UNIT-I

Environmental studies – Nature, scope and importance, need for public awareness; natural
resources – renewable and non-renewable resources, use and overexploitation over-utilization of
various resources and consequences; role of an individual in conservation of natural resources;
equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles.
UNIT-II
Ecosystems – concept, structure and function of an ecosystem; Q; food chains, food webs and
ecological pyramids; types of ecosystem – forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, desert
ecosystem, aquatic ecosystems. Environmental Pollution – Definition, cause, effects and control
measures of different types of pollutions – air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, marine
pollution, noise pollution, thermal pollution, nuclear hazards; solid waste management – causes,
effects and control measures of urban and industrial wastes; role of an individual in prevention of
pollution.
Unit-1
Introduction-
Earth is the only planet known for supporting life. Despite the vastness of earth, life exists only
in a very narrow zone of the earth called biosphere. Sun is the only source of energy which
enables continuous interaction among various life forms. This unit, being the first in the course,
brings out the holistic meaning of the word ‘environment’. In broad terms, environment includes
everything external to an organism that affects it, including physical as well as living factors.
The action and interaction of the physical and living factors makes a system of relationships
called ecosystem. This unit will also focus on how we as living beings interact with other living
and non-living components of the ecosystem. The concept of sustainable development came into
existence that explains symbiotic relationship between human being and environment. For
centuries humans have considered the earth and environment as virtually unlimited resources but
subtle and gradual changes have altered our environment in many different ways.
CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT
Each and every living organism has a specific surrounding or medium with which it continuously
interacts, derives its sustenance and to which it is fully adapted. This surrounding is the ‘natural
environment’. The word ‘natural environment’ brings to mind broad aspects of landscape, such
as soil, water, desert or mountains which can be more exactly described in terms of physical or
abiotic influences such as differences in moisture, temperature, texture of soil, and air quality. It
also includes the biological or biotic influences in the form of microbes and animals.
Thus, environment is defined as, “the sum total of living and non-living components;
influences and events surrounding an organism”
Environment is derived from French word environ which means to encircle or surround while
ment means auctioning, i.e., environment is the interaction between organism and the nature.
e. For humans, there are several kinds of environment such as home environment, business
environment, political environment and so on. But we are going to discuss only about natural
environment: air, water, land, plants, animals and other organisms. Any individual in nature
interacts with its environment, influences it and in turn is influenced by it. Thus environment is
the sum total of air, water and land interrelationship among themselves and also with the human
beings, plants, animals and other organisms. The most significant attribute of the effect of
environment on life of an organism is the interaction of environmental elements. These abiotic
and biotic factors are dynamic in nature and interact with each other in every moment of life.
No organism can live alone without interacting with other organisms, so each organism has other
organisms as a part of its environment. You must be aware that all animals are directly or
indirectly dependent upon plants, basically the green plants that manufacture their own food.
Plants also depend on animals for a few things such as pollination of flowers and dispersal of
fruits and seed.

Components of Environment
Broadly the environment comprises of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components. Some
examples of abiotic and biotic components of environment are listed below in Table 1.1

