Topic I o Popper does not think that hypotheses

can be confirmed. If the observational

Philosophy of Science prediction is borne out, deductively the
scientist is unable to conclude anything
The phrase "philosophy of science" can be used (to conclude that the hypothesis is
most broadly to describe two different: confirmed is to commit the deductive
fallacy of affirming the consequent).
1. it can be used to describe the
philosophy of particular sciences, such o Popper's method is known
as the philosophy of physics, biology, or as falsificationism.
economics.
2. it can be used to describe the study of o the scientist should not seek to confirm
epistemological issues in science more theories but rather, refute them. A theory
generally. that has survived repeated attempts of
falsification—especially in those cases
Scientific Methodology where it has made risky predictions—has
been corroborated, though not
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) and Francis confirmed. On this view, a theory is
Bacon (1561–1626), many have taken the demarcated as scientific if there are
scientific method to be inductive. observational conditions under which one
would be willing to reject the theory as
o inductive inference is ampliative (i.e., falsified.
the content of the conclusion goes
beyond the content of the premises) Popper's student, Imre Lakatos (1922–
and nondemonstrative (i.e., all true 1974),
premises do not guarantee a true
conclusion; at best they render the o developed a sophisticated
conclusion more probable). falsificationism known as the
"methodology of scientific research
o The fallibility of inductive inferences is programs."
often referred to as Hume's problem of
induction, after the philosopher David o instead of evaluating an individual
Hume (1711–1776). theory or modification of a theory as
scientific or ad hoc, one should
Carl Hempel (1905–1997) evaluate a whole series of theories
developed over time. The series
o He argues that the scientific method called Research Program.
begins not with observations but with
hypotheses. o research program, consists of a hard
core, which defines the research
o According to this hypothetic-deductive program and is taken to be
method, one deduces certain irrefutable, and a protective
observational predictions from the belt, which consists of auxiliary
hypothesis and then rigorously tests hypotheses and background
them through further observation and assumptions to be modified in the
experimentation. If the predictions are face of falsifying data, thereby
borne out, then the hypothesis is protecting the hard core.
confirmed. Thus, Hempel's method is still
broadly inductive. Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994)

The logical positivist Rudolf Carnap (1891– o was a close friend of Lakatos and also a
1970) student of Popper's.

o sought to develop such a logic of o In his book Against Method (1978), he

confirmation. Other models of denies that there is such thing as the
confirmation, such as Bayesian and scientific method. He writes, "the idea of
bootstrapping models, are reviewed in a fixed method, or a fixed theory of
John Earman's Testing Scientific rationality, rests on too naïve a view . . .
Theories (1983). there is only one principle that can be
defended under all circumstances. It is
Karl Popper (1902–1994) the principle: anything goes " (pp. 27–
28). Feyerabend's view is known
o He insists that the scientific method is
as epistemological anarchism.
deductive, not inductive. Observation
always requires a prior point of view or
problem.

