NCVER

Getting to grips with

learning styles

Peter Smith
Jennifer Dalton
Deakin University

A National Vocational Education and Training Research

and Evaluation Program Report
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 NCVER

Getting to grips with

learning styles

Peter Smith
Jennifer Dalton
Deakin University

The views and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author/project team
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Government,
state and territory governments or NCVER
© Australian Government, 2005

This work has been produced by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER)
on behalf of the Australian Government and state and territory governments, with funding provided
through the Australian Department of Education, Science and Training. Apart from any use
permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication may be reproduced by any
process without written permission. Requests should be made to NCVER.

The views and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author/project team and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Government, state and territory governments or
NCVER.

The author/project team were funded to undertake this research via a grant under the National
Vocational Education and Training Research and Evaluation (NVETRE) program. These
grants are awarded to organisations through a competitive process, in which NCVER does not
participate.

The NVETRE program is coordinated and managed by NCVER on behalf of the Australian
Government and state and territory governments, through the Department of Education,
Science and Training. This program is based upon priorities approved by ministers with the
responsibility of VET. This research aims to improve policy and practice in the VET sector.
For further information about the program, go to the NCVER website
<http://www.ncver.edu.au>.

The Getting to grips with ... series has been written for the general reader who wants to understand
important trends in vocational education and training.

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2 Getting to grips with learning styles

 Contents
Getting to grips with learning styles 4
Introduction 4
What’s it all about? 4
What are learning styles? 5
Major theoretical ideas 7
Characteristics of VET learners in Australia 12
How can we use knowledge of learning styles? 13
How do we determine learning styles and preferences? 14
Suggestions for practice 15
Summary 22
References 23
Further reading 24
Some of the tests available 24

NCVER 3
 Getting to grips with learning styles
Introduction
This booklet has been written to give practising teachers and trainers in vocational education and
training (VET) some information about learning styles. We also hope it will show you ways to put
this knowledge to use. We have deliberately kept this booklet as free from references as possible to
make it more easily read. Sometimes, though, we do need to cite a reference to avoid plagiarising
somebody’s ideas.
The booklet is laid out in several short sections that we believe will be of interest to busy and
inquisitive practitioners who have limited time to spend reading all the material that professionals
need to these days. For that reason the volume of text is as short as possible.

What’s it all about?

Knowledge of learning styles has become more important as our clients in VET change and expand,
and as the options we have for delivering VET to learners also expand with new technologies and
contexts of delivery. When most vocational education and training was classroom delivered we were
still confronted by learners with a vast diversity in learning styles. However, because we had a limited
set of delivery processes that were fairly well understood by instructors and learners alike, we paid
less attention to these diversities in learning style. New developments in VET have changed this.

Diverse learning styles for diverse customers

An analogy might be useful here.

A car manufacturer, for example, may produce a particular model that comes in a basic form. That
basic form is then customised for different clients, to make it attractive in marketing terms to
diverse groups such as women, young people, people who value trendiness, people who value a
sporting image, people who live in inner city environments, and people who buy on the basis of
price. By diversifying the base model, the manufacturer hopes to appeal to a wider set of niches
within the market and, hence, satisfy a more diverse group of customers and generate a larger total
of sales. Similarly with the design and delivery of vocational education and training, we have to take
the base model and vary the instructional design and the delivery to suit different clients.

An understanding of the learning styles present among our clients is useful here. But to get this into
perspective, learning styles are only one component of what characterises an individual learner or
group of learners. Other things in their lives, such as competing demands, their sense of economic
well-being, their aspirations and motivations, are all examples of other characteristics that may be
more important to any individual than consideration of learning style.

4 Getting to grips with learning styles

What are learning styles?

Most simply conceived, learning style is the typical way an individual likes to go about
learning. Although there are characteristics of learning style that are quite stable in an
individual across different learning tasks and contexts, there can still be variation in the
same learner.

Everyone is different—and one person can have several different

learning styles
Take Peter, for example, one of the authors of this booklet. He prefers different learning styles
depending on the situation and skill he is learning. He says:
I like to learn about historical events by listening to someone speak, by watching a
documentary presentation or a docu-drama, and I also like to learn through reading and
discussing with others. Most of these ways of learning history are, as you can see, rather
passive and are represented in verbal or visual ways. But I don’t want to learn how to cast a
fishing rod in those ways. Then I want someone to demonstrate and tell me (visual and verbal
again) but, more importantly, then I want to try it for myself and have someone tell me where
I have gone right or wrong. So I want to be hands-on with some verbal critique and
discussion. You can see I am quite verbal in my learning style, but I also like a social context
as well. Peter Smith

But not everybody is like Peter. Some people like to learn history by watching dramatisations of
historical events as television or film. For them the visual is very important. Other people like to
simply get out there with the fishing rod and do it by themselves, with hands-on and practice only,
so that cast after cast they improve their technique. The verbalisation of it, and the social
component, are not things that they like.

Learning styles, preferences and strategies

Now, the whole notion of ‘learning styles’ is a little confused and needs a bit of unpacking.
Commonly there is a distinction made between ‘learning style’, ‘learning preference’, and ‘learning
strategies’, and we need to talk about those.
We rather like the way that a British writer (Sadler-Smith 1996, p.186) made the distinctions, which
are described below.

NCVER 5
 Learning style
Learning style is a distinctive and habitual manner of acquiring knowledge, skills or
attitudes through study or experience.
This indicates that the style is reasonably static and is the typical way an individual learner
approaches learning. In the example above, Peter’s style is characterised by being verbal,
visual and social.

Learning preference
Learning preference is the favouring of one particular mode of teaching over another.
These preferences can vary within the same learner depending on the task and context. So
again in our example, you can see Peter’s preference for the way he learns was different
between history and fishing rod casting.