The physical components set the condition for the survival of the biotic components, which in
turn take care of the maintenance of the environment. Linkages among components of the
environment are pathways for the flow of energy and cycling of materials. For example, green
plants obtain essential resources from the physical realm – water and minerals from the soil,
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and light energy from the sun, and manufacture their food.
Animals depend on plants and other animals for their source of food. We, the human being, in
turn harvest the land and the seas for our food; and obtain minerals and fuel from the Earth’s
crust.
Types of Environment
Recall the definition of the environment, and consider a fish living in a natural pond which we
have already discussed in the previous section. Its external environment will be the water in the
pond which it primarily inhabits. The water would contain nutrients, oxygen and other organisms
that the fish requires to sustain its life. As opposed to the external environment, the body cavity
within the fish provides an internal environment quite separate from the outside environment.
The body surface act as an exchange barrier between the internal and the external environment of
the fish. The internal environment is relatively stable as compared to the external environment.
However, illness and injury or even environment stress can upset it. But when the cause of the
disturbance is removed, the internal environment comes back to its original condition.
The pond which the fish inhabits is its natural environment. The abiotic factors of the pond,
like light, temperature, depth, nutrients, and dissolved gases will provide the life supporting
chemical and physical factors for the fish. The other living organisms inhabiting the pond, like
bacteria, insects, worms, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic vegetation could be food for the fish.
Examples of such natural environments on land include forests, grasslands, savannah and
deserts. So far we have discussed only the natural environment but there are several components
of environment which are created by humans, like crop fields, cities and industrial spaces (Fig.
1.2). These are places made artificially by humans through planned manipulation. For
example, let us consider a city. The city environment is totally created by human beings. One of
the most important components – water is not taken from streams directly but is first filtered,
purified and then used for drinking and other municipal purposes. The metabolic waste and
garbage are not disposed off locally but are carried for treatment or dumping to a remote place,
away from the city. Food for the people in cities often comes from rural areas. An environment
made by humans results in the consumption of excessive amounts of materials and energy,
necessitating care, supervision and management.
Significance of the Environment for Life
Whatever type of environment organisms inhabit, they all need life supporting elements for their
survival. These include air that they breathe, food and water they take in, and shelter either as
natural (like caves and tree holes) or as artificial dwellings (like houses). Environment is the only
source that provides these life supporting elements. We make use of the land for cultivating
crops. Soil provides nutrients needed for the growth of plants. The landform determines the soil
types found in any one area and soil itself varies from place to place. Some soils are rich in
nutrients and other are lacking in them. The soils lacking nutrients need the addition of
fertilizers.Climate and short term weather changes are characterized mainly by wind,
temperature, pressure and rainfall and are determined by the properties of the atmosphere. Air in
the atmosphere provides living organisms with oxygen, without which survival of the most of the
living organisms will be threatened.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Till now, you must have realized that the environment affects us in several ways, for example,
the water we consume, the air we breathe, the climatic conditions in which we live, and
surrounding where we live all have effects on us. In natural conditions usually living organisms
keep a balance with their environment. Humans in many ways have personalized the
environment according to their need with the help of skill and science, but in doing so we have
disrupted the fragile intricately woven web of life and life supporting systems. All these
interactions with environment as a whole are subjects of environmental studies. Therefore,
environmental studies contribute a branch of study of inherent or induced changes in the
environment, and their effect on living beings.
Environmental studies cover a large domain of knowledge which deals with every concern that
affects an organism. From human angle, this means it is an applied science which seeks all
possible answers to make human civilization sustainable on the earth with all its limited
resources. It includes not only the study of physical and biological characters of the environment
but also economic, social, cultural and even political and legal aspects of the environment.
Various issues such as clean and safe drinking water, clean and fresh air, clean living conditions,
productive land, good quality foodstuff and sustainable development are dealt with in
environmental studies.
The importance of environmental studies cannot be disputed. The need for sustainable
development is a key to the future of humankind. Continuing problems of pollution, loss of
forest and bio-diversity, solid waste disposal, degradation of environment, issues like global
warming and climate change, the depletion of ozone layer and loss of biodiversity have made
everyone aware of environmental issues. The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and World Summit on Sustainable Development at
Johannesburg in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the globe to the deteriorating
condition of our environment. This has been again reaffirmed by United Nations by adopting
seventeen Sustainable Development Goals in the year 2015. It has been decided that these
seventeen goals would be achieved in the next fifteen years i.e. 2016-2030.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

  Environmental issues are of international importance: It has now been well
recognised that environment issues like global warming, climate change, ozone layer
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
 Emergence of problems in the wake of modernisation and development:
Development in the modern period has given birth to industrialisation, urbanization,
modern transportation systems, Agriculture, Housing etc. When the West developed, it
did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a
path is neither practicable nor desirable. The developing world now faces the challenge of
developing without environmental degradation.
 Explosive increase in population: World census reflects that one in every seven persons
in this planet lives in India.Evidently with 16 per cent of the world’s population and only
2.4 per cent of its land area,there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including
land. This emphasizes on the need for efficient management of natural resources for the
benefits of all.
 Need for an alternative solution: It is essential, especially for developing countries to
find alternative paths to developmental goal. Such a goal would need to be distinct from
the developed world in the manner that would conserve natural resources and avoid
wasteful consumption.
 Need for wise planning of development: Resources withdrawal, processing and use of
the products have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development. Our actions should be planned for the sustenance of the environment and
development.

Scope-

The scope of the environmental studies are summarized as:

To study the interrelationship between biotic and abiotic components.
To carry out the impact analysis and environmental audit in order to minimize the environmental
problems.
Reduce the pollution.
Managing the unpredictable disaster.
To create awareness in the minds of the people.
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being increasingly
degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done. We often feel that
managing all this is something that the Government should do. But if we go on endangering our
environment, there is no way in which the Government can perform all these clean-up functions.
It is the prevention of environment degradation in which we must all take part that must become
a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is better than cure. To prevent ill-effects
on our environment by our actions, is economically more viable than cleaning up the
environment once it is damaged. Individually we can play a major role in environment
management. We can reduce wasting natural resources and we can act as watchdogs that inform
the Government about sources that lead to pollution and degradation of our environment.
This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as newspapers,
radio, television, strongly influence public opinion. However, someone has to bring this about. If
each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will add to our efforts.
Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly supported movement.
Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will make green policies. We are
living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources. Each of us is responsible for
spreading this message to as many people as possible.
Institutions in Environment
There have been several Government and Non-government organizations that have led to
environmental protection in our country. They have led to a growing interest in environmental
protection and conservation of nature and natural resources. The traditional conservation
practices that were part of ancient India’s culture have however gradually disappeared. Public
awareness is thus a critical need to further environmental protection. Among the large number of
institutions that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known
organizations include government organizations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as
BNHS, WWF-I, etc. Environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known
organizations include government organizations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as
BNHS, WWF-I, etc.
Natural resources
Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions. These are the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the
intervention of humans. Common examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water, soil,
stone, plants, animals and fossil fuels.
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful
under conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the
earth, supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water and
geothermal power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the natural sciences.

