1. State and explain the laws relating to radiation and temperature of a radiating body.

Ans. The laws relating to radiation and temperature:

 Stefan Boltzmann Law-Josef Stefan based on experimental facts suggested that the total emissive power of a
blackbody (I) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
I ( T )=σ T 4
I is the total amount of radiation emitted by an object per square meter (Wm−2 ),
𝜎 is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10−8 Wm−2 K−4 ),
T is the absolute temperature of the body.
 Wein's displacement law-The variation of blackbody radiation with temperature shows that as the temperature
increases the most intense part of the spectrum shifts towards the shorter wavelength. This is given by Wein's
law
λ max T =constant=2898 μmK
 Rayleigh-Jean law-Assumed equipartition of energy, wherein all modes available to the solid through which it
could absorb energy, participated in the process equally.
8 πkT
R( λ ,T )=
λ4
At higher values of 𝜆 experimentally matched, but as 𝜆 decreases, the theory predicts an ever increasing spectral
radiance. However, bodies do not spontaneously release infinite energy. Hence law fails at lower wavelengths.

2. State and explain Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Ans. Josef Stefan based on experimental facts suggested that the total emissive power of a blackbody (I) is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
4
I ( T )=σ T
I is the total amount of radiation emitted by an object per square meter (Wm−2 ),
𝜎 is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10−8 Wm−2 K−4 ),
T is the absolute temperature of the body.

3. State and explain Wein’s displacement law.

Ans. The variation of blackbody radiation with temperature shows that as the temperature increases the most intense
part of the spectrum shifts towards the shorter wavelength. This is given by Wein's law - λ max T =constant=2898
μmK

4. What is a blackbody? Give Planck’s hypothesis.

Ans. A substance can be imagined and constructed that absorbs all radiation incident on it as
long as it is cooler than its surroundings. This substance will also emit radiation as long as it
is hotter than its surroundings. Such a substance is referred to as a "Black body". Graphite,
as a material, comes close to satisfying this description. In the figure, the arrows indicate
that radiation entering the body will get absorbed by the internal surfaces of the body.
Kirchhoff’s law, states that the emissivity of a body that is in thermal equilibrium with its
surrounding is equal to the absorptivity of the body. Electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody comes out
over a range of wavelengths, however, it is not emitted with uniform intensity across all wavelengths. The maximum
intensity of the radiation occurs at one wavelength and the intensity decreases for all other wavelengths.

Radiation has energy. As light and heat are radiations, they are also associated with energy. Radiant energy is not
emitted or absorbed continuously but discontinuously in the form of small packets called photons. Photon is not a
material body but is considered to be a massless packet of energy. The energy E of a photon is related to the
frequency of radiation(v), by the equation E = h, where h is Planck's constant. Whenever a body emits or absorbs
energy, it does so in whole number multiples of photons, i.e., E = nh, where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.

5. Discuss Planck’s radiation law.

Ans. Radiation has energy. As light and heat are radiations, they are also associated with energy. Radiant energy is
not emitted or absorbed continuously but discontinuously in the form of small packets called photons. Photon is not
a material body but is considered to be a massless packet of energy. The energy E of a photon is related to the
frequency of radiation(v), by the equation E = h, where h is Planck's constant. Whenever a body emits or absorbs
energy, it does so in whole number multiples of photons, i.e., E = nh, where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.

6. “Photoelectric effect is a frequency dependent phenomenon and not intensity dependent one”. Explain.
Ans. In photoelectric, if light is incident on a metal surface photocurrent was observed. This was only possible if the
light incident had minimum energy of hv0 where v0 is the threshold frequency or minimum frequency needed for
−¿¿
photocurrent to be observed. So, if the frequency of light was less than v0, photocurrent won’t be observed or e
won’t have energy to overcome the barrier even if we increase the intensity.

7. What are the failures of classical electromagnetic theory in explaining the photoelectric effect?
Ans. The failures of classical electromagnetic theory-
 The energy distributions of photoelectrons are independent of the intensity of the light. A strong light beam
yields more photoelectrons than a weak one of the same frequency, but the average electron energy is the same.
The electromagnetic theory of light, on the other hand, predicts that the more intense the light, the greater the
energies of the electrons.
 That the photoelectron emission is almost an
instantaneous process within the experimental
accuracy ( 10−9s) is something that classical
theory cannot explain, which expects much more
time lag.
 A faint blue light produces more
photoelectrons than those produced by bright red
light.
 Above the critical frequency, which varies
with each metal, photoelectrons have an
energy range from zero to a certain maximum value that increases linearly with increasing frequency, in the
below graph. This observation cannot be explained classically which predicts maximum kinetic energy should
increase with the intensity of the light.