Learning strategies
Learning strategies represent the plan of action adopted in the acquisition of knowledge,
skills or attitudes through study or experience.
This is the way we decide to go about a learning task, such that in Peter’s fishing example
he decided on the course of action which included demonstration and discussion, but
then some practice. These represented his strategies, and you can see how they rather
suited his habitual style and preference in learning that skill.

Sadler-Smith and an earlier writer (Curry 1983) developed the notion of an onion ring model to
represent these ideas. The adapted onion ring model is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Three layer ‘onion ring’ model of learning style

More Less
stable stable
Learner characteristics
Learning
style

Learning
preferences

Learning strategies

Source: Adapted from Curry (1983)

6 Getting to grips with learning styles

The idea here is that as we move from the centre of the onion to the more outer layers, we are
moving from the more stable learner characteristics to the less stable ones. What that means is that
as we move outwards there is more environmental influence on our characteristics for learning.
Going back to Peter’s example of the fishing rod again, you can see that the learning task and
environment had more influence over his strategies than over his preferences, and that his style
remained pretty similar.

What does this mean for teachers?

What this means for teachers is that we can have a greater influence over strategies and preferences
than over style, and we can even help people to develop their preferences and strategies through
exposing them to different tasks, learning contexts, resources and experiences. We can even teach
people to make effective use of different learning resources and delivery contexts; and through
study skills and learning skills programs we can teach them different strategies. It’s not that we can
have no influence over style, but it is a bit more resistant to change.

Can we be too customer orientated?

There is a useful side issue to discuss here. If you think about it for a moment, you can see that a
heavily skewed learning style or preference can actually be a disadvantage.
Someone who mainly likes to learn visually, for example, is rather limited in their ability to engage
with other learning resources and contexts that may, for example, rely on verbal methods such as
listening or reading. As responsible professional instructors, that can mean that if we are too
diligent in designing our instruction to suit that skewed learning style and preference set, we never
provide the learner with an opportunity to develop their preferences and, over time, their style. If
we do allow learners to develop their preferences and style by exposing them to different styles, they
will be able to engage in a wider set of learning experiences.

Major theoretical ideas

In this section we are just going to touch base with a few of the major theories.

About learning styles

Field dependence/independence
It was probably Witkin and his colleagues in the 1940s who started all this off (Witkin 1950; Witkin
et al. 1954). They developed a theory of perception called ‘field dependence/independence’. They
had noticed that some people easily saw a figure that was embedded in a background display, while
other people found it hard to see that figure. Field independent people were easily able to see the
figure because they were not confused by what surrounded it.
Witkin and his colleagues later extended the idea to learning styles, with some people being able to
analyse and learn things in isolation from other surrounding issues, while others needed to learn on
a more holistic basis which included the surrounding matters as well.

Serialists/holists
In a similar way, another theorist (Gordon Pask 1976) suggested that some people learn by taking
individual items in turn, learning each of them, and then putting them together to form the whole;
while others liked to learn the whole right from the start. Pask characterised this division in terms
of ‘serialists’ and ‘holists’. A recent and very readable application of these ideas to online learning
environments can be found in Hills (2003).

NCVER 7
Deep/surface processors
In the 1970s an influential set of ideas were generated by Marton and Säljö (1976) when they
suggested that some people are more typically ‘deep processors’, while others are ‘surface
processors’. They also suggested that although peoples’ style can be characterised in these ways,
they nevertheless do vary their approach in different learning situations. Deep processors generally
look for meaning, are keen to understand underlying concepts and theories, and they like to
connect their new concepts to other things they already know and understand. Surface processors
are more likely to be satisfied with knowing the facts or techniques without necessarily developing
an understanding. These are not value judgements, even though it sounds superior to be a deep
processor than a surface one.
An example might be useful here.

Many people are quite content and very competent in driving their cars with a knowledge that they
need to depress the clutch to change gear, and to depress the accelerator to speed up—but they
have no interest in knowing why these things have to be done, and knowing why doesn’t
necessarily make them a more competent driver.

The four-stage cycle

Another commonly used theory of learning style that VET practitioners will most likely have heard
about and used is that of Kolb (1976). He suggested that individuals learn and solve problems by
progressing through a four-stage cycle:
1 Concrete experience (CE)
2 Reflective observation (RO)
3 Abstract concepts (AC)
4 Active experimentation (AE)
Kolb viewed concrete experience and abstract concepts as being two ends of a single continuum, and active
experimentation and reflective observation as two ends of a second continuum. These two continua result
in four quadrants, and learning style is described as the place an individual holds in that plane (see
figure 2).
Kolb named the four learning styles the accommodator, the assimilator, the diverger, and the converger.
Accommodators for example, Kolb argued, learn by concrete experience and active
experimentation, relying on intuition and trial and error methods of problem solving.
Kolb also argued that a person may prefer one style in one situation, and another style in another
situation, meaning that the position a person occupies in the two dimensional plane can vary with
the learning task. However, Kolb also argued that in the same learning context the learning style
adopted on each occasion is likely to be the same.

8 Getting to grips with learning styles

Figure 2: Two dimensional representation of Kolb’s (1976) learning styles theory

Concrete experience

Accommodator Diverger

Active Reflective
experimentation observation

Converger Assimilator

Abstract conceptualisation

4MAT system
At this point we should also mention McCarthy’s (1979) development of the 4MAT system of
matching teaching to learning styles, which was based on Kolb’s theory, but also represented an
attempt to integrate Kolb’s ideas with the left brain-right brain theories that were popular in the
1970s and early 1980s.
The 4MAT system has been popular among teachers in schools and in technical and further
education (TAFE). It provides insights into effective ways of delivering instruction that takes
account of student characteristics, based on individual differences in the ways learners perceive
information and process it. A useful website, which also provides access to resources for teachers,
is <http://www.aboutlearning.com/what_is_4mat.htm>.

