Advancing Physics Chapter 2

1 Advancing Physics
Revision questions
Question 20S: Short Answer
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Skills

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These questions are on electric current, potential difference and power.
Estimating your electricity bill
Sandra wants to budget for paying the electricity bill on her small new flat. For cooking she mainly
uses a microwave oven rated at 1 kW to reheat chilled meals, 'bake' potatoes etc. On average she
will use this cooker for 10 minutes a day. She also assumes she will use a kettle (rated at 3.3 kW)
and a toaster (rated at 500 W) daily for the about the same period of time.
1. Calculate how many kilowatt-hours Sandra uses daily for preparing meals and snacks.
2. She remembers to include the cost of lighting: she has 100 W bulbs throughout the flat and
expects to have one of the lights on in the evening for 3 hours.
Work out the number of kilowatt-hours Sandra uses daily on lighting.
3. Estimate Sandra's quarterly bill assuming one quarter = 90 days and the cost of electricity is 10 p
/ kilowatt-hour.
4. If you wish, add on your own estimates for weekly ironing and vacuuming.
Cost of an electrically heated shower
5. In your student 'digs', you have to put a 20 p coin in a slot if you want to have a five minute
shower. You note that 'Power Rating = 9 kW' is marked on the shower fitting. The last electricity
bill to your home stated that one unit of electricity cost 10 p. Is the shower good value? Justify
your answer with a calculation.
Torch Bulb
2 Advancing Physics
3 V; 0.5 A is written on the packet of torch bulbs.
6. Use your ideas about electrons to describe the mechanism of the energy transfer when the torch
is 'on'.
7. Calculate the power conversion for the bulb in normal use.
8. The life of the bulb is approximately 10 hours.
How much energy will it have dissipated in its lifetime?
Kinds of light bulb
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People use electric light bulbs for many purposes, from a torch used to light up a path home, to
aircraft searchlights. These lamps differ tremendously in the power they use.
1. All bulbs are stamped with two different values, for instance 36 W, 12 V. What do these numbers
tell you?
2. You can also use these values to calculate the current and the resistance of the bulb filament.
The table below shows these values for five different bulbs. Use a suitable formula to calculate
the missing values.
Bulb Power /
W
p.d. / V Current /
A
Resistance /
O
Headlamp 36 12 4
Torch bulb 0.09 3 0.03
3 Advancing Physics
Bulb Power /
W
p.d. / V Current /
A
Resistance /
O
Filament bulb 100 230 529
Flashlight bulb 4.5 9 0.5
Energy Saving bulb 24 230
Fuse protection
3. Explain why appliances are protected by a fuse and explain how the fuse provides this protection.
4. The table shows the electrical power rating and voltage as marked on a number of appliances.
Calculate the operating current of each appliance. Suggest a suitable fuse value for each
appliance choosing from the fuse values given.
Appliances Power
rating
p.d. / V Operating
current /
A
Suggested fuse values choosing
from 3 A; 5 A; 13 A
Iron 1200 W 230
Vacuum cleaner 900 W 230
Headlamp 48 W 12
Jug kettle 2.4 kW 230
Radio 100 W 230
Travel kettle 340 W 120
Microwave
cooker
1.4 kW 230
Measuring potential difference
A pupil wants to measure the potential difference across a battery connected to a circuit:
4 Advancing Physics
A B C
F E D
2 kO
10 V
4 kO
5. What instrument should he/she use?
6. The pupil notices that when the meter is put across the terminals AF, BE, CD in turn, the reading
is always the same. Why is that so?
7. State and account for the voltmeter readings when placed across FE or AC.
A portable radio
You buy a new portable radio. It is powered by eight cells and there is a diagram printed on the
battery chamber to show you how to fit the cells:
1.5 V 8 R14 Battery supply
8. What is the total potential difference of this arrangement of cells?
9. This radio can also be connected to the 240 V a.c. mains supply which is far too large for this
radio to be used directly. What component must be included inside the radio to change the
incoming supply to 12 V?
10. Battery and mains supplies vary in potential difference. State one other significant difference.
5 Advancing Physics
Ions in chemical cells:
Large and small numbers 1
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These problems are intended to help you practice calculations with large numbers of conducting
particles and small amounts of charge found in a variety of examples of electrical conduction.
Chemical cells
A typical chemical cell gives charges a rather low energy, hence cells have modest voltage values,
but they can produce substantial electron flows by reacting chemicals in large numbers of atoms per
second.
magnitude of e = 1.6 10
19
C
N
A
= 6.0 10
23
particles / mole
Molar mass of zinc = 65.4 grams
In a chemical cell, the energy released by chemical attack on a metal, say zinc, as in many chemical
reactions, is about 300 kJ per mole of metal attacked.
1. Calculate the charge carried by a mole of electrons (known as a Faraday of charge).
2. What is the potential energy given to each coulomb of charge (i.e. the potential difference)?
Remember that each zinc atom loses 2 electrons to become a Zn
2+
ion.
3. The cell delivers a current of 0.2 A; how many electrons does it produce per second?
4. This is a very large number, but how many moles is it?
6 Advancing Physics
5. Chemical cells can produce quite large charge flows for substantial times before their chemicals
have all reacted. If zinc is the metal losing electrons under chemical attack, what mass of zinc is
reacting per second to produce this current of 0.2 A? (again remember that each zinc atom loses
2 electrons to become a Zn
2+
ion)
6. If the cell contains 5 grams of reactable zinc, for how long could it produce this current before
running out?
Ions in x-ray machines:
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X-ray machines
An x-ray machine works by accelerating electrons from a hot cathode through a high voltage in a
vacuum tube. The fast electrons crash into a metal target, producing a lot of heat and some x-rays,
which can be used for medical purposes. The tube current (electrons per second) determines the
quantity of x-rays produced and their penetration is determined by the tube potential difference
(energy per electron). The current, potential difference and time of exposure are varied by the
radiographer to examine different parts of the human body.
Some typical values are:
Examination Voltage / kV Current / mA Time / s
pelvis 65 350 0.8
hand 40 80 0.1
1. How much charge and energy do the electrons in the tube deliver during each exposure?
2. Explain why there are differences in the energy and penetration required.
7 Advancing Physics
3. For the pelvis example, find the number of electrons arriving per second, and the energy of each
electron.
4. Hence find the number of electrons arriving during the 0.8 s exposure and check that the total
energy they deliver agrees with your answer to question 1.
Electrons in copper:

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Copper conducting
As a rough guide, copper wires can conduct about 10 A mm
2
before overheating and there are
approximately 10
20
free electrons per mm
3
in copper.
Find:
1. The number of electrons per second required to carry a current of 10 A.
2. The length of wire with cross section 1 mm
2
containing this number of electrons.
3. The average drift speed of electrons in the wire.
4. If the same wire carried a current of only 10 mA what would the drift speed be, and how long
would it take a typical electron to drift through 1 mm?
8 Advancing Physics
Some circuit problems
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1. Print out or copy the table below. Combine the expressions P = I V and V = I R to find the useful
formula for calculating power in terms of current and resistance, and use it to fill in the table.
Resistor value
/ O
Power rating /
W
Working current
7.5 0.42 A
47 0.5
3.3 k 2
27 k 9 mA
680 k 0.25
1 30 mA
In an electrical supplies catalogue you will find that resistors are specified according to the maximum
power they can dissipate. You need to use a 5.6 kO resistor for a project where the operating current
is 15 mA. It is available with either 1 W or 2 W power rating.
2. Calculate the maximum desirable current for each resistor and decide which one to use.
3. Suggest a reason why the 2 W resistor is physically larger than the 1 W resistor.
Now think about three resistors in parallel.
2O
5O 10O
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4. What is the conductance of each resistor?
5. Which resistor will carry the largest current? (give your reasons but do not use a calculation at
this stage)
6. What is the combined conductance of this arrangement of resistors?
7. The battery is made up of two 1.5 V cells of negligible resistance. Calculate the current through
the cell.
8. A potentiometer with a length 80 mm is connected to a 12 V supply.

80 mm
V
rheostat sliding contact
+ 12V
0V
position of sliding contact / mm
80
12
Sketch a graph to show how the output voltage varies as the slider is moved along the
potentiometer. Label the axes appropriately.
9. A variable resistor and a fixed resistor of 100 O are in series across a 12 V supply.
Sketch the circuit.
Calculate the power that is dissipated by the 100 O resistor when the variable resistor is set in
turn at 100 O, 20 O, 50 O
10 Advancing Physics
Power of appliances
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Travelling kettle
Kasim has to travel abroad as part of his work. Knowing that not all hotels provide a 'Welcome Tray'
he buys a travel kettle so he can always make coffee for himself. The kettle is marked:
Open the JPEG file
On the package is written: 'Takes less than 4 minutes to boil on 230 V and 7 minutes on 120 V'
1. Explain the meaning of the power rating: 720 W
2. Why would boiling some water in the kettle in New York (power supply: 120 V) take longer than in
Belfast (power supply: 230 V).
3. Calculate the current through the element on each setting.
4. After his trip to New York, Kasim forgets to switch over the voltage setting to 230 V. Why might
the kettle be damaged by leaving it at the 120 V setting?
5. Suggest a suitable fuse value to use in the plug to protect the kettle from overheating.
Effect of an ammeter in a circuit

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In a laboratory demonstration a 12 V car battery powers two 12 V, 24 W lamps connected in parallel.
1. Calculate the current through each of the bulbs if they light normally.
2. The current is now measured using an ammeter (of resistance 10 O) which is connected in series
with each of the bulbs in turn. What will the ammeter read? Comment on your answer.
3. What will the ammeter read when it is placed in series with the battery?
(Neglect any internal resistance of the battery.)
Combining conductances

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Conductance or resistance?
When you want to find the total resistance of two or more resistors in parallel it is usually easier to
work with conductances.
Try these questions to see why this is so.
1. A component in a circuit has a resistance of 10 O. What is its conductance? Make sure you write
down the unit.
2. What is the combined conductance of two 10 O resistors in parallel?
10 O
10 O
3. What is the conductance of a 100 O resistor?
4. Suppose a 100 O resistor is connected in parallel with a 10 O resistor. What is the total
conductance of the combination?
100 O
10 O
5. What is the total resistance of the combination?
6. What do you notice about the total resistance compared to the two separate resistor values?
Circuit resistance

