Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-021-00293-1

REVIEW

Development of Kenaf Biochar in Engineering and Agricultural

Applications
M. M. Harussani1 · S. M. Sapuan1,2

Received: 16 August 2021 / Accepted: 27 October 2021 / Published online: 10 November 2021
© The Tunisian Chemical Society and Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
The aim of this review is to investigate the recent development of kenaf derived biochar and its composites in various
engineering and agricultural applications including nanostructure catalysts and polymer composites as kenaf biochar and
activated carbon are mainly used as material adsorbents and soil amendments. A systematic review on the effect of process
parameters of thermal decomposition, pyrolysis towards the production of desired biochar, therefore, is in crucial needs.
Based on existing literature, the properties and production of kenaf biomass and resultant biochar are discussed in this paper.
This analysis focuses on the unique characteristics of kenaf crops and the resulting biochar, which has a surprisingly large
surface area and increased pore volume, to explain their prospective applications, whether in environmental utilization or
engineering applications. Range of optimum surface areas for kenaf biochar are around 800–1000 ­m2/g where they show
high adsorption properties. Whereas, the pore volume of activated carbon usually exceeds 1 ­cm3/g. Recent developments in
engineered kenaf biochar technology and its future directions for research and development are also discussed.

Keywords  Kenaf biochar · Agricultural waste · Pyrolysis · Composites · Kenaf crops

1 Introduction feedstocks that can be used for energy are diverse: (1) pri-
mary residue, produced during production of food crops and
Biomass supply systems inherit the expertise of established forest products which mainly referred to agricultural or for-
agriculture and forestry sectors, even though the widespread estry residues; (2) secondary residues, yielded during stage
use of agricultural products and logging wastes for the gen- of processing biomass into products at processing facilities
eration of bioenergy is emerging. Biomass feedstocks are like saw-mill; and (3) tertiary residues which related to the
regarded as a clean energy sources due to their efficient and biomass derived wastes, varying from the organic compo-
long-term use may significantly reduce the environmental nents of municipal solid wastes, sludge and waste wood.
effect of fossil fuels [1, 2]. Thus, biomass feedstocks or Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is regarded as an indus-
also called as renewable carbon source are mainly origi- trial crop, and belongs to family Malvaceae and is grown
nated from plants and plant-based materials which were left commercially in various geographical regions including
behind, they are abundant, renewable and the best possible Central Africa, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Malay-
alternatives of sustainable supply for bio fuels, bio products sia [4, 5]. Kenaf is the most significant cultivated plant for
and bio energy generation. According to Faaij [3], biomass fibre production throughout the globe, second to cotton, and
was widely used as medicinal herbs in ancient Africa. It
has already been grown in Africa for 4000 years, and its
* S. M. Sapuan components have been utilized by indigenous tribes for ani-
sapuan@upm.edu.my mal feed, food, handcraft production, and fuel [6, 7]. The
1
Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites kenaf crop is gaining popularity as a high-yielding “non-
Research Centre (AEMC), Department of Mechanical food crop” for fibre production, notably in the newspaper,
and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, pulp, and other paper-based industries. Its quick growth and
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia higher yielding rate are associated to the facile pulp process-
2
Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical ing as well as easy-to-grow, in terms of progressive matu-
Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra rity in dry, shallow and sandy soils, and low-water content
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

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2 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

environments. Figure 1 shows the scenery in a kenaf field 2 Agriculture Waste of Kenaf Fibre
cultivated in one of the Far East countries. Recently, about as Biomass for Biochar
79% of total kenaf production belongs to India, China, and
Africa, contributing to 46% (100,000 tonnes), 26% and 7%
to the world kenaf production, respectively [8].
Kenaf is agricultural biomass/feedstock, utilized with
the thermal decomposition to yield biochar, from several
6
researchers, prior to exposure with acid chemical activating
agent to produce low-price activated carbon [10]. Pyrolysis
5
is the most widely used and successful method for producing
biochar, carbonization of biomass [10]. In addition, one of
4
the most significant avenues to better biofuels is thermo-

Documents
chemical conversion utilizing the pyrolysis process. In the
absence of oxygen, the thermal breakdown converted the 3

biomass solid matrix into gaseous, liquid, and solid compo-

nents. The primary feedstock compositions and experimental 2
pyrolysis settings impact the features and compositions of
these different by-products; which mainly dominated by the 1
production of solid biochar [11, 12]. Biochar, a porous car-
bon comparable to activated carbon, offers numerous agro- 0
nomic and environmental beneficial effects, including soil 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

improvement, surface pollution adsorption, and inorganic Year

and organic pollutant remediation in grounds [13].
Biochar, charcoal, and activated carbons are three car- Fig. 2  Number of publications with topic of “kenaf biochar” from
bon compounds with a lot of similarities in structure and the year 2012 to 2021 (Source: Scopus, 9 October 2021). Many stud-
ies have examined the production of biochars from a wide variety
processing mechanics [14, 15]. In anaerobic environments, of feedstocks into numerous applications including agricultural [18,
biochar propensity for lower temperatures, below 700 °C, is 19], engineering [20, 21], wastewater treatments [22], electrochemi-
particularly advantageous with respect to minimal mainte- cal uses and renewable energy generation [23], with both positive and
nance relative to activated carbon manufacturing. Further- negative results. However, from this Fig. 2, there are only 22 publica-
tions related to the keyword “kenaf biochar” were discovered in Sco-
more, because of its large surface area, comparable porosity, pus (9th October 2021) from the year 2012 to 2021. In addition, there
and functional groups, biochar has the same great prom- are only 57 scholarly works related to “kenaf biochar” were recorded
ise as activated carbon to be used as an adsorbent in water from Lens.org (data extracted from https://​www.​lens.​org on 9th Octo-
treatment. Evaluating a biomass source's biochar potential ber 2021). According to Web of Science, there are at least only 18
papers found related to the keyword where none of them is review
is an environmentally interesting method since the material work. Thus, these findings indicate the novelty of this work regard-
is readily available in huge quantities which is also readily ing providing literature review towards research on kenaf biochar
decomposed [16]. The biochar generated was not further throughout the globe. As for the novelties of this work, this paper
burned to generate energy; instead, it was used as a soil elaborates on the fundamentals of biochar and its pyrolysis design,
chemical and physical characteristics of kenaf biochar, as well as the
amendment, where it has been found to enhance water and developments and applications of biochar, especially kenaf derived
nutrient storage, reduce bulk density, and enhance pH values biochar, in various sectors; agriculture, renewable energy, water puri-
[17] to be utilized for several applications. fications and composites engineering

