1

Induction Machines EEE 2314.

By: Siyoi. V.
 Construction of Induction Machines.

 Rotor Slip and Frequency.

 The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor.

 Power and Torque in Induction Motors.

2
 More than 85% of industrial motors in use today are in fact induction motors.

 It is substantially a constant-speed motor with a shunt characteristic; a few

per cent speed drop from no-load to full-load.

 It is a singly fed motor (stator-fed).

 The torque developed in this motor has its origin in current induction in the
rotor which is only possible at non-synchronous speed; hence the name
asynchronous machine.
3
 Torque in a synchronous machine on the other hand, is developed only at
synchronous speed when the “locking” of the two fields takes place.

 Therefore, the induction motor is NOT plagued by the stability problem

inherent in the synchronous motor.

 As a consequence it inherently has a power factor less than unity which

usually must be corrected by means of shunt capacitors at motor terminals.

4
5
 The rotor magnetic circuit is denoted by number (16).

 The rotor conductors are mostly made by casting aluminum into the rotor
slots which, in the considered rotor, are not straight but are set obliquely.

 The rotor conductors are short circuited by aluminum rings (17) at the front
and rear sides of the rotor cylinder. The aluminum rings (17) are extended to
winglets intended to create an airstream for cooling.

 The stator conductors (26) are made of copper and covered by electrical
insulation. They are laid in the slots of the stator magnetic circuit (13).

 At the rear side of the motor, the shaft may be equipped with a fan (23) that
creates an airstream along the external sides of the housing.

6
 The flux and magnetic induction of the rotor have angular frequency 𝑓𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 .
For induction machines of several kW, the slip frequency is of the order of 1
Hz.

 Hence, magnetic induction pulsates with respect to the stator magnetic

circuit at the line frequency. It also pulsates with respect to the rotor
magnetic circuits at lower frequency.

 In order to reduce iron losses due to eddy currents, both stator and rotor
magnetic circuits are laminated, that is, they are made of iron sheets.

 The shape of these sheets is shown in Fig.

7
 Fig. (a) Stator magnetic circuit of an induction machine. (b) Rotor magnetic
circuit of an induction machine.

8
 On the internal surface of the stator magnetic circuit, there are axial slots
facing the air gap. The same way, the outer surface of the rotor has axial slots
facing the air gap.

 The slots are used for placing conductors that constitute stator and rotor
windings.

 The stator slots comprise copper conductors. The stator conductors can be
isolated by resin.

 They are connected so as to make three stator coils, also called three phases or
three parts of the stator winding.

9
 The rotor slots are mostly filled by aluminum bars, often made by casting
which consists of pouring liquid aluminum into the rotor slots.

 These bars are short circuited by the front and rear aluminum rings, forming in
this way short-circuited rotor winding called squirrel cage.

 A cross section of the machine, shown in Fig, indicates positions of conductors

with respect to the magnetic circuits.

10
 Fig. Cross section of an induction machine. (a) Rotor magnetic circuit. (b)
Rotor conductors. (c) Stator magnetic circuit. (d) Stator conductors.

11
 Fig (Cage Winding) shows the shape of rotor conductors and the short-
circuiting rings.
 To visualize the rotor cage, it is assumed that the magnetic circuit is removed.

 Similarity to the cage and the circumstance that the turns are short circuited
gave the name cage rotor.

12
 In high-power machines, where it is significant to increase the energy
efficiency, rotor conductors are made of copper bars.

 Copper has lower specific resistance compared to aluminum, which reduces

specific and total losses in the rotor cage.

 Rotor conductors have their electrical insulation made differently.

 An electrical contact between the rotor bars, cast into the rotor slots, and iron
sheets that constitute the rotor magnetic circuit gives a rise to sparse electrical
currents that can jeopardize performances of the machine.

 These currents can be avoided by applying an acid solution to internal surfaces

of the rotor slots before casting the aluminum bars or by making the inner
surfaces nonconductive in some other way.
13
 The insulation layer created in this way separates aluminum bar from the
magnetic circuit and prevents any uncontrollable currents.

