiments are suggested (these may be conducted as
demonstrations before the whole class, if desired)
A. Thiamine concentration and growth; thiamine assay
Media
51. Basal glucose-asparagine medium, no vitamins
52. As above, but with 100 ng thiamine per liter
53. As above, 25 fig thiamine per liter

54. As above, 12.5 ^g thiamine per liter
55. As above, 6.25 Mg thiamine per liter
56. As above, 3.12 ng thiamine per liter
57. As above, 1.56 ng thiamine per liter
58. As above, add 0.5 g. cake flour per flask

59. As above, add 0.5 g. whole-wheat flour per flask
Other amounts of cake and whole-wheat flour may be used, or polished

and brown rice may be used instead.
Adiust the pH of the above media to 6.0 and distribute 25 ml. each to
250-ml. flasks. Inoculate four flasks of each medium with one strain of
Phycomyces blakesleeanus or Ceratostomella Jlmbriata.
B. Thiamine concentration and sporulation. Use media 51 to 53, 55,
and 57, but sohdify with 20 g. purified, vitamin-free agar (see Ex. 1) per
Hter. Pour into sterile Petri dishes (about 20 ml. each). Inoculate four
plates with Ceratostomella fimhriata (be sure to use ascospores or mycelium
producing perithecia), Phycomyces blakesleeanus (plus and minus strains
on opposite sides of plate), Choanephora ciicurhitarum, and Dendrophoma
obscurans. Incubate Phycomyces at 20 to 22°C., the others near 25°C.
Cultures of Choanephora must be adequately aerated and must receive
alternate light and darkness. Observe cultures of Ceratostomella for
production of perithecia, Phycomyces for zygospores, Choanephora for
conidial heads, and Dendrophoma for pycnidia.
Allow sufficient time for the above cultures to grow; then add one or
two drops of sterile (autoclaved) solution of thiamine to some of the
thiamine-starved, nonsporulating cultures (leave controls). Observe the
effects.
C. Effects of added thiamine on thiamine-starved mycelium
Media
water and purified agar
60. Distilled
^g thiamine per liter, purified agar
61. Distilled water, 100
Note: The addition of agar in media 60 and 61 is not essential.
From a thiamine-starved culture of C. fimbriata which has produced

no perithecia cut quarter-inch disks with a cork borer and place them in
tubes of media 60 and 61. If liquid media are used, make sure that the
disks of inoculum float on the surface. Observe the results after a few
days.
D. Relation of required thiamine to sugar in medium. To show that the
concentration of thiamine required for the production of perithecia
depends upon the amount of sugar in the medium, this short experiment
may be performed.
Media. Liquid glucose-asparagine

62. Glucose 25 g., thiamine 1 ng per liter
63. Glucose 2.5 g., thiamine 1 fig per liter
64. Glucose 0.25 g., thiamine 1 ng. per liter
Distribute the media in 250-ml. Erlenmeyer flasks, inoculate with C.

fimbriata, and incubate at 25°C. Observe the rate of growth, time of
perithecium formation, and relative number of perithecia formed in each
medium. Harvest and weigh the mycelium of each culture after peri-
thecia have formed.
E. Effects of hiotin starvation on a biotinr-deficient fungus
Media
65. Glucose-asparagine, purified agar; no bio tin
66. As above, 5 ng biotin per liter
67. As above, 1 ng. biotin per liter
68. As above, 0.5 Mg biotin per liter
69. As above, 0.1 ng biotin per liter
Pour into Petri dishes and inoculate each medium in tripHcate with
Sordaria fimicola. Observe the results after about 6, 8, and 10 days.
Note the amount of growth, the time of perithecium formation, and the
relative numbers of perithecia. Examine microscopically the perithecia
formed in the low concentrations of biotin, and look for deformed asci
and ascospores. Add a drop or two of sterile biotin solution to some of
the nonfruiting, biotin-starved cultures. Observe the effects in a few
days.
Records. Take full notes on all observations of the above experiments.
Write out a full explanation of the results with interpretations based
upon physiological processes in fungi (see Chap. 14).
EXERCISE 11
Factors Affecting Spore Germination

This exercise demonstrates the effects of nutrients, humidity, pH, and
temperature upon the time and percentage of germination of the spores
of some common fungi. While the germination of fungus spores may be
influenced by a number of factors, only a few of them can be easily studied
in the laboratory. See Chap. 16 for a discussion of factors which influ-
ence spore germination.
A. Effects of nutrients upon spore germination. Placefilter paper in the
bottoms of Petri dishes. Cut two holes paper about }^ in.

in the filter
in diameter and place a glass slide over these. Add water to moisten
the paper, and autoclave. Make up a spore suspension in media 70 and
71, and place drops of this suspension on the slide over the holes in the
paper, which must be kept moist wîth sterile water. Incubate at 25°C.
After incubation the slide may be examined by placing the Petri dish on
the microscope and removing the lid.
Media
70. Distilled water
71. Distilled water plus 2 g. yeast extract per liter
72. Same as medium 71 but solidified with agar; adjust to pH 8.0
73. Same as medium 71, but pH 7.0
B. Effect of acidity. This experiment may be carried out in liquid

media 72 to 76, using drops of spore suspension as described above in
part A, or the media may
be solidified with agar and Petri dishes used.
Observe the results at intervals up to 48 hr. Your records should include
the approximate time required for germination of the first spores and the
percentage of germination at each examination. The first appearance of
a germ tube may be considered as germination.
C. Effect of relative humidity. Place drops of spore suspension in dis-
tilled water on sterile glass slides to serve as controls. On three other
dry glass slides, place dry spores. Place these in desiccators as follows:
(1) spores in water and in desiccator which will maintain saturated atmos-
phere; (2) spores on dry slide in saturated atmosphere; (3) spores on dry
slide in desiccator with relative humidity at approximately 98 per cent;
(4) spores on dry slide in desiccator with relative humidity at approxi-
mately 92 per cent. To maintain 98 per cent humidity, use a 1.00 molal
solution of sucrose; for 92 per cent humidity use a saturated solution
of K2HPO4 (see Clayton, 1942). Open the desiccators after 24 to 30 hr.
and examine the spores for germination.
D. Effect of temperature. Use four Petri dishes with medium 74 or 75.
On each place three or four drops of spore suspension and mark these
spots on the bottom of the dish. Incubate these as follows: (1) in an
incubator at 30°C.; (2) at 25°C.; (3) in a refrigerator at 18°C.; (4) in a
refrigerator at 10°C.
Examination of spores. The time required for spores of the various
from 2 to 24 hr. or
species to germinate under the usual conditions varies
more. For some fungi all the experiments in the exercise may be exam-
ined and compared after 12, 18, or 24 hr. One examination should be
made after 48 hr. For most species the experiments may be concluded
at this time.
List of test fungi: Alternaria sp., Cephaloihecium roseum, Choanephora
cucurhitarum, Glomerella cingulata, Guignardia hidwellii, Helminiho-
sporium sativum, Monilinia fructicola, Penicillium sp., Phytophthora
infestans.
EXERCISE 12
The Associative Effects among Fungi

Pure cultures of a single organism seldom exist in nature. Instead,
each organism is constantly exposed to a biotic as well as a physical
environment. As a result, there is usually competition between different
fungi and between fungi and other organisms in the same substrate,
particularly the soil. On the other hand, many organisms are benefited
by their association with others. Often the metabolic products of one
favor the growth of another.
If one desires to demonstrate these principles in the laboratory, pure

cultures must be used, and by combining two or more of these species in a
culture vessel, the associative effects may be studied. This exercise is
outlined to demonstrate the main types of associative reactions between
species of fungi in the laboratory under controlled conditions and to
show that a species may react differently in its association with different
fungi.
Media
77. Malt extract-yeast extract agar
78. Glucose-asparagine purified agar (vitamin-free)
79. Glucose-asparagine liquid (vitamin-free)
A. Each student should select three pairs of the fungi and test their
interaction on agar plates of media 77 and 78. Duplicate plates should
be inoculated for each condition. It is suggested that the two pairs of
fungi be inoculated on opposite halves of the agar plates 1 to 2 in. apart.
This will allow both fungi to make some growth before they come in
contact. Incubate all cultures at 25°C. Notes should be taken on about
the fifth day and the tenth day, and for most cultures the final observa-
tions may be made after 2 weeks. Carefully made sketches may add
greatly to the value and clarity of your notes.
The types of reactions may be grouped under (1) none, (2) stimulation,
(3) symbiotic, (4) antagonistic. Each type of reaction should be
explained on the basis of the present experiments.
B. Using vitamin-free liquid medium 79, inoculate flasks with Phyco-
viyces blakesleeanus and Sordaria fimicola separately and with both species
together. After a few days observe the results. This part of the exercise
may be conducted as a demonstration for the entire class.
List of test fungi: Actinomyces sp., Alternaria sp., Aspergillus rugulosus,
Botrytis sp., Cephalotheciimi roseum, Guignardia hidwellii, Helmintho-
sporium sativum, Monilia sp., Monilinia fructicola, Penicillium, chryso-
genum, Phycomyces blakesleeanus, Sordaria fimicola, Trichodermalignorum.
Suggested Demonstrations
In addition to the experiments outlined in the above exercises, the
following are suggested as demonstrations for the entire class. These
may be expanded into complete exercises for individual student
participation.
1. Need for micro elements for growth and sporulation. Steinberg (1919)
describes the procedure for preparing a medium essentially free of micro
elements to which the desired elements may be added. Use Aspergillus
niger as a test species. See Chap. 5 for other methods of removing micro
elements from media.
2. Influence of light on spore discharge. This experiment demonstrates

the phototrophic response of sporangiophores and perithecial beaks and
the discharge of the spores toward the source of Hght. For a discussion
of this subject, see Buller (1934), Use species of Piloholus, Sordaria, or
Pleurage.
3. Influence of aeration on sporulation. Choanephora cucurbitarum is
an excellent species to use in demonstrating the need for adequate aeration
for the production of conidia. Grow
the fungus on agar in Petri dishes.
Some of the dishes may be sealed
with Scotch tape, w^hile the lids of others
may be raised to permit free exchange of gases.
4. Longevity of spores. This may be designed as a long-time experi-
ment to determine the longevity of spores of several fungi under different
conditions of storage. It may be continued from year to year, tests for
the ability to germinate being made every few months.
5. Action of fungicides and fungistatic agents. These experiments
should be outlined to show the effectiveness of various agents in prevent-
ing spore germination. For references, see Chap. 11 and Horsfall (1945).
These agents include the action of sulfur, copper, 8-hydroxyquinoline, anti-
vitamins, and ultraviolet radiation.
6. Action of antibiotics against fungi. The specificity of the action of
some antibiotics is easily tested against growth or spore germination of
some common fungi by the use of penicylinders in agar plates flooded
with spores.
7. Inheritance of physiologic characters. (A) The inheritance of vita-
min or amino-acid deficiency may be demonstrated by crossing deficient
mutants of Neurospora with a self-sufficient strain (see Beadle, 1946, and
Chap. 18). {B) The inheritance of bioluminescence may be demon-
strated by crossing the North American and European strains of Panus
stypticus (see Macrae, 1942).
REFERENCES
Beadle, G. W.: Genes and the chemistry of the organism, Am. Scientist 34: 31-53,
1946.
BuELL, C, and W. H. Weston: Application of the mineral oil conservation method
to maintaining collections of fungus cultures, Am. Jour. Botany 34 555-561, 1947.
:
Buller, A. H. R.: Researches on Fungi, Vol. VI, Longmans, Roberts and Green,
London, 1934.
Clayton, C. N.: The germination of fungous spores in relation to controlled humidity,
Fennell, D. I., K. B. Rapeb, and M. H. Flickinger: Further investigations on the
preservation of mold cultures, Mycologia 42 135-147, 1950.

:
Georg, L. K. a simple and rapid method for obtaining monospore cultures of fungi,
:
Mycologia 39: 368-371, 1947.

Greene, H. C., and E. B. Fred: Maintenance of vigorous mold stock cultures, Ind.
Eng. Chem. 26: 1297-1298, 1934.
HiLDEBRAND, E. M.: Techniques for the isolation of single microorganisms, Bolan.