Fig. 1  Calm view of kenaf field

in Far East countries [9]

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 3

Kenaf (Hibiscus Cannabinus L.) has been grown for its tropical areas; these important features make kenaf an excel-
stem-derived fibres, which are often used for rope, during lent biochar material [16]. Long fibres make for roughly 30%
the last decade, as shown in Fig. 3. After fibre extraction, of the overall plant volume, whereas short fibres account for
the rest of the plant is either left in nature or burned for the remaining 70% of the plant volume [10].
heating or cooking, which plainly pollutes the environ- Kenaf is a multipurpose plant which could provide a
ment. Furthermore, kenaf is regarded to be one of the most variety of lucrative by-products for consumers and busi-
promising plants, leads to improved agricultural practices, nesses. As a result, kenaf is widely utilized in pulp, paper,
enhanced processing processes, and research on future and cardboard manufacturing, as well as fibre reinforced
development [24]. Kenaf is a tropical annual herbaceous composites, natural fuels, cellulose products, absorbent
plant that is used in agriculture. This fibrous, herbaceous agents, and animal feed [30]. Kenaf has a low density,
plant ranks third in biomass output and exhibits rapid growth is very absorbent, is non-abrasive during processing, has
rate, which takes less than 6 months to reach a size to be excellent specific mechanical characteristics, and is bio-
considered as matured suitable for practical uses [25]. The degradable. Turning char by-product into carbon particles
use of kenaf fibre cellulose has both environmental and eco- is one of the value-added benefits [2]. The carbon com-
nomic benefits; for instance, it can grow up to 3 m tall with a pounds might be employed in water and beverage puri-
3–5 cm base diameter in 3 months under such a broad range fication systems, as well as in electrode manufacturing
of climatic circumstances, making it ideal for natural fibre technologies as supercapacitor electrodes. The size distri-
surfaces and composites [26, 27]. When compared to other bution, surface area, pore diameters, and flexibility of bio-
plants as potential sources of biochar materials, the crop char determine its quality. The mass ratio, milling hours,
provides a low-cost and ecologically safe choice in terms of and sample post-treatment all play a role in producing
its high fibre and cellulose component. Furthermore, kenaf high-quality biochars. These can be obtained by fine-tun-
is readily generated and widely available, particularly in ing the process parameters throughout the manufacturing

Fig. 3  Kenaf plants as biomass

feedstocks [28, 29]

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4 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

process [31]. Consequently, biochar generated from kenaf Table 1  Proximate analysis

(wt%) of kenaf fibre Moisture content 4.4
fibres, which originate from its stems and leaves, has been
Volatile matter 83.05
utilized in a wide range of applications, including waste-
Fixed carbon 15.80
water treatment [32], biofuels generation including biogas,
Ash 1.15
bioethanol, biodiesel, and biohydrogen [9], polymer com-
LHV (MJ/kg) 17.38
posites [33, 34], and horticultural substrate synthesis [35].
HHV (MJ/kg) 18.54

2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Kenaf Fibre

2.2 Chemical Characteristics of Kenaf Fibre
The dried kenaf stems are shown in Fig. 4. The ultimate from Different Parts
and proximate analyses, as well as the inorganic concen-
tration in the kenaf samples, are shown in Table 1. The Chemical composition variations occur along the stalks/
results are within the range of typical agricultural and food branches of kenaf plant. From the bottom part of the stalks
processing residue compositions described in the literature or branches to the top, the concentration of α-cellulose,
[24, 36]. The carbon content of raw kenaf is estimated to lignin, and ash declines. This was hypothesized as mature
be around 47.32 wt%, according to the elemental compo- tissues acquire more metabolic products than younger tissues
sition of ultimate analysis. In addition, the production of located at the top part [38]. Several studies [39–41], how-
biochar due to slow pyrolysis suggesting a fixed carbon ever, have shown that the bast and core differ significantly in
content of 15.80 wt%. From the study, the heating value morphologic structure as well as in chemical composition.
(HHV) and low heating value (LHV) of the kenaf fibre Chemically, the chemical components of kenaf bast and
is 18.54 MJ/kg and 17.38 MJ/kg, respectively, which is core were significantly distinct. Table 3 shows the chemical
comparable to the HHV of other biomasses [23, 37]. analytical results for the entire kenaf (including its core and
The elemental composition study in Table 2 reveals bast), kenaf core and bast [24, 36]. Excluding the ash, the
that the major minerals found in the kenaf stems are percentages of all the chemical components of kenaf (non-
K (20.59 g/kg), Ca (8.16 g/kg), P (3.29 g/kg), and Mg wood) are more or less identical to those of wood products,
(1.75 g/kg). These components, in its char yielded via according to the findings of this study. When compared to
slow pyrolysis, are extremely beneficial to plant growth wood products, kenaf had a higher ash content. This dem-
and development. onstrated that the non-wood fibres had a significant silica
content, which was known to be a disadvantage in mechani-
cal strength qualities for the end products [40, 42]. The ash
content of whole kenaf, its core, and its bast fibers was 4%,
1.9%, and 5.4%, respectively. Extractive was often wasted
and was not utilized in manufacturing and production.