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Simplifying circuits
These are questions about replacing many resistors with one resistor which draws the same current
from the cell. Study the circuit diagrams and try to simplify sections of the circuit by putting in an
equivalent value resistor. Redraw the diagram for each step until you are reduced to one equivalent
resistor before calculating the current. Many of these problems are easier if you think about
conductance rather than resistance.
For each circuit find the current drawn from the power source.
1.
6 V
5O
I
4O 6O
2.
12 V
I
4O
12O
4O
3.
12 V
I
5O 10O 8O
5O 12O
4 V
6O
3O
12O
3O
In this circuit calculate:
4. The current through the 6 O resistor.
5. The potential difference across the 12 O resistor.
Combining resistors

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Resistor series
Resistors are manufactured in limited values. You will find that the numbers range from 1.0 to 10 in
24 steps each differing from the next by about 10%. i.e.:
1.0 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8
1.1 1.6 2.4 3.6 5.1 7.5
1.2 1.8 2.7 3.9 5.6 8.2
1.3 2.0 3.0 4.3 6.2 9.1
Two or more of these resistors can be combined to give other values of resistance.
Finding useful combinations
In the laboratory there are resistors with the values 1 kO, 2.2 kO, 3.3 kO, 4.7 kO, 5.6 kO and 6.8 kO.
How can you combine two or more of these resistors when you need a resistance of:
1. 3 kO
2. 9 kO
3. 500 O
4. 5 kO
5. 4 kO
Electrical characteristics of a resistor

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The table shows the how the current through a resistor of nominal value 4.7 kO changes with the p.d.
The resistor is designed to have a power dissipation of 1 W.
p.d. / V
5.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
current / mA
1.06 2.13 4.25 6.22 7.91 9.41
1. Plot a graph from the data and give a possible explanation for the shape of the graph.
2. Use the graph to find the resistance of the resistor for small applied p.d.s.
3. What is the resistance when the applied p.d. is 50 V?
4. For a particular experiment it is important that the resistance remains within 10% of its stated
value.
Find the maximum applied p.d. that can be used by selecting a suitable small section of the graph
and drawing a resistance versus p.d. graph.
5. What is the theoretical maximum p.d. that can be applied before the resistor is permanently
damaged?
The algebra of power

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These questions lead you through to an understanding of the algebraic relationships between power,
current, resistance and potential difference. Look at the example and then answer the questions
thoughtfully.
Example
The electrical power P dissipated in a resistance R carrying current I with a p.d. V across it can be
calculated in several ways.
Suppose:
O = = = = 6 and V 12 , A 2 W, 24 R V P I
1. Using P = I V
W 24 s J 24 s C 2 C J 12 A 2 V 12
1 1 1
= = = =

P
2. Since V = I R
R R V P
2
) ( I I I I = = =

This should give:
W 24 6 ) A 2 (
2
= O = P
.
3. Since R V / = I
R V V R V V P / ) / (
2
= = = I
In our example:
W 24 = 6 / V) (12 =
2
O P
.
How can the power be proportional to resistance R in one relationship and be inversely proportional
to R in another? What do they tell you about different lamps?
P = V
2
/ R says that lamps operating at the same potential difference (e.g. all 12 V) will need a lower
resistance to provide greater power. Why? Because at a fixed potential difference you need more
current for more power. Lower resistance gives more current.
P = I
2
R says that lamps to operate at the same current will need a larger resistance to provide more
power. Why? The charge flowing per second is the same, so each unit of charge must deliver more
energy. That means a larger potential difference. For the same current and a larger potential
difference, the resistance must be larger.
Questions
1. Calculate the current through and the resistance of a 500 W stage light lamp with 250 V across it.
2. Calculate the current through and the resistance of a 24 W, 12 V car headlamp. Compare these
values with those for the stage light.
Extension: more of the power of algebra
Finally if you are getting confident with algebra.
3. Rewrite the equations P = I
2
R and P = V
2
/ R replacing resistance R by conductance G.
Tapping off a potential difference
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6 V
50O 100O
A B
A series circuit is connected as shown in the diagram.
1. What is the potential difference between A and B?
2. An additional resistor of 100 O is connected in series between the 50 O resistor and the cells.
What is the potential difference between A and B now?
3. The additional 100 O resistor is now connected in parallel with the first 100 O resistor. What is the
potential difference between A and B now?
4. A potential divider is made from a 4 kO and a 6 kO resistor connected in series with a 20 V
supply. Draw a diagram of the arrangement. What four values of potential difference can be
tapped off?
5. A student puts a 12 O variable resistor in series with a 6 V battery, expecting to get a variable
potential difference.
6 V
12O
V
The voltmeter is a high resistance digital multimeter. Explain why the circuit won't work. Draw a
circuit which would work.
6. B is the wiper of a 100 O rotary potentiometer.
12 V
100O
300O
A
B
What is the full range of the potential difference that can be tapped off between A and B?
Loading the potential divider
Skills

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6 V
250O
potentiometer
V
10 V
100O
potentiometer
V
The sliders are at the mid-point of the potential dividers.
1. Find the potential difference recorded by a digital voltmeter of infinite resistance connected as the
voltmeter V in each circuit.
2. The digital voltmeter is replaced by a moving coil voltmeter of resistance 500 O. Calculate the
new readings when using this meter.
3. A 100 O rotary potentiometer is connected to a 6 V d.c. source with negligible internal resistance.
The output required is 3 V. The potentiometer is set using a high impedance digital voltmeter
connected across the output terminals.
A few minutes later someone else checks the output reading using a moving coil voltmeter which
has a resistance of 100 O. What is the reading now?
Controlling a robot arm

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A robot arm contains an 'elbow joint'. The joints can move through 180. The control system of the
robot arm needs to know the position of the joint. This robot arm joint contains a 3 kO rotary
potentiometer, fixed to the upper arm, whilst the 'forearm' of the robot is attached to the rotating wiper
of the potentiometer. A rotary potentiometer consists of a resistor curved into an arc of a circle. The
wiper or sliding contact moves over this resistor. Terminals at the two ends of the resistor connect to
a fixed d.c. power supply of 3 V. The rotary potentiometer has a total angle of travel of 300. Assume
that the resistance of the potentiometer is uniform across its length.
robot forearm
elbow
joint
limit of travel of arm
robot upper arm
rotary
potentiometer
wiper
arm
circular
resistor
3 V
+ -
output
1. What current flows through the potentiometer?
2. If the robot forearm is vertical, half way through its possible movement, what potential difference
appears across the output of the potentiometer?
3. If the arm moves through 10 degrees, by how much does the output of the potentiometer
change?
4. If the output of the potentiometer changes by 0.3 V through what angle has the arm turned?
Using a measurement amplifier as a comparator

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The illumination in an office should not fall below 400 lux. In order to save money a firm decides to
control the lights in the offices using a time switch and an electronic system which turns on the lights
when the room is dimmer than the recommended value.
The system chosen uses a light dependent resistor (LDR), which monitors the light level in the office.
At 400 lux the resistance of the light dependent resistor is 300 O. If the light gets brighter its
resistance falls. If the light gets dimmer its resistance rises.
The light dependent resistor is connected in a potential divider in series with a 1.5 kO resistance
across a 9 V supply (of negligible internal resistance).
9 V
1.5 kO
+
light dependent resistor

1. What is the potential difference across the light dependent resistor when the light level is 400 lux?
9 V
1.5 kO
+
-
LDR
A B
1 kO
5 kO
2. A second potential divider with resistances of 5 kO and 1 kO is connected to the same supply.
Show that the potential difference across the 1 kO resistor is the same as that across the light
dependent resistor.
3. What is the potential difference between the terminals A and B in the circuit with two potential
dividers?
4. If the light gets dimmer, what will happen to the potential difference between terminals A and B?
5. A measurement amplifier is connected across the terminals A and B. It amplifies the difference
between its inputs, and if its output is positive it turns the lights on.
9 V
1.5 kO
+
-
LDR
A B
1 kO
5 kO
300O
+
output
measurement
amplifier
Will the lights come on when the light in the office falls below 400 lux?
6. Modify the system to switch on a motor to close the window blinds if the light level exceeds 2000
lux. The resistance of the light dependent resistor is 80 O when the light level is 2000 lux.
Internal resistance of power supplies

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Answer the following questions for practice in making calculations about the internal resistance of
power supplies.
Torch batteries, car batteries, EHT supplies and solar cells
1. A typical hand-held torch runs off two 1.5 V cells, yet has a lamp rated at 2.5 V, 0.5 A. Explain
how the potential difference across the lamp can actually be 2.5 V as rated. What is the internal
resistance of each cell, supposing them to be identical?
2. A typical car battery has an emf of 12 V, and must provide a current of 80 A to the starter motor.
Why must the car battery have a very low internal resistance? If the internal resistance is 0.05 O,
find the potential difference across this internal resistance when the starter motor is running. Why
is starting the car with the headlights on likely to affect their brightness?
3. Some school laboratories have EHT (Extra High Tension) power packs giving up to 3000 V. For
safety, they are provided with a 50 MO resistor in series with the supply. What is the maximum
current able to be drawn from the supply? Approximately what potential difference would there be
across a torch bulb connected across such a supply?
4. A student experimenting with a solar cell connects a 1000 O voltmeter across it and observes a
potential difference of 1.0 V. Using a different, extremely high resistance digital voltmeter, the
reading is larger, 1.2 V. Why the difference? What is the internal resistance of the solar cell?
Resistance and conductance of thermistors