Rev. 4: 627-664, 1938.
HoRSFALL, J. G.: Fungicides and Their Action, Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham,
1945.
Macrae, R.: Interfertility studies and inheritance of luminosity in Panus stypticus,
Can. Jour. Research, Sec. C, 20: 411-434, 1942.
RiKER, A. J.: The preparation of manuscripts for Phytopathology, Phytopathology
36:953-977, 1946.
RoBBiNs, W. J.: Growth substances in agar, Am. Jour. Botany 26: 772-778, 1939.
RoBBiNs, W. J., and V. Kavanagh: Vitamin deficiencies of the filamentous fungi,
Botan. Rev. 8: 411-471, 1942.
Steinberg, R. A.: A study of some factors in the chemical stimulation of the growth
Thom, C, and K. B. Raper: Manual of the Aspergilli, The Wilhams & Wilkins Com-
pany, Baltimore, 1945.
I
INDEX
Alternaria, 319, 327, 425, 431, 436, 437
oleracea, 261
Abrams, E., 222, 223 solani, 127, 247, 248, 262, 319, 320, 356
Absidia coerulea, 100 tenuis, 69
cylindrospora, 70, 100 Amanita, 292
dubia, 100 chlorinosma, 292
glauca, 100 mappa, 366
orchidis, 100 muscaria, 81, 292
Acetohader stiboxydans, 119 pantherina, 292
Achlya bisexualis, 326 phalloides, 292
conspicna, 92, 93 porphyria, 292, 366
oblongata, 93 radicata, 292
polyandra, 93 rubescens, 366
prolifera, 93 spreta, 292
Aconiturn velatum, 159 strobiliformis, 292
Actinomyces, 286, 386, 437 verna, 292
lavendulae, 287 virosa, 292
scabies, 373, 387 toxin (see Phalloidin)
Adaptations, nutritional, 412-413 Ames, L. M., 222, 224, 404, 416
Adaptive enzymes, 59, 60, 412, 413 Amino 105-110
acids,
Adermin (see Pyridoxine) antagonists of, 236-239
Aegerita icebberi, 384 as carbon sources, 127
Aerobacter aerogenes, 138 deamination of, 108
Agar, chemical composition of, 14 list of, 106
purification of, 14, 421 p-Aminobenzoic acid, 201-202
vitamins in, 15 antagonists of, 227, 229-236
Agaricus campestris, 269, 318, 348 formula of p-aminobenzoate ion, 227
{See also Psalliota campestris) Ammonium nitrogen, list of fungi uti-
Ajl, S. J., 138, 146 lizing, 100
/3-Alanine, 198, 234, 239 Amylase, 47, 48, 50, 274
.Albrecht, H., 104, 112 Andersen, A. L., 163, 169, 308, 309, 317,
Albugo Candida, 360, 373 335, 351, 353

Andersen, E. N., 348, 354
Aldoses, 117
Anderson, A. K., 158, 169, 308, 335
Aleuria repanda, 346
Anderson, D. B., 37, 44
vesiculosa, 346
Anderson, H. W., 291, 302
Alexander, D. F., 284, 301
-4nderson, P. J., 368, 369
Allen, R. F., 373, 392, 395
Aneurine (see Thiamine)
Allomyces, 295, 327
Antagonists, metabolite, 226-240
carbon sources used by, 121
Antibiotics, control of plant diseases by,
Allomyces arbiiscida, 121, 159, 308 288
cystogenus, 121 detection of, 284-285
javanicus, 121 as factor in resistance, 390
moniliformis, 121 production of, 283-291
441
Antimetabolite, definition of, 22G Aspergillus, nidulans, 93, 283, 414
Anti vitamins, 229-23(3 niger, 10, 55, 92, 98, 103, 136, 140, 167,
Anwar, A. A., 286, 296 194, 229-231, 248, 258, 260, 261,
Aphanornyces, 93 294, 325-327, 360-362, 366, 414,

camptostylus, 92 415, 437
Apium 377
graveolens, nutrition of, carbon, 121-129
Apodachyla brachynema, 127 metallic-element, 65-83
Apoenzymes, 53, 228 nitrogen, 105
Appling, J. W., 219, 223 phosphorus, 94-96

Appressoria, 373 organic acids produced by, 279, 280
Arabinose, formula of, 123 resistance of onion to, 390, 391
Arcyria denudata, 367 spore germination of, 358, 359
Area Leao, A. E., 197, 203 use of, in assays, 217-222
Armillaria mellea, 99, 134, 160, 374, 387 vitamin synthesis by, 171, 172
shii-take, 269 oryzae, 74, 76, 88, 89, 103, 159, 274,
Armstrong, E. F., 129, 146 280, 283, 368

Armstrong, J. I., 167, 168 carbon sources utiUzed by, 121, 123-
Arnon, D. I., 21, 23, 73, 86 125, 127, 129, 132, 134, 136
Arsenic, 110 repens, 307, 308
Arthur, J. C, 372, 395 rugulosus, 28, 220, 328, 329, 425, 428,
Aschersonia aleyrodis, 384 429, 431, 437
Ascobolus, 345, 346, 349, 353, 357 terreus, 70, 222, 282, 287, 401
denudata, 99 variecolor,414
leveillei, 99 wentii, 278
346
rnagnificus, Assays, microbiological, for amino acids,
Ascochyta nymphaeae, 311, 317 216-217
pisi, 99 certain media used in, 210, 211
Ascophanus carnens, 88, 319 for essential elements, 217-219

Ashbya gossypii, 273 general discussion of, 208-209
Ashley, J. N., 295, 296 procedure, 209-214
Aspergillus, 9, 94, 99, 172, 271-275, 283, for vitamins, 214-216
288, 385, 401 Assimilation, definition of, 87
alliaceus, 414 Association, effect on growth, 219, 220
of,
amstelodami, 414, 415 on sporulation, 327-328, 332-333

aureus, 279 laboratory exercise, 436-437
awaniori, 279 Astbury, W. T., 110, 112
carbonarius, 279 Atkin, L., 198, 204, 215, 223
cinnamomeus, 279, 280 Auernheimer, A. H., 219, 223
clavatus, 279, 286, 288 Aureomycin, 291
fischeri, 414 Autoclaving, effect of, on media, 16
flavus, 70, 76, 78, 414 Axelrod, A. E., 194, 204
metabolic products, 272, 275, 283, Ayres, T. T., 328, 334
287, 288 Azotobader, 98
spore germination of, 361, 362, 366 chroococcum, 79, 218
fumaricus, 279 vinlandii, 98
jumigatus, 34, 76, 414 B
fuscus, 280
giganteus, 283 Bacillus mesentericus, 414
glaums, 37, 275, 279 subtilis, 286
herbariorurn, 318 typhosujn, 229
itaconicus, 281 weidmaniensis, 327

INDEX 443
BaUey, A., 316, 336 Blank, L. M., 76, 83

Bailey, J. H., 290, 296 Blastocladia pringsheimii, 93, 102, 137,
Barker, B. T. B., 248, 263 156, 159, 197, 281

Barnes, T. C, 88, 112 production of resistant sporangia by,
Barnett, H. L., 34, 38, 43, 44, 167, 169, 319
178, 181-184, 196, 204, 205, 232, 242, vitamin deficiencies of, 180
307, 309, 310, 312, 313, 317, 319, Blastodadiella simplex, 159
329-331, 334, 336, 400, 401, 408-410, Blastomyces brasiliensis, 40
416, 418 dermatitidis, 40
Barratt, R. W., 259, 263 Block, R. J., 268, 296

Barron, E. S. G., 57, 62, 96, 112, 251, Bock, H., 50, 63
263, 264 Boletus, 293, 367
Basidiohlus, 343, 353 bovinus, 367
ranarum, 100, 342 jdulis, 267
Basisporium gallarum, 27, 172, 365, 388 elegans, 367
Basu, S. N., 329, 335 flavidus, 367

Battarrea, 307 granulatus, 367
Baumberger, J. P., 60, 61, 64 luridus, 52, 292
Bayliss, W. M., 54, 62 hiteus, 367
Beadle, G. W., 36, 161, 196, 197, 199, miniato-olivaceus var. sensibilis, 293
202, 204, 207, 211, 215, 217, 223, satanus, 292
224, 401, 405-408, 416, 438 variegatus, 367
Behr, G., 68, 69, 85 viscidus, 367
Behrens, O. K., 289, 296 Boiling, D., 268, 296
Bellamy, W. D., 290, 296 Bonar, L., 309, 336
Benedek, T., 327, 334 Bonner, D., 93, 112, 197, 204, 217, 223,
Bennett, C. W., 79, 86, 100, 115 401, 408, 416
Bennett, I. G., 36, 43 Bonner, J., 50, 62
1,4-Benzoqiunone formula, 257 Bonner, J. T., 358, 359, 369
Berberis, 387 Booer, J. R., 250, 263
thunbergii, 387 Borchers, R., 273, 300
Berger, J., 51, 63 Bordeaux mixture, 247-248
Bergmann, M., 51, 62 Bortels, H., 79, 84
Bernhard, K., 104, 112 Bose, S. R., 319, 335
Bernhauer, K., 279, 296 Botryotinia convoluta, 99, 311
Bertrand, D., 81, 83 Botrytis, 253-255, 314, 437
Bertrand, G., 119, 146 alia, 99, 172, 250, 261, 285
Bessey, E. A., 375, 395 production of pectinase by, 376
Biological substitution of elements, 68 resistance of onion to, 390, 391
Bioluminescence, 402, 403, 410 cinerea, 37, 69, 99, 373, 425, 426
Biotin, 192-195 parasitism of, 376, 377
antagonists of, 233 production of pectinase by, 377, 378
formula of, 192
spore germination of, 360, 364-366
fungi deficient for, 192, 193 paeoniae, 247, 248
mode of action of, 194, 195 Bourquelot, E., 47, 62
specificity of, 193, 194
Bovarnick, M. R., 197, 204
Birkinshaw, J. H., 94, 112, 276, 283, 296
Boyle, A. M., 288, 296, 389, 395
Bisby, G. R., 313, 334
Brand, E., 216, 223, 225
Black, A., 212, 224
Brassica, 377
Blakeslea trispora, 102, 122, 124, 125, 133,
190 Bray, C. W., 269, 296
Carbon dioxide, effect of, on spore germi-
Brefeld, O., 6, 7, 9, 11, 22, 266, 296, 310,
335, 339, 353, 362, 370 nation, 365
biographical note, 6 as metabolite, 136-138

Carbon sources, effect of, on sporulation,
Brenner, W., 107, 112
Brian, P. W., 97, 103, 104, 108, 112, 165,
321-325
168, 285, 287, 290
laboratory exercise, 426-428
utilized by fungi, 116-138
Briarea, 35
Carbon utilization, 138-144
Brink, N. G., 273, 297
Brodie, H. J., 324, 335, 358, 370, 402, 416 Carboxylase, 52
Brooks, F. T., 382, 395 Caroselli, N. E., 379, 396
Brown, W., 364, 365, 370, 372, 373, 376, Carroll, W. R., 91, 92, 114
387, 390, 395 Carter, H. E., 291, 297
Brown rot, fungi causing, 134, 135 Catechol, 390

Buchanan, R. E., 17, 22, 25, 43, 65, 84, Cavallito, C. J., 290, 296, 297
99, 112 Cellobiose formula, 130