Table 2  Elemental and mineral

composition of kenaf fibre Elemental composition (wt%)
 C 47.32 (± 0.8)
 H 5.20 (± 0.3)
 N 0.38 (± 0.03)
 S  < 0.02
 O 47.1
Mineral composition (g/kg)
 Al 0.30
 Ca 8.16
 Fe 0.38
 K 20.59
 Mg 1.75
 Zn 0.12
 Cl 0.23
 P 3.29
 Si 1.50
Fig. 4  Dried kenaf stems

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 5

Table 3  Chemical composition Wood

of different fractions of kenaf
fibre [43] Kenaf bast Kenaf core Kenaf whole (core Softtwood Hardwood
and bast)

Holocellulose (%) 86.8 87.8 87.7 60–80 71–90

α-Cellulose (%) 55.0 49.0 53.8 30–60 31–64
Lignin (%) 14.7 19.2 21.2 21–37 14–34
Extractive (%) 5.5 4.7 6.4 0.2–8.5 0.1–7.7
Ash (%) 5.4 1.9 4.0  < 1  < 1

According to Table 3, the percentage of chemical com- bast) was approximately 21.2%, which was higher than the
position in kenaf fibres showed that kenaf core fibres were results acquired by Kuroda et al. [39]. Due to their reduced
higher in holocellulose and lignin, whereas kenaf bast fibres lignin composition, the core and bast samples comprised
were higher in α-cellulose and ash content when compared 19.2% and 14.7% lignin, respectively, which was slightly
to others [44]. The high α-cellulose content of bast fibre is lower than that of softwood (21–37%) and is favourable for
assumed to provide high strength in paper formation and pulping compared to wood. The analysis of plant material
other fibre end products. It was mentioned that the cellu- samples at different heights/lengths revealed that lignin
lose (bast fibre 52–59%, core 44–46%) and lignin (bast fibre and cellulose concentration vary with tissue maturity how-
9.3–13.2%, core 18.3–23.2%) contents of the kenaf plant ever do not vary considerably within each species. Paper
increased significantly during maturation [45]. Figure 5 strength is also affected by the lignin and cellulose content
shows the SEM images of kenaf core fibres and bast fibres. of raw plant materials; pulp mechanical strength, particu-
Kenaf lignin was comprised of three major lignin units larly tensile strength, is directly proportional to cellulose
in varying ratios: p-hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl, and syrin- content, whereas lignin is an undesirable polymer that
gyl. The total lignin content of the kenaf stalk (core and

Fig. 5  Scanning electron micrograph of kenaf fibre at different parts: transverse section of a core fibres, and b bast fibres; longitudinal section of
c core fibres, and d bast fibres

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6 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

requires a lot of energy and chemicals to remove during decomposition of lignin, at temperatures above 400 °C.
the pulping process [40]. As a result, the suggested pyrolysis temperature range was
300–600 °C, which helped convert lignin into biochar while
also keeping biochar stable. The pyrolysis temperature gen-
3 Manufacture of Kenaf Biochar and Its erally dominates the impact of residence time. As a result,
Characteristics determining the effect of residence time in biochar stabil-
ity might be difficult at times [52]. The heating rate was
3.1 Pyrolysis Design for Kenaf Fibre Biochar set at 10 °C/min, which was deemed low though ideal for
generating biochar from agricultural biomass [53] (Fig. 6).
Biochar is a solid residue generated through the thermal Moreover, a lower heating rate facilitated the development of
decomposition of biomass into fuel by-products [46], and it aromatic structures in biochar and the preservation of struc-
has traditionally been considered as a lower-value by-prod- tural complexity, whereas a high heating rate promoted the
uct compared to syngas and bio-oil, which are even more loss of structural complexity owing to local melting of cell
desirable. Kenaf biochar is produced by carbonizing kenaf structures, phase transitions, and swelling [54] (Table 4).
stems at 1000 °C in an inert environment [47, 48]. From
another work, according to Yusof et al. [31], biochar is made 3.2 Kenaf Biochar Characteristics
from biomass compounds that are pyrolysed/gasified under
controlled conditions in the absence of oxygen at tempera- When activated, microporous carbon with a large surface
tures ranging from 300 to 1000 °C. Incomplete gasification area generated in this way might be employed in pollution
produced charcoal, also known as bio-char or agri-char, removal [58]. In anaerobic circumstances, biochars propen-
which is a by-product of pyrolysis technology used in bio- sity for lower temperatures (below 700 °C) is particularly
fuel and ammonia manufacturing. These processes created advantageous in perspective of minimal maintenance con-
a large amount of biochar, necessitating a greater use of it. trasted to activated char manufacturing. On the other hand,
It is also possible to assist agricultural operations become the heating value of kenaf residues in the fluidized bed gasi-
more sustainable, dependable, and tangibly create a healthier fication method is thought to be inefficient for generating
green environment, despite the fact that it may be turned electricity [59], even if the generated gas could fulfil the
from waste to wealth [31]. demand for energy generation by gas engines.
Based on previous works, Saeed et al. [50] proposed the Furthermore, several pyrolysis products produced from
value range of the pyrolysis temperature for kenaf from 300 the entire kenaf were discovered [10, 16, 24, 31], mainly
to 600 °C. The range was chosen based on prior research's bio-oil and biochar, with the possible to be transformed into
recommendations [31, 32, 51] which stated that the kenaf more valuable chemicals, and their distribution was found
mass loss was attributed to three main stages: (1) drying to be comparable to that of hardwood, which the primary
and evaporation of light particles, happened at tempera- products are syringol and guaiacol compounds. The phenol
tures below 150 °C, (2) volatilization of hemicellulose and concentration of the kenaf core pyrolysate was greater than
cellulose, started degassing from 150 to 375 °C, and (3) that of the kenaf cuticle, indicating that the kenaf core had