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Handling and plotting data
Use commercial thermistor data on a spreadsheet to make a variety of plots to see how the
resistance and conductance of thermistors vary with temperature. It is this which allows thermistors to
be used as temperature sensors.
Data from RS Components Data Sheet 232-4538
Type Type Type Type Type
198-927 198-933 198-949 198-955 198-961
Temperature Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance
T /C
R / kO R / kO R / kO R / kO R / kO
-30 176.0 352.0 528.0 880.0 1760.0
-20 96.3 192.6 288.9 481.5 962.9
-10 54.9 109.7 164.3 274.3 548.5
0 32.4 64.8 97.2 162.1 324.1
10 19.8 39.6 59.4 99.0 198.0
20 12.5 24.9 37.4 62.4 124.7
25 10.0 20.0 30.0 50.0 100.0
30 8.07 16.13 24.20 40.33 80.66
40 5.34 10.68 16.03 26.71 53.42
50 3.62 7.24 10.85 18.09 36.18
60 2.50 5.00 7.51 12.51 25.02
70 1.76 3.53 5.29 8.82 17.63
80 1.27 2.53 3.80 6.33 12.65
90 0.923 1.845 2.768 4.613 9.226
Type Type Type Type Type
198-927 198-933 198-949 198-955 198-961
Temperature Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance
T /C
R / kO R / kO R / kO R / kO R / kO
100 0.683 1.367 2.050 3.417 6.834
110 0.516 1.032 1.547 2.579 5.158
120 0.394 0.788 1.183 1.971 3.942
130 0.305 0.610 0.914 1.524 3.048
140 0.238 0.476 0.715 1.191 2.382
150 0.188 0.376 0.564 0.941 1.881
160 0.150 0.299 0.449 0.748 1.495
170 0.120 0.241 0.361 0.602 1.204
180 0.0982 0.1964 0.2945 0.4909 0.9818
190 0.0809 0.1619 0.2428 0.4046 0.8093
200 0.0674 0.1348 0.2022 0.3370 0.6739
210 0.0567 0.1133 0.1700 0.2833 0.5665
220 0.0481 0.0961 0.1441 0.2403 0.4805
230 0.0411 0.0822 0.1233 0.2054 0.4109
240 0.0354 0.0708 0.1062 0.1770 0.3540
250
0.0307 0.0614 0.0922 0.1536
0.3072
Open the Excel Worksheet
How resistance and conductance vary with temperature
First, start up the spreadsheet of thermistor resistance data. It shows how the resistance, in kO, of
five different thermistors varies with temperature over the range 30 C to 250 C.
1. Scan the values in the table. What is the largest value of resistance in the table? What is the
smallest value of resistance in the table? What is that in ohm? What is the ratio of the largest
resistance in the first column (type 198-927) to the smallest resistance in that column? Does this
suggest anything about how best to plot these data?
2. Use the spreadsheet graphing function to make an x-y plot of the resistance of the first thermistor
listed (type 198-927) against temperature in C. What does this graph show? Why is it almost
useless?
3. Now alter the resistance scale so that it is logarithmic. You can usually do this by clicking on the
y-scale on the graph, and selecting 'logarithmic' in the options for the y-scale. What do equal
intervals on this new scale represent? How has the graph changed in appearance? What does
the graph show?
4. Use the spreadsheet to calculate the ratio of the resistances of the thermistor (type 198-927) for
successive 10 degree intervals. (Be careful where there is an extra entry at 25 C.) What do you
see? Does this agree with the logarithmic graph?
5. Now make a combined plot, on a logarithmic resistance scale, showing how all five thermistors
behave. What is remarkable about this plot? What does it mean?
6. This question is more difficult. What is the conductance in millisiemens of the thermistor type
198-927 at 250 K when its resistance is 30.7 O? Predict the shape of the graph of conductance
against temperature. Use the spreadsheet to calculate the conductances of the thermistors over
the given temperature range, and make a logarithmic plot to check your prediction.
7 This question is even more difficult. There is in fact a straight line graph to be got from the
thermistor data. It happens that to a good approximation the logarithm of the resistance (or of the
conductance) of a thermistor is linearly related to 1 / T, the reciprocal of the absolute temperature.
Use the spreadsheet to add 273 K to the temperatures given, to get the absolute temperature T,
and then to calculate 1 / T for each value. A logarithmic plot of resistance or conductance against
1 / T is a straight line.
Response time of thermistors

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The response time of a sensor or instruments will often seriously affect how well it works. Answer
these questions to test or develop your understanding of the idea.
Questions
1. Which of the following is the best description of response time?
A The time it takes a sensor to start responding after a change in input
B The time from when a sensor starts responding to when it finishes
C The time from when the input changes to when the sensor completes responding
D The time it takes for a sensor to reach half of its final response
2. Three temperature sensors A, B and C were plunged into boiling water at the same moment
when t = 0 s. The graph below shows their responses.
time / s
1.8
0 2
0.2
0.0
4 6 8 10
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6 A
C
B
- State the sensor with the longest response time
- State the sensor with the shortest response time
- State the sensor with the greatest sensitivity
- State the sensor with the least sensitivity
- State the response times of the three sensors A, B, and C
The temperature rise of each sensor was 80 C.
Calculate the average sensitivity of sensors A, B, and C between room and boiling water
temperatures, giving the correct units.
3. Two thermistors were plunged from cold water into boiling water and then back into the cold
water again. Each sensor was part of a potential divider circuit, also containing a fixed resistor.
The output p.d.s of both circuits were datalogged as shown in the graph below.
Both thermistors decrease resistance with temperature. State and explain whether the output p.d.
is taken across the fixed resistor or across the thermistor.
4. The main difference between the two thermistors is their physical size. The one giving rise to the
blue data is a bead thermistor (about the size of a large pinhead); and the one giving rise to the
red data is a barrel thermistor (about the size of a sugar cube). Explain the feature of the graph
that would have enabled you to deduce this fact without the legend labelling.
5. From the time axis deduce and state the time interval between data-logged samples. Hence
deduce the response times for the two thermistors, blue and red.
6. Is there a significant difference in response times for warming and cooling of each thermistor?
7. What evidence is there that the boiling water is cooling during the first few minutes? State which
thermistor supplies this evidence and why the other one does not seem to provide evidence for
this.
8. Comment on the average sensitivities of the two thermistor circuits in the range from room
temperature to near boiling.
Response time of light sensors

Quick Help
Response time is an important concept with sensors and instruments of all kinds.
Questions
1. Which of the following is the best description of response time?
A The time it takes a sensor to start responding after a change in input
B The time from when a sensor starts responding to when it finishes
C The time from when the input changes to when the sensor completes responding
D The time it takes for a sensor to reach half of its final response
2. Two light sensors were illuminated from a high power LED that was switched on/off by a signal
generator on square wave output. The first sensor data (blue) was a slow LDR as part of a
potential divider circuit, also containing a fixed resistor. The second sensor was a faster
photodiode, giving rise to the red data, calibrated in lux. The outputs of both circuits were
data-logged as shown in the graph below, at two different frequencies of switching of the square
wave, at 1 Hz and 100 Hz nominal values from the signal generator.
The LDR decreases resistance with increasing light intensity. State and explain whether the
output p.d. is taken across the fixed resistor or across the LDR.
3. State which graph you would use to estimate the response time of each sensor. Give your
reasons for this. Estimate the response times for the two light sensors. (Note that the units on the
time axis of the second graph are ms.)
4. Is there a significant difference in response times during brightening and darkening of each light
sensor?
5. Describe a problem with output from the LDR sensor circuit at the higher frequency of 100 Hz.
State what you think the LDR circuit is sensing.
6. Calculate the percentage errors in the calibration of the signal generator against the more
accurate clock of the data logger, using the following information taken from the graphs.
At nominal 1 Hz 1.1 oscillations last for 1.0 s;
At nominal 100 Hz 11 oscillations last for 102 ms.
Look closely at both data at the lower frequency. Describe and try to explain any anomalous
behaviour that you observe. (Look for evidence of noise in both signals, when they are not
changing very rapidly.)
7. Photodiodes cost about 10 times more than LDRs.
Give an example of an application where an LDR would be a perfectly adequate light sensor,
explaining your reasoning.
Give an example of an application where an LDR would be an inadequate light sensor, and a
photodiode would be preferred, explaining your reasoning.
Baby, it's cold outside:
The uses of sensors in the care of newborn babies
Question 10C: Comprehension

Quick Help
Looking after babies
Open the Adobe Acrobat PDF file
Source
Read the Science Museum pamphlet 'Baby, it's cold outside' which is about the design of incubators
for looking after newborn babies. Look carefully at the photograph of the incubator. Think about how
the baby's environment needs to be monitored. Think about how the baby itself needs to be
monitored. Find out what sensors are used.
What sensors?
1. List the sensors used in the systems which control the baby's microenvironment (the incubator).
For each sensor, write down what is measured and where the sensor is placed.
2. List the sensors used to monitor the baby. What does each of them measure?
3. Nowadays the high technology systems for the care of babies are designed to be less stressful to
the baby than they used to be. How is this achieved?
4. A 'trigger ventilation' system is described. What characteristic does the sensor measure which
acts as the trigger?
Electron beams
Skills