Buchner, E., 46, 62, 277, 297 Cellulase, 47
Buell, C, 424, 438 Cellulolytic fungi, 221-222
Buffer capacity of media, 155 Cellulose, 134-135
Buffers, 152-156 Cephalosporium, 378
Bull, H. B., 110, 112
Cephalotheciuni roseum, 99, 425, 426, 431,
Buller, A. H. R., 6, 7, 267, 297, 339, 341,
436, 437
345-349, 351, 353, 408, 409, 416, 438
Ceratostomella, 200, 293, 352, 378
biographical note, 6
anipullacea, 344
Bunker, H. J., 49, 64
fimbriata, 31, 37, 38, 100, 101, 175, 178,
Blinning, E., 55, 62, 167, 168
181, 190, 232, 345, 425, 426, 428,
Burgert, I. A., 362, 370
429, 431, 434
Burk, D., 108, 112, 186, 204, 233, 241 factors affecting sporulation, 307,
Burkholder, P. R., 42, 43, 104, 112, 174,
329, 330
180, 181, 186, 190, 192, 195, 197-199, measuring growth of, 30
methods of
204, 272, 297, 400, 416 200
ips, 34, 180, 190, 194,
Buston, H. W., 329, 335 inicrospora, 200
Butler, E. J., 381, 387-389, 395
montium, 190, 200
multiannulata, 200
c (See also Ophiostoma multiannula-
tum)
penicillata, 232
Calam, C. T., 282, 297 piceaperda, 200
Calcium, 79-81 200
pilifera, 34, 35,
Caldwell, R. M., 373, 395
pint, 190, 200, 229
Calfee, R. K., 77, 78, 85
pluriannulata, 200, 329
Camp, W. G., 320, 335
pseudotsugae, 200
Campbell, W. G., 134, 146
ulmi, 100, 175, 200, 234, 260, 314, 345,
Canavanine, 239
375
Candida albicans, 42, 186, 287
causes of wilting by, 378, 379
flareri, 272
{See also Ophiostoma ulmi)
guilliermondi, 219, 272
Cercospora apii, 99, 172
Cantherella cibarius, 267
beiicola, 99, 172, 373
Cantino, E. C, 93, 102, 112, 137, 146,
nicotianae, 80
156, 159, 168, 169, 180, 197, 204,
Chaetocladium, 385
319, 335
Chaetomium, 222, 345
Caputto, R., 140, 146
INDEX 445
Chaetomium, cochlioides, 99 Cocarboxylase (see Thiamine pyrophos-

convolutum, 38, 99, 178, 190, 193, 232 phate)
dilution of medium and growtli of, 38 Coccomyces hiemalis, 304
funicola, 96, 222 Codehydrogenase, 197
globosum, 99, 127, 172, 173, 222, 318 Coemansia interrupta, 178, 190, 193
growth curve of, 173 Coenzyme, 53
Chain, E., 290, 297 Coghill, R. D., 282, 284, 289, 297, 300,
Chalaropsis thielavioides, 232 301
Challenger, F., 111-113 Colletolrichum, 368
Chan, S. Y., 319, 320, 336 circinans, 390, 391
Charles, J. H. V., 294, 297 falcatum, 388
CheldeKn, V. H., 199, 207, 232, 243 gossypii, 360
Cheo, P. C, 120, 146, 362, 370, 401, 416 lagenarium, 99, 288, 356
Chilean Nitrate Educational Bureau, 71, lindemuthianum, 99, 160, 186, 196, 307,
84 309, 332, 374
Chilton, S. J. P., 404, 417 resistance to, 391
ChIai7iydopus, 307 spore germination, 364-366
Chloromycetin, 291 CoUybia tuberosa, 99
Chlorosplenium aeruginosum, 293 velutipes, 99, 409
Choanephora cucurbitarum, 33, 100, 190, Colwell, C. A., 258, 263
232, 401, 425, 426, 429, 434, 436, 438 Committee on the Standardization of
factors affecting sporulation of, 309, Fungicidal Tests, 262, 263
310, 312, 313, 321, 331, 332 Conant, N. F., 333, 335, 386, 395
Chona, B. L., 376, 377, 395 Concentration of nutrients, 17-20
Christenberry, G. A., 312, 335, 401, 417 on growth, 38, 39
effect of,
Christensen, J. J., 293, 297, 402, 410, on sporulation, 320-321, 330
414, 417 Coniophora cerebeUa, 159
Chrysophlydis endohiotica (see Synchy- Coniothyrium, 316
triuin endohioticum) Cook, E. S., 251, 263
Ciboria acerina, 27 Cook, M. T., 388, 390, 395
Cicinnobolus cesatii, 385 Coons, G. H., 307, 310, 311, 313, 317,
Citric acid, production of, 279-280 335
Citromyces, 275, 279 Copper, 76-77, 217
citricus, 279 Coprinus, 310
glaber, 279 comatus, 362
pfefferianus, 279 jimetarius, 362
{See also Penicillium) lagopus, 102
Cladosporium cucumerinum, 288 micaceus, 362
fulvum, 390 Cordyceps militaris, 99, 172, 332, 384
Clarke, H. T., 290, 297 Coriicium solani, 386, 401, 402
Clausson-Kaas, N., 378, 397 (See also Rhizodonia solani)
Claviceps, 332 Coryell, C. D., 60, 62
paspali, 293
Couch, J. N., 352, 353, 384, 385, 396
purpurea, 291-293, 296, 304, 352
Craigie, J. H., 387, 397
Clayton, C. N., 355, 358, 370, 436, 438
Craterellus liitescens, 367
Clitocybe illudens, 293
Cristol, S. J., 238, 241
Clostridium, 376
Cronartiurn ribicola, 356, 368, 395
acetobutylicum, 201, 272, 273
pasteurianum, 79 Crosier, W., 34, 43
septicum, 198 Cryptococcus neoformans, 260, 287

Cobalt, 81, 273 Crystal violet, 259
Cultures, preservation of, 423-424 Dinitrophenol, 61, 91

single-spore isolation, 424 Diplodia macrospora, 17, 120-122, 193
Cunninghamella elegans, 70 natalensis, 28, 34, 122
Currie, J. N., 278, 283, 297 tubericola, 37
Curtin, T., 294, 297 Disaccharides, 130-131
Cury, A., 197, 203 Dissimilation, definition of, 87 A
Cyanide, effect of, on respiration, 56 Dittmer, K., 233, 238, 241
Cyathus, 353 Dixon, M., 45, 62, 90, 113
siercorius, 324 Dodge, B. O., 1, 7, 348, 354, 357, 370,
striatus, 100, 348 382, 396, 404, 417
Cylindrosporium scoparium, 358 Dodge, C. W., 386, 396
Cystine, biosynthesis of, 93 Doermann, A. H., 216, 224
Cytophaga, 16 Dole, M., 158, 168 I
Cytospora, 368 Donovick, R., 290, 301
Cytosporella mendax, 311 Doran, W. L., 356, 358, 360, 361, 368, 370
Dormancy of spores, 355, 357
D Dorrell, W. W., 91, 113
Dothidella quercus, 99
Daedalea quercina, 134 Doudoroff, M., 324, 335
tinicolor, 351 Dowding, E. S., 401, 417
Daldinia concenirica, 172 Dox, A. W., 95, 113, 129, 146
Dalphin, C, 191, 204 Drayton, F. L., 311, 335
Darluca filum, 385 Drosophila, 405
Das Gupta, S. N., 402, 417 Dual phenomenon, 411-412
Davis, A. R., 98, 113 Dubos, R. J., 6, 7
Davis, F. R., 414, 417 Dufrenoy, J., 290, 300, 390, 396
Davis, J. B., 137, 146, 282, 298 Duggar, B. M., 98, 113, 270, 291, 297,
Dawson, C. R., 52, 63, 77, 85 361, 362, 366, 370
Day, D., 14, 22, 29, 43 Dulaney, E. L., 127, 146, 290, 297
Deamination, 107, 108 Dung infusion, effect of, on spore germi-
De Bary, A., 6, 7, 283, 343, 354, 376, 396 nation, 362
biographical note, 6 as medium, 9
Debar ijomyces, 309 Dunn, C. G., 142, 147, 266, 277, 278, 300
Decker, P., 386, 398 Dunn, M. S., 216, 224
Dendrophoma obscurans, 99, 190, 426, Durrell, L. W., 365, 370
428, 431, 434 Duschinsky, R., 233, 241
Denny, F. E., 317, 335 Duthie, E. S., 290, 297
Desoxypyridoxine formula, 234 Du Vigneaud, V., 192, 194, 204, 233, 237,
Desthiobiotin, antagonists of, 233 241
formula of, 193 Dyctidiurn cancellatum, 367
Dianthus, 377
Diaporthe phaseolorum var. batatatis, 312, E
316, 321, 324
Diastase (see Amylase) Eakin, E. A., 194, 199, 204
Dichtyuchus monosporus, 93 Eakin, R. E., 194, 204, 233, 241
Dickinson, S., 402, 411, 417 Eastcott, E. v., 195, 204
Dickson, J. G., 393, 396, 402, 417 Echinodontium tinctorium, 293
Dicranophora juiva, 295 Edgerton, C. W., 404, 417
Didydium cancellatum, 367 Edwards, G. A., 40, 44
Dillon- Weston, W. A. R., 250, 263 Ehrlich, J., 291, 297
Dimond, A. E., 164, 168, 378, 396 Elfving, F., 35, 43, 314, 335
INDEX 447
Elliott, E. S., 184, 204 Escherichia coli, 166, 201, 234, 238, 240,
Elvehjem, C. A., 51, 62 251, 285
Emerson, M. A., 363, 370 Essential elements, functions of, 66
Emerson, R., 159, 169, 295, 297, 319, 327, list of, 67, 82
335 Esters, production of, 283
Emerson, S., 26, 43 Ethyl pyridoxine formula, 234
Emmons, C. W., 386, 396 Eucalyptus, 365
Enantiomorphs of sugars, 117, 119 Exidia, 408
Endoconidiophora monilifonnis, 283 glandulosa, 409
Endomyces vernalis, 231, 232, 235, 239, Experimental results, presentation of,
240, 271 31-32
Endothia -parasitica, 100, 180, 190, 193, External factors, effect of, on mor-
368, 375, 426, 428, 429, 431 phology, 39-42
ascospore discharge by, 344 Ezekiel, W. N., 391, 396
factors affecting sporulation by, 311,
314, 321
Energy utilization, 60
heat evolved in, 61 Fastness, 240
Englis, D. T., 16, 22 Fat production, 270-272
Enteridium rozeanum, 357, 367 Fawcett, H. S., 28, 33, 34, 43, 384, 396
Entomophthora, 343, 353, 384 Feldman, A. W., 378, 379, 396
sphaerosperma, 343 Felix, E. L., 235, 243, 257, 265
Enzymes, 45-62 Fellows, H., 12, 22, 89, 113
activators of, 55 Fennell, D. I., 424, 438
adaptive, 59, 60, 412-413 Ferger, M. F., 237, 241
chemical nature of, 52, 53 Fermentation, 89, 142, 275-277
classification of, 47-51 Fieser, L. F., 235, 241
effect of radiation on, 57, 58 Fildes, P., 57, 63, 230, 241, 251, 263
factors affecting activity of, 53-58 Fischer, E., 219, 224
inhibition of, 55-57, 227, 228, 377-378 Fischer, O. E., 292, 293, 298
lock-and-key relationship of, 228 Fitzpatrick, H. M., 343, 354, 385, 396
mechanism of action of, 58 Fitzpatrick, W. H., 267, 298
naming of, 47 Fleming A., 220, 224, 290, 298
pH and rate of reaction of, 55, 161
Fleury, C, 261, 263
production of, 274-275 Florey, H. W., 290, 297
role of, in parasitism, 376, 377, 382 Fomes applanatus, 41
suberin-dissolving, 374 roseus, 159
temperature and rate of reaction of, 53 Fontaine, T. D., 390, 396

toxicity of, 376, 382 Food from fungi, 267-270
Epichloe typhina, 196 Foote,M. W., 258, 263
Epidermophyton floccosum, Formaldehyde, 256
70, 238
Foster, A. A., 249, 263
Epstein,S., 291, 297
Foster, J. W., 39, 43, 65, 71, 76, 84,
Erb, N. M., 274, 297 86,
103, 113, 136-138, 146, 156, 169, 266,
Eremothecium ashbyi, 273
272, 273, 277, 278, 280-283, 290, 298,
Ergot, 291
302
Erwinia carnegieana, 288, 289
Fourneau, E., 231, 241
Erysiphe, 359 Fox, D. L., 295, 297, 327, 335
graminis, 358 Frear, D. E. H., 246, 247, 256, 263
graminis hordei, 358 Fred, E. B., 424, 438
polygoni, 311, 358, 377
Frey-WyssUng, A., 82, 84
Friedemunn, T. E., 142, 146 Fusarium, trichothecioides, 96