Fig. 6  Schematic illustrations of a horizontal pyrolysis reactor (such as rotary kiln reactor) and b vertical pyrolysis reactor (such as free-fall
reactor) used to pyrolysed biomass feedstocks [23, 49]

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 7

Table 4  Literature work on pyrolysis of kenaf to yield biochar with different pyrolysis parameters
Biomass waste Tempera- Resi- Heating Flowrate of Biochar Application References
ture range dence rate (°C/ inert gases (L/ yields
(°C) time (h) min) min) (wt%)

Kenaf 300–750 1 20 0.5 24.6 Triclosan adsorption of 77.4 mg/g [55]

Kenaf fibre 550 3 10 100 28.6 Cd2+ biochar adsorbent 23.48 mg/g [50]
Kenaf fibre 1000 3 5 – – Oxidative degradation of bisphenol A in [56]
water
Kenaf core 400 1 7 – 35.44 Highly efficient removal of selected [16]
endocrine-disrupting compounds
Kenaf fibre waste 500 1 – 100 20 Adsorbents [10]
Kenaf stem 400–600 1 20 10 31 Pollutants removal or gas storage and soil [24]
amendments
Kenaf stem 500 1 5 10 30 Soil amendments [57]

more lignin. Kenaf has a low overall bio-oil production when volatiles matter at 400  °C which decrease with increasing
equalled to wood, yet a high yield when compared to other of temperature from 34.5 to 19.9 wt% at 600  °C. On the
agricultural crops [60]. contrary, the weight loss associated with the fixed carbon
increases with the increase of pyrolysis temperature from
3.2.1 Kenaf Biochar Chemical Characterization 60.2 to 73.2 wt%. Similar trend is recorded for ashes. Such
result can be attributed to the low inorganic contents which
Biochar is one of the most important kenaf stems pyrolysis is vital due to their abilities to produce low ash and high
by-products. Biochar will be produced during the final pyrol- fixed carbon contents [36].
ysis of kenaf feedstocks as shown in Fig. 7. Several main
pyrolytic parameters, including such process temperature, 3.2.1.2  Mineral and  Elemental Compositions Table  7
heating rate, feed rate, catalysts, and pressure, will influ- reveals that Mg and K are the most abundant mineral ele-
ence the formation of biochar [2, 63]. According to previous ments in the charcoal. Kenaf biochar contains non-neg-
studies, the biochar yields are decreases with increasing of ligible amounts of Ca, P, Zn, and Na. As a result of the
the used pyrolysis temperature [64]. The char obtained by decomposition/devolatilization of a portion of the kenaf, the
pyrolysis will be characterized via several analyses. biochars are rich in carbon and minerals. As a result, the use
of kenaf char as an agricultural additive might be suggested.
3.2.1.1  Ultimate and  Proximate Analysis Table  5 lists the
chemical properties of kenaf biochars as determined. The 3.2.1.3  Specific Surface Area Charcoals are non-specific
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and ash content or at least poorly specific adsorbents, exhibiting numerous
of kenaf biochar were approximately between 40.0–90.0, macro-and transition pores of various diameters, and as a
1.0–3.0, 0.01–1.20, 10.0–50.0, 0.0–0.5, and 10.0–40.0%, consequence of the large surface areas. Range of optimum
respectively. Proximate analyses of the different biochars surface areas for kenaf biochar are around 800–1000 ­m2/g
are summarized in Table  6. Comparison between the dif- where they show high adsorption properties [68]. Table  5
ferent pyrolysis temperatures shows higher amounts of shows the findings of the BET surface area study and the

Fig. 7  a FESEM images of

kenaf biochar pyrolyzed at
450 °C and b image of kenaf
biochar yielded via slow pyroly-
sis [55]

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8 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

Table 5  Chemical characteristics of kenaf and its biochar

Biochar Pyrolysis Specific Pore Pore width (nm) Elemental composition (wt%) References
temperature surface area volume
(°C) ­(m2/g) ­(cm3/g) C H N O S Ash

Raw kenaf core 400 1.1381 0.0212 464.54 46.210 2.850 0.510 – 0.510 – [16]
Bleached kenaf core 400 4.8168 0.0001 38.79 49.650 2.110 0.013 – 0.480 – [16]
Biochar 550 117.70 0.0639 2.17 67.52 1.270 1.23 19.18 – 10.80 [61]
Magnetic biochar 550 175.55 0.1024 2.33 58.32 1.120 1.06 25.75 – 13.75 [61]
Kenaf fibre biochar 1000 289.50 – – 50.50 1.878 0.268 8.47 0.025 38.86 [62]
HCl treated KFC 1000 346.57 0.0040  ~ 3.00 55.54 1.957 0.142 39.31 0 3.049 [62]
Kenaf 500 261.20 97.70 – – – 0.075 [57]
Kenaf biochar 500 261.20 0.088 1.36 67.50 1.5 6.6 [24]
Kenaf fibre biochar 500 11.4 0.017 5.92 46.70 2.31 1.2 56 0.113 22.7 [10]
Kenaf biochar 450 4.6 0.0224 19.26 54.10 2.2 0.7 12.1 0.6 [55]

