UNIT 4

Structure
4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN MANAGEMENT

Objectives Introduction Need and Levels of Information Handling Advantages of Computerisation Approach to Computerisation Strategic Issues of Computer-aided Decision-making
4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6 4.5.7 4.5.8 4.5.9 Communication Gap Reliance on Service Bureaus or Computer Vendors Lack of Master Plan Organisation of the MIS Function Lack of Good Management System Managerial Participation Failure to Identify Information Needs Poor Systems Prior to Computerisation Overlooking Human Acceptance

4.6 4.7

Let Us Sum Up Clues to Answers

4.0

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you should be able to : appreciate the significance of computerisation for efficient management decision-making at the corporate level, and understand the role of Computer-aided decision-making in management of an organisation along with the advantages and limitations thereof.

4.1

INTRODUCTION

Prof. H. A. Simon views the computer as the fourth great breakthrough in history to aid man in his thinking process and decision-making ability. The first was the invention of writing which gave human beings a memory in performing mental tasks. The remaining two events prior to the computer were the devising of the Arabic number system with its zero and positional notation, and the invention of analytic geometry and calculus, which permitted the solution of complex problems in scientific theory. Now the electronic digital computers combine the advantages and attributes of all these breakthroughs and make them available for decision-making and management of organisations. This Unit takes into account the various aspects of information handling through computerisation. It goes on to discuss the role of computers in decision-making processes.
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4.2

NEED AND LEVELS OF INFORMATION HANDLING

INFORMATION

Recorded Stored Processed Retrieved

For MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING of planning, organising controlling and marketing

Figure I: Definition of MIS

Management Information System (MIS) can be defined, according to Joel E. Ross, as a communication process wherein information (input) is recorded, stored, processed and retrieved for decisions (output) regarding the managerial process of planning, organising and controlling. If we now define decision-making as the process of selecting from among alternatives a course of action to achieve an objective, the link between information and decision becomes clear. Indeed, decision-making and information processing are so inter-dependent that they become inseparable, if not identical, in practice. You will learn more about MIS and its definition in Unit 8. Computerised MIS cannot technically make a decision but it can yield processed data and follow instructions to the extent of its capacity. For example, the computer can be properly instructed to compare inventory levels with programmed decision-rules on re-order level and re-order quantity, and generate purchase requisition, purchase enquiry and purchase order, etc. This can resemble an automatic control of purchase documents. The modern role of MIS for managerial decision-making in a complex organisation has been compared to that of a military commander. Commanders often adopt a strategy built by direct observation of partial situations. This is the style used by the managers who track operations by periodic communications with remote sales depots, plant divisions and other offices. For instance, the central marketing organisation of a travel agency has to keep track of all its booking offices spread all over India for marketing related decision-making. Levels of Information Handling

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As you have read in Unit 3, there are four levels of computerised information handling. These are:
LEVELS

DSS used at top level

MIS used at middle management

TPS used at shop floor

OAS used at clerical level

Figure II: Levels of Information Handling.

In a modern complex organisation, the levels of information handling can be divided as decision support system, management information system, transaction processing system, and office (and other) automation system. At the apex, the top level managers may need decision support system (DSS). This would be an inter-active system that provides the user-manager with easy access to decision models and data in order to support semi-structured and non-structured decision-making tasks. Inputs for DSS can be some processed data, and mostly management-originated data along with some unique models. The DSS would involve queries and responses, operations research models, and simulation. The output from DSS would be special reports to resolve difficult questions and replies to management queries. At the middle management level (if there exists one), MIS would deal with an organised set of procedures to provide information for middle managers to support their operations and decisionmaking within the organisation. At this level, inputs for MIS would be both processed and rawdata and some management-originated data, along with pre-programmed models. The MIS process would involve report generation data management, simple models and statistical methods. The outputs from MIS would be filtered and screened for semi-routine decisions and replies to simple management queries. At the shop-floor management level, transaction processing system (TPS) is a computer-based system that would capture, classify, store, maintain, update and retrieve simple transaction data for record keeping and for feeding MIS and DSS. The TPS would have transaction data as inputs. The processing for TPS would involve classification, codification, sorting, merging, adding, deleting and updating. Outputs for TPS would be detailed reports relating to routine decisions and processed data. At the clerical level, office and other automation control system can be in operation. Office automation system (OAS) is simple in an automated office having multiple functions, where the integrated and computer-aided system allows many office activities to be performed with electronic equipment. The OAS would have inputs such as appointments, documents, addresses, etc. The OAS processing would be scheduling word-processor, data storage and retrieval. Outputs

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from OAS would be schedules, memoranda, bulk mail and administrative reports. Computer Reservation Systems used in hotels and travel agencies are also operated at this level.

