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Copyright n 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Editor
L. L. Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson

Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan
Lubrication Fundamentals, J. George Wills
Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman
Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G. Boothroyd and C.
Poli
Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J. Karassik
Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L. Ryan
Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Components; Part
B: Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller
Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H. Bickford
Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N. Siddall
Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Lewis H.
Bell
Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear Noise,
J. Derek Smith
Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design and Appli-
cations Handbook, American Chain Association
Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A.
Schweitzer
Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design and Cal-
culations, John D. Constance
CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S. Knox
Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N.
Siddall
Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W. Heilich III and
Eugene E. Shube
Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston and Chris E.
Passerello
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Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook, Brayton Lincoln,
Kenneth J. Gomes, and James F. Braden
Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W. S. Robertson
Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L. Ryan
Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J. Martini
Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S. Knox
Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications, Jerome C.
Lange
Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques, Lyndon
O. Barton
CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measurement,
Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford, and Mark E. Coticchia
Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V. Ganapathy
Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A. Burgess
Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,
Jasbir Singh
Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H. Kirchhoff
Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L. Ryan
Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Application,
Michael J. Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division, edited by Philip
W. Harland
Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic Tech-
nology, R. P. Donovan
Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford, and Mark E.
Coticchia
Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard S. Haviland
Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R. Mancuso
Shan Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion, Fluid
Flow, and Heat Transfer, V. Ganapathy
Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, Jerome C.
Lange
Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E. Mams
Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C. Orthwein
Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L. Trietley
Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena,
edited by Lawrence E. Murr, Karl P. Staudhammer, and Marc A. Meyers
Magnesium Products Design, Robert S. Busk
How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology, William
D. Engelke
Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition; with cam design software for
the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W. Jensen
Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application, Sylvester Campbell
Fundamentals of Robotics, David D. Ardayfio
Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D. Erickson
Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C. Stan Wei
Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S. Knox, with contributions by
Thomas C. Boos, Ross S. Culverhouse, and Paul F. Muchnicki
Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V. Dukkipati and
Joseph R. Amyot
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TM

Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, P. K.
Mallick
Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application, Scott M. Juds
Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R. Champion, Jr.,
and J. Michael Ensminger
Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger
Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers,
Jeffrey M. Steele
Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic
Laboratory Experiments, Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse
Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Igor J.
Karassik
Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Alexander Blake
An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H. Hablanian
Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter
Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski
Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors, Preben W.
Jensen
Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by Marc
A. Meyers, Lawrence E. Murr, and Karl P. Staudhammer
Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P. C. Koelet
Applied Combustion, Eugene L. Keating
Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J. Barb
Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lyndon O. Barton
Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James W.
Murdock
Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. K, Mallick
Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications, Edward R. Champion, Jr.
Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised and Ex panded,
V. Ganapathy
Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lewis H. Bell and Douglas H. Bell
Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H. MacNeal
Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites: Second Edition, Re-
vised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Nielsen and Robert F. Landel
Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G. Bayer
Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by David W. South
and Jon R. Mancuso
Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.
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Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures, Ray E.
Monahan
Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications, Charles A.
Schacht
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques for
Use in Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D. Meadows
An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
Shan Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John
Piotrowski
Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures, edited by
Suong Van Hoa
Friction Science and Technology, Peter J. Blau
Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties and Engi-
neering Applications, Edward Miller
Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W. Volk
Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E. Stewart
Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures, A. A. Seireg
and Jorge Rodriguez
Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, Vladimir Stejskal and Michael
Valasek
Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A. Cruse
Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A. Speck
Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah
High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Marsbed H. Hablanian
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook,
James D. Meadows
Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications, edited by G.
T. Murray
Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith and
Reinhard Hanselka
Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven M.
Lepi
Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K. Garg
Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K. Muller and Bernard S. Nau
Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg
Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A. Melnikov
Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems, Stephen A. McKeown
Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Jon R. Mancuso
Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
Gear Noise and Vibration, J. Derek Smith
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T. Kuppan
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Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E. Totten
Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications, John J. Bloomer
Mechanical Engineering Software
Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietrich
Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Software

for the IBM PC, David G. Ullman
TM

TM

TH€ftMODYNAMICS
PftOC€SS€S AND RPPUCRTIONS
CRRl LOGflN, JR.

Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona
M A R C E L
MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Logan, Earl.
Thermodynamics: processes and applications / Earl Logan, Jr.
p. cm. — (Mechanical engineering; 122)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8247-9959-3 (alk. paper)
1. Thermodynamics. I. Title. II. Series: Mechanical engineering (Marcel
Dekker, Inc.); 122.
TJ265.L64 1999
621.402'!—dc21 99-15460
CIP
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more infor-
mation, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above.
Copyright © 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. AH Rights Reserved.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or
by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
Current printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
TM
Preface
This book is intended as a reference work in thermodynamics for practicing

engineers and for use as a text by undergraduate engineering students. The goal
is to provide rapid access to the fundamental principles of thermodynamics and
to provide an abundance of applications to practical problems. Users should
have completed two years of an undergraduate program in engineering, physics,
applied mathematics, or engineering technology.
The material in this book includes equations, graphs, and illustrative
problems that clarify the theory and demonstrate the use of basic relations in
engineering analysis and design. Key references are provided at the conclusion
of each chapter to serve as a guide to further study.
Additionally, many problems are given, some of which serve as numerical
or analytical exercises, while others illustrate the power and utility of thermal
system analysis in engineering design. There is sufficient material in Chapters
1-2 and 5-11 for an introductory, one-semester course. A more theoretical
course would include Chapters 3 and 4, and a more applied course would extract
parts of Chapters 12-14 to supplement material presented in Chapters 8-11.
Although this text shows the relationship of macroscopic thermodynamics
to other branches of physics, the science of physics is utilized only to give the
reader greater insight into thermodynamic processes. Instead of emphasizing
theoretical physics, the book stresses the application of physics to realistic
engineering problems.
An ideal gas is used initially to model a gaseous thermodynamic system
because it is an uncomplicated, yet often realistic model, and it utilizes the
reader's basic knowledge of physics and chemistry. More realistic models for
solid, liquid, and gaseous systems are progressively introduced in parallel with
the development of the concepts of work, heat, and the First Law of
Thermodynamics. The abstract property known as entropy and its relation to the
Second Law complete the treatment of basic principles. The subsequent
material focuses on the use of thermodynamics in a variety of realistic
engineering problems.
Thermodynamic problems associated with refrigeration, air conditioning,
and the production of electrical power are covered in Chapters 8-14. Chapter 14
treats the special topic of high-speed gas flow, providing the connection between
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics. Applications in this chapter are found in
aerodynamics, gas turbines, gas compressors, and aircraft and rocket propulsion.
Earl Logan, Jr.
TM

TM

Contents
Preface
Part I: Fundamentals
1. Introduction
2. Processes of an Ideal Gas
3. Ideal Processes of Real Systems
4. Work
5. Heat and the First Law
6. Entropy and the Second Law
7. Availability and Irreversibility
Part II: Applications
8. Refrigeration
9. Air-Conditioning
10. Steam Power Plants
11. Internal Combustion Engines
12. Turbomachinery
13. Gas Turbine Power Plants
14. Propulsion
Appendixes
Al: Saturated Steam Tables
A2: Superheated Steam Tables
A3: Compressed Liquid Water
Bl: Properties of Refrigerant R-22
B2: Properties of Refrigerant R-134a
B3: Properties of Refrigerant R-12
C: Compressibility Factors for Nitrogen
D: Enthalpy of Air at Low Pressures
E: Enthalpy of Air at High Pressures
F: Max-well Relations
TM