Table 6  Proximate analyses of the produced biochars (%) increased considerably from 162 to 261 ­m2/g as the pyroly-
Biochar Mois- Volatile Fixed Ash con- References
sis temperature increased. This progression is explained
ture matter carbon tent by a change in the textural characteristics of the biochars,
content which can be related to the minor devolatilization observed
between 400 and 500 °C, which creates more microporos-
KFB 3.4 17.5 56.4 22.7 [10]
ity in the carbon matrix. In addition, greater temperatures
KB – 25.9 67.5 6.6 [24]
appear to influence the porosity of the char [16].
The surface of the biochars grew rougher and more
porous as the pyrolysis temperature high. The organic
Table 7  Mineral composition of the biochars obtained at different component of pyrolyzed kenaf at high temperatures van-
temperatures (g/kg) ished owing to devolatilization/decomposition, resulting in
Element (wt%) Kenaf biochars Other biochars pyrolyzed kenaf with a rough surface [9]. Cho et al. [55]
observed that when the pyrolysis temperature increased,
[24] [57] [55] [65–67]
the specific surface area of kenaf biochar grew dramatically
Na 2.4 0.1 – 1–5 from 5 to 270 ­m2/g, which is improved > 65 times, and even
Mg 10.3 0.6 0.4 0–2 the porosity of kenaf biochar enhanced. Previous studies [2,
Al 0.5 0.03 – – 69, 70] has also found that when the pyrolysis temperature
Si 0.8 0.1 – – rises, the specific surface area increases by more than ten-
P 1.3 0.16 – 0.1–2 fold. The liberation of volatile organic chemicals and the
S 1.5 0.08 0.6 – oxidative breaking of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are
Cl 0.2 – 0.4 – due to the rise in specific surface area caused by pyrolysis
K 7.3 0.64 4.2 2–10 temperature increase [55]. Furthermore, inside the biochar
Ca 6.8 0.53 0.7 5–20 that was pyrolyzed at high temperatures, a complex pore
Fe 0.3 – – – structure with a rough surface was discovered as a result of
Zn 2.3 – – – dissolving the unstable component and softening the stable
Sr 0.1 – – – structure in biomass, which resulted in shrinkage, collapse,
N – – – 0–1 and melting of the pore [71].
O – – 14.0 –
3.2.1.4  Raman Spectroscopy  Raman spectroscopy is used
to determine phase and polymorphisms, as well as pollution
textural characteristics of the kenaf biochars. The observed and impurities. Figure 8 depicts Raman spectrometry curves
values are rather high, which is a significant benefit for using from this investigation by Khiari et  al. [24]. The Raman
kenaf biochars to remove contaminants from effluents. The spectra at 400 °C showed a signal with no discernible peaks,
kenaf biochars' specific surface area was estimated using the which was attributable to the high amount of amorphous
BET technique and ­CO2 adsorption isotherms. According to carbon structures generated at low pyrolysis temperatures.
Khiari et al. [24], the surface area of the produced biochar The Raman spectra at 500 °C showed two relatively large

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 9

Fig. 8  Raman spectra of the kenaf biochar produced at 400, 500 and Fig. 9  Raman spectra of the grape marc biochars produced at differ-
600 °C [24] ent temperature [57]

Raman bands at 1300 and 1600 ­cm−1. The D-band is associ- 4 Recent Applications of Kenaf Biochar
ated with ­sp2 bonded carbon with structural flaws, whereas and Its Composites
the G-band is associated with the in-plane vibrations of sp2
bonded graphitic carbon structures. The valley area “V” 4.1 Materials Adsorbents for Wastewater
between the D-band and the G-band is connected to the Treatments
amorphous carbon structure. Structure characteristics such
as ­ID (D band intensity height), I­ G (G band intensity height), Lacks in wastewater treatment happened when there are no
­IV (valley region intensity height) and the distinct ratios ­ID/ alternatives in purifying and treating the sludge prior to dis-
IG, ­IV/IG, and ­IV/ID have been computed from these spectra posal. Sludge with a high concentration of heavy metals such
in order to obtain detailed information on the structure of as Fe, Ti, Mn, Zn, As, Cu, Ni, Zr, and Ga is often disposed of
the individual chars [24]. in landfills [11]. The recovery of valuable minerals like man-
The ­IV/ID and I­ V/IG ratio decreases due to the char evo- ganese from sludge is an alternative to zero disposal of solid
lution structure with pyrolysis severity from amorphous to wastes and a means to reduce pollution emission into the
more organized carbon (turbostratic char). As for ­ID/IG, this environment. It may be accomplished by adsorption, which
ratio decreases indicating an increase of the proportion of is a low-cost, versatile, and simple-to-implement technique.
condensed aromatic ring structures having defects. Conden- Kenaf derived biochar which then chemically activated into
sation of tiny aromatic amorphous carbon structures results activated carbon has been shown to be an excellent adsor-
in D structures. These findings are consistent with the results bent material for heavy metals removal. The goal of this
observed for exhausted grape marc char after various ther- research is to use kenaf fibre as activated carbon in batch
mal treatments [72], see Fig. 9. This behavior can be due adsorption to recover heavy metals from wastewater sludge.
to the significant amount of amorphous carbon structures The adsorption effectiveness of adsorbents was studied in
formed during low-temperature pyrolysis [57]. The Raman relation to contact time, sludge pH, and temperature as well
spectra above 500 °C showed two reasonably wide Raman as its surface area and pore properties. The results indicated
bands. The other biochar has a similar tendency. This behav- that the newly produced kenaf activated carbon and biochar
iour may be described by the char evolution structure with are the most possible alternative adsorbents for heavy met-
the severity of pyrolysis from amorphous carbon to struc- als [50].
tured carbon (turbostratic char). According to a batch adsorption research [13], kenaf
fibre-derived activated carbon is capable of removing 30%
of the heavy metal element from the sludge. It was also
discovered that the optimum removal occurs in a neutral
pH solution, that increasing contact duration increases
equilibrium absorption, and that raising temperature
increases the amount of heavy metal removal [13]. The
development of heavy metal removal methods for aquatic
environments is in great demand. Saeed et al. [10] had