4.3

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERISATION

The advantages associated with computer-based managerial decision-making can be the following : 1) response time is greatly reduced; 2) very large data are stored for information and decision-making; 3) accuracy of information is considerably improved, thereby improving the quality of the decision; 4) problems are handled more easily by using various operation research models; 5) the cost involved in the decision-making process is reduced; 6) more secrecy is observed as compared to manual file system; 7) ability to take quick decision improves considerably as the time for retrieval of information is very fast; 8) paper work is reduced to the minimum as all the information is stored in the computer itself; 9) lots of information are stored for future reference; 10) chances of leakage of classified information are reduced; 11) accuracy in manipulation is increased very much; and 12) time spent in various decision-making activities is reduced to a minimum. Emanating from the above, the following benefits for a commercial organisation can be attributed to computerisation : 1) the availability of accurate forecasts within 1 per cent of net income; 2) the preparation of short-term profit plans and long-term projections; 3) the provision of pre-plan information in budget preparation; 4) the calculation of variances between budgeted and actual results; 5) the triggering of revised forecasts if not proceeding in accordance with plans; 6) the early warning system for monitoring activities and the signalling of necessary reactive plans; 7) the indication of income and cash flow by following alternate investment strategies; 8) the assistance to the planning of new facilities and a host of special strides; and 9) the accomplishment of the preceding items at a great speed. While TPS has been in use over several decades, OAS is coming into practice only now in a number of organisations. The TPS has brought its own benefits for speedy execution, accurate performance and quite often confidential handling. Such benefits will become evident if one considers a couple of very common TPS applications.

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The first is examination result processing which the bulk of Indian universities are doing on computer today, either with in-house systems or with hired service bureaus. The massive nature of such processing can be visualised by looking at one State alone, namely, U.P., where 13 lakh candidates go through high school stream and 6 lakhs through the intermediate stream in any single year. The processing and publication of their results in time would not have been possible without computerisation. Besides, it is possible to maintain some confidentiality on computer processing. Another application is computerised electricity billing adopted by several State Electricity Boards in India. Under the computerised system, every meter for light and fan, or for power is invariably supported by a billing raised by computer and every such bill is again invariably despatched by computer centre. Both these actions guarantee improvement over the manual system where there is usually little certainty of bills being raised or being actually despatched due to adoption of foul means. In a single state undertaking like UPSEB it was estimated that the computerisation in the Western U.P. district for electricity billing had resulted in a considerable amount of additional revenue. Now, consider the effect of computerisation on an airlines. The computerisation of the Ticketing Section has resulted in an easy ticketing procedure and also helps the ticketing agents of the airlines who can get the system on their computers. Moreover, now a days the customer care cargo, marketing departments and others are also computerised. This makes the customer needs easy to handle. Similarly most of the travel agencies have linked themselves to Computerised Reservation Systems of hotels, airlines, car rentals, etc. This not only saves time and energy, but also helps them in providing better services and instant bookings to the customers. Advantages of MIS can be manifold because of the aid to higher level decision-making. Once the planning, monitoring, reviewing and control process are facilitated, the benefits can literally multiply several times, over and above the mere shop-floor or clerical TPS applications. Check Your Progress 1 1) Prepare a brief report on the extent of Decision Support, Transaction Processing and Office Automation Systems, prevailing in your organisation, in context of the description given above (in case you are not working go to an office and find out there). .. .. .. .. 2) List some advantages of computer based managerial decision-making. .. .. .. ..