Quick Help
Instructions
Read the following passage before answering the questions that follow.
Cathode Rays
Gases are almost perfect insulators at small potential differences. But put the gas inside a sealed
tube, lower its pressure and place a high potential between two electrodes and the gas will conduct! If
the p.d. is made high enough, the glass of the tube opposite the negative plate (the cathode)
fluoresces, glowing green. If the positive electrode (the anode) is cut into a distinctive shape, a
shadow of the same shape appears in the fluorescent glow. These observations led to the use of the
term 'cathode rays'.
positive anode
heated
negative
cathode
electron beam
phosphor coating
shadow of cross
But what was the nature of this electricity? Hertz was convinced that there was electromagnetic
radiation coming off the cathode. British physicists including J J Thomson believed that there was a
stream of ions coming from the cathode or from the gas surrounding it. If the cathode stream was
really made up of charged particles, an electrostatic force should deflect it. Experimentalists Hertz
and Lenard, and then later Thomson himself, could not produce any deflection, and it looked as if
Hertz' theory might be right.
cathode
anode
with
slits
+
4 kV
deflecting plate
can be made positive
deflecting plate
can be made negative
cathode rays
gas at very low pressure
ionized in strong electric field
fluorescence
at tube end
In those days the tubes were evacuated by mercury pumps which were worked by hand and it took
half a day to remove enough gas to achieve a reasonably low pressure. Thomson decided that here
was where the problem lay; there was still too much gas in the tube. He finally succeeded in reducing
the pressure to a very low level indeed that allowed him to demonstrate that there were negatively
charged particles in the beam. J B Perrin provided confirmation that the charges were negative. Using
a magnet, he deflected the beam onto a gold leaf electroscope. He tested the collected charge and
proved that it was negative.
collecting
can
electron
beam
deflected
heating
circuit
4 kV
+
gold leaf
electroscope
Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio (e / m) of the particles in the cathode beam. He also
experimented with the charged particles given off from a white hot metal (thermionic emission) and
the particles produced when ultraviolet light strikes a metal surface. He found that the value of e / m
was the same for all these particles, at least within the limits of a large experimental error! The same
ratio for positively charged H
+
ions was already known from electrolysis experiments: it was 1000
times smaller.
He announced his results at an evening meeting of the Royal Institution on April 30th 1897, saying
These numbers seem to favour the hypothesis that the carriers of the charges are smaller than
hydrogen atoms.'
Atoms are not indivisible, for electrified particles can be torn from them by the action of electric
forces, the impact of rapidly moving atoms, ultraviolet light or heat.
He added in the Philosophical Magazine in the following October
The cathode-ray stuff weighed 1.3 10
8
g for every coulomb of electricity conveyed.
In the school laboratory, 'Teltron' tubes can be used to demonstrate the properties of electron beams.
Electrons coming off the hot cathode are accelerated through a high p.d. before striking a screen. The
beam current is about 2.0 mA at a p.d. of 5000 V.
Questions
1. Find out the meanings of the terms: ion, fluorescence, thermionic emission.
2. The particles in the cathode rays transfer energy. Where does the energy of the particles go
when they hit the end of the glass tube? (Use the first paragraph to help you.)
Hertz believed that cathode rays were electromagnetic radiation and would behave similarly to light.
3. What observation described in the passage supported his view?
4. Give two pieces of evidence (from the passage) to contradict his view.
Look at the diagram of the deflection tube.
5. How do you think Thomson demonstrated deflection by an electrostatic force?
6. Why are there slits in the anode?
7. How would you show that the particles are negatively charged?
8. In Perrin's experiment a magnetic field is used to deflect the beam of electrons into the collecting
can. What can you say about the direction of this magnetic field?
9. Use Thomson's figures to calculate the specific charge 'e/m' in SI units.
Now use the data on the Teltron tube from the last paragraph of the passage. You also need to know
the charge on the electron e = 1.60 10
19
C and the specific charge 'e / m' = 1.76 10
11
C kg
1.
10. Calculate the average kinetic energy gained by each electron.
11. Calculate the power dissipated at the screen.
12. Calculate the average number of electrons reaching the screen per second.
13. Calculate the speed of an electron just before it hits the anode.
14. What assumptions must you make for question 13?
15. Calculate the ratio of the calculated speed of the electron to the speed of light, c = 3.00 10
8
m
s
1
.
Sensors and our senses

Quick Help
Read the following text and answer the questions at the end.
A continually humbling experience in the field of design is that despite enormous advances in areas
such as 'nanotechnology', we are still far from able to replicate designs which exist commonly in
nature. Many people in their professional and personal lives rely on air travel, yet we are unable to
recreate the amazing efficiency of the flight of birds, their wing structure and response to climatic
conditions. Bearable conditions in many of our homes rely on the pumps in air conditioning and
central heating systems, but we are largely unable to copy the pumping action of the human heart.
It is possible to regard the quality of human experience as the sum of the output of a number of
processor units which 'sense' their environment and process the sensed information to formulate a
response. In some cases this is automatic and easy to define: spinal reflexes will swiftly remove our
hand from a hot surface as a result of information sensed through the skin. More difficult to analyse is
the nature of perception whereby, for example, information heard from one source may provoke
different responses to the same information heard from a different source. Imagine your own possible
range of responses to being told how good you look today.
Can we compare our nervous systems with an electrical sensing and recording system? At first
glance, it may appear that there are similarities between an electrical sensor and a nerve cell. A
sensor responds to stimuli and produces a signal; the dendrites of a nerve cell respond to stimuli and
the nerve cell produces a signal. The sensor is connected to a recording system by an electric circuit;
a nerve cell is connected to other nerve cells by its axons; both transmit signals. The wires in an
electrical system will be insulated; the axon of a nerve cell may be insulated by a myelin sheath.
But here the similarities end. A wire may gain energy from the passage of an electric current through
it, whereas the propagation of impulses through a nerve cell is an active propagation process for
which the cell has itself to use energy.
Questions
1. List some similarities between the human nervous system and a system of electrical sensors
monitoring and controlling a process in a factory. Now list some differences.
2. Make a list of the different things your body can sense. For each, name, if possible, a type of
laboratory sensor which could do the same job.
3. The taste buds in our tongues produce signals in response to the presence of specific chemical
substances. What applications can you think of for electrical sensors which can signal the
presence of particular types of molecule?
4. List similarities and differences between your eye and an optical sensor such as a
light-dependent resistor.
5. A constant source of speculation and interest is that of contact with 'alien' races. Much of this
speculation assumes that aliens will be very similar to humans in their ability to sense their
environment. Imagine an alien race whose sensing systems are significantly different to our own.
Describe one or more of their sensing systems, and consider the problems of communication
between them and us.
Sensors and Formula 1 racing

Quick Help
Thinking about sensors
Read the summarised article below, and look at the diagram showing the output of sensors
monitoring the driver as he came near to crashing a Formula 1 car in wet conditions. Think about how
the different kinds of sensors might have worked.
My unforgettable one for the road
Adapted from an article in F1 Racing, by Tony Dodgins and Alan Copps.
Tony Dodgins writes:
Tyrrell's regular driver, Mika Salo, paced about like some expectant father. He was worried about 'his
baby' having all its limbs. The Finnish Formula 1 ace had been smart enough to negotiate one of the
1995 cars for keeps at the end of its useful life. And now the car was out there on a drenched
Barcelona track in the hands of a journalist whose racing experience amounted to a season of
endurance Pro-Karting.
What you don't need with 700 brake horsepower is rain, but it was tipping down. Tough. The track
time was non-negotiable. It was now or never. Plumes of spray fanned from the front tyres. The
steering was direct, kart-like, but not heavy. Coming through on to Barcelona's mile-long straight for
the first time, I got on to the throttle and waited for the earth-shattering explosion of power. But it
wasn't as dramatic as I'd thought. That was because they had programmed the electronic throttle for
a delayed response and somewhat less than full power. I asked for more throttle and they gave me
full power. It was time for my last run.'
Leaving the pit lane I instantly felt the difference. I came out on the straight and gave it 85 percent
throttle. How did I know that? Because the ensuing 'moment' amused the team so much that they
expanded it on the computer telemetry which monitors everything the car does. It's the ultimate spy in
the cab.
Instantly there was wheel spin, so I backed off, figuring the car must not have been straight.
Convinced it now was, I gave it full throttle. Suddenly I was in a 1.5 G tail-slapper as the car snapped
left-right-left-right as quickly as you could blink. The Tyrrell crew ran for cover. 'The steering inputs
looked mighty interesting and the wheel spin was off the graph!' an engineer explained later.
Engineer Alan Copps writes:
You're never alone in a Formula 1 car. Every move made by the driver and every effect on the car is
monitored by sensors and stored in an on-board computer. During a race, this 'telemetry' is
transmitted live to the pit engineers. The graph here shows what happened when Tony Dodgins
momentarily lost control.
4300 4350 4400 4450 4500 4550 4600 m
0
%
100
raw kph
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
bar
300
250
200
150
100
50
4
3
kph G's
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
0.0
A
C
Throttle
position
(raw)
Lateral
acceleration
(G-force)
B
Speed
(kph)
Brake pressure
(bar)
Wheelspin
(kph)
13-1 13
Source
At point A on the graph, Dodgins put his foot down. The effect is seen on the line which shows the G
forces on the driver; a reading below zero is a force to the right, above to the left. From a steady level
close to 1 G to the right going round a corner in the track, there is a quick shift to the left. The line
showing wheel spin displays the difference in kilometres per hour between the speed of rotation of
the rear powered wheels and that of the front wheels. That first touch on the throttle set the rear
wheels spinning 7 kilometres per hour faster. The throttle then bounced as Dodgins tries to let the car
settle, and a moment later, at point B, he pressed the throttle to the floor. With 700 brake horsepower
blasting through the rear wheels, but with little adhesion in the wet conditions, the wheel spin went off
the graph. The speed rose to a peak close to 180 kilometres per hour. At point C, Dodgins lifted his
foot, the right thing to do, but so violently that the wheels locked. The throttle responded instantly, and
the wheel spin graph shows the front wheels then turned faster. But the graph for brake pressure then
shows him doing, in the engineer's words, 'absolutely the wrong thing'. A stab on the brakes sent the
car's rear end slewing to the left, then to the right.
1. Look at the chart of the sensor outputs. Notice that the horizontal axis is distance in metres along
the track, not time. Locate point A. At what distance along the track is this point? How could
Dodgins have told from the graph that he 'gave it 85 percent throttle' at that moment? How far did
the car travel while the throttle was being increased from zero to 85 percent?
2. Between points A and C the speed rises rather steadily. By how much? What was the average
speed during this time? Show that the car travelled about 100 m in this time. How long did this
acceleration last, in seconds? What was the acceleration, in m s
2
? Comment on this value.
3. After point C the brakes come 'on' and the throttle is 'off'. Why does the speed not drop instantly?