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10 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

investigated the pyrolysis of raw materials including rice 4.2 Soil Amendments in Agriculture
husk and kenaf fibre as agricultural lignocellulosic wastes
for the adsorption of C ­ u2+. The surface area of biochar Ferjani et al. [57] studied three agricultural biomass includ-
produced increases proportionately to the increasing quan- ing grape marc, kenaf stems, and flax shive, for biochar pro-
tity of kenaf fibre in the mixing ratio rice husk/kenaf fibre duction. For a future possible application in agriculture, the
as biomass feedstocks, according to BET characteriza- pyrolysis operation was carried out at 400, 500, and 600 °C
tion findings. This morphology and surface area analysis with a continuous heating gradient rate of 5 °C/min. The
revealed that pure biochars made from kenaf fibre had a lot biochar yields declined as the applied pyrolysis temperature
of promise as adsorbents. However, blending both fibres increased, but remained relatively stable at 500 °C for all
does not provide the intended outcome for utilization as feedstocks, according to the results. Grape marc and kenaf
an adsorbent, which has a detrimental impact on biochar contain the largest quantity of theoretically accessible miner-
production since the oxygen-to-carbon and hydrogen-to- als, as well as an intriguing surface area and microporosity
carbon ratios were outside the usual range, affecting bio- value, according to their physico-chemical characteristics
char stability. As a result, it impacted copper ion adsorp- [57]. These characteristics make biochars excellent for soil
tion from aqueous solutions [10]. improvements and the adsorption of contaminants from
In another work from Saeed et al. [61], the adsorption environment.
study on cadmium materials had resulted with optimum Yao et al. [73] had successfully investigated the utiliza-
adsorption under pH 5–6. The textural characteristics tion of biochar derived from Mg-enriched tomato tissues
of biochars, such as surface area and pore volume, were in order to adsorb and recover phosphate from wastewater,
improved by increasing the amount of oxygen-containing which was then cycled back into grounds as an efficient
groups and creating inner-sphere complexes with oxygen- slow-release phosphate fertilizer. According to Vithanage
containing groups. Increased adsorption capacity was et al. [74], acid treatment enhanced the specific surface area
achieved by increasing the initial ion concentration and of bur-cucumber derived biochar, exhibit better sulfamethaz-
solution temperature. The use of iron oxide on the surface ine adsorption ability and should be utilized as possible soil
of biochar to impart a magnetic characteristic allowed for bioremediation suitable for sulfamethazine-polluted soils.
simple separation and regeneration using an external mag-
net. In comparison to pure biochar, the magnetic biochar 4.3 Electrochemical Applications of Kenaf Biochar
composite had a greater affinity for ­Cd2+. By acid treating
kenaf fibre biochar with HCl, an adsorbent was created. Biochar has been utilized as an electro catalyst and photo
In batch system experiments, the treatment increased the catalyst in the electrochemical water-splitting process to
BET surface area, which resulted in an increase in the produce hydrogen and oxygen [75, 76]. The addition of a
adsorption of methylene blue dye (MB). Variations in the heteroatom produces active sites in biochar, allowing for a
initial dye concentration, adsorbent dosage, pH, and tem- more efficient hydrogen evolution process (HER). S-doped
perature were used to examine the adsorption process. At a and N-doped biochars produced from peanut root nodule
concentration of 50 mg/L, the greatest percentage removal (see Fig. 10), for example, have been shown to be effective
of MB was determined to be 95 wt%. The dye sorption was HER electro catalysts. Because of its large electrochemical
optimal at a pH of 8.5 [32]. area of 27.4 mF/cm2, the doped biochar demonstrated an

Fig. 10  Structural models and charge density of H adsorbed on the surface of graphene, N-doped graphene and S-doped graphene. The blue and
yellow symbols represent a drop in charge density and a rise in charge density, respectively