Fries, N., 29, 31, 42, 43, i)3, 113, 139, vasinfectum, 380
146, 190, 193, 195, 204, 205, 219,
224, 366, 367, 370, 401, 417 G
Fromageot, C, 184, 204
Fructose formula, 119 Galactitol formula, 124
Fudge, J. F., 391, 396 Galactose formula, 1 19
Full go se plica, 361, 367, 368 Gallegly, M. E., 392, 396
Fuller, W. H., 49, 63, 134, 147 Gallium, 81
Fulmer, E. I., 17, 22, 25, 43, 65, 84, 99, Ganoderma lobatum, 134
112 Gardner, M. W., 356, 370
Fumago vagans, 280 Gastrock, E. A., 280, 298
Fumaric acid, production of, 282-283 Gaumann, E., 372, 378, 396
scheme for biosynthesis of, 137 Geiger, W. B., 258, 260, 263
Fungi, as food, 267-270 Georg, L. K., 424, 438
I
list of vitamin-sufficient, 172 Gerhardt, P., 279, 298
role of, in nature, 1, 266, 267 Gibberella saubinetti, 159, 391
Fungicide, meaning 245, 246of, {See also zeae, below; Fusarium grami-
Fungicides, copper, 246-249 nearum)
dithiocarbamate, 259 zeae, 293, 393, 402
evaluation of, 261-262 {See also saubineiii, above; F usarium
mercury, 249-251 graminearum)
mode of action of, 245, 249 Giles, N. H., 413, 417
organic, 256-261 Gillespie, J. M., 201, 206, 230, 242
quinone, 257-258 Gilman, H., 117, 130, 146
of, 245
Fungistatic agent, definition Gimingham, C. T., 248, 263
Fusarium, 99, 140, 141, 172, 271, 273, Gingrich, W., 197, 204
275, 293, 313, 360, 375, 378, 402, Gliomastix convoluta. Til
411, 431 Gloeosporium, 368
avenaceum, 184, 400 Glomerella, 404, 415
cepae, 316 cingulata, 36, 99, 172, 247, 248, 254,
coeruleurn, 70 255, 261, 262, 402, 425, 428, 429,
discolor sulphureum, 313 431, 436
eumartii, 89, 316 nutrients, and spore germination of,
graminearum, 91, 261, 295 362, 363
{See also Gibberella zeae) and sporulation of, 322, 324, 325
lini, 96, 102, 103, 108, 138, 141, 186, ultraviolet lightand sporulation of,
191, 192, 270, 275, 295, 374, 387, 315
390 gossypii, 98
lycopersici, 122, 133, 160, 378, 390 Gluconic-acid production, 280-281
{See also oxysporum var. lycopersici, Glucose, fermentation of, 141, 142
below) formula 119
of,
moniUforme, 127 a-D-gkicose, 128

niveum, 188, 189 |3-D-glucose, 128
orthoceras, 287 fungi not utiUzing, 120
oxysporum, 80, 88, 89, 222 Glutathione, 93
var. lycopersici, 127, 260 Glycolysis, 141, 142
{See also lycopersici, above) Glycosides, 128-129
var. nicotianae, 80 Glynne, M. D., 253, 264
sambucinum, 139 Gnomonia ulmi, 304, 344
solani, 295 Goddard, D. R., 357, 370
INDEX 449
Goepp, R. M., Jr., 14, 22, 117, 119, 128, Haehn, H., 108, 113
133, 147 Haenseler, C. M., 32, 43
Goering, H. L., 238, 241 Haldane, J. B. S., 55, 63, 161, 169
Goldberg, M. W., 194, 204 Hamilton, E., 327, 336
Goldsworthy, M. C, 247-249, 2G3 Hanahan, D., 16, 22
Gonatorrhodiella highlei, 328 Hanna, W. F., 410, 417
Goodman, I., 238, 241 Hansen, H. N., 17, 22, 305, 313, 332, 335,
Gorcica, H. J., 268, 298 337, 411, 412, 417
Gordon, M. A., 283, 298 Hansenida suaveolens, 219
Gortner, R. A., 37, 43, 47, 51, 63, 70, Hao, L. C., 274, 298
84, 88, 105, 113, 154, 169 Harden, A., 46, 63, 96, 113, 277, 298
Gottlieb, D., 127, 146, 286, 298, 356, 370 Harris, E. E., 270, 298
Gould, B. S., 96, 113 Harris, G. C. M., 200, 205, 285, 303
Graham, T. W., 402, 417 Harris, H. A., 402, 417
Grant, W. M., 414, 418 Harris, S. A., 192, 205, 232, 233, 243
Grassmann, W., 134, 146 Hart, H., 373, 388, 396
Greathouse, G. A., 222, 224 Hartelius, V., 229-231, 239, 242
Green, E. L., 247-249, 263 Harter, L. L., 50, 63
Greene, H. C, 424, 438 Hartree, E. F., 281, 299
Greene, R. D., 212, 224 Harvey, L. B., 374, 396
Gregory, P. H., 350, 351, 354 Haskins, R. H., 35, 43
Gries, G. A., 257, 263 Hatfield, W. C., 390, 396
Grob, E. C, 236, 243 Haugen, G. E., 142, 146
Grossbard, E., 286, 298 Haustoria, 380-381
Growth, abnormal, 39-41 Hawker, L. E., 90, 113, 133, 147, 321,
definition of, 24 325, 329, 335, 400, 417
effect of depth of medium on, 38 Hawkins, L. A., 37, 43, 374, 396
factors affecting, 32-38 Haymaker, H. H., 378, 396
measurement of, 27-31 Hazen, E. L., 286, 301, 327, 334, 335
phases of, 25-26 Heald, F. D., 344, 354
of filamentous fungi, 26 Helicostylum pyrifonne, 122
of unicellular organisms, 25 Helminthosponum, 99, 294, 327, 402, 411
rate of, 26 cynodontis, 294
tube, 29 euchlaenae, 294
Growth factors {see Vitamins) gramineinn, 172, 294, 311
Guignardia bidwellii, 304, 344, 389, 425, ravenellii, 294
428, 429, 431, 436, 437 sacchari, 379
Guilloud, M., 186, 196, 206, 219, 225 sativum, 101, 122, 127, 221, 285, 286,
Guirard, B. M., 201, 206 414, 431, 436, 437
Gunness, M., 193, 207 turcicum, 294
Gupta, B. M., 288, 298 vidoriae, 172, 379, 429
Gustafson, F. G., 70, 84 Helvellic acid, 293
Gymnoascits setosus, 99 Hemitrichia clavata, 368
Gymnoconia peckiana, 348 Hemming, H. G., 285, 296
Gymnosporangiurn juniperi-virginianae, Hemophilus parainjluenzae, 197
358, 368 Render sonia, 311
Gyromitra esculenta, 293 Hendlin, D., 273, 298
Henry, A. W., 286, 298
H Henry, B. W., 163, 169, 308, 309, 317.
Haag, E., 191, 204 335
Haagen-Smit, A. J., 326, 337 Herbst, R. M., 109, 113
Herrick, J. A., 121, 123, 124, 147 Hydrogen-ion concentration, effect of,
Hertz, J., 219, 224 on sporulation, 318-319
Hervey, A., 29, 43, 77, 78, 85 on utilization of nutrients, 165-167
Hesse, A., 270, 272, 298 as factor in resistance, 388-389
Hestrin, S., 46, 49, 63 laboratory exercise, 430-431
0-Heteribiotin {see Oxybiotin) relation of, to pH, 151, 152
Heuser, E., 135, 147 {See also pH)

Hevesy, G., 87, 113 Hydrogen sulfide, production of, by
Hexoses, 119-122 spores, 254, 255
Hickey, R. J., 73, 84, 272, 298 toxicity of, 254-256
Higgins, B. B., 376, 396 Hydrolases, 47
Hildebrand, E. M., 424, 439 Hydroxyproline formula, 238
Hill, E. G., 16, 22 8-Hydroxyquinoline, 260
Hirneola polytricha, 269 Hygrophorus conicus, 292
Hitchens, A. P., 14, 22 Hyper parasites, 385
HockenhuU, D. J. D., 93, 113, 414, 417 Hypersensitiveness, 382
Hodgson, R., 378, 396 Hypomyces, 385
Hok, K. A., 32, 44 solani f. cucurbitae, 412
Hollis, J. P., 88, 113 Hypoxanthine, effect of, on spore germi-
Holoenzymes, 53 nation, 364, 365
Holzappfel, H. H., 139, 147 Hypoxylon pruinatum, 190, 193
Hopkins, R. H., 50, 63

Hormones, effect of, on reproduction, 326
Horn, M. J., 216, 224
Horner, C. K., 108, 112
Horowitz, N. H., 211, 216, 217, 224, 225, Imbibition, 37
239, 242 Impatiens balsaminia, 257, 390
Horr, W. H., 125, 126, 147 Indicators, pH, 157
Horsfall, J. G., 235, 242, 246, 257, 259, Ingold, C. T., 342, 344, 354
260, 262-264, 438, 439 Inheritance, 404-411
Host-parasite relationship, 372 in Ascomycetes, 404-408
Host penetration, 372-375 in Basidiomycetes, 408-411
Houlahan, M. B., 182, 202, 205 basis of, 404
Houston, B. R., 311, 335, 386, 396, 401, cytoplasmic, 413

402, 417 Inhibition analysis, 299
Howard, B. H., 294, 299 Inoculation, effect of, on sporulation, 332
Howard, F. L., 379, 396 laboratory exercise, 431-432
Humfield, H., 270, 299 methods of, 424
Hurd, A. M., 388, 396 Inocybe infelix, 293
Hutchings, B. L., 216, 224 infida, 293
Hydnum imbricatum, 367 Inositol, 195-196
repandum, 367 Internal factors, effect of, on growth, 32
Hydrogen, 87 Invertase {see Sucrase)
Hydrogen-ion concentration, changes in Ion antagonism, 70, 75, 77
culture media of, 160, 162-164 Ionization, 149, 150
effect of, on cell morphology, 42 Ions as enzyme activators, 55, 68, 69, 76,
on enzymes, 55, 161, 162 79

on growth, 158-161 Iron, 71, 74-76
on medium composition, 164 Isoachlya monilifera, 92, 93

on oxygen supply, 165 Isomers of sugars, 117
on spore germination, 360-361 Itaconic-acid production, 281-282
INDEX 451
Kogl, F., 192, 193, 195, 205, 209, 219, 224