 Exceptionally, the rotor of induction machine can have a 3𝜱 winding made

of round, insulated copper wire, in the way quite similar to the one used in
manufacturing the stator winding.

 In such cases, the three rotor terminals are made available to the user. Such
rotor is also called wound rotor.

 Wound rotor machines are rarely met nowadays, as a vast majority of induction
machines have a cage rotor.

14
 Part (a) in Fig. shows a short-circuited cage rotor of induction machine.

 Part (b) shows a wound rotor which has a 3Φ winding similar to that of the
stator.

 The 3Φ windings are usually star connected, while the remaining three
terminals of the rotor winding are connected to metal rings called slip rings,
mounted at the front end of the machine.

15
Fig. (a) Cage rotor. (b) Wound rotor with slip rings.

16
 Compared to DC machines, induction machines have a number of advantages.

 They include rather simple manufacturing procedure, robustness, higher

specific power, lower mass and volume, as well as possibility to operate at
considerably higher rotor speeds compared to DC machines.

 Therefore, induction machines are the most widespread machines nowadays.

 Absence of the brushes and collector eliminates the maintenance and prolongs
the lifetime.

 Robust construction of induction motor results in an improved reliability,

which is usually expressed by the mean time between failures (MTBF).
17
 Speed regulation was possible only with wound rotor.

 With developments in power converters and drives, it is possible nowadays to

design, manufacture, and deploy reliable and affordable systems based on
induction motors supplied from static power converters providing variable
frequency AC voltages.

18
 A 3Φ set of voltages has been applied to the stator, and a 3Φ set of stator
currents is flowing.
 These currents produce a magnetic field 𝑩𝒔 , which is rotating in a
counterclockwise direction.

 The speed of the magnetic field’s rotation is given by:

19
 Where 𝑓𝑠𝑒 is the system frequency applied to the stator in hertz and P is the
number of poles in the machine.

 This rotating magnetic field 𝐵𝑠 passes over the rotor bars and induces a
voltage in them.

 The voltage induced in a given rotor bar is given by the equation:

 v = velocity of the bar relative to the magnetic field.

 B = magnetic flux density vector.
 I = length of conductor in the magnetic field.

20
 It is the relative motion of the rotor compared to the stator magnetic field that
produces induced voltage in a rotor bar.

 The rotor current flow produces a rotor magnetic field 𝑩𝑹 .

 The induced torque in the machine is given by:

 There is a finite upper limit to the motor's speed:. If the induction motor’s
rotor were turning at synchronous speed, then the rotor bars would be
stationary relative to the magnetic field and there would be NO induced
voltage.

 If 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 were equal to 0, then there would be no rotor current and no rotor
magnetic field.
21
 With no rotor magnetic field, the induced torque would be ZERO, and the rotor
would slow down as a result of friction losses.

 Since the behavior of an induction motor depends on the rotor’s voltage and
current, it is often more logical to talk about this relative speed.

 Two terms are commonly used to define the relative motion of the rotor and the
magnetic fields. One is slip speed, defined as the difference between
synchronous speed and rotor speed:

Where:
 𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = slip speed of the machine.
 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 = speed of the magnetic fields.
 𝑛𝑚 = mechanical shaft speed of motor.
22
 The other term used to describe the relative motion is slip, which is the
relative speed expressed on a per-unit or a percentage basis. That is, slip is
defined as:

 This equation can also be expressed in terms of angular velocity 𝜔 (radians

per second) as:

23
 If the rotor turns at synchronous speed, s = 0, while if the rotor is stationary,
s = 1.

 It is possible to express the mechanical speed of the rotor shaft in terms of

synchronous speed and slip.

 Solving Equations for mechanical speed yields:

 These equations are useful in the derivation of induction motor torque and
power relationships.
24
 An induction motor works by inducing voltages and currents in the rotor of
the machine, and for that reason it has sometimes been called a rotating
transformer.