o He believes science begins with a bold

hypothesis or conjecture.
Scientific Rationality and Theory Change Kuhn polemically refers to the conversion
from the old to the new paradigm as being
Beginning in the early 1960s there was a shift analogous to a Gestalt switch or religious
away from concerns about scientific methodology conversion.
towards concerns about scientific change.
Ian Barbour draws analogies between
This shift was in large part due to the publication Kuhnian paradigms and religious paradigms
in 1962 of Thomas Kuhn's (1922–1996) The in Religion and Science (1997).
Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
In the 1969 postscript to The Structure
o Kuhn argues that the philosophy of
of Scientific Revolutions and in the article
science ought to be the product of a "Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory
careful examination of the history of Choice" (1977), Kuhn responds to charges
science. This involves recognizing the that his account of science makes science
integrity of the science within its own irrational and leads to relativism.
time and not simply viewing it in relation
to one's contemporary perspective. Against the charge of irrationality, Kuhn
notes that values (such as predictive
This new historiographical approach leads Kuhn accuracy, simplicity, internal consistency,
to reject much of traditional philosophy of and coherence with neighboring theories)
science: the confirmationist and provide scientists with a shared basis for
falsificationist accounts of theory evaluation, theory choice.
the view that science is cumulative, the
distinction between the context of discovery and Against the charge of relativism, Kuhn notes
context of justification, and the idea of a crucial that ultimately paradigms are to be
experiment. evaluated by their ability to set up and solve
"puzzles." In this sense Kuhn does believe
Kuhn argues that science is characterized by that there is objective progress in science:
three sorts of phases: Newton solves more puzzles than Aristotle,
and Albert Einstein more puzzles than
1. Pre-paradigm Science Newton.
2. Normal Science
o In the process of normal science, What Kuhn rejects is realism, which
anomalies emerge that resist solution claims that there is a coherent direction of
within the framework of the paradigm; if ontological development and that science is
these anomalies persist and proliferate, getting closer to the truth.
they can lead to a state of crisis.
Subsequent philosophers of science influenced by
3. Revolutionary Science
Kuhn developed different strands of his thought
o is described as "those noncumulative
in different directions.
developmental episodes in which an
older paradigm is replaced in whole or Feyerabend
part by an incompatible new one" (p. 92).
o who developed an incommensurability
Central to understanding these phases is his
thesis around the same time as Kuhn,
notion of a paradigm, which he uses in two came to later embrace the label of
primary ways. relativist.
1. He means an exemplar, a concrete
Larry Laudan
problem solution or scientific
achievement that serves as a model for o sought to preserve the rationality of
solving other scientific problems (e.g., science against the threat perceived in
the planetary dynamics laid out in Isaac Kuhn's holist picture of scientific change.
Newton's Principia )
2. He means by paradigm a disciplinary o According to Laudan, a closer look at the
matrix, which includes not only history of science shows not a wholesale
exemplars, but laws, definitions, exchange of one paradigm for another,
metaphysical assumptions, and values but rather the components of the
(e.g., Newton's dynamical laws, the disciplinary matrix (e.g., methods,
definitions of mass and space, and the values, and ontology) being negotiated
individually. Regarding theory choice he
mechanical philosophy).
writes, "there is enough common ground
between the rivals to engender hope of
Kuhn refers to the pre- and post-
finding an 'Archimedean standpoint'
revolutionary periods of normal science as
which can rationally mediate the choice"
incommensurable, and says that there is a
(1984, p. 75). He calls this alternative
sense in which scientists from different
view the reticulated model of scientific
paradigms work in different worlds.
change.
Scientific Realism vs. Antirealism According to Ian Hacking's entity realism,

The labels realism and antirealism are each used o one can conclude, for example, that
to cover a wide spectrum of views. electrons exist because researchers
experimentally build devices that use
The main positions can be roughly distinguished electrons to investigate other parts of
by their answers to three questions: nature.

1. Is there a mind-independent world? Between theory realism and entity realism is

another view known as structural realism.
2. What is our epistemic access to that
world? o This view, which John Worrall
attributes to Henri Poincaré (1854–
3. What is the aim of science? 1912), affirms a mind-independent world
but takes epistemic access to that world
realists to be limited to its structural features.
Thus, there is a continuity of structure
o accept the existence of a mind- across theory change despite radical
independent world. changes in ontology. Although what is
meant by structure is not entirely clear,
o tend to be optimistic about epistemic in the physical sciences it is typically
access to the world taken to be the structures expressed in
the mathematical formalism of the
o typically see the aim of science being theory.
truth
Challenges to realism come from many sources
antirealists and have led to a variety of antirealist views.

o deny this advocate some form of Both Kuhn (1962) and Laudan (1981),
idealism.
o argue that the history of science
o argue in various ways that this optimism undermines realism.
is unwarranted.
o Kuhn's view can be classified as a form of
o the aim is something less. instrumentalism, according to which
scientific theories are merely useful
At one end of the realist spectrum is naïve instruments for making predictions and
realism—the view that science is a perfect, solving problems.
undistorted mirror of the mind-independent
world and that scientific theories are literally Other antirealist views, such as Bas van
true. Fraassen's constructive empiricism,