4.4
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APPROACH TO COMPUTERISATION

The first important stage of organising MIS at the corporate level is to build up comprehensive data-base from TPS for the clerical systems. Valid data should be initially classified and codes attached to each data-set. Thereafter data-base should be constantly updated. The analogy to a reference library system is almost uncanny, where books have to be classified according to the subjects (e.g., reference, economics, management, etc.) and then codes attached to each book (e.g., 001 for reference, 338 for economics, 658 for management, etc.). Thereafter the books need constant updating through cataloguing and indexing. A library, however, is not as amenable to easy cross-reference among a vast number of books, as a computerised data-base is. With classification, codification and updating, a computerised data-base can help the user with almost instant retrieval of any amount of cross-classified and cross-revised data, thus helping tremendously the decision-making process. The second important stage to MIS at corporate level is to decide on the principles of evaluating the raw data for decision-making. For this purpose, the four principles that can be unhesitatingly recommended are: selection, pattern, linkage and overview. The first principle of selection looks at a screened segment of data which can focus attention on variances from standards, deviations from norms, fluctuations from targets and differences from budgets. It is presumed that whatever data are related to the initially fixed standards, norms, targets and budgets they are, to that extent, not required to be looked at any further. But whatever are not conforming to the steady state are worth looking at for decision-making purposes. The second principle of pattern is to look at the collection of data and to derive insight by virtue of management ratios, trends, correlations and forecasts. Essentially this is a principle of gaining insight into the given mass of data. The third principle of linkage is a way of looking at a number of widely dispersed data-sets and to formulate a coherent picture. The last principle of overview is to derive a total picture which cuts across a number of control parameters and sums up the managerial position. The third stage of MIS at corporate level is to realise the above four principles in actual practice. The first principle of selection can be implemented by generating exception-based reports. This requires the safe-keeping of classified, codified and updated data on the computer and retrieving only specially meaningful reports on the basis of exception. The second principle of pattern can be implemented by using mathematical modelling and statistical analysis. Such analytical approach requires the data-sets to be treated with mathematical models and statistical methods in order to derive meaningful indicators for decision-making. The third principle of linkage can be implemented by inter-relating different data-sets from disparate files or data-bases. The inter-relationships would provide again available insight across the board. The fourth principle of overview can be implemented by aggregating data. Such a process of aggregation can connect together the classified and codified data for purposes of deriving a managerial insight into the total span of operations

4.5

STRATEGIC ISSUES OF COMPUTER-AIDED DECISION-MAKING

Transaction processing systems using computers have played a relatively limited role as a management tool. This has been so because decision-making has not been their central theme. Instead, they have been speciality-oriented for on-going clerical needs in personnel (pay roll), book-keeping (accounting), technical data (capital projects) or specific functional areas (materials). Alternatively, they have been project-oriented, used to manage a specific programme of limited time and scope, such as, examination result processing, or, they have been problem-oriented for emergency and random retrieval of information to meet a crisis situation of limited duration and scope.
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According to Robert Anderson, the corporate MIS should assist such material functions as: manufacturing, marketing and other real-time operations, futuristic improvement and problem-solving, instead of historical reports of the past actions, necessary corrective action rather than book-keeping, and monitoring of outside conditions affecting the organisational plans.

Joel E. Ross identifies the reasons for corporate MIS as the same for planning in general. It should offset uncertainty, improve economy of operations, focus on the objectives and provide a device for control operations. Such an approach is radically different from the patch-work approach of the transaction processing system. (What follows is identification of some of the strategic issues identified by Ross and others, and their suggested solutions in the Indian context).

4.5.1 Communication Gap

One of the reasons for the over-emphasis on the transaction processing system is the communication gap between the computer professional and the user-manager of the system. In India, far too many organisations have become used to separate EDP departments, now increasingly called computer services departments. Because of the training interest and peer pressure, Ross suggests that there is a compulsive tendency for the computer professional to generate massive data-bases, to install display devices and glittering data-communications techniques, and to install newer and grander design. This only serves the purpose of empire building and not improved management. There is a familiar situation where the computer professional is engaged in developing the computer-aided decision-making but is not able to communicate to the user-manager. The information that the user needs is called for, but the user cannot adequately express them as he or she has not been accustomed to a rigorous self-analysis. Thereafter, the computer professional works out a plan based on his or her own understanding of the user-needs, to convert them into the flow-charts and programming. In the process, the information needs themselves get altered. When the programmer codifies and implements the system, his or her own interpretation gets incorporated, thus further changing the user-needs. All these end up by frustrating the usermanager. This can be called ten-minute syndrome where sufficient time has not been spent between the user-manager and the computer professional to get all the needs clearly conveyed and understood. A situation arose where during examination processing grace marks had to be allocated by way of moderation. Computer professionals allocated grace marks to all students which resulted in glaring anomalies where some top ranking students secured more than 100 per cent marks by virtue of additional grace marks. Obviously, the Controller of examinations had not explained properly the mystique of grace marks to the computer professionals!