Multiple intelligences
Finally in theories of style it is worth mentioning Howard Gardner’s (1993, 1999) theory of multiple
intelligences, which is widely used by teachers, particularly in the school sectors. Gardner proposed
that there are eight intelligences:
— Linguistic intelligence
— Logical-mathematical intelligence
— Spatial intelligence
— Musical intelligence
— Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
— Intrapersonal intelligence
— Interpersonal intelligence
— Naturalistic intelligence
The essence of Gardner’s theory is that individuals possess these intelligences in different
quantities, such that their learning style is expressed as their combination of the intelligences, with
their interests and talents being strongly related to the pattern in which they hold the intelligences.

NCVER 9
About learning preferences
Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI)
Going on to learning preferences, the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (Canfield 1980) provides
16 learning preference subscale scores in three major categories:
— Conditions of learning, where eight scales describe student preferences for the learning
environment
— Content, where students express relative preferences for working with numeric, qualitative,
inanimate, and people-related content
— Mode, where students express their preferences for different delivery media.
Within each of these major categories Canfield developed a set of more finely defined preferences,
which are shown in table 1. The inventory provides a measure on each of these preferences, which
creates a preferences profile for any individual learner.
Remember earlier we said there was confusion about the notion of learning styles? Well, note here
that Canfield called his inventory a ‘learning styles inventory’, but it actually measures preferences.

Table 1: Categories and descriptions of Canfield’s Learning Styles Inventory

I Conditions The first eight scores reflect common concerns for the dynamics of the situation in
which learning occurs. They cover eight score areas

Peer Working in student teams; good relations with other students; having student friends; etc.
Organisation Course work logically and clearly organise; meaningful assignments and sequence of activities
Goal setting Setting one’s own objectives; using feedback to modify goals or procedures; making one’s own
decisions on objectives
Competition Desiring comparison with others; needing to know how one is going in relation to others
Instructor Knowing the instructor personally; having a mutual understanding; liking one another
Detail Specific information on assignments; requirements; rules etc.
Independence Working alone and independently; determining one’s own study plan; doing things for oneself
Authority Desiring classroom discipline and maintenance of order; having informed and knowledgeable
instructors
II Content Major areas of interest

Numeric Working with numbers and logic; computing; solving mathematical problems etc.
Qualitative Working with words or language; writing; editing; talking
Inanimate Working with things; building; repairing; designing; operating
People Working with people; interviewing; counselling; selling; helping
III Mode General modality through which learning is preferred

Listening Hearing information; lectures; tapes; speeches etc.

Reading Examining the written word; reading texts, pamphlets etc.
Iconic Viewing illustrations; movies; videos; slides; pictures; graphs etc.
Direct experience Handling or performing; shop; laboratory; field trips; practical exercises etc.
Source: Canfield (1980, pp.5–7; 1988 p.2) subscales

About learning strategies

Moving now to learning strategies. Most writers identify three major domains of learning strategy:
— Metacognitive strategies, defined as higher order executive skills involving planning, monitoring or
evaluating the success of a learning activity
— Cognitive strategies which are used to operate directly on information presented, and to organise
and process it to effect learning
— Social/affective strategies that represent interactions with others

10 Getting to grips with learning styles

Again, within these domains there are finer distinctions made, and table 2 shows a comprehensive
set of these generated by Smith (2003) on the basis of the work of Billett (1996) and Marland,
Patching and Putt (1992). People opt to use these strategies in different combinations, and
individuals invoke some of them commonly while others they make less use of. As we said earlier,
the strategies selected for use are likely to be influenced by the learning task and context; and we
can help learners to develop these strategies to become more adept as learners across a wider
variety of settings.
The set of strategies shown in table 2 is rather too comprehensive to get around in one reading—
they are there so you can see concrete examples and explanations of learning strategies.

Table 2: Learning strategies and brief definition

Strategy Definition
Metacognitive
Analysis Reduces, breaks down whole (e.g. problem or task) into parts
Strategy planning Plans ways for processing or handling textual material during training sessions
Cognitive Thinks about, reflects on, evaluates or directs own thinking
monitoring*
Selection Identifies key material, gist material, or that which is relevant to assessment
Evaluation Makes judgements about the value of textual materials, activities, in-text questions, own
position or point of view
Cognitive
Recalling Brings back into working memory an idea, opinion or fact previously stored in long-term
memory
Confirming Judges that ideas in text support own beliefs, practices, tactics
Generating Formulates own questions, examples, ideas, problems; interpolates; goes beyond the data
Diagnosis Identifies strengths and weaknesses in ideas, strategies, points of view
Deliberation Engages in thinking about a topic, segment
Translation Expresses segments of text in own words
Categorising Sorts items, ideas, skills into different classes or groups
Imaging Creates a mental image of an idea in text to gain a fuller understanding of it
Application Considers the use of an idea or tactic in a different context
Linking Associates or brings together two or more ideas, topics, contexts, headings, personal
experiences, materials, tasks
Rehearsal Repeats ideas, facts etc. two or more times to facilitate recall
Anticipation Predicts or states expectations that a problem, question, textual feature etc. will be
encountered; looks forward to new material; wonders about the possibility of an event or
occurrence in text; looks at relevance of material content
Comparing Identifies similarities or differences between two statements, concepts, models, situations,
ideas, theories, points of view etc.
Trialling Trials in real workplace of knowledge gained from learning program
Experimentation Tries out an idea on equipment or process to test own understanding
Problem solving Finds a solution to a problem requiring relevant workplace knowledge
Practice Engages in practising the tasks being learned
Social/affective
Worker observation Unstructured observation of a fellow worker carrying out the task as part of everyday work
Demonstration Structured observation of the process being demonstrated by a fellow worker
Peer discussion Discussion with fellow worker to assist in knowledge development
Supervisor Discussion with trainer or supervisor to assist in knowledge development
discussion
Scheduled class Attendance at a formal training program to assist in knowledge development
Note: * named ‘metacognitive’ by Marland, Patching & Putt (1992).
Source: From Smith (2003, p.383); derived from Marland, Patching & Putt (1992); and Billett (1996)