More sophisticated versions of realism, such o come out of the empiricist tradition.
as the view of Ernan McMullin,
o According to van Fraassen (1980),
o hold that realism means the long- science only aims to give theories that
term success of a scientific theory are empirically adequate and a theory is
gives reason to believe that empirically adequate if what it says about
something like the entities and observable things is true, that is, if it
structures postulated by the theory saves the phenomena (p. 12). On this
actually exist (p. 26). view, one is not compelled to accept the
existence of unobservable entities, such
o an important part of the aim of as electrons.
science is the development of fruitful
metaphors. A third strand of antirealism, known as social
constructivism, comes from sociology.
Many have argued for realism on the grounds that
it provides the best explanation for the success of o seeks to understand scientific practice in
science; the widespread success of science would the laboratory in a manner similar to an
be "miracle" if scientific theories were not at least anthropologist seeking to understand a
approximately true (Boyd 1984, Putnam 1975). foreign culture.
Others argue that the proper question for realism
is not whether some theory is true or Social constructivists, such as David
approximately true, but whether some entity Bloor of the Edinburgh School, reject the
exists. philosophical understanding of knowledge as
justified true belief, and instead take knowledge
to be whatever is collectively endorsed by a
particular group of people at a particular time (p.
5).
This makes social constructivism a form of  She argues that diversity in science is
relativism. It is called constructivism because it important for making these often-
takes scientific knowledge and facts to be invisible assumptions explicit and open to
constructed rather than discovered. criticism.

Stronger and weaker versions of this view are Harding takes this point about diversity in
obtained depending on whether this process of science a step further in her
constructing scientific knowledge is, or is not, feminist standpoint theory.
taken to be purely social.
 standpoint theory argues that the
Arthur Fine legitimacy of the knowledge claim
depends on the social identity of the
o He argues that social constructivism has knower. Harding writes, "women's
important methodological lessons for the subjugated position provides the
philosophy of science (1996), himself possibility of more complete and less
rejects both realism and antirealism. perverse understandings.

o Instead Fine advocates a minimalist Feminism . . . can transform the perspective

position he calls the natural of women into a 'standpoint'—a morally and
ontological attitude, which prescribes scientifically preferable grounding for our
accepting the claims of science in the interpretations and explanations of nature"
same way that one accepts the evidence (p. 26). One standard criticism that Harding
from one's senses, without adding any considers is whether there is such a thing as
additional claims such as "and it is really a "feminist standpoint" that cuts across all
true" or "and it is only a useful fiction" classes, races, and cultures.
(1986, p. 127).
Donna Haraway's work Simians, Cyborgs,
Feminist Philosophies of Science and Women (1991),

Detailed case studies, a representative sample of  exemplifies the feminist

which can be found in Janet Kourany's The postmodernism tradition.
Gender of Science (2001), reveal many ways in
which such biases have affected science. In  Haraway rejects the idea of single
response to these findings, many feminists feminist standpoint and instead
sought to develop a new epistemology or argues that all knowledge is locally
philosophy of science. situated.

Sandra Harding (1986)  Haraway offers an alternative

account of objectivity. She writes,
 A feminist philosophies of science can be "Feminist objectivity is about limited
roughly divided into three traditions: location and situated knowledge, not
about transcendence and splitting of
1. Feminist empiricism, subject and object. In this way we
might become answerable for what
2. Feminist standpoint theory, and we learn how to see" (p. 190).