 Like a transformer, the primary (stator) induces a voltage in the secondary

(rotor), but unlike a transformer, the secondary frequency is NOT necessarily
the same as the primary frequency.

 If the rotor of a motor is locked so that it CANNOT move, then the rotor will
have the SAME frequency as the stator.
25
 On the other hand, if the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the frequency on
the rotor will be ZERO.

 At 𝑛𝑚 = 0 𝑟𝑝𝑚, the rotor frequency 𝑓𝑟𝑒 = 𝑓𝑠𝑒 and the slip s = 1.

 At 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 the rotor frequency 𝑓𝑟𝑒 = 0 Hz, and the slip 𝑠 = 0.

 For any speed in between, the rotor frequency is directly proportional to

the difference between the speed of the magnetic field 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 and the speed
of the rotor 𝑛𝑚 .

26
 Since the slip of the rotor is defined as:

 the rotor frequency can be expressed as:

27
 A 208 V, 10 hp, 4 pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip
of 5%.

 (a) What is the synchronous speed of this motor?

 (b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at the rated load?
 (C) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at the rated load?
 (d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at the rated load?

28
 (a) The synchronous speed of this motor is:

 (b) The rotor speed of the motor is given by:

 (c) The rotor frequency of this motor is given by:

29
 Alternatively, the frequency can be found from:

 (d) The shaft load torque is given by:

 The shaft load torque in English units is given by:

 where 𝜏 is in pound-feet, P is in horsepower, and 𝑛𝑚 is in revolutions per

minute. Therefore:

30
 The Transformer Model of an Induction Motor.

 The Rotor Circuit Model.

 The Final Equivalent Circuit.

31
 An induction motor relies for its operation on the induction of voltages and
currents in its rotor circuit from the stator circuit (transformer action).

 Because the induction of voltages and currents in the rotor circuit of an

induction motor is essentially a transformer operation, the equivalent circuit of
an induction motor will tum out to be very similar to the equivalent circuit of a
transformer.

 An induction motor is called a singly excited machine since power is supplied

to only the stator circuit.
32
 A Tx per-phase equivalent circuit, representing the operation of an induction
motor, is shown in Figure:

33
 As in any Tx, there is a certain resistance and self-inductance in the primary
(stator) windings, which must be represented in the equivalent circuit of the
machine.

 The stator resistance will be called 𝑅1 , and the stator leakage reactance will
be called 𝑋1 .

 Also like any Tx with an iron core, the flux in the machine is related to the
integral of the applied voltage 𝑬𝟏 .

 The curve of magnetomotive force versus flux (magnetization curve) for this
machine is compared to a similar curve for a power transformer in Figure.

34
 Fig: The magnetization curve of an induction motor compared to that of a Tx

35
 Notice that the slope of the induction motor’s magnetomotive force-flux curve
is much shallower than the curve of a good Tx.

 This is because there must be an air gap in an induction motor, which greatly
increases the reluctance of the flux path and therefore reduces the coupling
between primary and secondary windings.

 The higher reluctance caused by the air gap means that a higher magnetizing
current is required to obtain a given flux level.

 Therefore, the magnetizing reactance 𝑋𝑀 in the equivalent circuit will have a

much smaller value (or the susceptance 𝐸𝑀 will have a much larger value) than
it would in an ordinary Tx.

36
 The primary internal stator voltage 𝐸1 is coupled to the secondary 𝐸𝑅 by an
ideal transformer with an effective turns ratio 𝒂𝒆𝒇𝒇 .

 The effective turns ratio 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 is fairly easy to determine for a wound-rotor
motor: it is basically the ratio of the conductors per phase on the stator to
the conductors per phase on the rotor, modified by any pitch and
distribution factor differences.

 An induction motor equivalent circuit DIFFERS from a Tx equivalent circuit

primarily in the effects of varying rotor frequency on the rotor voltage 𝐸𝑅
and the rotor impedances 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑗𝑋𝑅 .