NCVER 11
Characteristics of VET learners in Australia
There has been a deal of research in Australian VET on learning styles, strategies and preferences.
The research indicates that, typically, VET learners are inclined to be:
— more visual than verbal, in that they like to watch and see rather than read and listen
— hands-on learners who prefer to learn by doing and by practising
— characterised by socially contextualised learning where they like to learn in groups with other
learners
— not self-directed learners, but like to have instructor guidance and a clear understanding of what
is required of them.
This set of characteristics indicates some matters of style as well as some of preference. Two large
studies are worth mentioning here.
One, conducted in Queensland by Warner, Christie and Choy (1998), showed that VET learners are
not keen on textual presentations with material that has to be read, and that they are not
independent learners.
A second large study in Victoria by Smith (2000), confirmed those earlier Queensland findings.
Smith’s study indicated that VET learner preferences could be described on two dimensions as
shown in figure 3, with VET learners typically falling in that upper right quadrant (that is,
dependant/non-verbal).
Other Australian VET research that has observed similar characteristics and considerations has
been conducted by Brennan (2003) in an online learning context. That research recognised the
importance of social contexts for learning among VET students, and the need to develop among
VET learners a lower reliance on texts, and greater self-direction.
Having said that, it is really important here that we don’t simply create new stereotypes of VET
students. Individual VET students can be placed in every quadrant of figure 3—they are by no
means a homogeneous group, and wide variations in individual differences are clear. But the largest
single group of VET students fell in that particular quadrant.
However, differences were shown between the genders, with female students, for example, being
more verbal than males and, interestingly, also more likely to be self-directed. There were also
program differences with, as may be expected, students in areas such as health and community
studies and business being more verbal and less hands-on; while apprentices were more hands-on
(or non-verbal).
Some Australian research on learning strategies has shown that VET students are not typically
characterised by well-developed metacognitive strategies (i.e. the strategies which help a learner to
effectively plan, monitor and evaluate their own learning). That goes together with the lower degree
of self-directedness, and means that VET students typically benefit from instructor guidance.
Some other research with apprentices’ learning strategies indicates, similarly, that they have well
developed strategies for learning in structured settings where it is clear what they are to learn and
how, but not well developed strategies for learning in low structured environments. In thinking
about all this, remember again we must be careful of stereotyping to the extent we think all VET
learners are the same in the way they deploy their learning strategies.

12 Getting to grips with learning styles

Figure 3: Two dimensional representation of factors describing VET learner preferences

Dependent

VET learners typically

lie in this quadrant

Verbal Non-verbal

Independent/self-directed

Source: From Smith (2001, p.612)

How can we use knowledge of learning styles?

First, there is research that shows that matching teaching methods to student learning style is
effective in terms of enhancing learning and its outcomes. But, confusingly, there is research that
shows that such matching makes no difference. How do we make sense of this?
Now let’s talk about who has the knowledge of style and preferences. The research almost
universally shows (without being confusing this time) that where the learner has a fair
understanding of his or her own style, they learn more effectively. Learners who know their own
style and/or preferences will make informed choices about what to engage with in learning, and
which learning experiences and resources are likely to be attractive and useful, and which are not.
Informed learners make good choices.
The situation is much more confusing when it is the instructor knowledge of the styles and
preferences of learners that is being considered. Sometimes that seems effective, and sometimes it
doesn’t. We suggest here that this may be due to an instructor becoming too ambitious and,
perhaps, too detailed in their response to learner styles.

NCVER 13
How to effectively respond to learner styles

If we take the 16 dimensions of the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory, as they are shown in table
1, an instructor might obtain a profile for an individual learner. Using the profile the instructor then
tries their best to match instruction to the learner’s profile. There are a myriad of practical issues
here that are quite obvious, and we suggest that only disappointment will result.

However, if the instructor takes the more simple two-dimensional approach that suggests VET
learners can be described on a verbal/non-verbal dimension, and a dependent/self-directed
dimension, and works at that level only, then success is much more likely.

Rather than trying to come to grips with the complexity of 16 dimensions, working with two is
much simpler and much more likely to succeed. Knowing that a learner is more non-verbal than
verbal, and dependent rather than self-directed, means the instructor will make more use of
demonstration and guided hands-on practice, and not burden the learner with a lot of independent
reading.

We suggest here that analysing styles and preferences at a broader level is more practical and more
effective. This practicality and effectiveness is enhanced even further when you are delivering
instruction to a group, where it is close to impossible to cater to complex different styles and
preferences that exist across the set of learners.

Adaptive/non-adaptive approach
The same Sadler-Smith study mentioned earlier developed a practical set of ideas about how to deal
with this. He suggested that we can distinguish between what he called ‘adaptive approaches’ and
‘non-adaptive approaches’.
An adaptive approach would present information to learners in a way adapted to that person’s style,
but he recognised the difficulties in doing that.
His non-adaptive approach suggested that the instructor would generate a number of approaches
based around the typical styles in the group, and that learners would make effective choices about
which of these they might engage with and how.
It may sound difficult and daunting to generate multiple approaches, but the fact of the matter is
that good instructors already do much of that, delivering learning sequences in different ways as
part of their natural style of teaching.
What Sadler-Smith has done is to suggest that these different approaches may be just a little more
systematic and geared towards the learner group, and then some freedom of choice provided for
learners to be able to exercise intelligent choice.

How do we determine learning styles and preferences?