All the naturally occurring substances which we use can be considered natural resources. These
are the materials from the earth which support life on earth and help fulfilling the needs of
human beings. Humans require air, water, food from plants and animals, sunlight, minerals, land,
soil and fossil fuels to exist. All these useful raw materials are called natural resources.
Figure showing different forms of natural sources

Different Types of Natural Resources:

There are many ways of classifying these natural resources. They can be biotic or abiotic(that is
derived from organic materials or inorganic materials). Another way of classification of
resources is by the amount of resources available for human consumption. Through this,
resources can be classified into exhaustible and inexhaustible natural resources.

1. Inexhaustible Natural Resources:

Nature has blessed us with an unlimited supply of resources such as air, water and sunlight.
These resources are called inexhaustible resources. They are also called renewable resources.

2. Exhaustible Natural Resources:

As the human population is increasing at an astounding rate, we have reached a number of 7.4
billion today! Naturally, this means that we are utilizing more and more natural resources. If we
go at this rate, we will soon reach a day when nature will not be able to provide us with resources
such as plants and trees, animals, mineral ores, and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas. Thus, these resources are exhaustible. These resources are called exhaustible or non-
renewable resources.
If the use of these resources is not monitored carefully, there will be no food to eat, no energy for
them to power their machines and no material for them to build a shelter with. This is why it is
important to understand which resources are exhaustible and which are not, and to practice
sustainable development. This is nothing but the development that meets the needs of the present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:
1. Renewable: These are the resources that are naturally occurring, for example, sunlight,
water, and soil. These resources have been in nature and cannot be produced by man.
They are renewed easily by nature. Example: Solar energy, wind energy, etc.resources
that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly are called renewable
resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
2. Non-Renewable: These are those resources on earth that occur in nature freely but are in
limited quantities. They are available in the form that they can be used after the
intervention of man.resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable
nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable
resources. Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals and humans to survive on this
planet. So, it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater. Initiative
to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
4. Iron: It is found as mineral silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation and
buildings
5. Forests: Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world. Trees are being
cut for housing and  construction projects.

Importance of Natural Resources

Listed below are a few of the reasons why we need to save our natural resources:
 They are crucial in maintaining a balance in our ecosystem
 To be able to cater to the needs of the ever-growing population
 Resources serve as raw material for large-scale industries and commercial purposes
 Wise consumption of non-renewable resources such as coal and petroleum
 The availability of freshwater is decreasing by the day, so it is important to use water
carefully
  Water is used to produce electricity in dams and reservoirs
 Wind energy is also used in turbines and to produce electricity
 Helps in the socio-economic development of a country
 Solar energy is directly being used in home appliances such as solar water heaters, solar-
powered ventilation fans, batteries that are charged using solar power etc.