4. Suppose you are in the engineering team designing sensors for a Formula 1 car. Suggest a kind
of sensor that could be tried out, to detect: (i) throttle position, (ii) brake pressure, (iii) wheel
speed and (iv) lateral acceleration of driver (G force).
Lamp and resistor in series
Question 190D: Data Handling
Skills

Quick Help
Study the characteristics of the two electrical components A and B shown.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
3
6
potential difference / V
component B
component A
1. What is the resistance of each component with a potential difference of 3 V across it?
2. Suggest what each component could be.
The two components are connected in series across a variable d.c. supply of negligible internal
resistance. A high resistance digital voltmeter measures the p.d. across A.
3. What is the current through A when the voltmeter reads 3 V?
4. What is the potential difference being provided by the supply?
5. If the supply potential difference is increased so that the voltmeter reads 6 V, what is the power
being dissipated in each component?
Using non-ohmic behaviour
Question 270D: Data Handling

Quick Help
Instructions
Using a diode for meter protection
The graphs show the characteristics of (i) a resistor made from a coiled wire and (ii) a diode (forward
bias).
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10
p.d. / V
8 6 4 2
1. Current - p.d. characteristic for wire coil
Use the characteristic for a wire coil.
1. Describe and account for the shape of the graph.
2. What is the resistance of the coil in the ohmic region?
3. Estimate the maximum electrical power rating of this resistance coil.
300
250
200
150
50
0
0 1.0
p.d. / V
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
2. Current - p.d. characteristic for diode
100
Use the characteristic for a diode
4. Describe and account for the shape of this graph.
5. Complete the table, using data from the graph to estimate the resistance of the diode in forward
bias, at different values of the potential difference.
Applied p.d.
/ V
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
Resistance /
O
The diode and the coil are connected in parallel across a variable d.c. source.
9 V
+
-
wire coil
25 O
diode
6. Copy the characteristic of the coil in the range 0 to 0.8 V onto the diode characteristic above.
Using a different colour draw a new curve to show how the total current supplied to the coil
increases as the applied p.d. increases from 0 to 0.8 V.
9 V
+
68 O
diode
mA
milliammeter 0-20 mA
25 O
Some meters can be damaged if the current through them far exceeds the full scale current. A
school physics technician is worried that the students may damage the milliammeters which they
have been given to use in a circuit with a 68 O resistor. These meters have a full scale deflection
of 20 mA, they have a resistance of 25 O, and similar characteristics to those in the graph above.
The technician solders a diode in parallel with each meter.
7. Explain how this modification will protect the milliammeter.
Heating coils
Question 230X: ExplanationExposition

Quick Help
Read the passage and think carefully about heating before answering the questions.
Heating elements can be made out of a coiled wire (e.g. manganin).
A student cuts 2 pieces of wire, 'A' to a length of 1 metre and 'B' to a length of 2 metres. She makes
each length into a small coil.
She is going to compare the rate of heating of the wires. She puts small equal volumes of cooking oil
into two insulated beakers provided with stirrers. She places one coil in each beaker and uses a
temperature sensor connected to a datalogging package to monitor the rise in temperature.
In her first experiment she connects the coils in series across a suitable d.c. supply.
After letting the oil cool back down to room temperature she starts a second experiment, but this time
connects the coils in parallel to the same d.c. source.
1. Predict the ratio of the rates of heating of the oil produced by coil A to that produced by coil B for
each of the two experiments.
2. Each experiment is left running for 10 minutes. How do you think the final temperatures of the oil
heated by coil A differ in the two experiments?
3. Suggest a reason why the ratios as measured would not agree exactly with your predictions.
Brightness of bulbs

Quick Help
L
L
1
2
When two identical lamps are connected in series to a battery of negligible internal resistance they
light normally.
A variable resistor R is now connected across lamp L
2
. Explain what happens to the brightness of
each bulb as the resistance of the variable resistor is:
1. Made low compared to the resistances of the lamps
2. Made high compared to the resistances of the lamps
Using a sensor in a potential divider

Quick Help
Cookie counter
A cookie manufacturer wants to measure the production rate of the biscuits. Before the wrapping
process, the biscuits will pass over a 'window' and block off light from a light dependent resistor
(LDR).The LDR is connected into a potential divider arrangement, and the output voltage variation
with time will give the production rate.
The supply voltage will be 6 V and the load circuit will have a resistance of about 100 kO.
1. Design a circuit which will give an output potential difference V
out
> 4 V as the biscuit passes over
the window and V
out
< 0.5 V when nothing obscures the window. The maximum possible current
permitted through the LDR is 20 mA. The resistance of the LDR in the dark is 10 MO.
2. What effect if any will there be if the manufacturer decides to use a counter for the load circuit
which has a resistance of 1 kO?
Cut-off switch
Electric kettles usually have an automatic switch which turns off the kettle when the water is boiling.
You have been asked to design a model of this device using an electronic switch which turns 'on' at
0.6 V. You also have access to a fixed 6 V supply, a thermistor, a variable resistor and a number of
fixed resistors.
3. Draw a circuit diagram of your device, and give a brief explanation of how your device works.
4. If the thermistor has a resistance of 100 O at 100 C and 5000 O at 20 C, what value resistor
should you use?
Filament lamp and thermistor in series

Quick Help
Before starting
Make sure you are familiar with the characteristic graphs of the filament lamp and the thermistor.
Surge current protection
1. Sketch graphs of current vs potential difference for a filament lamp rated 230 V; 25 W.
Explain the shape of the graph in terms of the effect of temperature on the conductance and
resistance of the lamp.
2. Sketch graphs of current vs potential difference for a thermistor whose resistance decreases with
temperature.
Explain the shape of the graph in terms of the effect of temperature on the conductance /
resistance of the thermistor.
3. This circuit contains a filament lamp and thermistor in series with a 230 V supply. When the
switch is closed, the lamp glows dimly at first, but then gets brighter and brighter until the lamp is
lighting normally. Explain these observations.
230 V
thermistor
filament lamp
4. How does connecting a filament lamp in series with a thermistor protect the component from a
surge current?
Robots
Reading 10T: Text to Read
Teaching Notes | Key Terms

Quick Help
How can a robot see, touch or smell? What can robots do? What good or harm could they cause?
This reading provides you with some information to use to think about such questions.
The idea of a robot
The name 'Robot' was first coined by Karel Capek, a Czech author, who wrote a play where people
were taken over by automatons looking like human beings. The Czech word 'robota' means work.
Robots have often starred in film and television. Some have been portrayed as humanoid and some
not. Some have been seen as friendly to humans, others as hostile and power seeking.
'Mechatronics', a word originating in Japan, first came into use in the 1970s. It is the integration of
mechanical and electronic principles together with computer technology for the intelligent control of
machines. The 1980s saw the development of the microprocessor and other advances in
microelectronics. In-built machine intelligence has numerous applications in new products: for
example a cooling fan using a microprocessor to vary the fan speed in relation to the ambient
temperature. This is an example of feedback in a system. However, even this modest level of
intelligence reduces the running cost and the noise level of the fan. Many rail systems such as the
Docklands Light Railway, the Mass Rapid Transport System in Singapore are completely computer
controlled.
You might not describe your car as a robot, because at the moment people still do the driving!
However, microprocessors inside control the ignition system, the cooling system, the flow of petrol
and can diagnose faults. Now that satellites in the Global Positioning System can tell your car where it
is, and other satellites can monitor the road conditions, then with computerised route-finding you may
soon be driven by your own car.
We can program robots to carry out monotonous repetitive actions. For example, a robot arm with a
laser cutting tool can cut out garments from 40 layers of fabric at a time for a clothing manufacturer.
Unpleasant or harmful environments do not affect them. Robots are used in industry for
paint-spraying and welding. The Fiat car production line is run by robots. Robots can safely handle
radioactive materials; they do not need regular health checks or have to endure lengthy showers and
scrubbing before going home! Robots can be used to carry out experiments in a hostile environment
such as Mars. They do not require a life supporting atmosphere.
To work, a robot needs three things: sensors to get information in; actuators (e.g. motors) to make
movements; and computing power to link information and action to the job in hand.
Thinking about robots
Here are some things to think about.
1. Robots in films and television: are they believable? Do they have obvious sensors, actuators and
microprocessors? Print out the picture of the robot and label parts of it with sensors and actuators
it might need.
2. List jobs which automatic sensors already do in the home
3. What would be the problems of making a car that drives itself safely?
4. What is the effect on employment when robots enter the production line?
5. What tedious or dangerous jobs could be taken over by robots?
6. Discuss what a robot would need to do one of the following jobs:
- artificial limbs: mimic the actions of the arm and hand
- production lines: pick up a body panel, align its position and weld it into place.
- pharmaceuticals: fill bottles with exact quantity required of radioactive tracer for
diagnosis, and pack in lead lined containers.
- mail order: read computerised invoices, collect required number of specified items, carry
the to the loading bay and pack on the correct van for the required delivery area.
- space station: make regular tests on the fabric of the station, check and maintain seals
on doors and air locks etc.
- housekeeping: do the dusting, vacuuming, making cups of tea, even tidying bedrooms
An electronic toaster which senses when the toast is done