The issue of how an instructor finds out about the learning styles and preferences of students, or
how a learner discovers this about his or herself is worth spending a bit of time on.
Some research done in the VET sector in the 1980s indicated that teachers were not too bad at
assessing this about students just from classroom interaction; and later research has indicated that
this is indeed so. This all happens by the sorts of cues that teachers pick up about their students as

14 Getting to grips with learning styles

they go about the daily business of teaching, and as they interact—an impression is formed and,
apparently, not a bad one at that.

What about when there is limited interaction between teacher and learner?
It becomes much more difficult when the time the teacher has with the learner is limited, as is more
common now in vocational education and training; or when the learner is remote from the teacher
and there may be little interaction at all. There are tests of learning styles and preferences which
may be useful in these cases. We will discuss these a bit later.
Different ideas and definitions of styles and preferences, together with the knowledge that the
teacher has of the group characteristics, are normally derived over time and with experience.
Discussion with other teachers helps. In these ways at least an impression of collective style or
preference can be gained such that the approaches taken under the non-adaptive model can sit
around a generalised understanding.
Surveys and evaluations are not uncommon in vocational education and training and important
information on learner likes and dislikes can be gained from those as well. In short, there are a
number of ways in which this sort of information can be gained at least about learner groups and,
by converging that information, a helpful picture emerges.

How do learners come to understand their own learning style?

For learners, understanding of style and preference will sometimes have resulted from their own
reflection about their learning; and at other times it will have come through piecing together their
good learning experiences with their bad ones. Instructors can assist students by sharing
observations and suggestions with the learner, and by challenging them to think about their likes
and dislikes in learning.

Suggestions for practice

Knowing a theory (or two)
It has been said before that ‘there is nothing as practical as a good theory’. It is a theoretical
understanding of learning styles and preferences that enables more systematic observation of
students, more methodical ‘experimentation’ with things that might work, and evaluation of their
success or otherwise. Our suggestion for practice here is that teachers and trainers choose one or
two theories that make personal sense to them, and that they feel comfortable working with. There
are also many useful websites, but these are prone to change from time to time. Our suggestions
here are to:
— either gain access to one of the works referenced below, or to do an internet search using the
author’s name as the search word—interesting websites will result, and/or
— do an internet search using the search words ‘learning styles’, ‘learning preferences’, or ‘learning
strategies’ and, again, a number of useful websites will result.
The list of theorists who have published a self-assessment instrument are given to you at the end of
this booklet.

Identifying learning style

Research with VET teachers (Smith & Dalton 2005) has indicated that teacher identification of
style among students has two major components to it.
First, identifications are made through observation of students as they work with the content
presentation methods that the teacher uses in class. Where regular class attendance isn’t a
characteristic of the training program, identifications are also made by observing students in the

NCVER 15
limited time a teacher has with them and by observing through interactions that may be by telephone
or by electronic communication methods. These identifications, as represented in the responsive and
interactive teaching and learning model developed in figure 1 of this booklet, included observing task
preferences, and preferences for medium of delivery, learning resources, and discussion.
Second, teachers identified learning style through the contexts within which students liked to work,
such as independently, in groups, collaboratively in pairs, through structure and guidance from the
teacher, and so on. The model in figure 1 collected these context identifications as group/
independent learning, teacher-led instruction, and the need for guidance and structure.
Learning styles can be identified through ‘naturalistic’ observation—that is, just watching and
observing students as they work in class or with learning materials or different contexts of learning,
as a matter of course. Learning style can also be identified by interventionist methods where the
teacher deliberately tries out a teaching presentation method to gauge how well an individual or
group relates to that. Interventions may also take the form of trying different learning contexts,
such as group work, self-paced, collaborative etc., and observing how well individuals and groups
relate to those different contexts.
Informally analysing the reaction of individuals and groups from those naturalistic or
interventionist techniques in turn helps to build that picture of style.
Some examples of how these naturalistic and interventionist observations may be made in
classroom or more flexible learning environments are described below.

Task preferences
— Observe whether the student enjoys learning tasks that involve hands-on demonstrations or
practice, or is the preference for listening, reading or discussing?
— Set some tasks that are highly structured so that the student only needs to follow a procedure, as
well as some tasks that require problem-solving, imagination or research in order to achieve the
task.
— Set tasks that can be solved by the student working alone, and some where the task needs to be
achieved through group cooperation.
— Notice individual responses when a new topic is started. When you start by painting the big
picture, who is attentive and who isn’t? Which students are keen to just get started?
— What do individual questions suggest about how the student is trying to understand? Are they
trying to get a sense of where the new information fits, or are they comfortable with a logical,
step-by-step progression through the material?

Medium of delivery (visual/auditory/kinaesthetic) preferences

— Is there an apparent preference for visual materials such as video or pictures?
— Is there preference for listening to the teacher or other students make presentations?
— Is there a preference for online learning?
— Does the student like to learn through action; by doing things that are hands-on, or require
acting out?

Resource preferences
— Does the student seek out visually presented resources?
— Does the student seek printed materials?
— Does the student prefer practical exercises and demonstrations?

16 Getting to grips with learning styles

— Does the student like learning through technological means such as computer-based resources?
— Does the student like to go to a resource bank and seek their own resources for learning?

Discussion with individuals

— Listen to the students’ language (e.g. ‘can you show’, ‘I can’t picture it’, ‘I need a diagram or a
picture’, ‘can I have a go?’, ‘just let me do it’.
— Notice how students react when you are talking to them. Do they seem to be attending to what
you say, or are there signs of inattentiveness or lack of understanding?
— Talk to individuals about how they respond to their manuals and online resources. Do they look
for the illustrations and diagrams? Do they want the teacher to tell them? Do they want to start
practical work, without opening the book?