Depletion of Resources on Earth

Human activities are constantly harming the environment. With the advent of industrialization,
the human population is growing rapidly. This has led to increased consumption of the earth’s
resources. The main causes for the depletion of earth’s resources are mentioned below:
 Overpopulation is the main cause of resource depletion.
 Over-exploitation of the resources has led to the depletion of the earth’s natural
resources.
 Deforestation
 Loss of Biodiversity
 Pollution has led to the contamination of resources.
 Industrialization
 Erosion
DEFORESTATION: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
Deforestation refers to the permanent removal or destruction of indigenous forests.
Today, it has been roughly estimated that the indigenous forest cover constitutes 21% of
the earth’s land surface. According to the World Resources Institute, deforestation is
regarded as one of the world’s most pressing landuse problems. Another major concern is
the rate at which deforestation is occurring. Currently, 12 million hectares of forests are
cleared annually. Almost all of this deforestation occurs in the moist forests and open
woodlands of the tropics. It has been predicted that if deforestation continues at this rate
then all the moist tropical forest could be lost by the year 2050, except for isolated areas
in the Amazon and the Zaire basin, as well as a few protected areas within reserves and
parks. In India, forests cover 24.39 percent of the total geographical area. However, it is
assessed that the country needs 33% of its area under forests to meet the ecological and
economic needs.
Causes of Deforestation
Population Explosion:Increasing human population is one of the major causes of
deforestation. It poses a major threat to the environment. Vast areas of forest land are
cleared (Fig. 5.2) to reclaim land for expansion of farming land, mining activities,
creation of new and expansion of existing human settlements, and development of
infrastructure like roads and railway tracks. Growth of population increases the demand
for forest products like timber, firewood, paper and other valuable products of
importance, all necessitating felling of trees.
Forest Fires: This is also another major cause of deforestation. Forest fires occur either
naturally or are human induced. Some of the major causes of forest fires are as follows:
  Dry humus and organic matter forming a thick cover over the forest floor
provides ideal condition for ground or carelessly surface fires. Throwing burning
cigarette stubbs on dried foliage can light a fire.
 Crown fire takes place in densely populated forests where tree tops may catch fire
by heat produced by the constant rubbing against each other.
Fire destroys fully grown trees, results in killing and scorching of the seeds,
humus, ground flora and animal life.
 Grazing of Animals: Trampling of the forest soil in the course of overgrazing by
livestock has far reaching effects such as loss of porosity of soil, soil erosion and
desertification reduced productivity of the previously fertile forest area.
 Pest Attacks: Pests destroy trees by eating up the leaves, boring into shoots and
by spreading diseases
Consequences of Deforestation
Forests are closely related with climate, biological diversity, wild animals, crops and
medicinal plants. Large scale deforestation has far-reaching consequences:
 Habitat destruction of wild animals. Tree-using animals are deprived of food and
shelter. Increased soil erosion due to reduction of vegetation cover.
 Reduction in the oxygen liberated by plants through photosynthesis.
 Increase in pollution due to burning of wood and due to reduction in carbon
dioxide fixation by plants.
 Decrease in availability of forest products.
 Loss of plant, animal and microbial diversity.
 Scarcity of fuel wood and deterioration in economy and quality of life of people
residing near forests.
 Lowering of the water table due to more run-off, and resultant increased use of
the underground water.
 Rise in carbon dioxide level in the air due to burning of vegetation has caused
global warming resulting in melting of ice caps and glaciers and consequent
flooding of coastal areas.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE OVEREXPLOITATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
The human population is increasing at very fast rate and at the same time the
human needs are also growing. Hence, more and more resources are required to
meet the ever increasing human requirements. But the resources are available in a
limited amount. Also, the natural resources on the earth are not distributed evenly.
Hence, there is a great pressure on the existing resources. In other words, we can
say that these resources are being over exploited. Thus, the resources are being
consumed at a very fast rate. The non-renewable resources are being depleted and
would exhaust one day. Also, classifying something as a renewable resource,
however does not mean that it can not be depleted and that it will always stay
renewable. The highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used without
decreasing its potential for renewability throughout the world or in a particular
area is called sustainable yield. If the natural replacement rate is exceeded, the
available supply of a potentially renewable resource begins shrink and this
process is known as environmental degradation.
 The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) warns that the current overexploitation
of natural resources is generating an enormous deficit, as 20% more than can be
regenerated is consumed each year and this percentage is growing steadily.
DEGRADATION AND DEPLETION OF NATURAL Conservation
RESOURCES
Several types of environmental degradation can change resources into non-
renewable ones and render them unusable. Today, many natural resources are
being damaged as a result of human activities. The rapid rate of development and
unplanned urbanisation cause air pollution, water pollution, and problem of solid
waste disposal. There is too much pressure on land resources also. Forests are
shrinking due to expanding greed of humans. Thus, natural resources are being
depleted at very fast rate. The problem of their depletion is further worsened by
their degradation. Soil, forests, biodiversity − all natural resources are in danger
because of human activities. The reasons for depletion and degradation are
numerous. Some of them are discussed below-
Land Degradation
The land requirements are increasing heavily due to fast growing population,
developmental activities and industrialization. Also, there is an increasing need of
food production to feed the increasing human population which requires more and
more of agricultural land. Thus, there is an increasing pressure on land resources
and they are being over exploited. The quality of land available is also getting
degraded due to various reasons. Every day, magazines, news papers, plastic bags,
glass bottles, aluminum cans, and glass clippings are thrown away as solid wastes.
Solid wastes are the unwanted products that are burned, buried and dumped each
year all over the world. Solid wastes are being ultimately dumped in sanitary
landfills. In addition to solid waste, toxic waste, biomedical waste and hazardous
wastes are also being dumped on land. Toxic wastes are chemicals that are by
products of industrial processes. Many are known to cause cancer, birth defects,
and other health problems. Some waste products are packed in steel drums and are
buried underground. If the drums are not sealed properly, the chemicals contained
in them leak and pollute both soil and water. Thus, the vital land resources are
heavily threatened particularly in Asian countries.
Deforestation
It is one of the major threats to the natural resources. There are many reasons for
deforestation. The increasing population has ever increasing needs for land for
agriculture, industries, housing etc. Thus, forests are being cleared for meeting the
demand for land.
Soil Erosion
Much of the land in Asian countries lies on mountain slopes, where fuel for
cooking is scarce. The families go higher and higher up into the mountains
searching for fuelwood. They cut trees and bring them home, leaving the slope
barren. When the rainy season comes, there are no tree roots to absorb water and
hold the soil in place Thus, water washes the soil away. This is called soil erosion.
Factors causing soil erosion
 Covering productive land with water, concrete or buildings to such an extent that
the crop growth declines and habitats (places for wildlife to live) are lost.
  Cultivating land without proper soil management − This may lead to reduced crop
growth due to soil erosion and depletion of plant nutrients.
 Irrigating cropland without sufficient drainage may lead to excessive building up
of water (water logging) or salts (salinization) in the soil which decreases the
growth of crops. Removal of water from the underground sources (aquifers) and
surface water sources.
Water Pollution
Water can be polluted by oil, industrial wastes, sewage, bacteria, sediments, solid
wastes, and even heat. Most rivers and lakes are seriously polluted and their water
is unfit for use. Rivers Ganga and Yamuna are examples of two such rivers. When
power plants use water from rivers for cooling purposes, the water which is
returned to the river may be several degrees hotter than it was originally.
Organisms in rivers cannot adjust to such quick changes of temperature and they
may die. Water pollution in Asian countries also arises from agricultural practices
which extensively use agrochemicals and fertilizers. The urbanization and
industrialization also results in the release of untreated industrial effluents,
dumping of waste and flow of sewage into water ways. Rain washes these
chemicals out of the soil and they enter into nearby water resources. Even though
water is a renewable resource, it is expensive to clean polluted water, especially
the ground water.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is caused by gases emitted from vehicles or power plants which burn
fossil fuels. Polluted air may contain carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, hydrocarbons, and tiny particles of ash, lead, dust or soot. Some air
pollution may occur by natural sources, for example, when gases are released
from a volcano. But major reason of air pollution are burning of fossil fuels in
power plants and automobiles. The burning of coal to produce electricity releases
tons of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere each year. Sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides combine with water vapours in the atmosphere resulting in acid
rains.
Air pollution can also be caused by the burning of forests and grasslands. Farmers
in Sri Lanka, India, and Bangladesh often clear lands in this way. This burning
also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide and other gases present in the atmosphere act like a wall
similar to windows of a greenhouse. These gases allow sunlight to pass
through them which warms the Earth’s surface. Heat and reflected sunlight
radiates back, and gets trapped into the atmosphere causing a rise in Earth’s
temperature. This phenomenon is called greenhouse effect.
The uncontrolled consumption of natural resources has significant effects:
 Environmental
The disappearance of habitats essential for flora and fauna and, therefore, the extinction of
species. There are some 30 million different animal and plant species in the world, and of these,
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) says that, currently, more than
31,000 species are threatened with extinction.
 Economic
33% of the world's soils are moderately to highly degraded, according to a United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). If the erosion of fertile soil continues at the same rate,
agricultural commodity prices will inevitably soar.
 For Health