Kolthoff, M., 157, 169
I.
Jaag, O., 378, 396 Koser, S. A., 194, 205

Jarvis, F. G., 68, 84 Krampitz, L. O., 231, 242
M., 72, 77, 84
Javillier, Krebs citric acid cycle, 143, 144
43
Jillson, O. F., 42, Krehl, W. A., 215, 224
Johnson, H. W., 159, 169 Kreitlow, K. W., 402, 418
Johnson, J., 288, 302 Krieger, L. C. C., 292, 293, 299
Johnson, M. J., 51, 63, 68, 73, 84, 86, 280, Kroemer, K., 37, 43
302 Krumbholz, G., 37, 43
Johnson, T., 411, 417 Kubowitz, F., 52, 63
Jones, E. S., 360, 370 Kuhn, R., 292, 299
Jones, F. R., 391, 396 Kunkel, L. 0., 319, 336, 374, 397
Jones, M. J., 228, 242
Jones, R. C, 308, 335
Juglone, 257 Laboratory demonstrations, 437-438
Laboratory exercises, 419-428
K Laborey, F., 69, 70, 84
Laccaria amythestina, 293
Kakeura, M., 136, 147 Lachaux, M., 273, 301
Karhng, J. S., 384, 385, 396 Lachnea scidellata, 346
Karlingia rosea, 35 Ladarius piper at us, 52
{See also Rhizophlyctis rosea) torminosus, 293
Karow, E. O., 278, 279, 299 Lactase, 49, 133
Kauffman, C. H., 6, 7, 305, 335 Lactic-acid production, 281
Kauffman, F. H. O., 356, 361, 370 LadobaciUus, 202
Kavanagh, F., 182, 190, 206 arabinosus, 193, 194, 215, 216, 232
Kavanagh, V., 100, 172, 181, 206, 432, casei, 193, 194, 216, 218, 229, 232, 233
439 Lactose formula, 131
Keilin, D., 281, 299 La Far, F., 39, 44, 111, 113
Keitt, G. W., 261, 263, 288, 299 Lambertella corni-maris, 99
Kellerniania yuccagena, 311 pruni, 179, 180, 184, 190, 193
Kelner, A., 58, 63 Lampen, J. , 228, 242
Kern, F. D., 381, 397 Landerkin, G. B., 199, 205
Kernkamp, H. C. H., 293, 297 Large, E. C., 245, 252, 263
Ketoses, 117 Larsh, H. W., 120, 148
Kinsel, K., 120, 147 Lavollay, J., 69, 70, 84
Kinsey, V. E., 414, 418 Leach, J. G., 248, 249, 264, 269, 299, 352,
Kirkwood, S., 236, 242 354, 362, 364, 365, 370, 383, 391,
Klebs, G., 6, 7, 305-308, 320, 336 392, 397
biographical note, 6 Leaver, F. W., 331, 336
Klebs's laws of growth and reproduction, Leben, C., 261, 263, 288, 299
306 Lederberg, E. Z., 413, 417
Klimek, J. W., 290, 296 Lee, A., 379, 397
Kloeckera brevis, 181 Lee, S. B., 277, 289, 290, 299
Ivlotz, L. J., 377, 397 Leibowitz, J., 46, 63
Knaudt, J. H., 291, 300 Leikind, M. C., 14, 22
Knight, B. C. J. G., 196, 205 Le Mense, E. H., 274, 299
Knobloch, H., 279, 296 Lemieux, R. U., 290, 299
Koch, R. S., 289, 297 Lentinus lepideus, 123, 134, 135
Koffler, H., 75, 84 tigrinus, 99
Lenzites hetulinus, 134, 351 Lockhead, A. C, 199, 205

saepiaria, 135, 159, 300, 363, 364 Lockwood, L. B., 70, 84, 271, 281, 282,
trabea, 100, 135, 191, 401, 402, 415 299, 318, 326, 336
inheritance by, of fruiting ability, Lohrmann, W., 70, 84
409 Longevity of spores, 368
of thiamine deficiency,410 Lophodermium pinastri, 190, 195, 196
thiamine deficiency of, 177, 178 Lowther, C. V., 368, 370
Leonian, L. H., 7, 14, 22, 42, 44, 60, 63, Lundeg&rdh, H., 159, 169
74, 84, 92, 102-105, 107, 113, 164, Lycogola epidendrnm, 367
I
169, 183, 188, 189, 191-193, 195-199, Lycoperdon echinatum, 367
205, 211, 214, 215, 224, 229, 233, nigrescens, 367
242, 258, 264, 310, 317, 319, 321, perlatum, 350, 351
326, 336, 400, 402, 412, 418 pratense, 367 I
biographical note, 7 pyriforme, 367
Leopold, H., 108, 113 umbrinum, 367
I
Leptomitus lactens, 120, 127, 145 Lyxose, 123
Letcher, H., 275, 299
Levan, A., 39, 44 M
Levine, H., 268, 272, 298, 299
Lewis, J. C, 75, 84 Ma, R., 180, 194, 200, 201, 206, 234, 242,
Lewis, R. W., 144, 147 329, 337, 400, 418
Light, effect of, on growth, 35 McCall, M., 258, 263
on irradiated spores, 58 McCalla, T. M., 166, 169, 251, 264
on spore discharge, 339-341, 344, 346 McCallan, S. E. A., 245, 247, 248, 252-
laboratory exercise, 426 255, 261, 264, 265, 319, 320, 336
Lillie, R. J., 273, 299 McCrea, A., 368, 370
Lilly, V. G., 14, 22, 34, 38, 43, 44, 60, McElroy, W. D., 226, 227, 242, 414, 418
63, 74, 84, 92, 102-105, 107, 113, McGowan, J. C., 261, 264
164, 167, 169, 178, 181-184, 188, 189, McHargue, J. S., 77, 78, 85
191-193, 195-199, 204, 205, 211, 214, Mcllwain, H., 226, 236, 242
215, 224, 229, 232, 233, 242, 307, MacLeod, R. A., 74, 85
309, 310, 312, 313, 317, 319, 326, McNew, G. L., 261, 264
329-331, 334, 336, 400, 401, 409, Macow, J., 229, 243
410, 412, 416, 418 Macrae, R., 402, 403, 410, 418, 438, 439
Lime sulfur as fungicide, 256 Macrosporium commune, 98
Liming, O. N., 253, 264 sarcinaeforme, 99, 250, 253, 255, 262
Lin, C. K., 363, 370 tomato, 316
Lindeberg, G., 80, 84, 100, 113, 154, 159, McVeigh, I., 104, 112, 238, 242, 412, 418
169 Mader, E. O., 318, 336
Lindegren, C. C., 30, 44, 60, 63, 120, 148, Magnesium, 68-70, 218
212, 224, 327, 336, 404, 412, 413, 418 Maillard, L. C., 16, 22
Lindegren, G., 327, 336 Mains, E. B., 381, 397
Lii der, P., 271, 299 Malachite green, 258
Lindgren, R. M., 35, 44 Maltose formula, 130
Ling, L., 361, 366, 370 Mandels, G. R., 91, 113, 114
Lingane, J. J., 157, 169 Manganese, 77-79, 80
Link, K. P., 390, 391, 397, 398 Mann, T., 95, 114
Lintzel, W., 267, 299 Mannitol formula, 124
Lipmann, F., 61, 63, 199, 205 Mannose formula, 119
Little, J. E., 257, 264, 390, 397 Marasmius, 80, 100
Livingstone, B. E., 89, 114 alliaceus, 81, 100
INDEX 453
Marasviius, androeceus, 100 Melander, L. W., 387, 397

chordalis, 95, 100, 132 Melanospora, 323, 325, 428, 429
epiphyllHs, 80, 81, 100 destruens, 91, 133, 190, 193, 324, 329
foetidis, 100 Melibiosc, 132
fulvobulbillosus, 99 Memnoniella echinata, 193, 195, 222, 329
graminum, 100, 159 Mercury-toxicity theory, 251
perforrnis, 100 Merulius lacrymans, 95, 135, 159
personatus, 100 Metabolic products, effect of, on sporula-
putillus, 100 tion, 327-329
rainealis, 100 tests for presence of, 219-221
rotula, 100 variation in, 401-402
scorodoniiis, 100 Metabolism, intermediary, 139-144
Margolin, A. S., 16, 17, 22, 121-126, 136, Metabolite antagonists, theory of action
147 of, 226-229
Marryat, D. C, 392, 397 Metabolites, 12

Marsh, P. B., 77, 85 specific (see Amino acids; Growth,
Marten, E. A., 248, 249, 264 factors affecting; Vitamins)
Martin, G. J., 235, 242 Metarrhizium glutinosum, 103
Martin, W. J., 401, 418 {See also Myrothecium verrucaria)
Mass, J. M., 291, 299 2-Methoxy-l ,4-naphthoquinone formula,
Massospora cicadina, 384 257
Mathur, R. S., 160, 169, 186, 205, 309, a-Methyl-D-glucoside formula, 129
332. 336 j3-Methyl-D-glucoside formula, 129
Meacham, M. R., 159, 169 Methylpentoses, 124
Media, autoclaving of, 16, 17, 422, 423 Metz, O., 294, 299
basal semisynthetic, 427 Meyer, B. S., 37, 44
choice of, 13 Meyerhof, O., 51, 63, 142, 147, 277, 299,
comparison of, 20, 21 300
concentration of, effect of, on growth, Michaelis, L., 51, 63
38 Michener, H. D., 292, 300
constituents of, 12-14, 421-422 Microbiological assays, standard curve,
formula of, ghicose-asparagine, 210 214
glucose-casein hydrolysate, 211 Microsphaeraalni, 358
sucrose-ammonium tartrate-ammo- Microsporum audouini, 197, 327

nium nitrate, 211 canis, 238
kinds of, 9-11 Milhngton, R. H., 143, 148
liquid, 14 Mirsky, A. E., 97, 114
naming of, 14 Mitchell, H. K., 182, 199, 202, 205,
natural, 9, 11 237, 242, 325, 326, 337
pH of, 422 Mix, A. J., 321, 324, 336
preparation of, 17, 420-421 Moisture requirements for growth, 35
removal from, of metallic ions, 72 Molliard, M., 68, 85
of vitamins, 210, 432 Molybdenum, 79, 218, 219
semisynthetic, 10, 427 Monascus purpurea, 27, 172
solid, 14 Monilia Candida, 39
specific metabolites in, 12 fructigena, 362
sterilization of, 16, 17, 422, 423 tarnari, 281
synthetic, 10-11, 20, 421 Monilinia fructicola, 27, 100, 118, 172,
units of measure, 18, 19 304, 321, 325, 375, 402, 425, 426,
Meehan, F., 379, 397 428, 429, 431, 436, 437
Melanconium betulinnm, 190, 196, 311 (See also Sclerotinia frurficola)
Monocotyledons, immunity of, to cotton Myrback, K., 50, 63, 135, 147, 275, 300
root rot, 391 M yrophagus ucrainicus, 384
Monosaccharides, 116-126 Myrothecium verrucaria, 104, 109, 222
Morchella esculenta, 267 (See also Metarrhizium glutinosum)
Morphology, effect of external factors on,
39-42, 89
N
of yeast, 39 Naemosphaera, 311
Mortierella rhizogena, 100 1,4-Naphthoquinones, antibiotic activity
Morton, H. E., 283, 300 of, 390
Moyer, A. J., 280, 282, 300 Nectria cinnabarina, 328
Moyer, D., 186, 195, 204, 400, 416 coccinia, 190, 328
Mrak, E. M., 309, 336 coryli, 328
Mucor, 9, 39, 271 cucurbitula, 328
flavus, 100 galligena, 328
hiemalis, 100, 295 Neidig, R. E., 129, 146
mucedo, 295 Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 290
nodosus, 100 Nelson, J. M., 52, 63, 77, 85
pusilhis, 70 Nematospora gossypii, 193, 195, 196, 219
pyriformis, 100, 279 Neocosmopara vasinfecta, 99, 172, 321,
racemosus, 275, 402 325, 426, 429, 431, 432
raviannianus, 103, 133, 231, 232 Neopyrithiamine, 232
carbon nutrition of, 118, 122, 124, Neuberger, A., 10, 22
125 Neufeld, C. C, 358, 370
vitamin requirements of, 188-191 Neurospora, 29, 102, 144, 216, 223, 238,
rouxii, 281 401, 408, 415, 438
saturninus, 100 amino acids and spore germination of,
spinosus, 362 364
stolonifer, 100 back mutations of, 413
stridus, 100 genetics of, 404-407
Mudd, S., 231, 242 mutants of, 182, 183, 202, 215-217,
Mueller, J. H., 194, 196, 205 405-408
Mulder, E. G. 14, 22, 73, 79, 85, 217- nutritional adaptations of, 412, 413
219, 224, 225, 294, 300 temperature and riboflavin deficiency
Mull, R. P., 96, 114, 140, 147, 277, 300 of, 182
Muntz, J. A., 68, 85 vitamin deficiencies of, 193, 197, 199,
Murphy, H. E., 379, 397 202
Muscarin, 292 Neurospora crassa, 26, 36, 144, 167, 196,
Mutations, back, 413 202, 228, 232, 237, 363, 405, 413, 414
chemically induced, 414-415 pH, and p-aminobenzoic-acid defi-
natural, 93 ciency of, 183, 184
radiation-induced, 93, 282, 401, 405, and growth of, 161, 162
408 production of perithecia by, 325, 326
Mutualistic symbiosis, example of, 173, use of, in assays, 211, 215
384 Neurospora sitophila, 29, 34, 184, 193,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 240, 290 215, 248, 317, 405
Mycoderma cerevisiae, 39 tetrasperma, 357
valida, 176, 199 Newton, M., 411, 417
vini, 186 Nickerson, W. J., 39, 40, 42-44, 70, 85,
Mycogone, 385 91, 92, 114, 327, 336, 385, 386, 397
MycosphaereUa citrullina, 319 Nicotinic acid, 196-198
Mycoiorula lactis, 197 antagonists of, 236
INDEX 455
Nicotinic acid amide, 196 Orton, C. R., 7, 381, 383, 397