Group learner/individual learner

— Set a group activity and ask students to organise themselves to achieve the outcomes of the
activity, and then observe how they go about organising themselves, distributing jobs, and
reaching towards a conclusion.
— Ask students whether they prefer to work by themselves or in a group.
— Observe to what extent does a student appear to need to work with someone and discuss what
they are doing.

Teacher led/independent learner

— Observe rate of progress when left to work on a problem, project or assignment.
— Notice quality of work completed in a set period of time.
— Observe body language, such as puzzled looks, inactivity, distraction, sense of discomfort, as
opposed to engaging well with the self-paced materials.
— Does the student seem to need the teacher to provide direction and structure fairly frequently,
or does the student appear to like working independently?
— Is the student inquisitive, and do they generate questions they either want answered, or that they
will research themselves? Or does the student just accept and follow the program of instruction
as it is laid out by the instructor?

Need for guidance

— Does the student frequently ask for direction, or for advice on learning resources available?
— Does the student ask for directions on how to learn using the materials provided?
— Does the student generally just get on with the learning tasks largely independently?

Learning style tests

There are a number of tests available and a few well-known tests are listed at the end of this
booklet for you. Normally our opportunity as instructors is pretty limited in using these, but
individual learners may have some interest in them. Tests vary in length, in their psychometric
value, in the level of language they use, and in price and accessibility.
At this level of analysis of learning styles and preferences, almost any test will provide information
that is a useful guide, such that the important considerations are likely to be the suitability of the
language level used in the test, its apparent relevance to you, its price and its availability. We also
suggest you use one that you are comfortable with, that you understand, and that works for you and
for your students.

NCVER 17
There are many other tests available besides those listed in this booklet. If you put search words
like ‘learning styles’ and ‘learning preferences’ into your internet search engine, you will come up
with a wide array of useful websites, some of which make tests available free of charge.
Although we don’t wish to make any recommendations on particular tests or websites, other than
the general guidance provided in the previous paragraph, there is a short test available on the
Torrens Valley Institute of TAFE website (see the last page for the internet address) that you will
find useful to look at and, like Kolb and Smith, it works on a simple two dimensions-four quadrant
model. The Torrens Valley test indicates an individual’s relative strengths as an adventurous, social,
practical or conceptual learner.

Responding to learning style

The Smith and Dalton (2005) research has shown that teachers are sensitive to a need to respond to
individual and group learning styles in order to provide a more learner-centred and satisfying
learning experience. It has also been shown that teachers have a reasonable level of confidence in
being able to respond, apart from some constraints that were felt through organisational issues such
as time availability or, in the case of some teachers, a feeling that training packages may provide
some limitations in response.
The research has also shown that teachers sometimes use response to learning style as a technique
to informally ‘test’ student reaction; in order to provide further information on the student’s
approach to learning. Capacity to respond is also clearly related to the teaching environment with,
again, opportunity becoming more limited as the teaching becomes more based around pre-
packaged resources that are used by the student independently of the teacher.

Ways to modify teaching strategies in response to individual learners

— Resource identification and advice
Provide a range of resources that are useful in meeting learning outcome requirements, but that
are presented in different ways, using different media. These may involve print, visual resources
or computer delivered learning materials. Some students may respond to auditory resources.
— Guidance and monitoring of students
Vary this from close guidance where that is necessary, to a form of guidance that allows the
student space to generate their own questions and to seek out the means through which the
learning outcomes can be achieved.
— Group and individual learning
Provide opportunity for students to choose between working on their own or in a group, to
help those who have a strong preference for one or the other. However the ‘choice’ may need
to be modified in the interests of developing students’ abilities to work effectively in the other
context.
— Variation in tasks
If a range of tasks is offered, students will generally choose those best suited to their learning
style or preference. However, as in the point above, at times the teacher may need to be more
directive, in the interests of broadening the students’ ways of learning and responding. Task
variation may involve independent research, working in a group to solve a problem, hands-on
application or reading, reflection, internet searching etc. to achieve the outcome.
— Different forms of assessment
When under pressure (such as during assessment) students will usually perform better if able to
work within their natural preferred style. For example, a student with a strong preference for
hands-on learning will often be at a disadvantage if expected to write or explain rather than
demonstrate what they know.

18 Getting to grips with learning styles

Ways to modify teaching strategies to suit group characteristics
— Develop tasks that groups can engage in collaboratively (such as cooperative product
development, discussion, collaborative problem-solving) and which allow group members to
move from roles in which they feel comfortable to more challenging tasks.
— Organise groups and subgroups differently so that students can have some freedom to form
their own learning group on a basis of common interests and common tasks that they would like
to pursue. Groups can also be arranged so that there is some commonality in the forms of
learning that individuals within the group prefer.
— Vary the way in which content and learning tasks are presented to the group, based on the
picture developed of group preferences. Those forms of presentation may involve use of
different resources and resource types, or may involve different ways of organising the class to
deliver content.

General suggestions for responding to individual or group style

— Be aware that some aspects of learning styles are intrinsic to the individual and may not change
very much, whereas others can be modified by the way in which the learning environment is
organised.
— Identify which aspects of style may be relevant to the overall goals of the course and the
students’ subsequent employability. For example, preferences for working alone or in a group
may need to be modified or developed depending on the type of work that the student is
undertaking in the learning sequence, and the form of employment that the student is eventually
likely to engage in.
— As the teacher, share your own style with the individual or the group and discuss with students
ways in which that impacts on their learning, perhaps compared to other instructors.
— Draw on the resources within the class to help out. When a student is having difficulty
understanding something there may be someone in the group who is able to contribute very
effectively through common experience or a style that is similar to that of the student having
difficulty.
— Use a variety of approaches in presenting content so that a range of learning styles or
preferences is being catered for within the group. Incorporate time for reflection and
reinforcement into every learning session, to accommodate those who need time to process new
information and incorporate it into their existing knowledge bank by relating it to already
mastered learning.
— Be aware that the differences between students may be a matter of the order in which they
process new information. For example, some may need to hear an explanation before they can
make sense of a diagram, and then they will be prepared to try. Other students may actually need
to do the hands on first before the explanation or the diagram will make much sense to them.
— Be prepared to take a longer-term view in relation to developing students’ learning styles, rather
than expecting this to occur quickly. Using currently exhibited styles to develop new styles in a
student has been shown in the research to be an effective developmental method.