8. The photon model succeeds whereas the wave model fails in explaining the photoelectric effect. Explain.
Ans. The energy distributions is independent of the intensity of light. A strong beam yields more photoelectron than
a weak one of the same frequency, but the average electron energy is same. The electromagnetic wave theory,
however, predicts that more intense the light, the greater the energies of the electrons. The photoelectrons emission
is almost an instantaneous process while the wave model expects more time lag. Above the critical frequency, while
varies with each model, photoelectrons has an energy range from 0 to a certain maximum value that increases
linearly with increasing frequency. The wave model predicts that maximum kinetic energy should increase with the
intensity of light. Thus, the photon model succeeds whereas the wave model fails in explaining the photoelectric
effect.

9. In a photoelectric effect, explain how a change in intensity and frequency affects the number of
photoelectrons and the kinetic energies of these electrons, on the basis of Einstein’s theory.
Ans. In 1905, Einstein proposed that the energy carried by each particle of light is dependent on the light’s
frequency as 𝐸=ℎ𝜐, where h is Planck’s constant (= 6.63 x 10−34 Js). Since light is bundled up into photons,
Einstein theorized that when a photon falls on the surface of a metal, the entire photon energy is transferred to the
electron. A part of this energy is used to remove the electron from the metal’s group and the rest is given to the
ejected electron as kinetic energy. The surface electrons carry all the kinetic energy given by the photon and have
K.Emax.
Energy of photon = Energy required to eject one(Work Function) + Maximum K.E of the electron
E=W+K.E => K.E=hv-W
At the threshold frequency v0, electron are just ejected and don’t have any kinetic energy. Below this frequency
there’s no electron emission. Thus, the energy of photon with this frequency is the must be the work function of the
metal W=hv0. Thus, K.Emax is given as: K.Emax=hv-hv0. Thus with the increase in the frequency of incident light,
the K.Emax of photoelectrons increases. In this way K.Emax is frequency dependent only. Intensity of light is given
by I=E/At
where, E is the energy of photons I=nhv/At thus increases in intensity increases the number of photons and
eventually the number of ejected photoelectrons. In this way, intensity of light is directly proportional to the number
of photoelectrons whereas frequency of light is directly proportional to K.Emax of electrons.

10. Explain the Compton effect and derive the expression for the Compton shift with the help of a diagram.
Ans. When short-wavelength x-rays (photon) is incident on an element of low atomic weight material like carbon
(for example, graphite), there is a decrease in energy of the photon (or, in other words, an increase in wavelength) as
a part of energy its initial energy is transferred to the electrons of the material which is scattered. This effect is called
the Compton Effect or Compton Scattering.
As shown in the figure, Compton assumed the scattering of electromagnetic radiation from a charged particle as a
perfectly elastic, billiard ball type of collision between the photon and effectively free-charged particle. If the initial
photon frequency is υ and the scattered photon has a lower frequency of υ′, then Loss of photon energy = gain in
'
electron energy hv−h v =KE ……..(1)
Since the photon rest mass is zero, its momentum p is related to its energy E by
E hv
p= = ………….(2)
c c
Therefore, the initial and scattered photon momenta are hv/c and hv’/c, respectively. Whereas the initial and final
electron momenta are respectively 0 and p. As momentum is a vector quantity, in the collision it must be conserved
in each of two mutually perpendicular directions. In the original photon direction, the conservation of momentum
hv h v'
can be written as +0= cosϕ+ pcosθ ………….(3)
c c
'
hv
And perpendicular to this direction 0= sinϕ− psinθ………….(4)
c
Here the angle ϕ is that between the directions of the initial and scattered photons, and θ is that between the initial
photon and recoil electron.
Multiplying Eqns. (3) and (4) by c and rearranging them we get pccosθ=hv−hv ' cosϕ

pcsinθ=hv ' sinϕ

After squaring each of these equations and adding the new ones together we get
p2 c 2=(hv )2−2 ( hv ) ( h v ' ) cosϕ+(hv ' )2……….(5)
We now use the two relativistic energy equations of a particle
E=KE+ mc 2………...(6)
1
2 4 2 2 2 ………….(7)
E=(m c + p c )
Therefore, (KE +m c 2)2=m 2 c 4 + p2 c2
2 2 2 2
p c =KE + 2m c KE ……….(8)
2
Substitution of Eqn. (1) in Eqn. (8)-> p2 c 2=(hv )2−2 ( hv ) ( h v ' ) + ( h v' ) +2 mc 2 (hv −hv ' ) ………...(9)
Putting this value of p2 c 2 in Eqn. (5) we obtain->
2 mc 2 ( hv−h v ' ) =2(hv )(hv ' )(1−cosϕ)………...(10)

On dividing Eqn. (10) by 2 h2 c 2, we get

(
mc v v ' v v'
h c c
− = )
c c
(1−cosϕ) and h λ − ' = ( λ )
mc 1 1 (1−cosϕ)
λ λ'
' h
Rearranging we obtain-> λ −λ= (1−cosϕ )…………(11).
mc
The quantity h/mc is known as Compton wavelength ( λ c); its value for an electron is 0.0243 Å. In terms of λ c, Eqn.
'
(11)-> λ −λ=λc (1−cosϕ) ………...(12).
The phenomenon described by Eqn. (12) is known as Compton effect and it strongly supports the quantum theory of
radiation.