TM

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The Nature of Thermodynamics
From physics we know that work occurs when a force acts through
a distance. If a mass is elevated in a gravitational field, then a
force must act through a distance against the weight of the object
being raised, work is done and the body is said to possess an
amount of potential energy equal to the work done. If the effect of
a force is to accelerate a body, then the body is said to have kinetic
energy equal to the work input. When two bodies have different
temperatures, or degrees of hotness, and the bodies are in contact,
then heat is said to flow from the hotter to the colder body. The
thermodynamicist selects a portion of matter for study; this is the
system. The chosen system can include a small collection of mat-
ter, a group of objects, a machine or a stellar system; it can be
very large or very small. The system receives or gives up work
and heat, and the system collects and stores energy. Both work
and heat are transitory forms of energy, i.e., energy that is trans-
ferred to or from some material system; on the other hand, energy
which is stored, e.g., potential energy or kinetic energy, is a prop-
erty of the system. A primary goal of thermodynamics is to
evaluate and relate work, heat and stored energy of systems.
Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat into work or
the use of work to produce a cooling or heating effect. We shall
learn that these effects are brought about through the use of ther-
modynamic cycles. If heat is converted into work in a cycle, then
the cycle is a power cycle. On the other hand, if work is required
to produce a cooling effect, the cycle is a refrigeration cycle.
TM
The term cycle is used to describe an ordered series of proc-
esses through which a substance is made to pass in order to pro-
duce the desired effect, e.g., refrigeration or work. The substance
may be solid, liquid or gas, e.g., steam, and it may acquire heat
from some available heat source, e.g., the sun, a chemical reaction
involving a fuel or a nuclear reaction involving a fissionable ma-
terial such as uranium. Besides a source of heat there is always a
sink or reservoir for heat that is discharged from the substance.
Let us suppose the substance, also known as the working sub-
stance, is H2O, and it undergoes processes typical of those occur-
ring regularly in a power plant. The substance enters a boiler in
which it is heated as a result of a combustion process occurring in
the furnace section. Heat reaches the water and causes it to boil.
The steam thus produced passes from the boiler into an engine
where it creates a force on a moving surface, thus giving up en-
ergy in the form of work. Finally, the steam passes out of the en-
gine and into a condenser which removes heat and produces water.
The water so produced is then returned to the boiler for another
cycle. The work produced by the process is mechanical in nature,
but, by means of an electric generator, it is converted into electri-
cal form and sent out of the power plant for distribution.
The power plant cycle described above illustrates that the
working substance of a thermodynamic cycle undergoes several
processes, e.g., one of heating, one of cooling and another of work
production. Each process occurring in a cycle involves a change of
the state of the working substance. It may change form, as in the
boiler, where water is changed to steam. It may remain in the
same form while changing its temperature, pressure or volume.
Almost always a thermodynamic process will involve a change in
the energy content of the substance.
TM
TM

Heat
Figure 1.1 Power plant cycle with H2O as working substance.

In summary, a cycle is made up of processes, which a working
substance undergoes as it interacts with its environment; in the
case of the H2O cycle depicted in Figure 1.1, the working sub-
stance is the chemical H2O in its gaseous phase (steam) or in its
liquid phase (water). A parcel of this H2O which flows through the
boiler, the turbine, the condenser and the pump is called a system .
The system or fixed mass of the working substance interacts with
its environment as it flows from place to place in completing the
flow path through the piping and machines of the power plant. In
the boiler environment the system receives heat, is converted from
water to steam; in the turbine the steam expands as it gives up en-
ergy in the form of work done on the turbine blades; the exhaust
steam from the turbine enters the heat exchanger known as a con-
denser where it is cooled, and the steam is converted back into
water; finally, the pump raises the pressure of the water thus
forcing it into the boiler, and in the process does work on the mass
of water comprising the system.
TM
1.2 Basic Concepts
The above example illustrates some important concepts in ther-
modynamics. A thermodynamic system interacts with its envi-
ronment when energy is transferred across its boundaries thereby
undergoing changes of state known as processes. The return of the
of the system to its original state corresponds to the completion of
a thermodynamic cycle, the net effect of which is the production
of a net amount of work and the transfer of a net amount of heat.
The concepts of state, process, cycle, work and heat will be dis-
cussed at length in subsequent chapters. They are useful in the
analysis of many practical problems when the first law of thermo-
dynamics, viz., the law of conservation of energy, which states
that energy is neither created nor destroyed, is applied.
The second law of thermodynamics is also important, but it will
be necessary to introduce a new and abstract thermodynamic
property called entropy before the second law can be stated and
applied to practical problems; this will be done after the versatility
of the first law has been demonstrated using a variety of prob-
lems.
Thermodynamics employs other artifiices as well, e.g., the con-
cept of equilibrium. Equilibrium implies balance of mechanical,
thermal or chemical forces which tend to change the state of a
system; it also implies an equality of properties such as pressure
and temperature throughout the entire system. Faires and Sim-
mang (1978) explain the concept of thermal equilibrium as the
condition attained after two bodies, originally at different tempera-
tures or degrees of hotness, reach the same temperature or degree
of hotness, i.e., any flow of energy from the hotter body to the
cooler body has ceased, and no further change of state of either
body is evident. The concept is utilized in the zeroth law of ther-
modynamics from Faires and Simmang: ". . .when two bodies . . .
are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in ther-
mal equilibrium with each other."
TM
TM