Responding to learning style with distance education or off-campus students

Apart from a possibly higher degree of self-direction, distance education or off-campus students are
likely to incorporate the same range of learning styles and learning preferences as students in the
classroom. However, their learning options are generally far more limited and sometimes their
preferred training approaches are just not readily available. Acknowledging style differences and
potential incompatibilities between their learning style and those of the pre-set materials and
resources available to them may be helpful in encouraging those students to persist with their

NCVER 19
studies. Teachers can help students understand why they may be finding distance learning difficult
by helping them to understand their learning styles through strategies such as:
— having the student fill in a simple questionnaire to establish some common understanding about
their learning between themselves and the teacher/distance tutor
— being prepared to negotiate different approaches to achieving the learning outcomes from those
provided in the print-based or online materials and resources available to the student
— enhancing self-directed learning skills by encouraging students to propose alternative forms of
assessment based on the common understanding they have with their teacher in regard to their
learning styles and preferences.

Developing self-directed learning (SDL) among students

Self-directed learning occurs when the student has some freedom to choose the sequence of
learning and the ways in which the learning will take place. This form of learning has been shown to
be increasingly important in contemporary VET learning environments. It is also important in
helping people to be successful in modern and rapidly changing work environments.
The current research has further shown that there is broad recognition among VET teachers of the
need for self-directed learning among students, but that students are generally not well equipped for
it. The research also indicated that at lower Australian Qualification Framework (AQF) levels there
may be a need for more attention to be paid to the development of self-directed learning so that
engagement with higher Australian Qualification Framework levels is more successful.

Ways to develop self-directed learning among students

— Acknowledge the need for teachers to build a platform for self-directed learning. Teachers at
different Australian Qualification Framework or year levels within a course could profitably plan
for the gradual development of self-directed learning skills in students across the entire duration
of a course.
— Include (as an overt and articulated aspect of the program) the discussion of learning styles and
the value of becoming self-directed learners.
— Allow for the uneven development of self-directed learning within a group, by gradually
introducing more individualised or small group projects and assignments with decreasing levels
of teacher direction.
— Recognise the signs when students want to pursue their own interests within a topic or course
and allow space for that to occur.
— Encourage and facilitate honest self-assessment by students of their self-directed learning
capacities and their success in managing and monitoring their own learning.
— Allow time within the planned schedule for students’ reflection and exploration of new ideas
and areas of interest.

Enhancing learner motivation and capacity to develop lifelong

learning mind-sets
The strong relationship between intrinsic motivation and the students’ capacity for self-directed
learning is well known. Motivation can be increased by bringing course delivery more in line with
students’ interests, learning styles and preferences. As teachers we use a range of strategies which,
while not necessarily intentionally directed to this end, may have the effect of enhancing learner
motivation. This in turn enhances their capacity for self-directed learning and helps them in the
journey to becoming lifelong learners. These include:

20 Getting to grips with learning styles

— teachers working with students to identify what motivates them, and using this to help students
set learning goals. This could involve a short quiz or questionnaire, a semi-formal interview or
might be more easily discovered through informal conversation
— enabling students to participate in decisions about course delivery and assessment. This might
involve a flexible response with different strategies available for different learners within the
group, or might be better handled by having the group reach consensus about an approach that
suits the whole class
— encouraging students to engage in ongoing self-evaluation, perhaps providing checklists that
incorporate the learning goals or outcomes for each aspect or unit in the course. These could
include suggestions for additional reading or practice for those whose levels of motivation/self-
direction will be responsive to the opportunity to go further
— teachers using their own current workplace experience to increase the relevance of course
content and the levels of student engagement with it, by making clear connections between what
is being learned and how it will be applicable to the workplace. This may involve workplace
visits and other forms of workplace experience for students
— acknowledging students’ life stages and adjusting delivery strategies accordingly. For example,
the literature and the research indicate that students with greater maturity will often have more
intrinsic motivation, be clearer about their goals and hence more self-directed. However, some
students who have been away from study for some time, or who left school early, or who had
negative learning experiences at school, may initially lack self-direction and be resistant to
teachers’ efforts to develop it.

NCVER 21
 Summary
Understanding learning styles is becoming more important as VET clients become more diverse,
and as options for delivering vocational education and training expand.
Knowing a little about your learners’ styles and preferences for learning allows you to tailor your
delivery to their needs. This can contribute to them getting the best possible experience from their
VET training.
There are many tools at your disposal. You can pick and choose, to a large extent, and use the
theories, tests, and practices that suit you, your learners and the learning environment.
However, a word of caution. Learning styles are but one of the things that characterise your
students, so don’t get carried away with them. Use them in such a way that they increase your
interest and enjoyment, and that of your students.