11. What is de Broglie’s hypothesis?

Ans. From the study of black body radiation, photo electric effect and Compton effect it was necessary to assign
particle like properties to radiation. The amount of energy associated with the radiant particle or photon is
hc
E=hv= ………...(1)
λ
where h, c, υ and λ are Planck’s constant, speed of light, frequency and wavelength, respectively, and since υλ = c.
Eqn. (1) proves that the radiation has particle like nature described by photons and, at the same time, wave like
nature described by wavelength λ. Louis de Broglie asserted that this dual property is not merely confined to photon
or radiation, it can be attributed to any material particle. For his hypothesis de Broglie relied on the special theory of
relativity and old quantum theory. These waves that arise out of matter particles are known as matter waves. The
E hv h
energy E and momentum p of the photon is related by p= = =
c c λ
The wavelength of a photon is therefore specified by its momentum according to the relation
 h
λ= ………….(2)
p
de Broglie asserted that the nature is symmetric. Therefore, what is applicable to photon can also be applied to any
other particle. For a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v, the momentum is given by p = mv. So, the
h
wavelength associated with the material particle is λ= ………(3),
mv
m0

√ v , m0 being the rest mass. λ in Eqn. (3) is called de Broglie wavelength.

where m = relativistic mass= 2
1−
c2

12. Show how one can arrive at Bohr’s quantization condition on the basis of de Broglie’s hypothesis of
matter waves.
h
Ans. According to De Broglie hypothesis, λ= -----(1) De Broglie stated that if you used the wavelength
mv
associated with the electron, and assume that an integral number of wavelengths must fit in the circumference of an
orbit, you get the same quantized angular momenta that Bohr did. The circumference of the circular orbit must be an
nh
integral multiple of wavelength. 2 πr =n λ− ……..(from 1)
p
nh nh
For non-relativistic speed, p=mv, 2 πr = mvr= ………(2).
mv 2π
nh
Angular momentum is given by L=mvr= …..(from 2)
2π

13. Describe an experiment that verifies De Broglie hypothesis?

−¿¿
d is interplanar distance of nickel d=0.91A, θ =glancing angle.Peak intensity of e is at 50 ° => 2θ +50° =180° =>
θ =65°
By Bragg’s law: n λ=2 dsinθ =2x0.91xsin65° =1.65 A ° . Thus, λ=1.65 A ° per classical Bragg’s law. According to
quantum mechanics, De Broglie stated that energy proving particle is associated with wave whose wavelength is:
h −¿¿
λ= . Energy associated with e is given as: E=eV=54x1.6x10−19 J . This is the energy associated with electron
p
−34
h 6.63 X 10
P=√ 2 mE=> λ= = =1.66 A ° .
√2 mE √ 2 X 9.1 X 10−31 X 54 X 1.6 X 10−19
The remarkably close agreement between the two results proves the validity of the De Broglie hypothesis.

14. State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Ans. It states that the position and momentum of microscope moving particles can’t be determined simultaneously
with accuracy or certainty. The uncertainties in the position and velocities of objects with relatively large masses are
negligible. Since atoms and subatomic particles have very small masses, any increase in the accuracy of their
positions will be accompanied by an increase in the uncertainty associated with their velocities. Let’s consider two
waves trains having sightly different angular frequency w and propagation constant k are superimposed w form
group of waves,
 2π 2π
W=2 πf = and K=
T λ
ψ 1= Acos(wt−kx)
ψ 2= Acos( ( w+δ w ) t−(k +δ k ) x)
Superposition:ψ=ψ 1 +ψ 2

ψ=2 Acos[ ( 2 w+2 δ w )t−( 2 k +2 δ k )] cos ⁡( δ wt−δ

2
kx
)
w>>δ w and k>>δ k
δ wt δ kx
ψ =2Acos(wt-kx)cos( − )
2 2

15. Using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle prove that electrons can’t exist inside a nucleus.
−¿¿
Ans. Radius of nucleus is 10−14 m. Let’s assume e is inside the nucleus. Hence, the uncertainty of finding the

electron can’t be greater than the diameter of the nucleus which is 2x 10−14 m. According to Heisenberg uncertainty
principle,
h
δx ⋅ δP=
2π
h 6.63 X 10−34
δP= = =5.275 X 10−21kgm/s is the uncertainty in momentum.
2 π ⋅ Δx 2 X 3.14 X 2 X 10−14
−¿¿ P
2
(5.275 X 10−21 )2
K.E of e = = eV=95.5x106 eV≅ 96 MeV
2m 2 X 9.1 X 10 −31

−¿¿
But maximum energy observed by radioactive experiments is 4 MeV. Hence, the assumption of e in nucleus is
wrong.