We model real thermodynamic processes as quasistatic, i.e., as
changes which take place so slowly that the system is always in
equilibrium. Although such a model is patently unrealistic, it
works very well in practice. Similarly we may model real gases
using the ideal gas model, with correspondingly satisfactory re-
sults in practice.
The ideal gas model is a familiar one, since it is learned in basic
chemistry and physics. It is reliable for the description of gas be-
havior in many problems, and use of the model simplifies calcula-
tions of property changes considerably; thus, it will be used in the
early chapters of this book to illustrate the basic principles of
thermodynamics.
Part 2 of this book applies the basic theory of Part 1 to a variety
of practical cycles used in the production of power or refrigera-
tion. Because of the essential nature of fluid flow in industrial
processes, flow equations for mass and energy are developed and
applied to incompressible and compressible fluid flows.
Thermodynamics is at once practical and theoretical. Like me-
chanics it has a few laws which can be simply stated. The engi-
neering challenge involves the appropriate assignment of a control
mass or system, as one selects a freebody diagram in mechanics,
and the application of the first and second laws of thermodynam-
ics to the chosen system to obtain a practical result. When the
working substance is flowing, one may use the control mass for
analysis, or one may use the control volume, i.e., a fixed volume
through which the working substance flows. With control volume
analysis one makes use of the principle of conservation of mass,
which asserts that matter is indestructible, as well as the principle
of conservation of energy.
1.3 Properties
In the analysis of practical problems one must determine thermo-
dynamic properties; this is done through the use of tables and
TM
charts or by means of equations of state. The most fundamental of
the thermodynamic properties are pressure, volume and tempera-
ture. Usually these three properties are related by tables, charts or
equations of state. It is necessary to develop some appreciation for
the meaning of these terms, as they will be used extensively
throughout this book.
Pressure is the average force per unit area which acts on a sur-
face of arbitrary area and orientation by virtue of molecular bom-
bardment associated with the random motion of gas or liquid
molecules. For the simplest gas model, viz., monatomic molecules
without intermolecular forces at equilibrium, the pressure p on an
arbitrary surface is
p = —mnv (1-1)
where m is the mass per molecule, n is the number of molecules

per unit volume of space occupied by the gas, u is the molecular
velocity, and the bar over u indicates the average value. Typical
units for pressure can be found from (1.1), since we are multiply-
ing mass per molecule, in kilograms (kg) for example, by number
density in molecules per cubic meter (m3) by velocity squared, in
meters squared (m2) per second squared (s2). The result is kg/m-s2,
but Newton's Second Law is used to relate units offeree to units
of mass, length and time; thus, we find that one newton (N) is
equal to one kg-m/s . Replacing kg with N-s /m, the units of pres-
sure are N/m . According to (1.1), pressure is proportional to the
mean square of the velocity u of all N of the molecules. Clearly
heavier molecules create greater pressures as do denser gases.
If more energy is added to the gas, then the kinetic energy of
the gas per molecule,
TM
TM