3. Feminist postmodernism.  she explicitly rejects the label

"relativist." She explains, "the
Helen Longino alternative to relativism is not
totalization and single vision. . ..
 whose work falls largely within the [Rather, it is] partial, locatable,
feminist empiricist tradition, introduces a critical knowledges.
view known as contextual
empiricism. Relativism is a way of being nowhere while
claiming to be everywhere equally. The 'equality'
 Longino sees empirical data as of positioning is a denial of responsibility and
constraining, but nonetheless critical enquiry" (p. 191). Underlying many of
underdetermining, theory choice. This these feminist philosophies is a central concern
gap between theory and evidence is for the social and ethical implications of science.
bridged by value-laden background
assumptions belonging to a particular Scientific Explanations and Laws
context. These contextual assumptions
are one way biases can enter science. Hempel's covering law model

 Longino criticizes traditional portrayals of  explanations are understood as

the scientific method as individualistic. arguments in which the explanandum
Instead she sees the objectivity of (the event, feature, or law to be
science being secured by its social explained) appears as the conclusion of
character (e.g., peer review, replication an argument. The premises of the
of experiments, and an openness and argument must contain at least one
responsiveness to criticism). universal or statistical law used
 essentially in the derivation, and From Reduction to Theoretical Pluralism
empirically verifiable statements
describing particular facts or initial Reductionism can be construed as a thesis about
conditions. ontologies, laws, theories, linguistic expressions,
or some combination of these.
 If the argument is deductive and involves
a universal law, it is called The classic formulation of theory reduction is due
a deductivenomological to the logical empiricist Ernest Nagel (1901–
explanation; 1985),