22 Getting to grips with learning styles

 References
Billett, SR 1996, ‘Situated learning: Bridging sociocultural and cognitive theorising’, Learning and Instruction,
vol.6, pp.263–80.
Brennan, R 2003, One size doesn’t fit all: Pedagogy in the online environment, NCVER, Adelaide.
Canfield, AA 1980, Learning styles inventory manual, Ann Arbor, Humanics Media.
——1988, Canfield learning styles inventory, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.
Curry, L 1983, ‘An organization of learning styles theory and constructs’, ERIC Document Retrieval Service,
TM 830 554.
Gardner, H 1993, Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence, Basic Books, New York.
——1999, Intelligence reframed—multiple intelligence for the 21st Century, Basic Books, New York.
Hills, H 2003, Individual preferences in e-learning, Gower, Aldershot, UK.
Kolb, DA 1976, Learning styles inventory: Technical manual, McBer and Company, Boston.
Marland, P, Patching, W & Putt, I 1992, ‘Thinking while studying: A process tracing study of distance
learners’, Distance Education, vol.13, pp.193–217.
Marton, F & Säljö, R 1976, ‘On qualitative differences in learning: I—Outcome and process’, British Journal of
Educational Psychology, vol.46, pp.4–11.
McCarthy, B 1979, The 4MAT system: Teaching to learning styles with left/right mode techniques, Excel Inc., Oak
Brook, IL, USA.
Pask, G 1976, ‘Styles and strategies of learning’, British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.46, pp.128–48.
Sadler-Smith, E 1996, ‘Learning styles and instructional design’, Innovations in Education and Training
International, vol.33, pp.185–93.
Smith, PJ 2000, ‘Preparedness for flexible delivery among vocational learners’, Distance Education, vol.21, no.1,
pp.29–48.
——2001, ‘Learners and their workplaces: Towards a strategic model of flexible delivery of training in the
workplace’, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, vol.53, no.4, pp.609–28.
——2003, ‘Learning strategies used by apprentices in flexible delivery’, Journal of Vocational Education and
Training, vol.55, no.3, pp.369–83.
——& Dalton, J 2005, Accommodating learning styles: Relevance and good practice in VET, NCVER, Adelaide.
Warner, D, Christie, G, & Choy, S 1998, The readiness of the VET sector for flexible delivery including on-line learning,
Australian National Training Authority, Brisbane.
Witkin, HA 1950, ‘Individual differences in ease of perception of embedded figures’, Journal of Personality,
vol.19, pp.1–15.
Witkin, HA, Lewis, HB, Hertzman, M, Machover, K, Meissner, PB & Wapner, S 1954, Personality through
perception, Harper, New York.

NCVER 23
 Further reading
Barnes, J 1992, Learning preference scales: Handbook and test master set: Teachers, students, parents, Australian Council
for Educational Research, Hawthorn, Victoria.
Butler, KA 1996, Learning styles: Personal exploration and practical applications: An inquiry guide for students, Hawker
Brownlow Education, Cheltenham, Victoria.
——1996, The teacher's guide for learning styles: Personal exploration and practical applications: An inquiry guide for
students, Hawker Brownlow Education, Cheltenham, Victoria.
Keefe, JW 1987, Learning style: Theory and practice, National Association of Secondary School Principals, Reston,
Va.
Misko, J 1994, Review of research 2: Learning styles, NCVER, Adelaide.
Morgan, H 1997, Cognitive styles and classroom learning, Praeger, Westport, Conn.
Riding, RJ & Rayner, S 1998, Cognitive styles and learning strategies: Understanding style differences in learning and
behaviour, D. Fulton Publishers, London.
Sarasin, LC 1999, Learning style perspectives: Impact in the classroom, Atwood Pub., Madison, WI.
Schmeck, RR 1988, Learning strategies and learning styles, Plenum Press, New York.

There are also a number of websites that focus on matters to do with learning
styles. To access these it is most advisable to simply put ‘learning style’,
‘learning preference’, or ‘learning strategies’ into your search engine, and then
select the sites that attract you and seem to be most useful to you.

Some of the tests available

Canfield, AA 1988, Canfield Learning Styles Inventory, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.
Entwistle, NJ 1994, The revised approaches to studying inventory, David Fulton, London.
Guglielmino, LM & Guglielmino, PJ 1991, The learning preference assessment: Trainer guide, Organisation Design
and Development, Pennsylvania.
Honey, P & Mumford, A 1992, The Manual of Learning Styles, Peter Honey, Maidenhead.
Kolb, DA 1976, Learning styles inventory: Technical manual, McBer and Company, Boston.
Reichmann, SW & Grasha, AF 1974, ‘A rational approach to developing and assessing construct validity of a
study learning styles scale inventory’, Journal of Psychology, vol.87, pp.213–23.
Renzulli, JS & Smith, LH 1978, The learning styles inventory: A measure of student preference for instructional techniques,
Creative Learning Press, Mansfield Center, CT.
Riding, RJ 1991, Cognitive styles analysis, Learning and Training Technology, Birmingham.
Witkin, HA, Ottman, PK, Raskin, E & Karp, SA 1971, A manual for the embedded figures test, Consulting
Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA.

A very useful small test you can do for yourself and with your students,
which is designed for a VET context, can be found at the Torrens
Valley Institute of TAFE website. That test provides you with a short
analysis of your own learning style. The website for the test is
<http://www.tvtafe.sa.edu.au/linkup/learning_styles_result.cfm>.

24 Getting to grips with learning styles

 NCVER
The National Vocational Education
and Training Research and Evaluation
(NVETRE) program is coordinated
and managed by the National
Centre for Vocational Education
Research, on behalf of the Australian
Government and state and territory
governments, with funding provided
through the Department of
Education, Science and Training.
This program is based upon
priorities approved by ministers
with the responsibility of vocational
education and training (VET). This
research aims to improve policy and
practice in the VET sector.
Research funding is awarded to
organisations via a competitive
grants process.
The Getting to grips with … series
has been written for the general
reader who wants to understand
important trends in VET.

National Centre for Vocational

Education Research Ltd
Level 11, 33 King William Street
Adelaide SA 5000
PO Box 8288 Station Arcade
South Australia 5000
Phone +61 8 8230 8400
Fax +61 8 8212 3436
Email ncver@ncver.edu.au
www.ncver.edu.au