37
 In general, the greater the relative motion between the rotor and the stator
magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor voltage and rotor frequency.

 The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is stationary, called the
locked-rotor or blocked-rotor condition. So the LARGEST voltage and rotor
frequency are induced in the rotor at this condition.

 The SMALLEST voltage (0 V) and frequency (0 Hz) occur when the rotor
moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic field, resulting in NO relative
motion.
38
 If the magnitude of the induced rotor voltage at locked-rotor conditions is
called 𝐸𝑅𝑂 , the magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by
the equation:

 and the frequency of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by the
equation:

 With a rotor inductance of 𝐿𝑅 the rotor reactance is given by:

39
Where 𝑋𝑅𝑂 is the blocked-rotor rotor reactance.

 The resulting rotor equivalent circuit is shown in Figure:

 Fig: The rotor circuit model of an induction motor.

 The rotor current flow can be found as:

40
 From equation, it is possible to treat all of the rotor effects due to varying
rotor speed as being CAUSED by a varying impedance supplied with power
from a constant voltage source 𝐸𝑅𝑂 .

 The equivalent rotor impedance from this point of view is:

41
 The rotor equivalent circuit using this convention is shown in Figure:

 Fig: The rotor circuit model with all the frequency (slip) effects concentrated in
resistor 𝑅𝑅 .

 In the equivalent circuit in Fig, the rotor voltage is a constant 𝐸𝑅𝑂 V and the
rotor impedance 𝑍𝑅,𝑒𝑞 contains all the effects of varying rotor slip.

42
 A plot of the current flow in the rotor as developed in equations for 𝐼𝑅 is in Fig:

43
 𝑅𝑅
 NB: At very low slips the resistive term ≫ 𝑋𝑅𝑂 , so the rotor resistance
𝑆
predominates and the rotor current varies linearly with slip.

𝑅𝑅
 At high slips, 𝑋𝑅𝑂 is much larger than 𝑆,
and the rotor current approaches a
steady-state value as the slip becomes very large.

44
 In an ordinary Tx, the voltages, currents, and impedances on the secondary
side of the device can be referred to the primary side by means of the turns
ratio of the Tx:

 Where the prime refers to the referred values of voltage, current, and
impedance.

45
 Exactly the same sort of transformation can be done for the induction motor’s rotor
circuit.

 If the effective turns ratio of an induction motor is 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 , then the transformed rotor
voltage becomes:

 The rotor current becomes:

 The rotor impedance becomes:

46
 Define:

 The final per-phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor is as shown in

Fig.

 Fig: The per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor.

47
 Losses and the Power-Flow Diagram.

 Power and Torque in an Induction Motor.

 Separating the Losses and the Power Converted in an Induction Motor's

Equivalent Circuit.

48
 The relationship between the input electric power and the output mechanical
power of this motor is shown in the power flow diagram in Fig.

49
 The input power to an induction motor 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is in the form of 3Φ electric
voltages and currents.

 The first losses encountered in the machine are 𝐼 2 𝑅 losses in the stator
windings (the stator copper loss 𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 ).

 Then some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the
stator (𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ).

 The power remaining at this point is transferred to the rotor of the machine
across the air gap between the stator and rotor. This power is called the air-gap
power 𝑃𝐴𝐺 of the machine.
50
 After the power is transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as 𝐼 2 𝑅 losses (the
rotor copper loss 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 , and the rest is converted from electrical to
mechanical form 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 .

 Finally, friction and windage losses PF 𝑃𝐹&𝑊 and stray losses 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 are
subtracted. The remaining power is the output of the motor 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 .

 Since the largest fraction of the core losses comes from the stator circuit, all
the core losses are lumped together at that point on the diagram.

 These losses are represented in the induction motor equivalent circuit by the
resistor 𝑅𝑐 (or the conductance 𝐺𝑐 ).

51
 The higher the speed of an induction motor, the higher its friction, windage
and stray losses.

 On the other hand, the higher the speed of the motor (up to 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 , the lower its
core losses.