(1.2)
^f
is increased proportionately, and the pressure exerted on any sur-

face likewise increases. We note that typical units of kinetic en-
ergy can be found by substituting kg for mass and m /s for ve-
locity squared. Again using Newton's Second Law to relate force
and mass, we find that energy units are kg-m /s or N-m. The
newton-meter (N-m) is also called the joule (J) after the famous
thermodynamicist, James P. Joule. Each increment of energy
added results in a corresponding increase in kinetic energy and in
temperature, the latter property being directly proportional to the
kinetic energy; thus,
-mo2 =-kT (1.3)

2 2
where T is the absolute temperature and k is the Boltzmann con-
stant; thus, the constant of proportionality 3A/2 is 3/2 times the
Boltzmann constant; k is defined in this way so as to simplify the
equation which results from the substitution of (1.1) in (1.3); this
result is the perfect gas equation of state,
p = nkT (1.4)
where the temperature is expressed in absolute degrees Celsius,
called degrees Kelvin (degK), and the numerical value of the lyi
Boltzmann constant is 1.38x10" J/degK; the units of the right

hand side of (1.3) are joules, those of (1.4) are joules per cubic
meter, which is N-m/m or N/m2.
The volume V of the gas is the space in cubical units occupied
by it. The number density n is the total number N of molecules
present in the space divided by the volume of the space, which is
given by
.-£
TM
The density of a substance p is defined as mass divided by vol-
ume, where mass M of the thermodynamic system is given by
M = Nm (1.6)
and
M
P=y (1.7)
Specific volume v is the reciprocal of density; thus,
The stored energy for this simple gas is the kinetic energy of
translation; this is also called internal energy U and can be calcu-
lated with
U = -Nmo2 (1.9)
ji*
The stored energy U is the total internal energy of the system.

When divided by mass one obtains the specific internal energy u;
thus,
u = ^- (1.10)
M
A mole of gas is the amount which consists of NA molecules ,
where NA is Avogadro's number and is numerically equal to
9^
6.022x10 molecules per gram-mole, according to Reynolds and
Perkins (1977). The term gram-mole (gmol) refers to an amount of
gas equal to its molecular weight in grams, e.g., oxygen has a
molecular weight of 32; a gram-mole of oxygen is therefore 32
grams of O2; hydrogen, on the other hand, has a molecular weight
of 2, so a gram-mole of it has a mass of 2 grams. The symbol m is
used to denote the molecular weight.
Properties such as pressure (p), temperature (7), density (p),
specific volume (v) or specific internal energy (M) are called in-
TM
TM