Niemann, C, 228, 237, 242 Osmotic pressure, 36, 37
Niklas, H., 218, 224 in host-parasite relation, 376, 377, 382
Nitrate utilization, effect of molybdenum Oswald, W., 311, 335
J.
on, 79 Owen, W. L., 274, 300

Nitrite as source of nitrogen, 102 Owens, H. S., 136, 147
Nitrogen, 97-110 Oxidases, 51
fixation of, by fungi, 98 Oxybiotin, 194
nitrate, list of fungi utilizing, 99 Oxygen, 88-92, 359, 360
sources on sporulation, 321
of, effect of,
laboratory exercise, 428

utilization of, as basis of classification, Paneolus, 293
97 Pantothenic acid, 198-199
effect of organic acids on, 103, 104, antagonists of, 233-234
107 moieties 198of,
organic, 101, 105 Pantoyltaurine formula, 234
Noble, R. J., 366, 371 Panus stijpticus, 402, 403, 410, 438
Nobles, M. K., 134, 147, 410, 418 Parasitella simplex, 188
Nocardia gardneri, 287 Parasitism, 375-386
Nord, F. F., 96, 102, 108, 114, 115, 123, action in advance, 376
135, 140, 141, 147, 148, 186, 191, 192, by balanced parasites, 375, 380-383
207, 270, 295, 300, 303 by destructive parasites, 375-378
Norman, A. G., 49, 63, 134, 147 by fungi, of fungi, 385
North, H. E., Ill, 113 of insects, 383-385
Novelli, G. D., 199, 205 of man, 385
Nutrition, of host, effect of, on disease types of, 375
development, 392-393 by wilt-producing fungi, 378-380
special conditions of, laboratory exer- Parker-Rhodes, A. F., 250, 264
cise, 429-430 Pasteur, L., 6, 7, 39, 44, 45, 63, 117, 147,
Nutritional requirements, variation of, 219, 224, 275, 276, 300
within species, 400-401 biographical note, 6
Nydalis, 385 Pathogenicity, inheritance of, 411
variation in, 402
O Patton, A. R., 16, 22
Payne, E. H., 291, 300
Oldium lactis, 271 Pectinase, 47, 50
Oligosaccharides, 129-133 production of, 376-378
Ophiobolus graminis, 12, 97, 99, 180, 190, specificity of, 377-378
193 Pehrson, S. O., 34, 44, 160, 169, 380, 397
miyabeanus, 99 Peltier, G. L., 164, 168, 273, 300
oryzinus, 193 Penetration, 372-375
Ophiostoma, 401 direct, 373-375
catonianum, 193, 200 into immune plants, 374, 391
muUiannulahun 42, 93 , through stomata, 372-373
{See also Ceratostomella multian- through wounds, 375
nulata) Penicillin, 288-290
ulmi, 31 influence of, on cell morphology, 39
{See also Ceratostomella ulmi) type formula of, 289
Organic acids, as carbon sources, 126-128 Penicillium, 93, 94, 99, 172, 197, 222,
as factor in resistance, 390 260, 271, 272, 274, 275, 283, 286,
production of, 277-283 385, 401, 436
Penicilliurn, arenarium, 297 Peterson, W. H., 139, 147, 202, 205, 216,
brevicaule, 110, 111 224
hrevicom-pactum, 287 Peziza badia, 346
chnjsogenum, 68, 94, 280-282, 402, 408, pH, definition of, 150, 151
437 equation for, 151
ion antagonism in, 75 indicators for, 157

penicillin production by, 287-289 method of determining, 156-158
crustaceum, 280 Phacidium infestans, 34, 160
cyclopium, 360 Phalloidin, 292
digitatum, 98, 193, 232, 261, 283, 375 PheUorina, 307
divaricatum, 279 Phenolic compounds, toxicity of, 389-391
ex-pansum, 98, 262, 375, 425, 426, 431 PhiUips, P. H., 236, 242
flavo-cinereum, 212 Pholiota autumnalis, 292
glabrum, 280 Phoma, 99
glaucum, 35, 69, 70, 117, 219, 275, 279, apiicola, 99
280, 358, 362 betoe, 98, 100, 172, 321, 325, 429, 432
griseofulvum, 287 causarina, 99
islandicum, 294 lingam, 377
italicum, 360, 375 terrestris, 402
janczewskii, 287 urens, 311, 317
javanicum, 271, 272, 318 Phomopsis californica, 311
luteum-purpiirogenuri} 287 ,
citri, 34
28,
notatxivi, 164, 284, 288, 408
Phosphorus, 94-97
olivaceum, 279 in carbohydrate dissimilation, 96, 142
oxalicum, 272
Phycomyces, 364, 415
patulum, 287
blakesleeanus, 15, 17, 32, 35, 100, 164,
phoeniceum, 294
172, 173, 178, 181, 187, 191, 212,
piscarium, 272
220, 232, 295, 310, 314, 380, 428,
purpurogenum var. rubrisderotiurn, 280
431, 434, 437
roquejorti, 121 272
,
pH and formation of zygospores, 318
rubrurn, 294
stimulants and spore germination,
sanguifluus, 279 364-365
spiculisporurn, 431
thiamine deficiency of, 174, 177,
variable, 159
188-190
Peniophora allescheri, 410
use of, in thiamine assay, 211, 215
Pentoses, 122-124
utihzation of sources by, carbon, 122,
Perlman, D., 71, 73, 75, 76, 85, 195, 205, 124-126, 133
279, 300
nitrogen, 100, 103, 104, 107, 108
Permeability, change of, as factor in re-
nitens, 91, 362
sistance, 382
Phyllachora graminis, 383
in host cells, 376, 377, 382
Phylostida antirrhini, 356, 358
Peronospora, 353
opuntiae, 311, 317
effusa, 343
soUtaria, 321, 324, 362
geranii, 343
Phymototrichum omnivorum, 76, 375, 391
halstedii, 343
parasitica, 343
Physarum cinereum, 367, 368
polycephalum, 320, 367
pygrnaea, 358
tabacina, 343 Phytophthora, 33, 42, 188, 190, 258, 402
boehtneriae, 327
Pestalotia guepinia, 311
stellata, 255 cadorum, 17, 122, 132, 326, 327
Peterson. M. S.. 202, 205 cinnamomi, 232
INDEX 457
Phytophthora, colocasiae, 258, 360 Pleurage, curvicoUa, 100, 175, 178, 190,
cry throne ptica, 16, 17, 285, 327 193, 322, 323, 325, 344, 428
carbon sources utilized by, 122, 124, Pleurotus corticatus, 102
125 ostreatus, 100, 134
thiamine deficiency of, 188, 189, 191 Plumlee, C. H., 94, 114
fagopyri, 122, 136 Podaxis, 307
hydrophila, 258 Podospora curvula, 190, 193
infestans, 34, 343, 352, 360, 373, 425, Pollard, A. L., 94, 114
436 Polyporus abietinus. 134
parasitism of, 376, 377 adustus, 219
temperature and germination of, betulinus, 135
356-357 cinnabarinus, 134
variation of, 401 hirsutus, 351
megasperma, 327 pargamenus, 134, 135
melongenae, 258 squamosus, 238
palmivora, 132, 360 versicolor, 351
parasitica, 132, 360 Polysaccharides, 133-136

richardiae, 258 as wilt inducers, 378
terrestris, 28, 34 Porges, N., 280, 281, 300
Pigman, W. W., 14, 22, 117, 119, 128, 133, Porta vaillantii, 135
147 Porter, C. L., 327, 336
Pigments, production of, by fungi, 293- Potassium, 68, 218
295 Prasard, N., 380, 397
relation to, of copper, 77 Pratt, E. F., 199, 206
of iron, 76 Pratt, R., 32, 44, 290, 300
Pilaira anomala, 295 Prescott, S. C, 142, 147, 266, 277, 300
moreaui, 122 Preuss, L. M., 271, 300
Pilgrim, F. J., 194, 206 Prevost, B., 246, 264
Pilobolus, 338, 342-345, 349, 353, 438 Price, W. C, 288, 298
kleinii, 339, 340 Pritham, G. H., 158, 169
longipes, 339 Proactinomyces cyaneus, 287
microsporus, 307 Proline, formula of, 238
Pimelic acid, 194 Protectants, fabric, tests for, 221-222
Pinkard, J. A., 343, 354 Proteins, amino-acid composition of, 268
Piptocephalis, 385 synthesis of, .110
Piricularia oryzae, 163, 190, 193, 331, 351 Protocatechuic acid, 390
sporulation of, 308, 309, 317 Psalliota campestris, 52, 267, 270
Pirschle, K., 102, 114 {See also Agaricus campestris)
Pisum, 382 Pseudomonas saccharophila, 324
sativum, 377 Pseudopeziza ribis, 193
pKa, 153, 154, 167 Puccinia antirrhini, 254, 255
pKft, 153, 154 coronata, 348
Plasmodiophora brassicae, 307 glumarum, 358
Plasmopara viticola, 358, 360 graminis, 348, 349, 356, 360, 373, 377
Piatt, B. S., 269, 300 parasitism of, 382-383
Plattner, P. A., 378, 397 resistance to, 392
Platz, G. A., 360, 365, 371 graminis iritici, 9, 382, 392, 395, 402
Plenodomus destruens, 317
37, 311, 411
fuscomaculans, 307, 311, 313, 317 inheritance in, 411
Pleurage, 344, 353, 438 graminis tritici-compacti, 392
anserina, 404 podophylli, 348
1
Puccinia, rubigo-vera tritici, 402 Rawlins, T. E., 17, 22

(See also triticina, below) Reddy, C. S., 388, 389, 397
sorghi, 381, 383, 392 Reeves, M. D., 70, 84
triticina, 373 Reilly, H. C., 288, 301
{See a/.so nihicjo-vera tritici, above) Rcnaud, J., 273, 301
Pyridoxal formula, 200 Resistance, 386-393
Pyridoxamine formula, 200 in colored onions, 390
Pyridoxine, 199-201 due to, acidity, 388-389
antagonists of, 234-235 antibiotics, 390
Pyrithianiine, 232 organic acids, 390
Pyronema confluens, 100 phenolic compounds, 390, 391
Pyruvic acid, action of carboxylase on, 52 effect on, ofenvironment, 393
effect of thiamine concentration on, of hostmetabolism, 393
191, 192 of host nutrition, 392-393
transformations of, 140-143 functional, 388
Pythiacystis citrophthora, 28, 34, 377 mechanical, 387
Pythiornorpha gonapodyoides, 77, 78, 100, physiological, 388-393
103, 122, 124-126, 188-190, 232 starvation theory of, 383, 391, 392
Pythium, 33, 327, 374, 377, 378 toxin theory of, 382, 392
arrheno manes, 190 Respiration, 89-92
ascophallon, 103, 122, 136, 190 effect of cyanide on, 55-57
butleri, 182, 190 Respirometer, 91
debaryanum, 100, 132, 249, 374 Reticularia lycoperdon, 367
intermedium, 100 Reynolds, E. S., 390, 397
irregulare, 80, 100 Rhizobium, 98, 192
oligandrum, 190 trifolii, 75, 164, 193, 208
Rhizoctonia solani, 79, 80, 100, 127