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 11

outstanding onset potential of 27 mV compared to revers-

ible hydrogen electrode (RHE) for HER, which is similar to
a commercial Pt/C catalyst with a loading of 20 wt% [77].
Figure 10 shows the effect of S and N doping into carbon on
HER. The flowing process was as follows: (a) H atom was
combined on the C atom; H atom was combined on the N (b)
or S (d) dopant atom; H atom was combined on the C atom
around N (c) or S (e) dopant atom.
Nanostructure catalysts made from sunflower seed shell
charcoal and molybdenum carbide ­(Mo2C) nanoparticles
are another example. At an over potential of only 60 mV,
this integrated electro catalyst produced a current density
of 10 mA c­ m2 for HER. Most notably, this catalyst has a
near-unity faradaic efficiency and is extremely durable [78].
Growth of molybdenum diselenide (­ MoSe2) nanosheets on
Fig. 11  Schematic illustrations of thermal decomposition of raw bio-
a carbon fibre aerogel is another example. Cotton wool mass [46]
biomass was used to make the carbon aerogel. At an onset
potential of 104 mV, this ­MoSe2/carbon fibre electro catalyst
demonstrated HER vs RHE [79]. Without a doubt, current activation almost doubled the beneficial benefits of biochars,
biochar catalyst performance lags well below that of the making it a promising choice in order to use biochar in
most effective water-splitting catalysts, with over-potentials future [92]. After modification, biochars' adsorption ability
of 13 and 17 mV at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 [80]. of nitrate and phosphate improves, implying that activated
It does, however, have the potential to be employed as an biochars could also be used as adsorbent materials to reduce
abundant alternative catalyst material for the generation of nutrient loss in grounds and for further horticultural pur-
hydrogen and oxygen. poses [93] (Table 8).
The utilization of biomass waste materials to manufacture
activated carbons has become a huge technology in carbon 4.5 Future Directions of Kenaf Biochar in Composite
supercapacitor electrodes [81, 82]. Various kind of agricul- Applications
tural biomass including cotton stalks [83], discarded coffee
beans [84], seaweed biopolymers [85], corn stovers [86], There is difficult to find any published works on kenaf
roselle [87, 88], and sugarcane bagasse [89] have all been derived biochar uses in composite applications. However,
reported as carbon electrodes in supercapacitors. The carbon it is remarkably found that the surface area (approximately
precursor and modification circumstances utilised ascertain 120–300 ­m2/g) and micropore volumes (over 0.088 ­cm3/g)
the electrochemical attributes of double-layer capacitance, of kenaf biochar is quite similar to the other commercialised
including such high surface area, porosity distribution, biochars such as durian rind, sugarcane bagasse, rice straw
conductivity, as well as the existence of electrochemically and corn straw, as according to previous works [10, 24, 31].
active surface functional groups, and hence impact the per- Thus, numerous applications could be found in composite
formance [82, 90]. Because of their enormous surface areas, engineering with the contribution from distinct characteris-
relative inertness, and abundant possibilities for doping and tics of kenaf biochar based composites including production
structural tweaking, carbons generated from biomass play of magnetic biochar for low-cost supercapacitor application
such an important role in electrochemistry [91]. [94], low-price novel engineered adsorbents [95], biochar
composite-based catalysts [96], bacterial/biochar compos-
4.4 Horticultural Applications ites for bioremediation [97], and antibacterial composite for
water treatment [98].
Biochars may be utilized in a variety of horticultural appli- Despite the difficulties in finding research work on kenaf
cations, such as replacing peat moss on soilless substrates biochar uses in composites engineering, biochar derived
for containerized greenhouse and nursery crops. Hardwood from other biomass feedstocks had been widely commer-
pellets and pelletized wheat straw were used to make biochar cialised as reported in literature. Matykiewicz [99] had fab-
via pyrolysis as shown in Fig. 11. The potassium concentra- ricated carbon fibre reinforced biochar/epoxy composites for
tion and pH of straw biochar were greater than those of wood mechanical reinforcements. From the results, the mechanical
biochar [46]. In comparison to non-activated biochar, steam and thermal properties of the biochar reinforced composites
activation of biochar might hasten its beneficial effects on improved by almost 5% compared to the neat one. Das et al.
nutrient retention and uptake by plants. In all cases, steam [100] had utilized biochar originated from pine wood waste

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12 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

Table 8  Current application of kenaf and other biomass derived biochar in various applications
Biochar Applications Uses Key points References

Kenaf biochar Wastewater treatments Cd2+ adsorbents Optimum adsorption achieved under [61]
pH 5–6
Surface modification of biochar
using iron oxide for impos-
ing magnetic property allowed
for easy separation by external
magnet and regeneration, with the
maximum adsorption capacity of
47.90 mg/g
Kenaf fibre activated carbon Sludge treatment Heavy metals adsorbents BET surface area—11.4 [13]
(KFAC) ­m2/g; micropore vol-
ume—0.1072–0.2169 ­cm3/g;
cumulative adsorption area—210–
600 ­m2/g
2+
Kenaf biochar Wastewater treatments Cu adsorbents BET surface area—400–500 [10]
­m2/g; pore volume—0.017
­cm3/g; removal efficiency of
­Cu2+—12.30%
Rice husk biochar Wastewater treatments Cu2+ adsorbents The rice husk biochar showed [10]
good adsorption of copper ions
from aqueous solutions. BET
surface area—13.6 ­m2/g; pore
volume—0.0076 ­cm3/g; removal
efficiency of C ­ u2+—65.80%
Kenaf fibre biochar Agriculture Soil amendments KF has the most theoretically acces- [57]
sible minerals, as well as an attrac-
tive surface area (261.2 ­m2/g) and
microporosity value
P-laden biochar Agriculture Slow-release fertilizer Maximum P sorption capacity of [73]
the biochar— > 100 mg/g
Burcucumber biochar Agriculture Soil amendments Acid activation showed enhanced [74]
sorption of Sulfamethazine (SMZ)
Activated biochar has BET surface
area of 571 m ­ 2/g
The predicted maximum equilib-
rium concentration of biochar for
loamy sand soils was 182 mg/kg
MoP/biomass carbon flake Electrochemistry Electrocatalysts Highly active HER electrocatalyst [76]
with excellent durability in acidic
electrolytes
Sugarcane bagasse biochar Electrochemistry Electrochemical capacitance High specific capacitance of 280 [89]
­Fg−1 at a current density of 1 A/g
72% retention at a very high current
density of 20 A/g
Good energy density of 5 Wh/kg at
a power density of 3.5 kW/kg
Peanut root nodules derived carbon Electrochemistry Non-metal catalysts S and N-doped carbons exhibit a [77]
nanosheets porous and multilayer structure
with a specific surface area of
513.3 ­m2/g and high electrochemi-
cal area of 27.4 mF/cm2
Corn stover biochar Super capacitor Carbon electrode High specific capacitance of 245.9 [86]
­Fg−1 at a current density of 0.1
A/g
Cotton stalks derived activated Super capacitor Electric double-layer capacitor Activated carbon with a BET [83]
carbon surface area of 1.481 ­cm2/g and
micropore volume of 0.0377
­cm3/g
The capacitance is 114 F ­ g−1