tensive properties as opposed to properties like total volume V or
system internal energy U, which are called extensive properties.
1.4 Temperature
It is clear from (1.3) that zero temperature corresponds to zero
velocity or cessation of motion of the molecules, and (1.4) shows
that the pressure also vanishes with zero temperature. The tem-
perature scale used to define T is called the absolute temperature
scale, because its origin is at the lowest possible value, viz., zero
degrees. Two absolute temperature scales are defined for tempera-
ture measurement: the Kelvin scale and the Rankine scale. The
Kelvin scale measures temperature in degrees Celsius, where a
degree Celsius is 1/100 of the temperature change of water when it
is heated from its freezing point to its boiling point; thus, the
freezing point of water is arbitrarily defined as 0 degrees Celsius
and the boiling point is defined as 100 degrees Celsius. Absolute
zero temperature is zero degrees Kelvin, and this corresponds to
minus 273.16 degrees Celsius, i.e., 273.16 degrees below zero.
Temperature readings are usually made in degrees Celsius by
means of a thermometer or other instrument, and the absolute
temperature is computed by adding 273 degrees to the reading.
For example the boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius or
373 degrees Kelvin.
The Rankine scale has the same correspondence to the Fahren-
heit temperature scale which defines the freezing point of water as
32 degrees Fahrenheit and the boiling point of water to be 212 de-
grees Fahrenheit (degF). In this case there are 180 degrees F be-
tween freezing and boiling points on the Fahrenheit scale. Zero on
the Rankine scale corresponds to -459.67 degrees F. Temperature
readings are made with a thermometer or other measuring instru-
ment and are converted to absolute degrees by adding 460 degrees
to the reading. For example, the freezing point of water is 32
degF, but it is 492 degR. Conversion from degrees K to degrees R
requires multiplication by a factor of 1.8; thus, 100 degK is 180
TM
degR. To determine degrees F from degrees C one must multiply
by 1.8 and add 32, e.g., 100°C = 180 + 32 = 212°F.
Although the absolute temperature scales are vital to thermody-
namics, actual temperatures are measured in degrees F or degrees
C. Such measurements are usually accomplished with liquid-in-
glass thermometers, which uses the principle of linear expansion
in volume of a liquid with temperature, with electric resistance
thermometers, in which resistance of a probe varies with tempera-
ture, or with a thermocouple, i.e., a junction of two dissimilar
metals which generates an emf proportional to the temperature dif-
ference between the junction and a reference junction held at a
known temperature. There are many other measurable effects as-
sociated with temperature which can be used to construct ther-
mometers, e.g., the color of surface coatings, the color of visible
radiation emitted from a hot object or the pressure of a confined
gas. The gas thermometer, for example, is regarded as a primary
thermometer and is vital in measuring very low temperatures, e.g.,
in cryogenics. These and others find use in thermometry. For
more information on thermometry the interested reader is referred
to books by Mendelssohn (1960), Benedict(1977), Nicholas and
White (1994) and Pavese and Molinar (1992).
1.5 Pressure
Pressure is average molecular force per unit of surface area; thus,
its units will be units of force divided by units of area. A••)
typical
unit of pressure is the newton per square meter (N/m ) and is
known as the pascal. In the English system a typical unit of pres-
sure is the psi (lb F /in2) or pound per square inch; the psf (lbF/ft2)
or pound per square foot unit is also used. Other commonly used
units are: the atmosphere (atm) = 14.7 psi or 101,325 pascals; the
bar (bar) = 14.5 psi or 100,000 pascals.
The units of pressure involve force units, viz., a pound force
(lbF), which is defined as the force required to cause one slug of
mass to accelerate at one foot per second squared (ft/s2) and the
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newton, which is defined as the force needed to produce an accel-
eration of 1 m/s2 when acting on a mass of 1 kg (kilogram). The
conversion factor given by Moran and Shapiro (1988) is 1 lbF =
4.4482 N.
The possibility of a motionless state of the molecules of a sys-
tem is associated with/> = 0 and T= 0. An absolute pressure scale
starts at zero psi or pascals for a state in which the molecules have
lost all their kinetic energy, but it is also true that p = 0 for a per-
fect vacuum, viz., for the total absence of molecules. Absolute
pressure must usually be calculated from a so-called gage pres-
sure, since readings of a pressure gage constitute the pressure
data. Usually the pressure measuring instrument, or gage, meas-
ures the pressure above the ambient pressure; this reading is the
gage pressure. The absolute pressure is determined from the ex-
pression
Pal,x=Pgage+Pami, 0-11)
Usually the ambient pressure is the barometric or atmospheric
pressure and is determined by reading a barometer. Barometers
usually read in inches of mercury, and such a reading is converted
to psi by use of the conversion factor 0.491. For example, if the
barometer reads 29.5 inches of mercury, the atmospheric pressure