 if the argument is inductive and involves  who takes it to involve the logical
a statistical law, then it is called derivation of one theory from another.
an inductive-statistical More specifically, "a reduction is effected
explanation. when the experimental laws of the
secondary science . . . are shown to be
The most famous counterexamples fall into the the logical consequences of the
categories of either: theoretical assumptions . . . of the
primary science" (p. 352).
 irrelevance (although the event follows
from the premises, as a matter of fact In the physical sciences, reductionism is more
those premises are irrelevant to the often taken to be a correspondence between two
explanation of the event); or theories under certain conditions, typically
characterized by the limit of some quantity.
 symmetry (if the law involves a
biconditional or equation then one can As Thomas Nickles notes, this view is "best
switch one of the premises with the described by 'inverting' the usual concept of
conclusion and "explain" things such as reduction, so that successors are said to reduce
why a flagpole is a certain height in terms to their predecessors . . . under limiting
of the length of its shadow). operations" (p. 181). For example, special
relativity is said to reduce to Newtonian
These sorts of problems have led philosophers mechanics in the limit of small velocities.
largely to abandon Hempel's model and propose
new alternatives. Challenges to reductionism have come from
detailed case studies of the relations between
To handle the problems of irrelevance and particular scientific theories. One recurring
symmetry, Wesley Salmon (1925–2001) challenge is known as the problem of multiple
realizability.
 He introduces a causal model
explanation, whereby to explain an 1. One recurring challenge is known as the
event is to identify the causes of that problem of multiple realizability. For
event. example, in reducing Mendelian genetics
to molecular biology, asAlexander
Alternatively, van Fraassen in his pragmatic Rosenberg points out in his 1989 "From
account of explanation embraces the possibility Reductionism to Instrumentalism?”
that the length of a shadow may explain the
height of a pole. For van Fraassen (1980), 2. Reducing theory is statistical (such
as statistical mechanics or quantum
 an explanation is always relative to a mechanics) and the reduced theory is not
particular context. as Lawrence Sklar indicates in this 1999
essay, "The Reduction (?) of Thermal
Yet another model of explanation is provided by Dynamics to Statistical Mechanics."
Philip Kitcher (1981)
These sorts of difficulties have led many to reject
 who understands explanation to be a reductionism and instead argue for theoretical
unification of diverse phenomena by pluralism, or the so-called disunity of science.
means of a common underlying
structure or small number of processes. According to pluralism, each scientific
theory has its own proper domain of applicability.
 He sees Charles Darwin's theory of In her book, The Dappled World (1999), Nancy
evolution as illustrating this model of Cartwright raises the possibility that "nature is
explanation. The link between governed in different domains by different
explanation and unification is challenged systems of laws not necessarily related to each
by Margaret Morrison in her other in any systematic or uniform way" (p. 31).
book Unifying Scientific This view has been criticized on the grounds that
Theories (2000). it forfeits the benefits that come from examining
inter-theoretic relations. The question of the unity
or disunity of science remains a controversial
topic.
 Topic 2  The galleon trade has brought additional
technology and development to the
Historical antecedents in which social Philippines. Although it is only beneficial
considerations changed the course of for the Spaniards, these trades allowed
science and technology (In the other ideas, crops, tools, cultural
Philippines) practices, technology, and Western
practices to reach the country. Some
The history of science and technology in the Filipino students who were able to study
Philippines started way back before the country in Europe also contributed to the
gained its independence from the American advancement of medicine, engineering,
colonizers. Before the coming of the Spanish arts, music, and literature in the country.
colonizers, the early inhabitants of the  The Philippines, being one of the centers
archipelago had their own culture and traditions. of global trade in Southeast Asia during
They had their own belief system and indigenous that time, was considered to be one of the
knowledge system that keeps them organized most developed places in the region.
and sustained their lives and communities for Although the country is blessed with
many years. these developments, the superstitious
beliefs of the people and the Catholic
doctrines and practices during the
Pre-Spanish Philippines
Spanish era halted the growth of science
 is embedded in the way of life of the in the country.
people.
 Scientific knowledge is observed in the Americans
way they plant the crops that provide
 The Americans have more influence in
them food, in taking care of animals to the development of science and
help them in their daily tasks, and for technology in the Philippines compared
food production.
to the Spaniards.
 Science is observed in the way they  They established the public education
interpret the movements of heavenly
system and improved the engineering
bodies to predict seasons and climates,
works and the health conditions of the
and in organizing days into months and
people.
years. They use science in preparing the
soil for agricultural purposes and like any  They established a modern research
other ancient cultures, they discovered university, the University of the
the medicinal uses of plants. Philippines, and created more public
hospitals than the former colonial master.
 Technology is used by people in
building houses, irrigation, and  The mineral resources of the country
developing tools that they can use in were also explored and exploited during