R Rhizophlyctis rosea, 100
(See also Karlingia rosea)
Raaf, H., 271, 300 Rhizopus, 49, 76, 274, 281, 319
Rabinovitz-Sereni, D., 69, 85 arrhizus, 281
Raciborski, M., 37, 44 autocar pi, 50
Radiation effects on fungi, 57, 58 chinensis, 50, 281
Raffinose formula, 132 delemar, 274
Rahn, O., 24, 25, 32, 44, 165, 166, 169 elegans, 281
Raistrick, H., 94, 114, 139, 147, 275, 276, japonicus, 281 (
294, 296, 299-301 niicrosporus, 50
Rake, G., 290, 301 nigricans, 37, 50, 70, 76, 78, 100, 122,
Ramsey, G. 336
B., 316, 160, 262, 375
Rands, R. D., 319, 336 carbon sources utilized by, 133, 136,
Rankin, W. H., 368, 369 137
Rannefelt, A. N., 201, 206 production of organic acids by, 282,
Raper, J. R., 326, 337 283
Raper, K. B., 34, 44, 282, 284, 285, 301, nodosus, 281
385, 398, 401, 418, 424, 439 oryzae, 100, 274, 281, 326
Ratajak, E. J., 136, 147 pseudochinensis, 281
Raulin, J., 11, 22, 66, 67, 71, 76, 85, 94, salebrosa, 281
114 shanghaiensis, 281
synthetic medium of, 1 stolonifer, 281
Raut, C., 30, 44, 60, 63, 212, 224 suinus, 17, 122, 133, 186, 196
Ravel, J. M., 234, 242 tritici, 281
INDEX 459
Rhodoiorula aurantica, 201, 231 Ryan, F. J., 28, 29, 36, 44, 161, 162, 169,
(jlulinus, 271 198, 206, 216, 225, 363; 371, 413, 418
rubra, 188 Rydon, H. N., 229, 242
sanniei, 184
Rihes, 395 S
Riboflavin, 202
production of, 272-273 Sabouraud, R., 386, 398
Ribose, 97, 123 Saccharase {see Sucrase)
Rice, M. A., 381, 382, 397 Saccharomyces, 198
Rich, S., 2G0, 264 anamensis, 197
Richards, M. C, 319, 337 carlsbergensis, 59, 200, 215, 219
Richards, O. W., 66, 85 carlsbergensis var. mandshuricus, 199,
Richardson, G. L., 165, 166, 169 219
Rickes, E. L., 82, 85, 273, 301 cerevisiae, 49, 60, 76, 78, 105, 120, 193,
Rickettsia, 291 194, 229, 251, 327, 400,402

Riker, A. J., 17, 22, 305, 337, 420, 439 effect of penicilhn on, 39, 40
Riker, R. S., 17, 22, 305, 337 growth antagonists of, 232-239
Rippel, A., 68, 69, 85, 103, 114 induced vitamin synthesis by, 60
Roach, W. A., 253, 264 nutritional adaptations of, 412
Roark, G. W., Jr., 129, 146 use of, in assays, 213-215
Robbins, W. J., 14, 17, 22, 77, 78, 85, 97, vitamin content of, 269
99, 100, 114, 155, 160, 164, 169, 172, vitamin deficiencies of, 176, 197, 198
180-182, 190, 194, 196, 200, 201, 206, chodati, 199
212, 224, 232, 234, 238, 242, 285, fragilis, 140, 197
301, 310, 318, 329, 337, 364, 371, 400, ladis, 197
412, 418, 422, 432, 439 ludwigii, 181, 199
Roberg, M., 76, 85 macedoniensis, 180

Roberts, C., 76, 85 oviformis, 180, 199
Roberts, E. C., 216, 225 uvarurn, 195
Roberts, M., 274, 301 Saito, K., 281, 301
Roblin, R. O., Jr., 226, 227, 234, 242 Salmon, E. S., 391, 398
RochUn, E. J., 390, 397 Saltation, 411
Rodenhiser, H. A., 410, 417 Sandholm, N. K., 261, 264
Rogosa, M., 196, 197, 206, 218, 225 Sanger, F., 10, 22
Roholt, K., 231, 242 Saprolegnia, 349
Roine, P., 109, 114 jnixta, 92, 307, 320
Rolfe, F. W., 266, 267, 301 parasitica, 93
Rolfe, R. T., 266, 267, 301 Sarcoscypha protracta, 345

Rose, W. C, 106, 114, 267, 301 Sarett, H. P., 232, 243
Rosellinia arcuata, 122, 193 Sarver, L. A., 73, 86, 260, 265
Rosen, H. R., 380, 398 Sawyer, W. H., 343, 354
Rosenberg, H. R., 187, 206 Scandium, 81
Rosenblum, C, 157, 169 Schade, A. L., 120, 127, 148
Rubbo, S. D., 201, 206, 230, 242 Schatz, A., 286, 301
Rubin, S. H., 194, 206, 233, 241 Scheffer, T. C, 89, 114
Rubus, 382 Schizophyllum commune, 94, 351, 409
Ruger, M. L., 273, 298 Schizosaccharomyces, 25
Russula emetica, 292 octosporus, 49
foetens, 52 pombe, 195

niger, 52 Schleef, M. L., 270, 301
Ruta, 365 Schlenk, F., 197, 204
Schmidt, M., 390, 398 Sinnott, E. W., 42, 43

Schmitt, M. B., 17, 22, 154, 164, 169, 310, Siu, R. G. H., 91, 113, 114
318, 337 Skoog, F. K., 120, 148, 412, 418

Schneider, G. G., 50, 63 Smart, R. F., 357, 361, 362, 367, 371
Schoenbach, E. B., 291, 301 Smit, J., 218, 225
Schomer, H. A., 57, 63 Smith, E. C., 316, 337, 368, 371
Schopfer, W. H., 2, 7, 32, 44, 172, 174, Smith, E. L., 273, 302
177, 186, 187, 192, 196, 206, 211, 214, Smith, F. G., 389, 398
215, 219, 220, 225, 236, 243, 295, 301 Smith, L. D. S., 376, 398
Schubert, W. J., 135, 148 Smith, P. E., 357, 370

Schultz, A. S., 127, 148, 215, 225 Smith, R. M., 291, 302
Sciarini, L. J., 295, 301 Smith, V. M., 95, 114, 132, 148
Scleroderma aurantirion, 367 Snell, C. T., 156, 157, 169
I
Sclerospora graminicola, 360, 381 Snell, E. E., 74, 85, 200, 201, 206, 211,
Sclerotinia, 254 215, 216, 225, 234, 239, 243

americana, 252, 253, 255, 261 Snell, F. D., 156, 157, 169
cameUiae, 34, 190, 193, 196 Snell, N., 292, 300
temperature and inositol deficiency Snyder, W. C, 17, 22, 305, 313, 332, 335,
of, 182, 184, 185 337, 412, 417

vitamin deficiencies of, 178, 179 Solanine, 390
frudicola, 77, 247-249, 258, 262, 288, Solanum, 390 I
358 tuberosum, 377
(See also Monilinia frudicola) Somers, G. F., 47, 51, 64, 70, 79, 86, 96,
Ubertiana, 136 115, 142, 148, 277, 302
(See also sclerotiorum, below) Sorbitol formula, 124
minor, 100, 190, 400 Sorbose formula, 119
sclerotiorum, 100, 172, 374, 376, 377, Sordaria, 344, 345, 349, 353, 438
402, 425 fimicola, 39, 40, 100, 122, 164, 173, 175,
trifoliorum, 402 178, 190, 191, 193, 208, 220, 328,
Sclerotium bataticola, 100 400, 428, 429, 431, 432, 435, 437
delphinii, 76 biotin and sporulation of, 330-331
rolfsii, 80, 376 carbon sources utiUzed by, 122
Scott, I. T., 160, 169 depth of medium and growth of, 38
Sealock, R. R., 231, 243 pH, and growth of, 160, 162, 167
Seaver, F. J., 346, 354 and sporulation of, 319
Seifriz, W., 37, 44 spore discharge by, 344
Semeniuk, G., 96, 114 vitamin deficiency of, 167, 181
Septobasidium, 352, 353, 384 induced thiamine, 182, 183
burtii, 385 Spergon, 257
Septoria nodorum, 100, 172, 314, 321, 425, Sphaerobolus, 347, 349, 353
426, 432 stellatus, 100, 347, 348
Septosporium acerinum, 317 Sphaerographium fraxini, 310, 311

Sevag, M. G., 231, 243 Sphaeronema pruinostim, 311
Shankman, S., 216, 225 Sphaeropsis rnalorum, 100, 172, 314, 428,
Shanor, L., 332, 337 429, 431, 432
Sharvelle, E. J., 393, 398 Spiegehnan, S., 59, 63, 412, 413, 418
Shive, W., 229, 234, 242, 243 Spies, T. D., 187, 207
Shoup, C. S., 121, 148 SpineUus, 385
Shu, P. 73, 86, 280, 302 Spongospora subterranea, 374
Siminoff, P., 286, 298 Spore discharge, of aeciospores, 348-349
Singer, T. P., 226, 243, 251, 263, 264 of ascospores, 343-346
INDEX 461
Spore discharge, of basidiospores, 348-351 Steinhaus, E. A., 383, 398

effect on, of humidity, 343 Stemonitis axifera, 367
of light, 339-341, 344, 346 ferruginea, 368
of temperature, 351 fusca, 367
methods of, 338-351 Stephenson, M., 46, 63
of peridioles,347-348 Stereum frustulosum, 188
by 350-351
rain, gausapatum, 121, 123, 124
of sporangia, 338-343 Stern, K. G., 58, 63
Spore dissemination, agents of, 351, 352 Stevens, F. L., 315, 316, 337
Spore germination, effect on, of moisture, Stevens, N. E., 120, 148
357-359 Stoddard, E. M., 231, 243
of nutrients, 361-364 Stokes, J. L., 105, 115, 184, 193, 195,
of pH, 360-361 207

of stimulants, 363-367 Stomata, formation of, as result of
of temperature, 356-357 parasitism, 382

laboratory exercise, 435-436 penetration through, 372-373
requirements for, 355 Stone, G. M., 373, 395
in slime molds, 367, 368 Stotz, E., 143, 148
Sporodinia grandis, 100, 307 Stout, P. R., 21, 23, 73, 86
Sporormia intermedia, 193 Strauss, B. S., 184, 207
Sporotrichum, 132 Streptococcus faecalis, 16, 200, 201, 228
Sporulation, effect on, of associated Streptomyces, 285, 288
organisms, 327-328 aureofaciens, 291
of carbon sources, 321-325 griseus, 58, 82, 127, 273, 286, 287, 290,
of light, 310-314 291

of method, of inoculation, 332 venezuelae, 287, 291
of sterilization, 332 Streptomycin, 290-291
of nitrogen source, 321 Sucrase, 49, 133
of nutritional factors, 320-333 Sucrose, effect of, on sporulation, 324
of pH, 318-319 formula of, 131

307-310
of temperature, Sugar acids, 125
314-316
of ultraviolet light, Sugar alcohols, 124
of vitamins, 329-332 Sulfanilamide, 227, 229-231
methods of inducing, 333-334 Sulfur, as fungicide, 251-256
need for aeration in, 316-318 as metabolite, 92-94
Srb, A. M., 217, 225, 239, 242 Sumner, J. B., 47, 51, 52, 64, 70, 79, 86,
Stachybotrys atra, 193, 195 96, 115, 142, 148, 277, 302
Stakman, E. C, 382, 391, 392, 398, 410 Sure, B., 268, 302
Standard curve, 214 Syncephalastrum racemosum, 16, 17, 122,
Stanier, R. Y., 16, 22 132
Staphylococcus, 284 Syncephalis, 385
aureus, 285 Synchytrium endobioticum, 253, 381
Starch, 135
scheme of utilization of, 48
Stark, W. H., 71, 86
Starkey, R. L., 159, 169, 246, 264, 271, Takamine, J. 274, 302
302 Tamiya, H., 89, 115, 121, 123-125, 127,
Steinberg, R. A., 10, 22, 23, 67-69, 71-74, 129, 132, 136, 148, 158, 169
76, 78-82, 86, 92, 97, 105, 114, 115, Tanner, F. W., Jr., 272, 273, 302
121, 123-127, 139, 140, 148, 326, 414, Taphrina, 375
418, 437, 439 dejonnans, 311
Tapke, V. F., 388, 398 Torulopsis kefyr, 197