4.5.2 Reliance on Service Bureaus or Computer Vendors

Quite often, Indian user-manager is approached by computer vendor who brain washes the management into buying a system, indicating that the system has all the solutions to the managerial problems. The end-result is that either the user gets a system which is too large for him or her with a lot of computer fat or gets inadequate computing power for his or her needs. Ross suggests that there should not be any technical romance with the computer vendor but a return on investment (ROI) approach to expenditure. Further, the user-manager should operate
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with a master plan, rather than react to the vendors suggestions. There have been cases where an organisation had appointed a service bureau for a large sum of money to develop a corporate MIS. After spending a year as well as a couple of lakhs of rupees, the user-organisation was thoroughly dissatisfied with the recommendations of the service bureau and did not implement it.

4.5.3 Lack of Master Plan

The bulk of computer failures are due to the lack of master plans to which hardware acquisition, software development and individual MIS design can be related. Without such a plan, islands of mechanisation result with little integration between separate systems. We can cite two successful cases in this regard. The TISCO studied the interface of various systems like production planning and control system, financial control system, and sales invoicing and order processing system. It was observed that if individual systems were developed without regard to their mutual interfaces, the result would be an absence of communication between the systems and the incompatibility of the systems would prevail throughout the company. This was prevented by building up sufficient linkages among these systems and developing an integrated approach according to a master plan. A similar approach was also adopted by TELCO with encouraging results.

4.5.4 Organisation of the MIS Function

Since clerical systems came first involving accounting, pay roll, inventory returns and similar financial jobs, the transaction processing system developed around all of them. Following the normal principle of assigning a service activity by familiarity, the historical trend in India has been to assign the computer to the Controller of Finance or Chief Accountant. This has been the case in many sectors. Only now the situation is being reversed, MIS function has been placed under the user-manager. With more distributed processing becoming possible, the trend has been to place computer-aided decision-making where it belongs, mainly under the user-manager with his or her own computing power. Already, the personal computers (PCs) have made this trend possible in practice, with individual data-bases available to the users. Similarly terminals are available to most important users to share central computing power. In both cases, all PCs as well as terminals, the control of the computer-aided activity has to remain with the user-manager.

4.5.5 Lack of Good Management System

It is imperative for successful corporate MIS on computer that there is good planning and control within the framework of an efficient organisational structure. No degree of sophistication with computers can cure the basic ill of chaotic data management. There have been many organisations where computerisation has not brought any tangible improvements because there has been no systematic handling of data or attention paid to the data management. In such cases, there would have been considerable gain by first conducting a good Organisation and Method (O&M) study. MIS has to be built on top by a management system which should include the organisational arrangements, the structure and procedures for adequate planning and control, the clear establishment of objective, and all other manifestations of good organisation in management. It is interesting to note that good computer professionals know their craft but are simply not oriented to managerial jobs. In other words, the road-based skills, which are necessary to function both in the computer room and in meeting with user-manager for the MIS, are conspicuous by their absence. This phenomenon has been known globally and that is why computer professionals are often called machine-mesmerised, where they are more loyal to their profession than to their organisation!

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4.5.6 Managerial Participation

The single most critical problem in effective computer utilisation is the need for understanding and support from top management. Even after top management support is ensured, it is necessary that there is user participation in the design phase on corporate MIS so as to avoid subsequent extensive and time-consuming re-work. This can be called overnight syndrome where users spell out their needs and expect the computer professionals to deliver the outputs immediately thereafter. Converting jobs eventually for computerisation needs a stabilisation period, which is all too easily forgotten. It makes good sense, when the user-manager picks up minimum familiarity with the MIS at the beginning. From the point of view of the organisation, corporate MIS is as much a vital part of the operation as marketing operations and finance are today. Indian Airlines, too, discovered that managers had to be involved in order to get better and more effective information systems by virtue of their participation. A similar approach is being followed in many other organisations.

4.5.7 Failure to Identify Information Needs

A clear identification of information needs is fundamental and necessary to go for design of a corporate MIS. Recently, a Central Government department spent lavish sums on hardware and software to perpetuate the existing 53 MIS reports and to build a sophisticated data-bank without first determining the real information needs of management. It is often forgotten that only that information should go into the corporate MIS which can increase the perception of managers in critical areas such as problems, alternatives, opportunities and plans. It is the user-manager who is to provide the specification for what he or she wants out of his or her corporate MIS. If the manager fails to do so, the computer professional by default would provide his or her own objectives and own information needs. These would seldom meet the needs of the user-manager.