Quick Help
The 'smart toaster' described here is a good but simple example of how electronic microsensors are
being built into more and more consumer products, such as cars, washing machines and cookers.
A smart toaster
The product
The toaster is a consumer product with a very large market (in Europe alone some 20 million toasters
are sold every year). The bread is toasted in the toasters to a brown tan using heated resistive wires
close to the slice. To attain the right colouring, the user has to set a timer to the estimated amount of
time needed to toast it just right. As blackened crusts all over the world testify, this is not always an
easy task. Braun AG in Germany has solved this problem in their infrared electronic-sensor toaster by
converting the toasting into a feedback process.
Source
Open the JPEG file
To control the toasting level, Braun uses an infrared sensor that measures the surface temperature of
the bread slice by measuring the infrared radiation that it emits. The slice acts as an almost perfect
black body for the temperatures involved. At the predominant radiation in the wavelengths of 6.5 m
to 14 m, almost all types of bread have an emissivity of approximately 0.98. Because the surface
temperature of the bread slices during the toasting is a direct measure of the degree of toasting, a
good toasting process can be implemented.
Only one significant problem had to be overcome: the red-hot heating wires close to the bread slice
can easily interfere with the measurement, since they emit much more radiation than the (relatively
cold) bread slice. Therefore, a masking foil was placed between the sensor and the heating wires in
such a way that the sensor saw only the bread slice, and not the wires. Adding an infrared filter
window to the sensor housing reduced the interference further. The filter transmits the radiation
emitted by the slice at wavelengths of predominantly 6.5 m to 14 m, while reflecting the short-wave
radiation of the red-hot heating wires.
sensor unit
infrared
filter
IR-sensor
slice of bread
masking foil inner toaster
wall mica plate with
heater wires
The output signal from the sensor is amplified and fed into a control circuit. As soon as the required
toasting surface temperature has been achieved, the heating is turned off (without using the timer
control). By setting a potentiometer, the set point of the control circuit can be adjusted to the desired
toasting level (a nice golden tan for crispy slices, light brown if you want them toasted lightly or black
if you have just quarrelled with your partner).
The sensor for the application
The sensor used by Braun is a thin-film infrared sensor, made of a silicon-oxide / nitride membrane
etched out of a silicon rim, with bismuth-antimony thermocouples to measure the temperature
difference between the rim and the black absorbing area of 0.55 mm in diameter. The sensitive area
of the sensor has been blackened by evaporating a metal through a shadow mask (depositing a
porous layer makes the metal very black). The specifications of the sensor are listed in the table
below.
Parameter Typical values Units
Size 3 3
mm
2
Resistance 35 kO
Output signal 2.5 mV
Responsivity 55
V W
1
Response time 25 ms
In high-volume consumer markets the parts have to be as inexpensive as possible. Therefore, the
sensor chip should be as small as possible. The minimum size of a micro-machined chip is about 3
mm by 3 mm. This is because the rim alone must be minimally 0.75 mm wide to allow for handling (it
must have a flat bottom of at least 400 m) and the lateral anisotropic etching (some 350 lam,
depending on the wafer thickness). Consequently, a membrane of 1.5 mm by 1.5 mm requires a total
chip area of 3 mm by 3 mm.
The thermopile resistance is designed to be 35 kO, which is a compromise between maximising the
number of thermocouples and minimising the sensitivity to interference.
Source
Open the JPEG file
The amplification and control electronics
The diagram below shows the toaster's electronic feedback system. The output signal of the sensor is
amplified and then fed into a comparator, using a potentiometer (the toast adjustment knob on the
toaster) to weaken the amplifier output and obtain the desired degree of toasting. When the
comparator switches because the sensor output rises above the setting, the heating is turned off.
When there is no bread in the toaster, the sensor will see a heating wire on the opposite side of the
toaster, and its output signal will quickly rise. This is detected by the slice-detection circuit, which then
deactivates the comparator and sets the toaster to the baking mode, where the toaster is timer
controlled. The timer is set to a time interval optimised for baking bread rolls (on top of the toaster, not
between the heater wires). After this interval the heater is switched off by the timer control.
amplifier comparator
heater
switch
safety
shutdown
slice
detection
circuit
infrared
sensor
toast
adjustment
timer
&
In addition to controlling the baking mode, the timer is used to switch off the toaster after a pre-set
maximum time interval in case the sensor control does not function properly. Thus, a safety shutdown
ensures that the toaster will not burn out.
Discussion
Sensor-controlled toasting has several advantages over conventional time-controlled toasting: the
same degree of toasting is obtained each time, regardless of whether the bread is old, new or even
frozen. It is also possible to heat up previously toasted slices without fatal burns.
By using a simple infrared-sensor detection scheme, the risky business of toasting a slice of bread is
turned into a well-controlled process with reproducible results and greatly increased user-friendliness.
Toasters with this infrared-sensor control are available at competitive prices, even though they are at
the top market level.
Interestingly enough, the sensor is about the most expensive part of the entire toaster. Therefore, a
lot of effort has been put into decreasing the cost of the infrared sensor, since the potential cost
reduction in the toaster is high. The price level of the infrared sensor has already been slashed to a
few dollars.
Scaling-down arguments about why microchips run hot

Quick Help
The arguments here link chapter 2 Sensing and chapter 4 Testing Materials, thinking about the power
dissipated in a circuit (chapter 2) and the resistivity or conductivity of a material (chapter 4).
Arguments about how quantities change when things are scaled up or down in size are common in
physics. This is an interesting example in which we see that the power dissipated in a circuit gets less
as the circuit is shrunk, but the power dissipated by a chip carrying many such circuits actually
increases.
Why microchips run hot
It seems obvious that, because in the microchip world resistances are large and currents are small,
there will be no problem of chips getting hot. But this is wrong. This is because the energy has to
escape from a much smaller surface area. Radiators to heat buildings are given as big a surface area
as possible. If they were smaller, they would have to be hotter to emit energy at the same rate. So
although small microchips have to get rid of less power, they have to do it from only a tiny area. They
are liable to run hot, and so most computers need cooling fans.
This argument depends on three different ideas:
1. The potential difference involved does not change when a circuit is scaled down
2. The energy radiated or convected from a chip is proportional to its surface area
3. The conductance of a piece of material is proportional to its linear scale L, when it is scaled up or
down in the same proportions.
Here are arguments for each of these.
Potential difference does not scale down
The potential differences in, for example, a p-n junction depends on what the atoms, ions and
electrons in the material do. If it takes a certain energy to remove an electron from an atom on one
scale, it takes the same energy to do the same on a smaller scale. The chip may be scaled down, but
it's atoms are not.
Energy emitted is proportional to surface area
Energy emitted from a solid object has to pass through its surface. If the energy is radiated, then a
bigger area provides more surface from which energy can be radiated. If the energy is convected
away, air has to be blown over the surface and be warmed by it.
An object on a scale L has a surface area in proportion to L
2
.
Scaling down conductors
The diagram below shows that if a bar of silicon carries current I with a potential difference V across
it, then two such bars side by side will each carry current I . Combine them into one bar and the
current is 2I for the same potential difference V. That is:
Current is proportional to cross sectional area for a given potential difference
potential difference V
current I
current I
current I
current 2I
area A
area A
area A
Current increases with cross sectional area
If a potential difference V is enough to keep current I flowing along a bar, then if the current has to go
through a second such bar, a further potential difference V is needed. Join the bars end to end and
you get a bar of twice the length, needing a potential difference of 2V to keep current I flowing.
Potential difference is proportional to length for a given current
Greater length needs greater potential difference
current I
current I
current I
potential difference 2V
length 2L
length L
current I
V
G
difference potential
current
= e conductanc
I
Because the current I is in proportion to the cross sectional area A of a bar for a given p.d. V, the
conductance G is proportional to area A.
However, as the potential difference V required for a given current I is larger the longer the length of
the bar, the conductance G is inversely proportional to the length L .
Putting these together:
L
A
G
length
area
e conductanc
L
A
G

Thus if a silicon bar is scaled down by 1 / 1000, the area is scaled down by 1000 000 reducing the
conductance by that factor. But the length is scaled down by 1000 which increases the conductance
by a factor 1000. Taken together the two changes reduce the conductance to 1 / 1000 of its former
value.
Thus small things do not conduct as well as big things. An advantage is that insulating conductors
from one another on a microchip is not a problem.
Summary
Let the linear dimensions of a circuit be L
- conductance G of a conductor is proportional to L
- resistance R of a conductor is proportional to 1 / L
If the potential difference V is the same then:
- current I, proportional to G or to 1 / R is proportional to L
- power dissipated I V is proportional to I and so to L
Thus, if L shrinks by 1000
- the power dissipated by the conductor is 1000 times smaller
But more conductors can now be packed on the same area.
- the area occupied by a circuit element is proportional to L
2
- the number of conductors on a given area is proportional to 1 / L
2
Thus if L shrinks by 1000:
- The number of conductors on a given area is 1000 000 times greater.
- The power dissipated by each is 1000 times smaller.
- Thus, the power dissipated in a given area is 1000 times greater.
This is the reason microchips often need cooling.
Kirchhoff's laws:
Current and potential difference in complex circuits

Quick Help
You should already know how to calculate the resistance or conductance of resistors in series or in
parallel (in series, add the resistances; in parallel add the conductances). But these rules are too
limited for use in general, when circuits may contain many components connected in a complicated
way. Kirchhoff's laws are simple, but provide a general way to analyse circuits of any complexity.
Kirchhoff's laws
Gustav Kirchhoff (18241887) was a German physicist. He worked with Robert Bunsen on analysing
the spectra of elements work for which the Bunsen burner was invented. He proposed that the dark
lines in the spectrum of the Sun, discovered by Joseph Fraunhofer, were caused by the absorption of
light in the atmosphere of the Sun, and so could be used to find out what elements there are in the
Sun.
Kirchhoff's name is given to two laws, formulated in 18456, which allow you to calculate the current
and potential difference anywhere in a complex network of components.
The two laws are:
1. At every junction in a circuit, the sum of the currents leaving the junction is equal to the sum of the
currents entering the junction.
That is, electric charge is not created or destroyed, nor does it 'pile up' or 'get depleted' at a junction.
In effect, this law says that electric charge is conserved and that the circuit is in a steady state.
2. Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the potential differences across components is
zero, if the loop contains no sources of emf, or is equal to the sum of the emfs around the loop.
This law says that energy is conserved. If there are no energy sources in a loop, the p.d.s must add
up to zero, otherwise a charge could go round once, gain energy, go round again, gain energy again,
and so on. If there are sources of energy, a charge going round the loop gains energy equal to the
sum of that available from each source.
Example of the use of law 1
I
1
I
3
I
5
I
2
I
4
E
In the top picture, Kirchhoff's first law says that:
0
3 2 1
= + + I I I
0
5 4 3
= + + I I I
Actually, there is no need to use these equations at all. The trick is to imagine a current flowing round
each loop. The current in a component which belongs to two loops is the sum (noting the directions)
of the two loop currents. The result of doing this is shown in the lower diagram. By putting in the
currents in this way, Kirchhoff's first law is applied automatically.
Example of the use of law 2
E
I
A
I
B
I
C
I
A
I
B
I
B
I
C
To keep things simple, suppose all the resistors in the above diagram have the same resistance R.
In the left-hand loop, lower diagram, there is the emf E, and a p.d. across one resistor with a current
I
A
I
B
through it. This gives the equation, for this loop:
) (
B A
R E I I =
(1)
In the central loop there are four resistors, and no source of emf. The equation is:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 0
B A B C B B
R R R R I I I I I I + + =
or
A C B
R R R I I I = 4 0
(2)
Note that the last term is negative, because the loop is being traversed opposite to the current
direction chosen.
In the right hand loop, there are again four resistors and no emf, giving:
) ( 0
C B C C C
R R R R I I I I I + + =
or
B C
R R I I = 4 0
(3)
From the last equation you can see that
C B
I I 4 =
(4)
Substituting for I
C
in equation (2) and dividing each term by R gives:
A B
I I =
4
5
0
or
A B
I I
5
4
=
(5)
Substituting for I
B
in equation (1) and dividing by R gives:
A A A
R
E
I I I
5
1
5
4
= =
or
R
E
A
5 = I
(6)
Equation (6) now tells you I
B
at once:
R
E
B
4 = I
(7)
And equation (4) tells you I
C
, since
B C
I I
4
1
=
:
R
E
C
= I
(8)
All the currents are now known, and any of the potential differences can be worked out if required.
Summary
Using the 'loop current' method, you satisfy the first law automatically. Writing equations for the sum
of the potential differences around each loop gives you as many equations as there are loops in the
network. These have to be solved as simultaneous equations.
When is a potential divider linear?