everyday life. They developed tools for the American times. Transportation and
planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; communication systems were improved,
for fighting their enemies during war or though not accessible throughout the
tribal conflicts; and for transportation, country.
both on land and on waterways. They  They reorganized the Learning of science
also developed technologies in creating and introduced it in public and private
musical instruments. schools. In basic education, science
education focuses on nature studies and
 All these ancient practices in science and
technology are considered now as science and sanitation, until it becomes a
indigenous science or folk science, subject formally known as “science”.
 When the Spaniards colonized the
country, they brought with them their own  The teaching of science in higher
culture and practices. They established education has also greatly improved and
schools for boys and girls and introduced modernized. Research was done to
the concept of subjects and disciplines. It control malaria, cholera, tuberculosis,
was the beginning of formal science and and other tropical diseases.
technology in the country, known now as  The desire of the Americans to develop
school of science and technology. the human resources of the Philippines to
 Learning of science in school focuses on serve their own interests is, somehow,
understanding different concepts related beneficial in the country. These allowed
to the human body; plants, animals, and American scholars to introduce new
heavenly bodies, Technology focuses on knowledge and technology in the
using and developing house tools used in country. The Protestant church missions
everyday life.
in different places in the country also
 Life during the Spanish era slowly brought hospitals and schools to far-flung
became modernized, adapting some areas. Little by little, these efforts built a
Western technology and their ways of stronger foundation for science and
life. The Filipinos developed ways to technology in the country.
replicate the technology brought by the
Spaniards using indigenous materials.
Medicine and advanced science were
introduced in formal colleges and
universities established by the Catholic
orders.
World war II attached to the Department of Agriculture and
. The reparation funds focused on Natural Resources for administrative purposes.
building some institutions and public facilities like
schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. Another agency was established by
The reparation money from Japan was also Presidential Decree No. 49, s. 1972 and this is
concentrated on building highways and providing the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and
technical training and human resource Astronomical Services (PAGASA) under the
development in the country. Department of National Defense. Its function
Since the establishment of the new was to provide environmental protection and to
republic, the whole nation has been focusing on utilize scientific knowledge to ensure the safety
using its limited resources in improving its science of the people.
and technological capability. It has explored the
use of ODA or Overseas Development Allocations The Philippine National Oil Company was
from different countries to help the country also created to promote industrial and economic
improve its scientific productivity and development through the effective and efficient
technological capability. Human resource use of energy sources (P.D. No. 334, s. 1973).
development is at the heart of these efforts
focusing on producing more engineers, scientists, In 1976, the National Academy of
technology experts, doctors, and other Science and Technology was established and was
professionals in the country. composed of scientists with "innovative
achievement in the basic and applied sciences" to
Marcos Era and Martial Law serve as a reservoir of scientific and technological
In the amended 1973 Philippine expertise for the country.
Constitution, Article XV, Section 9 (1), he declared
that the "advancement of science and technology In 1979, government-funded scientific
shall have priority in national "Development". In research was conducted by the National Science
his two terms of presidency and during Martial Development Board (NSDB), the Philippine
Law, many laws were enacted promoting science Council for Agricultural Research and Resources,
and technology. the Plant Breeding Institute, the International
On January 23, 1967, he declared that Rice Research Institute, the Bureau of Plant
science was necessary for the development of Industry, and the Bureau of Forest Products.
programs, and thus, directed the Department of
Education to revitalize the science courses in The National Committee on Geological
public high schools. DepEd and the National Sciences was created in 1980 to advise
Science Development Board (NSDB) organized a government and private entities on matters
project to provide selected high schools with
pertaining to geological sciences (Executive Order
science teaching equipment over a four-year No. 625, s. 1980).
period.
In 1968 technology was recognized as
the leading factor in economic development and By virtue of Executive Order No. 784, s.
thus additional funds were channeled to support 1982, the National Science Development Board
projects in applied sciences and science and its support agencies were reorganized and
education. A big part of the war damage funds was named the National Science and Technology
was allocated to fund private universities and Authority (NSTA) to provide central direction and
encourage them to pursue programs in science, coordination of scientific and technological
technology, and research. Seminars were also research and development.
conducted for public and private high school and
college science teachers. Training programs and The Mindanao and Visayas campuses of
scholarships were awarded to graduate and the Philippine Science High School were
undergraduate science scholars. established in 1986 to encourage careers in