 Therefore, these THREE categories of losses are sometimes lumped together

and called rotational losses.

 The total rotational losses of a motor are often considered to be constant with
changing speed, since the component losses change in opposite directions
with a change in speed.

52
 A 480 V, 60 Hz, 50 hp, 3Φ induction motor is drawing 60 A at 0.85 PF lagging.
The stator copper losses are 2 kW, and the rotor copper losses are 700 W. The
friction and windage losses are 600 W, the core losses are 1800 W, and the
stray losses are negligible.

 Find the following quantities:

 (a) Air-gap power.
 (b) Power converted.
 (c) Output power Pout.
 (d) Efficiency.

53
 (a) The air-gap power is the input power minus the stator 𝐼 2 𝑅 losses and core
losses given by:

 From the power-flow diagram, the air-gap power is given by:

 (b) From the power-flow diagram, the power converted from electrical to
mechanical form is:

54
 (c) From the power-flow diagram, the output power is given by:

 or, in horsepower:

 (d) Therefore, the induction motor's efficiency is:

55
 The input current to a phase of the motor can be found by dividing the input
voltage by the total equivalent impedance:

56
 The stator copper losses in the three phases are given by:

 The core losses are given by:

 Air-gap power can be found as:

 The only element in the equivalent circuit where the air-gap power can be
𝑅2
consumed is in the resistor 𝑠. Therefore, the air-gap power can also be
given by:

57
 The actual resistive losses in the rotor circuit are given by the equation:

 NB: From equations the rotor copper losses are equal to the air-gap power
times the slip:

 Since power is unchanged when referred across an ideal transformer, the rotor
copper losses can also be expressed as:

 Therefore, the lower the slip of the motor, the lower the rotor losses in the
machine.

 Note also that if the rotor is not turning, the slip 𝑠 = 1 and the air-gap power is
entirely consumed in the rotor. This is logical, since if the rotor is not turning,
the output power 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝜔𝑚 must be zero.
58
 After stator copper losses, core losses, and rotor copper losses are subtracted
from the input power to the motor, the remaining power is converted from
electrical to mechanical form.

 This converted power, which is sometimes called developed mechanical

power, is given by:

59
 Equation also gives another relationship between the air-gap power and the
power converted from electrical to mechanical form:

 Finally, if the friction, windage and the stray losses are known, the output
power can be found as:

60
 The induced torque is given by the equation:

 This torque is also called the developed torque of the machine.

 The last equation is especially useful because it expresses induced torque

directly in terms of air-gap power and synchronous speed, which does NOT
vary.

61
 The air-gap power is the power which would be consumed in a resistor of
value 𝑹𝟐 𝒔, while the rotor copper losses are the power which would be
consumed in a resistor of value 𝑹𝟐 .

 The difference between them is 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 , which must therefore be the power
consumed in a resistor of value:

62
 Per-phase equivalent circuit with the rotor copper losses and the power
converted to mechanical form separated into distinct elements is shown in
Figure.

63
 A 460 V, 25 hp, 60 Hz, 4 pole, Y-connected induction motor has the following
impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit:

 𝑅1 = 641 Ω, 𝑋1 = 1.106 Ω, 𝑅2 = 332 Ω, 𝑋2 = 464 Ω, 𝑋𝑀 = 26.3 Ω.

 The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be constant. The core
loss is Jumped in with the rotational losses. For a rotor slip of 2.2% at the rated
voltage and rated frequency, find the motor’s
 (a) Speed.
 (b) Stator current.
 ( c) Power factor.
 (d) 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 .
 (e) 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 and 𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 .
 (f) Efficiency.
64
 The Equivalent Circuit:

65
 (c) The power motor power factor is:

 (d) The input power to this motor is:

 The stator copper losses in this machine are:

 The ai r-gap power is given by:

 Therefore, the power converted is:

66
 The output power is given by:

 (e) The induced torque is given by:

 and the output torque is given by:

67
 (f) The motor's efficiency at this operating condition is:

68
69
END

70