If we do not take care of the forests there will be fewer CO2Nota sinks and therefore more air
pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), nine out of ten people
worldwide breathe air with high levels of pollutants and seven million people die each year air
pollution.

SOLUTIONS TO THE OVEREXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

The future, as stated in the United Nations Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, poses a
double challenge to human beings: conserving the many forms and functions of nature and
creating an equitable home for people on a finite planet. If we want to reverse this situation, we
need, among other things, to:

Conserve natural capital

 Restore degraded ecosystems and their services.

 Halt the loss of priority habitats.

 Significantly expand the global network of protected areas.

Improve production systems

 Significantly reduce the objects, materials and resources used in the development of
human life and the volume of waste in production systems.

 Manage resources in a sustainable manner.

 Promote the production of renewable energy.

Consume more responsibly

 Promote lifestyles, like sustainable mobility, that leave a smaller environmental footprint.

  Change current energy consumption patterns.

 Promote healthy and sustainable consumption patterns.

Reorient financial flows

 Place a value on nature and natural resources.

 Take responsibility for environmental and social costs.

 Support and reward companies that promote conservation, sustainable resource

management and innovation in their activities.

NEED FOR CONSERVATION

Resource conservation involves using, managing and protecting resources so that they will be
available on a sustainable basis for present and future generations. People who actively support
this effort are called conservationists. Sometimes they are also known as environmentalists. Most
people are in favour of conserving resources. But they often disagree over which resources are
essential and how much of each resource should be conserved for future generations.