Quick Help
In general, the output of a potential divider is not proportional to the resistance of one of the two
resistors in the divider. This extension work shows how this arises, and indicates when a potential
divider is a linear device.
Non-linear output of a potential divider
In the diagram, a sensor with a resistance which changes is shown connected in a potential divider to
a fixed resistance.
V
R
s
V
out
sensor
R
(R + R
s
)
I =
V
V
out
= I R
s
= V R
s
(R + R
s
)
V
out
V
=
R
s
(R

+ R
s
)
If the sensor resistance increases, the potential difference across it (the output of the potential
divider) is the current multiplied by the sensor resistance. This is not proportional to the sensor
resistance, because if that increases, the current decreases. Thus the output is the product of two
factors: sensor resistance and current. The result is that as the sensor resistance increases, the
output changes less and less for each equal increase in sensor resistance.
If you want a potential divider used like this to be as sensitive as possible, and to be approximately
linear, then it is best to make the fixed resistance larger than the sensor resistance.
1.0
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
less sensitive region
output changes slowly with input
sensitive
region
output changes rapidly with input
R
s
= R
V
out
V
(output)
Ratio R
s
/R (input)
The spreadsheet model from which the results were calculated is provided.
Open the Excel Worksheet
Electronic noses:
Telling fresh food from bad and detecting disease in cows

Quick Help
The reading is below gives details of an up-to-date method of using sensors to do what the human
nose can do. It combines quite simple sensors, which detect gases by a change of electrical
resistance, with clever analysis of data.
What is smell?
What does the delicious smell of fresh coffee have to do with the need to change the diet of a herd of
cows? Both involve the human nose recognising a characteristic odour. In the case of the cows, a vet
can detect a disease called ketosis by smelling the cows' breath.
The distinctive smell of coffee does not come from one particular substance. In fact it comes from
hundreds of different molecules, each of which our noses can detect. The smell of coffee is a pattern
we recognise. Our noses contain about a hundred million odour-sensitive nerve cells, whose
responses to odour molecules are decided by about 1000 proteins which 'latch onto' odour molecules
differently. By processing the signals from these nerve cells, our brains identify a number of
characteristic smells, often at very low levels. For example you can detect the smell of bad fish at a
level of about 0.01 parts per billion.
Dairy cattle producing milk are prone to a condition called ketosis, which is due to inefficient digestion
of the feed they are given. In this state, the cow's breath has a noticeable smell, part of which is due
to the presence of acetone (propanone). An experienced vet can detect the onset of the condition by
sniffing the cow's breath. But the reliability with which this can be done varies between people and
depends on their own state of health. For this reason, engineers are trying to develop 'electronic
noses' which can automate the process. In a recent test, a system designed to detect ketosis
managed, in checks on 38 cows with and without ketosis, 8 out of 11 correct positive diagnoses, and
26 out of 27 correct negative diagnoses. Not perfect, but getting there.
The food industry is interested in electronic noses, for monitoring the freshness of food. Recently a
test car carried an electronic nose which is still a bulky object, with all its electronics and control
hardware around northern Italy to see how well it could sense motorway pollution.
How do electronic noses work?
An electronic nose needs not one sensor for odour molecules in gases but, like the human nose,
needs a whole array of sensors. Each sensor has to give a different response to a given combination
of molecules. One might give a big response to acetone but also to another molecule; another might
do the same but be less sensitive to, say, acetone and more sensitive to yet another molecule. Then
the signals from each sensor have to be compared, and patterns amongst them have to be identified.
One successful experiment like this managed to distinguish between fresh ground coffee and instant
coffee, even telling two kinds of fresh ground coffee apart.
One way to detect patterns amongst signals is to feed them to a network of 'artificial neurons';
electronic logic elements interconnected in a way which mimics on a small scale the interconnections
between neurons in the brain. Such a network can be 'trained' to produce an output which appears
only when a specific pattern is present in the input. Other ways include more traditional statistical
analysis.
Sensors of several different types have been tried. One type uses metal oxides (for example tin
dioxide) whose resistance changes when the oxide adsorbs certain gases. These metal oxide
sensors have to run hot (about 400 degrees Celsius) if they are to be sensitive enough and if they are
to respond and recover rapidly enough. That makes demands on power, although the power
demands of miniaturised sensors can be kept quite small. One commercially available electronic nose
uses an array of up to 18 metal oxide sensors.
Another type of sensor uses electrically conducting polymers such as polypyrrole or polyaniline,
which can work at room temperature. Polymers can be made whose electrical conductivity changes
rapidly and reversibly in the presence of certain odours. It is thought that the odour molecules make
the polymer swell up, interfering with the mechanism of electrical conduction in them. They can detect
odours down to 1 part per million or less. By choosing the right polymer, sensors can be built to
detect rather specific odour molecules. In one experiment, an electronic nose using 20 conducting
polymer sensors coupled to a trained network of artificial neurons managed a 95% success rate in
distinguishing the smells of lemon, roses, eucalyptus and banana.
Yet another type of sensor is of potential importance, because of the precision of measurement which
it potentially offers. Frequencies of oscillation can be measured extremely accurately, by electronic
counting and timing. The idea is to make a miniature oscillator out of quartz, which gives an electrical
signal when it is stretched or compressed (it is piezoelectric). Astonishingly, the presence of an odour
can be detected just through an increase in mass of the oscillator, which makes it oscillate less
rapidly. The increase in mass occurs when it collects some odour molecules on its surface. The
capture of odour molecules is achieved by coating the quartz with a thin film of a substance (such as
acetyl cellulose) which absorbs these molecules. Another similar kind of device makes waves, rather
like earthquake waves, travel along a silicon surface, and measures their speed by using them to
create oscillations. Again, when the surface absorbs molecules from above its mass increases. The
surface film reduces the frequency of the waves by slowing them down.
What lies ahead?
Electronic noses are a rapidly developing part of electronic engineering, combining ingenuity in
making cheap, reliable and sensitive sensors, with the use of state of the art methods of data analysis
including some which try to mimic how the brain works.
Some commercial systems exist, and a variety of industries are interested. But it will be some time
before you can buy a nose to see if the food you have bought is fresh or not. And for the foreseeable
future electronic noses will be specialised, built to detect a narrow range of odours for a specific
application. The very sensitive general-purpose odour detector in the middle of your face will
outperform electronic noses for quite a time to come.
Find out about the Wheatstone bridge