Tatum, E. L., 36, 161, 199, 202, 207, 215, pulcherrima, 76
225 sanguinea, 366, 367
Taubenhaus, J. J., 388, 390, 395 tdilis, 75, 109
Tauber, H., 96, 115, 142, 148, 277, 302 Toursel, O., 218, 224
Taylor, C. F., 386, 398 Tove, S. R., 99, 115
Temperature, effect of, on growth, 34 Toxins, as pathogenic agents, 378-380
on resistance, 393 produced by fungi, 292-293, 378-379
on sporulation, 307-310 in relation to enzymes, 376, 382
laboratory exercise, 425 Trametes americana, 135
Temperature coefficient, 53 Transamination, 109
Temperatures, cardinal, 34 Trehalose, 131, 132
Tenebris moHtor, 58 Treponema pallidum, 290
Ter Horst, W. P., 235, 243, 257, 265 Trichodernia koningii, 260
Ternetz, C, 88, 99, 115, 319, 337 lignorum, 100, 286, 314, 426, 437
Thatcher, F. S., 37, 44, 376, 377, 382, viride, 222, 287
398 Tricholoma, 366
Thatcher, R. W., 66, 86 personatum, 293
Thaysen, A. C, 49, 64, 267, 302 Trichophyton, 259
Theis, E. H., 258, 265 200
discoides, 196,
Thiamine, antagonists of, 231-233 gypseum, 238, 287
formula of, 187 inter digitate, 76
fungi, deficient for, 190 mentagrophytes, 238, 260, 288, 412
mode of action of, 190, 191 purpureum, 238
moieties of, 187-189 rubrum, 42, 287
specificity of, 191, 192 Trichotheciuni roseuni, 288
Thiamine pyrimidine formula, 187 (See also Cephalothecium roseum)
Thiamine pyrophosphate formula, 191 Troutman, M. C, 66, 85
Thiamine thiazole formula, 187 Tryptophane, biosynthesis of, 229
Thielavia basicola, 122 Tschang, J. L., 184, 204
sepedonium, 111 Typhida variabilis, 122
Thielaviopsis basicola, 80, 190, 387 Tyrosinase, 52
Thimann, K. V., 120, 148, 327, 336
Thorn, C, 34, 44, 385, 398, 401, 414, 418, U
424, 439
Thomas, H. E., 374, 387, 398 of, on sporulation,
Ultraviolet Hght, effect
Thorn, R. S. W., 108, 115 314-316
Thornberry, H. H., 262, 265, 291, 302 inducing mutations by, 401, 405
Thraustotheca clavata, 193 Umbreit, W. W., 90, 115, 154, 169
Thren, R., 400, 418
Underkofler, L. A., 274, 275, 302
Tilletia, 250
Units of measure, 18
levis, 410
Uppal, B. N., 257, 265, 360, 371
tritici, 410
Urease, 52
Timnick, M. B., 312, 316, 324, 337
Tomatin, 390 Urocystis cepulae, 307, 356
occulta, 361, 366
Tonnis, B., 19?, 205, 209, 224
Torula, 37 tritici, 366
cremoris, 194, 197 Uromyces caryophyllinus, 247, 248, 253-
255, 362, 377
lactosa, 197 1
sphaerica, 197 fabae, 377, 393
uiilis, 269, 271 pisi, 348
INDEX 463
Ustilago avenae, 360 Vitamins, effect of, on sporulation, 329-

nuda, 358, 400 332
striiformis, 118, 120, 172, 362, 380, fungi self-sufficient for, 172
401, 402, 428 inhibitory effects of, 184-186
tritici,388 production of, by fungi, 272-273
violaceae, 410 synthesis of, by fungi, 171, 172, 272,
zeae, 360, 365 273
Utech, N. M., 288, 302 Vitucci, J. C, 123, 135, 147
Utilization, definition of, 87 Volcani, B. E., 239, 243
Volkonsky, M., 93, 115, 132, 135, 148
Von Loesecke, H. W., 269, 279, 302
Valsa leucostoma, 321 W

pini, 190, 196
Vanadium, 81 Waksman, S. A., 76, 84, 86, 159, 169, 246,
Vandecaveye, S. C, 219, 225 264, 266, 267, 278, 279, 281-283, 285,
Van Lanen, J. M., 272, 273, 302 286, 290, 298, 299, 302
Van Niel, C. B., 132, 148 Walker, J. C, 356, 371, 390-392, 397, 398
Van Rij, N. J. W., 39, 40, 44 Walker, L. B., 347, 348, 354
Van Slyke, D. D., 58, 64, 161, 162, 170 Walker, T. K., 278, 302
Variation, basis of, in imperfect fungi, Wallerstein, J. S., 267, 303
411-412 Wallerstein, L., 275, 303
physiological, 400-403 Walton, R. C, 344, 354
Vasudeva, R. S., 376, 398 Warburg, O., 58, 64
Vaughan, J. R., 288, 302 Ward, G. E., 271, 272, 281, 282, 299, 303,
Venturia inaequalis, 254-256, 288, 304, 326, 336
356, 358 Ward, M., 392, 398
VerticiUium, 378 Waring, W. S., 73, 86
alho-atrum, 100 Water, 87, 88, 149
Vincent, J. M., 94, 114 Waters, C. W., 393, 398
Vitamers, 186 Webb, R. A., 269, 300
Vitamin Bi {see Thiamine) Webb, R. W., 360, 361, 363, 364, 371
Vitamin Be (see Pyridoxine) Weedon, F. R., 253, 264
Vitamin B12, 82, 273 Weimer, J. L., 50, 63, 344, 354
Vitamin deficiencies, 172-186 Weinhouse, S., 143, 148
absolute, 181, 182 Weinstock, H. H., 198, 207
conditioned, 181-184 Weiss, S., 295, 303
methods of detecting, 174-176 Welch, A. D., 226, 243
multiple, 178-181 Wellensiek, S. J., 383, 393, 398
partial, 174, 177, 179 Wellman, F. L., 356, 371
single, 178 Wellman, R. H., 245, 261, 264, 265
total, 174, 177, 179 Wells, P. A., 280, 303
Vitamin H {see Biotin) Werkman, C. H., 73, 86, 128, 136, 138,
Vitamin K, antagonists of, 235-236 146, 148
Vitamin K2 formula, 235 West, R., 273, 303
Vitamins, antagonists of, 229-236 Westergaard, M., 325, 326, 337
characteristics ot, 171 Weston, W. H., Jr., 35, 43, 424, 438
concentration of, laboratory exercise, Weswig, P. H., 231, 243
433-435 Wheeler, H. E., 404, 417
deficiencies for, laboratory exercise, Whiffin, A. J., 288, 303
432-433 White, A. G. C., 127, 148, 232, 233, 244
464 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNOI
White, M. G., 138, 139, 148

White, N. H., 12, 23
White, W. L., 49, 64, 221, 222, 225 Xylaria hypoxylon, 190
Wieland, H., 292, 303 rnali, 100
Wilcoxon, F., 247, 248, 252-255, 264, 265 Xylose formula, 123
Wilkins, W. H., 285, 303 Xylulose formula, 123
Willainan, J. J., 138, 139, 148, 275, 299
Williams, B., 291, 297
Williams, R. J., 198, 199, 204, 206, 207
Yarwood, C. E., 311, 337, 358, 359, 371,
Williams, R. R., 187, 207
Wilson, A. N., 232, 233, 243 393, 399
Wilson, P. W., 51, 62, 99, 115 Yaw, K., 121, 148
Wilson, W. E., 121, 148 Yeager, C. C, 384, 399
Wingard, S. A., 393, 398 Yeast, film formation by, 39

Winzler, R. J., 56, 60, 61, 64, 194, 207, heat production by, 61
233, 241 measuring growth of, 30
Wirth, J. C, 102, 108, 115, 141, 148, 186, morphology of, 39
191, 192, 207 protein of, 268
Witkop, B., 292,303 respiration of, effect of cyanide on, 56
277, 303 of, for food, 268, 269
use
Wohler, F.,
Wolf, F. A., 35, 44, 99, 115, 293, 303, 347, vitamin content of, 269
354, 371, 386, 399, 401, 402, 418 Yegian, D., 240, 244
Wolf, F. T., 35, 44, 99, 115, 121, 148, 231, Yoe, J. H., 73, 86, 260, 265
243, 293, 303, 347, 354, 371, 386, 399, Yoshimura, F., 74, 86
Young, H. C., 79, 86, 100, 115, 253, 265
402, 418
Wolfrom, M. L., 290, 299 Yuill, J. L., 275, 303
Wolpert, F. S., 159, 160, 170
Wood, H. G., 136, 148
4
Wood, W. A., 201, 207
Woods, D. D., 230, 243 Z factors, effect of, on spore germination,
Woolley, D. W., 195, 207, 226, 229, 231- 364-365
233, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 242-244, Zentmeyer, G. A., 260, 265
378, 399 Zikes, H., 33, 39, 44
Wooster, R. C, 199, 207 Zinc, 76, 282
Worley, C. L., 28, 44 Zygorhynchus moeUeri, 100

Wright, L. D., 215, 225, 226, 244 Zygosaccharomyces, 199, 327
Wright, L. T., 291, 303 acidifaciens, 91, 92
Wyss, O., 167, 170, 183, 184, 202, 207, ladis, 197
215, 225 marxianus, 215

4
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Marine Biological Laboratory Library

Woods Hole, Mas3achusetl5

ARNOLD An Introduction to Paleobotany

VIRGIL GREENE LILLY

Physiologist, West Virginia Agricultural

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

Copyright, 1951, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Prmtedinthe

of these men in directing our interests

to the study of fungi is gratefully

who have aided us with their suggestions. Among our colleagues at

who typed most of the manuscript.

Fungus Physiology in Relation to Other Sciences —Aims —Scope— Historical

Factors on Morphology — Summary.

4. Enzymes and Enzyme Action 45

6. The Essential Xonmetallic Elements Other Than Carbon 87

7. Carbon Sources and Carbon Utilization 116

Monosaccharides and Related Compounds — Organic Acids — Glycosides

Part I. General Considerations — Synthesis of Vitamins by Fungi — Vitamin

Moieties — Biotin — Inositol — Nicotinic Acid— Pantothenic Acid— Pyridoxine

11. Metabolic Antagonists 226

12. The Action of Fungicides 245

13. Metabolic Products 266

Alcoholic Fermentation — Organic Acids — Esters — Antibiotics and Drugs

14. Factors Influencing Sporulation op Fungi 304

17. The Physiology of Parasitism and Resistance 372

The most important role of the fungi in the economy of nature is to

affectsthem. Like other branches of science, fungus physiology has

previous knowledge. Organization and interpretation of facts are equally

required to frame a question so that a definite answer may be obtained.

FUNGUS PHYSIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER SCIENCES

vitamin problem is common to many branches of science. Many other

the purpose at hand is of fundamental importance in any investigation.

The development of fungus physiology is far from complete. While

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), France. Pasteur was a chemist who, as a

trated work is still of great value.

readable style and should be frequently consulted by all students of

1934; Vol. VII, The University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1950.

Orton, C. R.: Leon Hatchig Leonian. Phytopathology 36: 241-244, 1946.

enzymatic process. The complete utilization of a natural substrate is

dioxide and water or to intermediate products. By this process the

species of grasses, and some These host plants when

Semisynthetic media. A semisynthetic medium is one Avhich is com-

the fungus could synthesize protoplasm or derive energy. Steinberg's

Table 1. Composition of the First Synthetic Medium for CuLTrvATiNG Fungi

However, not enough information is given in Table 1 for the duplication

NATURAL VERSUS SYNTHETIC MEDIA

chemical compound.s than synthetic media. They also contain com

constituents present in the medium. It may be suspected that these

CHOICE AND PREPARATION OF MEDIA

Considerable care is needed in the selection of a suitable medium. A

More judgment enters into the selection of synthetic media. The

bon and nitrogen phosphate and sulfate ions; the

given in Chap. 10.

cultivating fungi. Media solidified with agar, or semisolid substrates

cultivating fungi. Some of these names are Blakeslee, Uschinsky, Coons,

hyphenated names: e.g., Czapek-Dox. Frequently the originator of a

there is a tendency to fail to associate experimental results with the

sugars. Margolin (1942) found that no one method of sterilization

Table 2. The Effect of Different Methods of Sterilizing Glucose upon

sary to measure the volume of the medium after preparation in order to