16. Find the radius of the first Bohr orbit using the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Ans. If ∆𝑥 and ΔΡ be the uncertainties in determining the position and momentum of the electron in the first orbit,
then from the uncertainty principle ∆𝑥ΔΡ≈ℏ or ΔΡ≈ℏ/∆𝑥……(i)
2
The uncertainty in kinetic energy (K.E) of electron may be written as ∆ T =
(∆ P)
[KE=T=
P2 ]….(ii)
2m 2m
2
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have ∆ T =
1 ℏ
[ ]
2m ∆ x
And the uncertainty in the potential energy of the same electron is given by
1 (Ze)(−e) 1 (Ze)(−e)
∆ V = π e0 [V = π e 0 ]
4 ∆x 4 x
The uncertainty in the total energy of electron together with Ze as the nucleus charge
2 2
ℏ Ze
ΔΕ=∆Τ+∆V= −
2m( Δx) Δx 4 π e 0
2
The condition for this uncertainty in the energy to be minimum is
2 2 2 2
d ( ΔE ) −ℏ Ze ℏ 4 π e0 e0 h
=0 Or 3
+ 2
=0, Δx= =r =
d ( Δx ) m ( Δx ) ( Δx ) 4 π e 0 mZ e
2
πmZ e
2

This is the radius of first Bohr’s orbit.

Numerical-
1. Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on an aluminium surface with work function 4.2 eV. Calculate (i)
threshold wavelength and (ii) stopping potential. [Ans: (i) 2960 Å (ii) 2eV]

2. Work function of Na is 2.3 eV. Obtain the maximum wavelength which will cause emission of
photoelectrons from the material. What will be the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
emitted by the surface exposed to the radiation of 2000 Å. [Ans: (i) 5410 Å (ii) 3.9 eV].
3. The work function for cadmium is 4.08 eV. What must be the wavelength of radiation incident on
cadmium so that the maximum velocity of photoelectrons will be 7.2 x 105 m/s. [Ans: 2234 Å].

4. X-rays of 0.5 Å are scattered by free electrons in a block of carbon through 90°. Find the velocity of
recoil electrons. [Ans: 2.08 x 10^7 m/s].

5. X-ray photon of wavelength 0.3 Å is scattered through an angle 45° by a loosely bound electron. Find
the wavelength of scattered photon. [Ans: 0.307 Å].
6. X-rays with initial wavelength 0.5 x 10-10m undergo Compton scattering. For what scattering angle is
the wavelength of the scattered X-rays greater than that of the incident X-rays by one percent? [Ans:
37.4°].

7. A black body radiator at 0°C radiates energy of 3.2 x 102 J.m-2 .s-1 . Deduce the value of Stefan’s
constant. [Ans: 5.7 x 10-8 J.m-2 .s-1 .K -4 ].

8. Using Wein’s displacement law, estimate the temperature of sun. Given: λm = 4900 Å and Wein’s
constant = 0.292 cm. K. [Ans: 5959 K]
9. An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V. (i) Calculate the
associated wavelength. (ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 Å. At what
angle of deviation from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed? [Ans: (i) 0.86 Å (ii)
8.308°].

10. An enclosure filled with He is heated to 400 K. A beam of He atom emerges out of the enclosure.
Calculate de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He atoms. Mass of He atom is 6.7x10-27 kg.[0.769 Å].
11. What is the wavelength of wave associated with an electron having kinetic energy of 100eV?[1.26 Å]

12. A spectral line of wavelength 6000 Å has a width of 5 x 10-5 Å. Determine the minimum time spent
by the atomic system in the associated energy state. [Ans: 3.82 x 10-8 s]

13. An electron is confined to a box of length 10-8 cm. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity.
[Ans: 1.16 x 106 m/s].
14. If the kinetic energy of an electron known to be about 1 eV must be measured to within 0.0001 eV,
what accuracy can its position be measured simultaneously. [Ans: 1.95 μm].

15. An electron and a 150 g base-ball are travelling at a velocity of 220 m/s, measured to an accuracy of
0.005 %. Calculate and compare uncertainty in position of each. [0.4 mm; 2.5 x 10-3 m]