is 0.491(29.5) = 14.49 psia. If the pressure gage connected to a
gaseous system reads 50 pounds per square inch gage (psig), and
the atmospheric pressure determined from a barometer, or from a
weather report, is 29.5 inches of mercury, or 14.49 psia, then the
absolute pressure is 50 + 14.49, or 64.49 psia, where the unit psia
refers to pounds per square inch absolute. This is the pressure
measured above absolute zero or a complete vacuum.
When the symbol p appears in an expression used in thermody-
namics, it always refers to absolute pressure. Pressure readings
should be converted to absolute values routinely in order to avoid
the error of misuse of gage readings for thermodynamic pressure
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p. The same can be said for the thermodynamic temperature T,
which also always refers to the absolute temperature; thus, quick
conversion of temperature readings in degrees F or degrees C to
absolute degrees constitutes good practice.
1.6 Energy
The concept of energy is tied to the concept of work, e.g., a body
in motion has an amount of kinetic and potential energy exactly
equal to the amount of work done on it to accelerate it from rest
and to move it from a position of zero potential energy to some
other position in a gravitational or other force field. Since work is
defined to occur when a force is exerted through a distance, the
units of work are those of force times distance, e.g., newton-
meters (N-m) or pound-feet (lbF-ft). These are the units of other
forms of energy as well. The newton-meter is commonly called
the Joule (J), and 1000 J makes one kilojoule (kJ).
When a gaseous or liquid system is in contact with a moving
surface the the system is said to do work on the moving boundary.
The displacement dof the surface normal to itself times the area A
of the surface is the volume change AFof the system, i.e., AF =
Ad. Since the force F on the surface is created by the pressure p
and ispA, force times displacement Fd becomes /?AF. Volume has
the dimensions of length cubed, and typical units are ft and m .
The units of the product of pressure times volume are units of en-
ergy, e.g., foot-pounds or newton-meters. These units are the same
as those for work, potential energy, kinetic energy or heat.
Heat is conceptually analogous to work in that it is thought to
be the transfer of energy rather than energy itself. For work to oc-
cur a force must be present, and motion must be possible. With
heat the energy transfer requires a difference in temperature be-
tween adjacent portions of matter and an open path for conduction
or radiation as necessary conditions for atoms or molecules to be-
come thermally excited by the presence of adjacent, more ener-
getic units of matter. At the microscopic level the energy transfer
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called heat involves work associated with forces between moving
molecules, atoms, electrons, ions, and acoustic and electromag-
netic waves.
As mentioned earlier the same units can be used for both work
and heat; however, special thermal units are sometimes utilized,
viz., the British thermal unit (Btu) and the calorie (cal). In some
areas of engineering, the British thermal unit is often preferred as
the heat unit; it is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of water one degree Fahrenheit. The metric
equivalent of the Btu is the calorie, which is defined as the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one
degree Celsius. There are 252 calories per Btu. This can be easily
shown using the ratio of 454 grams per pound and 9/5 degF per
degC; since the Btu supplies enough energy to raise the tempera-
ture of 454 grams of water 5/9 degC, this energy addition would
raise 454(5/9) = 252 grams of water one degree Celsius.
The conversion factors used to convert thermal energy units to
mechanical energy units are 778 Ib-ft/Btu and 4.186 J/cal; these
are called the mechanical equivalents of heat. Estimates of the
above factors were determined first by James Prescott Joule in his
19th century experiments by which he hoped to show that heat
and work were different forms of the same entity. Joule's experi-
ments and those of other investigators whose work provided im-
proved values for the conversion factors are described by Zeman-
sky (1957) and Howell and Buckius (1992).
Systems have their internal energies changed by processes in-
volving work or heat. A system which does not allow work or
heat, e.g., a system enclosed by thermal insulation and stationary
walls, is said to be an isolated system. Processes involving work
or heat may occur within the system itself, but the system does not
exchange energy with its environment (surroundings).
TM
1.7 Processes
Properties determine the state just as x,y,z coordinates determine
the location of a point in space. The change in a property is the
difference between the final and initial values of the property. For
example, if the initial temperature of a system is 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, and the final temperature of the system is 200 degrees
Fahrenheit, then the change of temperature is 100 degrees F, i.e.,
AT = 100°F. If we use the subcripts 1 and 2 to denote the initial
and final (end) states, then the general statement for the change of
temperature is
Similarly a change in another property, say pressure, would be