There are several strategies for the conservation of natural resources. These are as follows:

 Reduction in consumption
 More efficient use of existing resources
 Substitution of non-renewable resources by renewable ones.
 Development of new materials and newer cleaner technologies
 Use of more abundant resources in preference to less abundant ones
 Recycling and Reuse
 use of resources with minimum wastage
LAND RECLAMATION
 Reclamation implies rehabilitation of land which has been surface-mined. It
involves the restoration of land which has been disturbed by mining activities.
Land reclamation is an integral part of resource management and should be done
or planned right at the stage when mining activities are going on rather than after
 the completion of mining operation. It involves contouring mine spoils and
overburden to minimize soil erosion, applying topsoil and fertilizer, planting and
maintaining vegetation cover
 CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES
Water conservation is the careful use and protection of water resources. Since
water is used in many sectors, improved practices in agriculture, industry and
domestic use can reduce water consumption to a great extent and minimize the
generation of waste water which make water available for other legitimate use.
Some of these are listed below: A package of strategies can be adopted to
conserve water. These water conservation strategies and practices are given
below:
 Using sprinklers and drip irrigation methods
 Minimizing run off by improving land preparation
 Development of crops which require less water
 Encouraging recycling of water in industries
 Using processes/equipment/ technologies which require lesser amount of water
Avoiding wastage of water by closing taps when water is not in use
 Repairing leaks
 Using water efficient systems in toilets
 Rain water harvesting
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Although, there is a great potential of renewable resources of energy, it is yet to
be exploited meaningfully to substitute for conventional sources of energy.
Conservation of existing energy resources is, therefore, the only answer to
increase the lifetime of available resources. Conservation of energy is important
both from economic as well as environmental point of view. It also reduces the
dependence on foreign sources, thus increasing the national energy security.
Energy resources such as petroleum (crude oil, natural gas etc.) have led to
international tensions and wars between the countries. Energy consumption also
influences the international trade and balance of payments. Thus, energy security
is very-very essential for a country to be self-reliant. Since energy has
multidimensional uses, various measures in different sectors can be practice to
minimize the energy consumption. These are discussed below:
 Residential and Commercial Measures
Everyone can conserve energy. Even small effects collectively save a large
amount of energy. Several initiatives at home, in offices, institutions, hospitals,
hotels etc. can reduce energy consumption. These are as follows:
 Switching off electrical appliances when not in use.
 Modification of design of buildings so that they receive more natural light, heat
and air. Developing more efficient energy gadgets.
 Using energy saver options and regulating devices in air conditions, coolers and
in other electrical appliances.
 Using less power consuming bulbs and tubes.
 Proper maintenance of electrical and other power consuming devices.
 Using alternative products whose manufacture requires lesser power
Transportation Measures

Transportation consumes a large amount of energy. A change in transport patterns,

requirements and vehicles would significantly alter the energy requirements. Several
measures such as follows can contribute to energy conservation in transport sector:

Improving the design of vehicles to make them more energy efficient and less
polluting.

 Use of more energy efficient fuels.

 Using personal car pools rather than single commuting.
 Switching over to efficient public transport systems such as metro trains etc.
 Reducing the number of kilometers to be travelled by proper planning. • Proper
maintenance of vehicles.
 Using good practices while driving.
 Building express ways and high ways.
 Using better traffic management.
Industrial Measures
 Industries heavily consume energy. Similar to the transport sector, the energy
demands can be reduced in industrial sector in many ways. Some of these are
listed below: Switching off equipment and devices when not in use.
 Using better house keeping practices and planning.
  Using more efficient equipments, instruments and devices.
 Recycling and using the waste products, heat and waste water in different
processes and industries.

Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Life Style

In the last 50 years, the consumption of resources in society has increased many folds. There
is a big gap in the consumer’s lifestyles between developed and developing countries.
Urbanization has changed the lifestyle of the middle-class population in developing countries
creating more stress on the use of natural resources.
It has been estimated that More Developed Countries (MDC) of the world constitute only 22%
of the world’s population but they use 88% of natural resources. These countries use 73% of
energy resources and command 85% of income and in turn, they contribute a very big
proportion of pollution.
On the other hand, less developed countries (LDCs) have moderate industrial growth and
constitute 78% of the world’s population and use only 12% of natural resources, 27% of
energy and only 15% of global income.
There is a huge gap between rich and poor. In this age of development, the rich have gone
richer and the poor is becoming more poorer. This has led to unsustainable growth. There is
an increasing global concern about the management of natural resources. The solution to this
problem is to have a more equitable distribution of resources and income.
Two major causes of unsustainability are overpopulation in poor countries and
overconsumption of resources by rich countries. A global consensus has to be reached for a
balanced distribution of natural resources.
For equitable use of natural resources more developed countries/rich people have to lower
their level of consumption to a bare minimum so that these resources can be shared by poor
people to satisfy their needs. Time has come to think that it is need of the hour that rich and
poor should make equitable use of resources for sustainable development of human being.