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Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17 13

Table 8  (continued)
Biochar Applications Uses Key points References

Waste coffee beans derived carbon Super capacitor Nanoporous carbon electrode The energy densities up to 20 Wh/ [84]
kg in 1 M H ­ 2SO4, with excellent
stability at high charge–discharge
rates
The two-electrode cell has capaci-
tance of 368 ­Fg−1
Stable performance over 10,000
cycles at a cell potential of 1.2 V
and current load of 5 A/g
The distribution of micropores and
mesopores 2–4 nm wide
Wheat straw biochar Horticulture Potting substrates pH—5.8, container capac- [46]
ity—65.6%, total porosity—89.8%
Greenhouse experiments using
tomato and marigold plants grown
in 3.0-L pots showed positive
results
Beech wood biochar Horticulture Soil fertilizer Biochar applications of 15 g/kg soil [92]
resulted in higher levels of acces-
sible P and N in the surface soil

as reinforcement agents within polypropylene matrix, the or technical applications. Recent advances in engineered
biochar exhibits comparable carbon content of 82 wt% and kenaf biochar technology, as well as future research and
specific surface area, 335 ­m2/g, as of kenaf biochar. Thus, development directions, were briefly highlighted. As a
large surface area of the engineered biochar allowed poly- result of the preceding debate, it is obvious that low-cost,
propylene to flow, resulting in mechanical interlocking and environmentally friendly, green, and facile processing
improved mechanical characteristics [11, 101]. products must be taken into account for solving current
Conclusively, biochar should be used in biocomposites environmental issues toward sustainable environment in
to increase its usefulness and generate better composites the future. Thus, it is paramount to create approaches and
while also managing waste in a sustainable manner [102]. products that (1) reduce the usage of fossil fuels, (2) recy-
However, no research including kenaf derived biochar in cling trash, and (3) are biodegradable plus environmen-
biocomposites have been done so far. As a result, this opin- tally friendly.
ion may encourage researchers to investigate the use of the Kenaf biochar promises to be a novel potentially cost-
biochar in biocomposites. effective and ecologically friendly carbon material with a
wide range of applications. Despite the fact that current
research on the manufacture and application of activated
5 Conclusion and Future Propects biochar in a variety of fields is expanding [103], a number
of research gaps still exist. The following ideas are suggested
In this paper, current developments of kenaf-derived bio- to alleviate these gaps in knowledge:
char and its composites in engineering and agricultural
applications, such as nanostructure catalysts and polymer (i) The characteristics of activated biochar may be con-
composites, had been discussed. Kenaf biochar and acti- siderably affected by feedstock with varied compo-
vated carbon are mostly utilized as soil amendments and sitions, manufacturing circumstances, and activa-
material adsorbents, and they are yet to be utilized in other tion parameters of biochar. Future research will be
engineering applications such as biocomposites, superca- required to select feedstock with acceptable composi-
pacitors and optical applications. Thus, thorough literature tions, as well as optimize production circumstances
review on the influence of process parameters of thermal and activation parameters, in order to create biochar
decomposition, pyrolysis, and biochar formation on the with appropriate and intended characteristics for spe-
manufacture of desired biochar is critical. This review cific uses.
had been focused on the unique characteristics of kenaf (ii) More relevant and innovative treatments for activa-
crops and the resulting biochar, which has a surprisingly tion, as well as improvements to existing techniques,
large surface area and increased pore volume, in order to are required. Furthermore, using multiple main acti-
explain their prospective use, whether in environmental vation methods for biochar activation may give a

13

14 Chemistry Africa (2022) 5:1–17

good opportunity to improve activation efficiency adsorption. Ecol Eng Environ Technol 22(1):1–8. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
by integrating the benefits of diverse approaches. 10.​12912/​27197​050/​132099
11. Harussani MM, Sapuan SM, Khalina A, Ilyas RA, Hazrol MD
(iii) The majority of biochar applications are focused on (2020) Review on green technology pyrolysis for plastic wastes.
water pollution remediation, whereas applications for In: Proceedings of 7th Postgrad. Semin. Nat. Fibre Reinf. Polym.
­CO2 capture and energy storage are comparatively Compos. 2020. Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products
underutilized and should be broadened. Furthermore, (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, pp
50–53
there are several possible applications for activated 12. Basu P (2013) Chapter 4 Torrefaction. In: Biomass gasification,
biochar that should be studied in the future. It might pyrolysis and torrefaction: Practical design and theory. Academic
be utilized as a novel possible in-situ amendment for Press, p 87–145. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​C2011-0-​07564-6
polluted soil and sediment management, for example. 13. Saeed AAH, Harun NY, Zulfani N (2020) Heavy metals cap-
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scaled-up application, stability, reuses, and wasted A, Mohamad IS, Knight VF, Abdullah N (2020) Carbon nano-
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Acknowledgements  The author gratefully acknowledged Ministry of nanotube-reinforced polymer composite: an overview. Polymers
Higher Education (MoHE) for funding this project via Post COVID- (Basel) 13:1047
19 Special Research Grant 2020 (Vote No. 5540346), University of 16. Nasir HM, Aris AZ, Abdullah LC, Ismail I (2021) Facile fab-
Minho, Portugal for the invitation to present the similar finding, and rication and characterization of kenaf core as natural biochar
also Universiti Putra Malaysia for providing research facilities. Spe- for the highly efficient removal of selected endocrine-disrupting
cial thanks as well for Mohamed Mehdi Chehimi, Executive Editor-in- compounds. Environ Geochem Health 1–21. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Chief of Chemistry Africa, for the publication invitations. 1007/​s10653-​021-​00999-8
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