science and technology and to be more accessible
The National Science Development Board to the talented students in the Mindanao and
established the Philippine Atomic Energy Visayas areas in accordance with Executive Order
Commission to explore the uses of atomic energy No. 1090, s. 1986
for economic development. Marcos assisted 107
institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work Fifth Republic
by sending scientists, engineers, doctors, and During Corazon Aquino's presidency, the
technicians to study nuclear science and National Science and Technology Authority was
technology abroad. replaced by the Department of Science and
Technology, giving the department
Major development projects to reform representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium-
education were done and which included Term Philippine Development Plan for the years
research and development, the establishment of 1987-1992, science and technology’s role in
technical institutes, science education centers, economic recovery and sustained economic
and agricultural colleges and vocational high growth was highlighted. Science and technology
schools. The Philippine Council for Agricultural were one of the three priorities of the government
Research was also established to support the toward economic recovery.
progressive development of agriculture, forestry,
and fisheries for the country. The Council was
 The first Science and Technology Master industrialized country (NIC). During his term, he
Plan or STMP was formulated on August 8, 1988. was able to establish programs that were
Its goal was for the Philippines to achieve newly significant to the field of science and technology.
industrialized country status for the year 2000. In 1993, Science and Technology Agenda for
National Development (STAND) was established.
During President Corazon Aquino's term,
she encouraged scientists and inventors to bring Among its priorities were: (1) exporting
the Philippines to its former position as second to winners identified by the DTI, (2) domestic needs
Japan in science and technology and to achieve identified by Presidential Council for Countryside
its status of an industrialized country in 2000. Development; (3) support industries, and (4)
coconut industry development. Among the laws
R.A. 6655 or the Free Public Secondary enacted by Congress during President Ramos'
Education Act of 1988 opened free education at term were the (1) Magna Carta for Science and
the secondary level. Together with this was Technology Personnel (R.A. 8439); (2) Science
implemented the "Science for the Masses and Technology Scholarship Law of 1004 (R.A.
Program" which aimed at scientific and No. 7687) and (4) Inventors and Inventions
technological literacy among Filipinos. Incentives Act (Republic Act No. 7459). The
Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines
President Fidel V. Ramos' Term (Republic Act No. 8293) was also enacted which
There were noticeable improvements in provides industrial property rights, copyrights and
science and technology during President Fidel V. related rights, and technology transfer
Ramos' term. There was a significant increase in arrangements.
personnel specializing in science and technology.
In 1988, the Philippines was estimated to have Joseph Estrada’s Term
around 3,000 competent scientists and During the term of President Joseph
engineers. Estrada, two major legislations that he signed
were the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
During the Ramos administration, the (Republic Act No. 8749) which was designed to
Department of Science and Technology initiated protect and preserve the environment and
a Science and Technology Agenda for ensure the sustainable development of its
Development (STAND) which embodies the natural resources, and Electronic Commerce Act
country's task development plan for 1993-1998. of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8792) which outlaws
In 1998, a presidential task force was formed to computer hacking and provides opportunities for
deal with the overall problems confronting new businesses emerging from the Internet-
Research and Development and Science and driven New Economy.
Technology development in the country. It was
tasked to formulate a Science and Technology Aside from these, he launched a full-scale
development program that would support the program based on cost-effective irrigation
national development goal of attaining a newly technologies. He also announced that dole-outs
industrialized country (NIC) status by the year are out, which meant basic health care, basic
2000. The task force was composed of the nutrition, and useful education for those who
Department of Science and Technology, want, but cannot afford it.
Department of Agriculture, Department of Trade
and Industry, Department of Transportation and Gloria M. Arroyo’s Term
Communication, as well as the adviser on public In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
resources and three academic institutions administration, the science and technology sector
involved in science and technology. of the Philippines was dubbed the "golden age"
of science and technology by secretary Estrella
Another Science and Technology Alabastro. There were numerous laws and
framework plan entitled 'Competence, projects that concern both the environment and
Competitive Conscience: the Medium-Term Plan science to push technology as a tool to increase
of the Department of Science and Technology the country's economic level. This is to help
(1999-2004). Its six (6) flagship programs are: increase the productivity from Science,
Technology, and Innovations (STI) and help
1. Comprehensive program to enhance benefit the poor people. Moreover, the term
technology enterprises; "Filipinovation" was coined term used in helping
2. Integrated program on clean the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.
technologies;
3. Establishment of a packaging R and D The Science, Technology, and Innovation
center; (STI) was developed further by strengthening the