Unit-2
Ecosystem
Introduction-
The word ecosystem is made up of “eco” and “system”. Eco means the habitat, and
system means a complex set of interconnected components, both living and non-living.
 Here system also indicates a functional property and hence an ecosystem can be
considered as a functional unit of nature. Ecology is a branch of biology which deals with
the relationships between organisms and their 'environment'
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem
is a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term
“Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
.An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with non-living
components, interacting with each other.”
The example of a fish in a stream makes it quite clear that if we want to understand the living
things and their place in nature properly, we must not consider them alone, but rather as a part of
an interacting system. Such an interacting system, e.g., a stream, is called ecosystem. You must
have seen a lake, a pond; a grassland or a forest at one time or another. All these are some more
examples of ecosystem. Let us consider a pond as our model ecosystem.
It is made up of basically two types of components: living and nun-living. The living
components include various types of plants, frogs, birds, fish, turtle, insects and numerous kinds
of microscopic life forms called microbes. The water, the dissolved gases such as oxygen, and
carbon dioxide, the minerals, soil, and stones constitute the non-living components. The various
components of the pond interact with each other.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment. 
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely: 
 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
 Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem.  Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either
be carnivores or omnivores.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. 
Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on

tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead
and decaying organic matter.  Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in
recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem.  It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve
the exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an
ecosystem are:
 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic
level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers
and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is
the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various
forms for the utilisation by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands
of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystem
 2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that
live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the
Arctic or mountain tops.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce
vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant
life. The plants utilize this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesize
their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers
are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:
Grasshopper →Mouse→  Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

Producers
Organisms that can synthesize their own food and usually serve as the foundation for all food
chains. For example – plants, algae and few species of bacteria. They prepare their own food by
converting sunlight into chemical energy and this process is called photosynthesis. They use
energy from the sunlight for converting carbon dioxide into simple glucose which is easily
broken down to produce energy. This energy is then stored in the form of sugars for later use.
The simple diagram of the Ecological Pyramid

Primary Consumers
They are also called herbivores animals who eat producers or plants. Sometimes, these primary
consumers become prey for other animals that sit higher on the food chain. Some of the primary
consumers or herbivores living on the land are chipmunks, mice, horses, birds, deer and some
insects. Fish, zooplankton, snails, sea urchins are a few marine primary consumers.

Secondary Consumers
These are animals who feed on primary consumers. They usually eat meat and are termed as
predators. Lion, hawks, snakes, coyotes, wolves, and spiders are a few terrestrial secondary
consumers.

Tertiary Consumers
They are the ones who feed on secondary consumers. They are thus called the top predators.
They are also termed as apex predators and have no natural enemies. Naturally, you would
assume that humans are at the top of the food chain, but they are not.

Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a
single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains.
In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
A food web is a detailed interconnecting diagram that shows the overall food relationships
between organisms in a particular environment. It can be described as a "who eats whom"
diagram that shows the complex feeding relationships for a particular ecosystem. The study of
food webs is important, as such webs can show how energy flows through an
ecosystem. 
A food web can be composed of multiple food chains, some that can be very short, while others
may be much longer. Food chains follow the flow of energy as it moves through the food chain.
The starting point is the energy from the sun and this energy is traced as it moves through the
food chain. This movement is typically linear, from one organism to another.

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with respect
to the changing environment. It is a predictable change and is an inevitable process of nature as
all the biotic components have to keep up with the changes in our environment.
The ultimate aim of this process is to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem. The community that
achieves this aim is called a climax community. In an attempt to reach this equilibrium, some
species increase in number while some others decrease.
In an area, the sequence of communities that undergo changes is called sere. Thus, each
community that changes is called a seral stage or seral community.
All the communities that we observe today around us have undergone succession over a period
of time since their existence. Thus, we can say that evolution is a process that has taken place
simultaneously with that of ecological succession. Also, the initiation of life on earth can be
considered to be a result of this succession process.
If we consider an area where life starts from scratch through the process of succession, it is
known as primary succession. However, if life starts at a place after the area has lost all the life
forms existing there, the process is called secondary succession.
It is obvious that primary succession is a rather slow process as life has to start from nothing
whereas secondary succession is faster because it starts at a place which had already supported
life before. Moreover, the first species that comes into existence during primary succession is
known as the pioneer species.

Types of Ecological Succession

These are the following types of ecological succession:

Primary Succession
Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of soil
or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.
When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. The soil then
becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different animals and
progress from primary succession to the climax community.
If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.

Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg., a climax
community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as
secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall
trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the
climax community arrives.

Cyclic Succession
This is only the change in the structure of an ecosystem on a cyclic basis. Some plants remain
dormant for the rest of the year and emerge all at once. This drastically changes the structure of
an ecosystem.