Quick Help
This is material for further study, to interest you and extend your ideas. The Wheatstone bridge is a
clever development of the idea of a potential divider.
The Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of two potential dividers arranged 'back to back'. Its output is
the difference between the outputs of the two potential dividers.
Wheatstone bridges are mostly used today in precision design of measuring instruments. Their great
advantage is in eliminating unwanted signals whilst only retaining the required signal. They can be
manufactured quite easily on the microchip scale.
Charles Wheatstone (18021875) did not invent the Wheatstone bridge, which was the idea of
Samuel Christie (17841865). But he did much to popularise its use. His many inventions include an
electric telegraph, a kind of oscilloscope and devices for making stereoscopic images. He was
interested in the physics of musical instruments and created the concertina. He was the first (1834) to
measure the speed of an electrical signal along a wire.
Example: a precision load cell
A load cell measures a force by bending or deflecting by a measurable amount when the force is
applied. The type shown here is fixed at one end and bent by a force applied at the other. Four strain
gauges, placed and connected as shown, are used in this carefully engineered design. The four
gauges are connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
A strain gauge is a strip of metal foil, glued to the surface of the component whose strain is to be
monitored. The foil is stretched if the component is stretched. Any stretching along the length of the
strips in the foil is detected as an increase in resistance.
Professionally designed load cell
beam bends less here beam bends more here
top surface stretched
lower surface compressed
strain
gauge effect amount temperature
stretched more
more
less
less
same
same
same
same
compressed
stretched
compressed
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
V
in
V
out
load
fixed end
A
B
C
D
The load cell shown above is designed to measure loads (forces) accurately, from the bending of the
carefully designed beam. The (white) internal cut-outs increase the bending for a given load. The
amount the beam bends is measured by the strain gauges A, B, C and D attached to the beam.
When the beam bends, gauge A's resistance goes up and gauge B's resistance goes down. Gauges
C and D, fitted where the beam bends least, hardly change resistance. Each pair is connected in a
potential divider. The two potential dividers are arranged 'back to back'; this circuit is called a
Wheatstone bridge. The output of the bridge is the difference between the output of the two potential
dividers.
beam bends most here beam bends least here
R + xR
R xR
R
R
I =
V
2R
I =
V
2R A
B
C
D
V
Wheatstone bridge as potential dividers back to back
V
A
=
(1 + x) V
2
V
B
=
(1 x) V
2
output = V
D
V
B
=
xV
2
V
C
= IR =
V
2
V
D
= IR =
V
2
Approximations:
Gauges A, B, C and D have equal resistance R, when the beam is
not loaded. The changes in resistance xR of A and B are equal and
opposite. C and D do not change in resistance (first approximation)
How it works:
When the beam bends, the output of the potential divider containing
gauges A and B (V
B
) changes by . The output of the potential divider
containing gauges C and D (V
D
) stays the same.
Result:
The output from the bridge is the difference between the outputs of
the two potential dividers
xV
2
V
D
V
B
=
xV
2
Think about the Wheatstone bridge as two potential dividers back to back. The output is the
difference between the outputs of the two dividers. A special case is shown: two gauges are affected
oppositely to one another; the other two are not affected at all.
The bridge has the added advantage that it compensates for changes of temperature. If all four
gauges suffer the same change in temperature then the bridge output is not affected. The bridge
rejects the unwanted signal.
More subtly, by using four gauges, the bridge measures the difference between the bending where A
and B are placed from that for C and D. The difference between the bending at these two places is
not much affected by just where the load is applied.
The Wheatstone bridge was invented for accurate comparisons of resistances. Today its use is more
often in designs like that of the load cell. In these designs, the four resistances are generally equal,
and the output measures changes in them.
Help with calculating current and power in an ion beam
Reading 30S: Text to Study
Teaching Notes | Key Terms Quick Help
These notes aim to help you to see how to calculate the rate of flow of charge and the rate at which
energy is delivered, by a beam of moving charged particles.
Calculating the current
Rail trucks carry coal, and the coal carries energy. Ions carry electric charge and their charges carry
energy. So you can think about a beam of moving charged particles as being like a train of coal trucks
all moving together.
Question: A coal truck carries 2 tonnes of coal. A train of 100 coal trucks takes a total time of 5
minutes to pass you. How much coal passes you each minute?
Answer: 20 coal trucks pass you in one minute (100 in 5 minutes). Each carries 2 tonnes of coal. So
40 tonnes of coal pass you per minute. If the train arrives at a power station, 40 tonnes of coal are
delivered per minute.
The calculation can be written as an equation:
Rate of flow of coal ('coal current') = coal carriers per second coal in each carrier
Question: An ion carries 1.6 10
19
coulombs of electric charge. 10
21
ions pass you in 100 seconds.
How much electric charge passes you per second? What is the electric current in amperes?
Answer: If 10
21
ions pass in 100 seconds then 10
19
ions pass in 1 second (10
21
/ 10
2
= 10
21 2
= 10
19
). The electric charge passing per second is the number of ions passing per second multiplied by the
electric charge on each ion. Thus the electric current (charge per second) is 1.6 10
19
10
19
= 1.6
coulombs per second, or 1.6 amperes.
Rate of flow of charge (electric current) = charge carriers per second charge on each carrier
Calculating the power
Coal is delivered to power stations because it carries energy (if there is oxygen to burn it with). The
power provided to the power station is the amount of energy provided per second.
Question: A conveyer belt carries powdered coal to the furnace of a power station. The belt delivers
30 kg of coal every minute. One kilogram of coal provides 30 MJ of energy. What is the power
delivered to the furnace?
Answer: The rate of flow of coal is 30 kg every 60 seconds, which is 0.5 kg per second. 1 kg of coal
carries 30 MJ so 0.5 kg carries 15 MJ of energy. Thus the rate of delivery of energy, or power, is 15
MJ per second, or 15 MW, or 15 10
6
W.
Rate of flow of energy (power) = rate of flow of coal in kg s
1
energy carried by coal in J kg
1
Question: A beam of ions has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1000 volts. The beam
current is 10 milliamperes. What power does the beam deliver?
Answer: The potential difference is the energy given to each coulomb of charge. From a potential
difference of 1000 volts, one coulomb of charge would have an energy of 1000 joules.
A current of 10 milliamperes, or 10
2
A, delivers 10
2
coulombs per second. If each coulomb carries
1000 joules, the power delivered is 1000 10
2
joules per second, that is 10 watts.
Rate of flow of energy (power) = rate of flow of charge in C s
1
energy carried by charge in J C
1
= electric current in A potential difference in V.
The potential divider in pictures
Reading 60S: Text to Study

Quick Help
It is helpful to see a visual image of how the potential divider works, when connected up with resistors
which are equal or not, and which have various values of their resistance.
Here are five diagrams of a potential divider.
much more
than V/2
much less
than V/2
V V V V/ 2 V/ 2 V/ 2
V
V
Equal resistances
Unequal resistances
resistance
potential
difference
current
Key
All are connected to the same input potential difference V.
The top row of three diagrams shows potential dividers with pairs of equal resistances. In one case
the two resistances are both middling in value and in the other two cases they are both high in value
or low in value. The output of all three potential dividers is the same, half the input potential
difference, or V / 2. How does this come about? When the resistances are low, the current is high.
When the resistances are high, the current is low. The product of current and resistance, the potential
difference I R is the same.
The bottom two diagrams show potential dividers made with one high value and one low value
resistance. The sum of the two is a middling resistance, so the current is middling in size. The
potential difference I R across the high value resistance is large; the potential difference across the
low value resistance is low.
The output depends on which way round the resistances are connected. If the output is taken across
the high value resistance, it is high, larger than V / 2. If the output is taken across the low value
resistance, it is low, less than V / 2.
Revision Checklist
I can show my understanding of effects, ideas and relationships by
describing and explaining:
how electric currents are a flow of charged particles
e.g. an electron beam in a TV tube, electrons in a metal, electrons and holes in
a semiconductor
AZ references: electric current, electron beam
the idea of potential difference in an electric circuit, as energy per unit charge
AZ references: potential difference
Summary diagrams: Rivers and electric currents
what resistance and conductance mean
AZ references: conductance, resistance
what happens to potential difference and current in circuits with components
connected in series and in parallel using the ideas of resistance and
conductance as appropriate
AZ references: parallel circuit, series circuit
Summary diagrams: Conductors in parallel and series, Series and parallel rivers
what electromotive force (emf) means
AZ references: electromotive force, see also potential difference
what is meant by internal resistance and the effect of internal resistance in a
circuit
AZ references: internal resistance
Summary diagrams: Sources and internal resistance
the idea of power in electric circuits as energy dissipated or transferred per
second
AZ references: electrical power
the relation between current and potential difference in ohmic resistors
i.e. resistors which follow Ohm's law so that the ratio V / I stays the same when
external conditions (such as temperature) stay the same
AZ references: Ohm's law, non-ohmic conductors
the action of a potential divider
e g in sensor applications such as to sense position or angle reduce a
e.g. in sensor applications such as to sense position or angle, reduce a
potential difference, produce a potential difference from a change in resistance
AZ references: potential divider
I can use the following words and phrases accurately:
with reference to electric circuits: emf, potential difference, current, charge,
resistance, conductance, series, parallel, internal resistance, load
AZ references: electric current, potential difference, conductance, resistance,
parallel circuit, series circuit, electromotive force, internal resistance
with reference to instrumentation: resolution, sensitivity, stability, response time,
calibration, systematic error, zero error
AZ references: resolution, sensitivity, response time, systematic error, random
uncertainty
I can sketch and interpret:
simple circuit diagrams
AZ references: parallel circuit, series circuit, potential divider
graphs of current against potential difference; graphs of resistance or
conductance against temperature
AZ references: Ohm's law, non-ohmic conductors
I can calculate:
the conductance G of a circuit or a component using the relationship G = I / V
and rearrange the equation to calculate other quantities
the resistance R of a circuit or a component using the relationship R = V / I and
rearrange the equation to calculate other quantities
charge flow in a circuit or component using the relationships Q = I t, Q = W / V
and rearrange the equations to calculate other quantities
AZ references: electric current, potential difference, electrical power
current, circuit resistance and potential differences in series circuits using the
resistances of components
e.g. total resistance = sum of component resistances
AZ references: conductance, resistance, series circuit
currents, circuit resistance and potential differences in parallel circuits using the
currents, circuit resistance and potential differences in parallel circuits using the
conductances of components
e.g. total conductance = sum of component conductances
AZ references: conductance, resistance, parallel circuit
the power dissipated in a circuit using the relationship P = I V and rearrange the
equation to calculate other quantities
power, current, resistance and potential difference in circuits and components
using the relationships P = I
2
R, P = V
2
/ R and rearrange the equations to
calculate other quantities
energy dissipated in a circuit W = V I t
current, potential difference and resistance in circuits with internal resistance,
e.g. using the relationships V = c I r
internal
and V = I R
load
and rearrange the
formulae to calculate other quantities
AZ references: potential difference, electromotive force, internal resistance
the effects produced by potential dividers in a circuit
e.g. when an LDR or thermistor is used in a sensing application
AZ references: potential divider
I can show my ability to make better measurements by:
identifying and estimating the largest source of uncertainty in measurements
with sensors and electrical instruments
AZ references: accuracy, uncertainty
taking account of properties of sensors and instruments: resolution, sensitivity,
stability, response time, and calibration, systematic and zero error
AZ references: resolution, sensitivity, response time, calibration, uncertainty,
systematic error
using dot-plots or histograms of repeated measurements to estimate mean and
range of values, and identify possible outliers
AZ references: random uncertainty, uncertainty
plotting graphs including uncertainty bars, using them to estimate uncertainty in
gradient or intercept
AZ references: uncertainty, graphs
considering ways to reduce the largest source of uncertainty in an experiment
AZ references: accuracy, uncertainty
I can show an appreciation of the growth and use of scientific
knowledge:
giving examples of and commenting on the applications of sensors
AZ references: sensor

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What is the relationship between current, voltage and resistance?

1 Advancing Physics

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