4.5.8 Poor Systems Prior to Computerisation

It has been observed that computerisation of a poor system will merely increase inefficiency at an accelerating rate. The user-manager gets irrelevant or bad information faster and the bad decisions are made sooner! Hindustan Zinc Ltd., for instance, planned to upgrade and improve their transaction-processing system in a methodical manner. Such clerical systems as ledger accounting were to be upgraded to financial planning; invoicing to sales analysis; inventory accounting to inventory management; and production reports to production planning and control. Well established procedures helped them to make a smooth transition.

4.5.9 Overlooking Human Acceptance

A new MIS quite often meets resistance from the user-organisation because people do not accept what they do not understand. Such reasons for resistance have to be analysed and a new attitude brought in to overcome it. Ross identified the reasons as threat to the status of the salesmen; threat to the ego of the managers; economic threat to the clerical persons (fear of job loss), insecurity for the managers having personal powers and political base; loss of autonomy and control for the production managers and engineers; and frayed and inter-personal relations for all others. A number of public and private sector organisations such as BHEL, Indian Airlines, ITDC, NTPC, etc. have started a process of systematic programme of training and user-education. It is
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imperative that such education begins at the top level for computer appreciation, at the middle management for specific computer applications in their own domains, and at the working level for direct involvement in input and output quality control. It is good to see the bulk of Indian organisations going through such an elaborate process of computer initiation as there is no short-cut to it. Check Your Progress 2 1) Explain the four principles usually recommended for evaluating raw data for decisionmaking. ... ... ... ... 2) Explain the points/facts to consider before changing to computer aided decision-making. ... ... ... ...

4.6

LET US SUM UP

We have given a brief account of a purposive way of using computer as a management tool. There are two eloquent reasons why such a tool is more feasible to operate today than ever before. The first reason is that computing power in any organisation is becoming increasingly available on a distributed basis through an array of terminals and/or through desk top computers available for personal use. Availability of both terminals and personal computer is almost a common phenomenon today. The second reason is that the computers were used to be driven earlier by the professionals and were housed exclusively in the EDP departments. From that atmosphere, the computers have currently become very much user-friendly when the barriers of EDP department have broken down and computer languages are becoming more and more English-like. From this stage on, it is very likely that computers would show a trend to become user-driven. Thus, the transition from professional-driven to user-friendly computers is a near reality now! Further we have described some of the strategic issues which have bedevilled introduction of computer-aided decision-making in the forms of corporate MIS in many organisations in India and abroad. Some general principles have been used to illustrate the situation and a number of Indian examples have been cited by way of deriving appropriate lessons. It is vital to keep reviewing the situation so that such strategic issues are not lost sight of in the countrys current emphasis on computerisation. It is important to avoid frustration before one aims at achieving elation on successful computerisation!

4.7

CLUES TO ANSWERS
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Check Your Progress 1 1) Study Sec. 4.2 carefully and compare it with the information system prevalent in your organisation or the organisation of your study. 2) A few advantages associated with computer based decision-making are: i) response time is greatly reduced. ii) very large data are stored for information and decision-making. iii) problems are handled more easily by using various operation research models. Read Sec.4.3 to learn more advantages of computer based decision-making. Check Your Progress 2 1) The four principles are: i) Selection it looks at a screened segment of data. ii) Pattern it looks at the data gaining insight into the given mass of data. iii) Linkage is to formulate a coherent picture. iv) Overview it derives a total picure. Study Sec.4.4 to answer the question better. 2) The points/facts to be considered before changing to computer aided decision-making are: i) ii) Communication Gap. Reliance on Service Bureaus or Computer Vendors.

iii) Lack of master plan. iv) Organisation of the MIS function. v) Lack of Good Management System. vi) Managerial participation. vii) Failure to identify information needs. viii) Poor systems prior to computerisation. ix) Overlooking Human acceptance. Read carefully Sec.4.5 and expand the above answer.

Activity Prepare a list of the most recent functions that computers can perform in managing an organisation after visiting a computer dealer and having a look at the latest models and software.

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