4. Expansion of regional meteorology schools and education system such as the
centers; Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which
5. S & T intervention program for the poor, focuses on science, technology, and mathematics
vulnerable and disabled; and in their curriculum. This helps schools produce
6. Comprehensive science and technology and get more involved in this sector. Private
program for Mindanao. sectors were also encouraged to participate in
developing the schools through organizing events
President Ramos believes that science and and sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and
technology was one of the means wherein the innovators can be produced through this system
Philippines could attain the status of new
 Science Education in the
Helping the environment was one of the Philippines
foci of developing technology in the Philippines. Science is important to everyone. School
One of the more known laws to be passed by her science education should support the
administration was the R.A. 9367 or the "Biofuels" development of scientific literacy in all students
Act. This act promotes the development and as well as motivate them to pursue careers in
usage of biofuels throughout the country. This science, technology, and engineering. Science is
potentially enables a cheaper alternative to useful because of its links to technology and
gasoline as a medium in producing energy. Also, industry, which, from a national perspective, are
this benefits the environment since it boasts a areas of high priority for development. It
cleaner emission compared to regular fuel. Yet, develops students' scientific inquiry schools,
setbacks such as lack of raw materials are holding values, and attitudes such as objectivity, curiosity
the full implementation of the laws since and honesty, and habit of mind including critical
importing the necessary materials are imported thinking.
more. On one hand, drought-free rice was also In the Philippines and around the world,
highly encouraged to be used during her term. people are talking about a science and
This enables farmers to produce rice despite the technology-based world and a knowledge-based
environmental hazards that slow or stop economy. Given the expectations and skills
production. required to live successfully in such an
environment and the varied problems of science
Benigno Aquino’s Term education in the country, there is a need to
In an effort to improve the efficiency of rethink what the vision of science education is.
both land and water, the government passed
Republic Act 10601 which improves the One of the questions that may be asked
Agriculture and Fisheries Sector through is: Does the science curriculum in basic education
Mechanization (AFMech). RA 10601 also covers provide avenues for students to engage in science
research, development, and extension (RDE), and encourage them to take science-related
promotion, distribution, supply, assembling, careers?
manufacturing, regulation, use, operation,
maintenance, and project implementation of The implementation of the K-12 basic
agricultural and fisheries machinery and education program does not bode well for science
equipment. education. Science education starts only in Grade
3 which is not comforting for the improvement of
In 2010, President Benigno Aquino was science and math education.
considered as the "father of Organic Agriculture"
because of his work on the Organic Agricultural The new science program decongests the
Act of 2010 (R.A. 10068). Developments competencies and arranges them in a spiral
regarding the research and technology of progression. While in the old curriculum, a
Philippine agriculture are currently in the works. specific discipline is being offered per grade level
Most of the research is inclined in solving the such that general science is offered in the first
problem of increasing hunger in the country by year, biology in the second year, chemistry in the
creating a more efficient and cheaper process of third year, and physics in the fourth year. In the
yielding produce. The International Rice Research K-12 program, the different disciplines in science
Institute (IRRI) is an international research which are life science, chemistry, physics, and
consortium, including the Philippines, which earth science are incorporated in every level. In
serves to improve rice production and quality terms of instruction, the science program shifts
through biotechnology and research. Overall from traditional methods of teaching to a more
records and statistics about Philippine agricultural innovative exploration that emphasizes the
growth are provided by the Country STAT enhancement of the student’s critical thinking and
Philippines. In 2014, gross domestic product scientific skills. The new curriculum utilizes a
(GDP) increased by 6.13%. The gross value learner-centered approach such as the inquiry-
added (GVA) in agriculture and fishing went up based learning pedagogy.
by 1.60% and this accounted for 10% of the GDP
increase. The development of science and
The Harmonized Agenda for Science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief
Technology was presented to President Aquino history, is shaped by several factors and
in 2014 and it included two crucial issues, influences. Like in the history of science in other
inclusive growth, and disaster risk reduction. countries, it is always shaped by human and
social activities, both internal and external.
On May 23, 2016, Republic Act No.
19844, otherwise known as DICT Act of 2015, Science and technology may have a
was signed into law. Under this law, the significant impact on the lives of the people and
Department of Information and Communications on the development of the Philippine society,
Technology will take charge of planning, However, improving the quality of science
developing, and promoting the national ICT education still remain a big challenge in the
development agenda. country. School science from basic education to
graduate education is improving slowly, and there
are only a few students enrolling in science and
technology courses.