Seral Community
“A seral community is an intermediate stage of ecological succession advancing towards the
climax community.”
A seral community is replaced by the subsequent community. It consists of simple food
webs and food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals are less in
number and the nutrients are also less.

Examples of Ecological Succession

Following are the important examples of ecological succession:

Acadia National Park

This national park suffered a huge wildfire. Restoration of the forest was left to nature. In the
initial years, only small plants grew on the burnt soil. After several years, the forest showed
diversity in tree species. However, the trees before the fire were mostly evergreen, while the
trees that grew after the fire were deciduous in nature.
POLLUTION
Pollution occurs when a substance present in the environment prevents the functioning of natural
processes and produces harmful environmental and health effects.

Pollution occurs when the environment becomes overloaded beyond the n atural capacity of these
normal processing systems.

Pollution is defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of
environmental components, i.e., air, water and soil that adversely affects the life forms and life support
systems of the biosphere directly or indirectly. Broadly speaking, the term pollution refers to any change
in the natural quality of the environment brought about by physical, chemical or biological factors.
Pollution may be natural or due to human activities, local or global. The agent that contaminates the
environmental component is called the pollutant.

A normal constituent of the environment becomes a pollutant if its concentration increases beyond the
acceptable limits, destroying its usefulness. A pollutant is also a new substance (biotic or abiotic) or
energy (heat, sound, radioactivity etc.) that is added to or formed in any component of the environment
and builds up to a level where usefulness of that component is damaged. The water-soluble nitrates and
phosphates in larger quantities pollute water. On land there are solid and liquid pollutants, e.g., plastics,
polythene, DDT, heavy metals, etc. Accumulation of these pollutants leads to decline in the quality of
air, water and land. In addition, noise at a higher amplitude and radiation at different wavelengths, e.g.,
X-rays, gamma rays etc. are not conducive for life.

Pollutants can be grouped into two broad categories:

i) Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Such substances are not broken down or

decomposed by bacteria. Examples are pesticides, heavy metals, rubber,
nuclear wastes etc. Plastics also fall in the same category. These pollutants
persist for a very long time in nature, get accumulated and often biomagnify
to a dangerous level when they move in material cycles in the nature and
along with the food chain.
ii) Biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants such as garden waste, domestic
sewage, agro-based residues, etc. break down into simple products by
bacterial decomposition process. These simple products are raw materials
of nature that are reutilised in the ecosystem. Decomposition of these non-
persistent pollutants occurs naturally as well as through engineered systems
such as sewage treatment plants. Such man made systems enhance nature′s
capacity to decompose. These biodegradable pollutants pose a threat when
their input in the environment exceeds the decomposition capacity.
iii)
iv)
v)
AIR POLLUTION

Air is essential for us to live. We can live without food and water for days but only a few minutes
without oxygen. An average human adult uses six times more amounts of gases per day as compared to
water and food. That is why maintaining air quality is important for us. Any significant change in the
normal composition of air is harmful.

Types of Air Pollutants and their Sources

 When clean air moves in the troposphere, it collects products from natural events as well as human
activities. Some of these pollute the air (see Fig. 14.2). We list the common air pollutants resulting from
human activities.

Common air pollutants.

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Bio particles (organisms, spores, pollen grains), dust particles,
smoke, mist, fumes, spray, asbestos, pesticides, metallic dust (arsenic, barium, boron, selenium,
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, iron, manganese, nickel, zinc). Gases: Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3),
peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), hydrogen fluoride (HF), ammonia (NH3), chlorine (Cl), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, propane, acetylene, ethylene, butane, isopentane), aldehydes,
alcohols.

Air pollutants can be grouped into two categories: Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

Effects of Air Pollutants on Human Health

Air pollutants mainly act on the respiratory system of humans and their health effects can be basically
divided into two categories: Acute health effects and chronic health effects.

Acute Effects When the level of air pollutants rises suddenly, there are adverse effects on health such as
headaches, colds, irritated throats and coughs, irritation to nose and mucous lining, itching, swelling of
eyes, tissue fluid accumulation and bronchial spasm. When the air becomes sufficiently clean these
acute effects disappear. For example, in Delhi, the use of CNG as fuel in public transport has significantly
lowered air pollution and the air has become cleaner in the last few years.

Chronic health effects Long term exposure to air pollutants mainly sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
ozone and smoking breaks down the natural defences of our body causing respiratory diseases such as
lung cancer, shortness of breath, asthma, chronic bronchitis (cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles get
inflamed or damaged resulting in mucus build up, coughing and shortness of breath ) and emphysema
(irreversible damage to alveoli causing abnormal dilation of air spaces, loss of lung elasticity and
shortness of breath). In Table 14.2 we list the major air pollutants, their sources, and an overview of
their effects on humans and the environment.