written as
All changes in properties are denoted in this manner; this is

done because the properties are point functions, i.e., the magnitude
of the change depends only on the end states and not on the way
the process took place between the intial and final states. On the
other hand, work and heat are path functions and do depend on
how the process takes place between the end states; thus, we de-
note the work done from state 1 to state 2 by Wn, and the heat
transferred during the process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by
Q12, since W and Q are not point functions. In fact, work and heat
are conceptually different, because they are not properties at all;
they are energy transfers. When work is done, energy is trans-
ferred by virtue of the action of a force through a distance. When
heat is transferred, energy is moved under the influence of a tem-
perature difference.
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1.8 Equations of State
Most of the thermodynamics problems encountered in this book

involve the tacit assumption that the system is a so-called pure
substance. By this we mean, after the definition of Keenan (1941),
a system "homogeneous in composition and homogeneous and in-
variable in chemical aggregation." If the system comprises a sin-
gle chemical species such as H2O, then the pure substance may
contain all three phases of H2O, ice, water and steam. But even if
it contains a mixture, e.g., a mixture of gases like air, it can be
classified as pure because the smallest portion of the mixture has
the same content of each gas as any other portion. According to
Keenan, "it is known from experience that a pure substance, in the
absence of motion, gravity, capillarity, electricity and magnetism,
has only two independent properties." For example, the intensive
properties we have mentioned thus far are p, n, v, p, u and T, and
the list is not yet complete. Keenan's statement means that we can
select any two of these, assuming the two properties selected are
independent of one another, and the choice thus made will fix the
state, i.e., the choice of two properties fixes all the other proper-
ties. Using mathematical symbols to express this idea, we could
write
P = p(T,v) (1.14)
The interpretation of (1.14) is that pressure, which is arbitrarily

taken as the dependent variable in this case, is a function of two
variables, temperature and specific volume; the independent vari-
ables are also arbitrarily, or conveniently, chosen to facilitate
thermodynamic analysis. An equally correct statement is that the
specific internal energy is a function of temperature and specific
volume of the system, i.e.,
u = u(T,v) (1.15)
TM
Rearranging the variables of (1 . 1 5) we could also write
v = v(T,u) (1.16)
Any of the three equations written above could be properly

called an equation of state. The nature of the functional relation-
ship is unknown, but we are merely positing that a relationship,
implicit or explicit, does exist, whether we know it or not. The
relationship between thermodynamic variables may never be
written in mathematical form, but rather one property may be
found in terms of the other two through the use of data presented
in tables or charts. Some tables are available in the appendices of
this book, and their use will be introduced in Chapter 3. Infini-
tesimal changes in the dependent variables of the above equations
of state may be written as differentials, i.e.,
(U7)
(1.18)
(1.19)
where it is assumed, in all cases, that the dependent variable and

its partial derivatives are continuous functions of the independent
variables. Note that the properties used in the above equations are
intensive properties, such as specific volume, pressure or tempera-
ture; intensive means that any sample taken from the system
would have the same value, or the values of intensive properties
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TM

do not depend on the mass M or the volume V of the system as a
whole. Other conditions for these equations are that the system to
which they apply comprises a pure substance and is in thermody-
namic equilibrium.
The rule of two variables can be generalized into what is called
a state postulate or a state principle. The logic of the generaliza-
tion is discussed by Reynolds and Perkins (1977) and Moran and
Shapiro (1988). The number of independent variables for the
simple system described above is the number of work modes plus
one. The work mode to be emphasized in this book is that of a
simple compression or expansion of the system by the moving
boundaries enclosing it; to visualize this form of work one can
imagine the system confined in a cylinder with a piston at one
end. Other modes of work are counted when electric fields affect
polarization in a system, magnetic field change magnetization or
elastic forces act on solids or on liquid surfaces. One is added to
the number of work modes in order to account for heat transfer,
which is a different mode of adding or extracting energy from the
system. The state postulate applied to the simple system with one
work mode says that the state is determined by two independent
variables. The Gibbsphase rule for multicomponent or multicom-
ponent, multiphase systems is discussed by Reynolds and Perkins
(1977). In these complex systems the number of independent
chemical species C and the number of phases P must be taken into
account. For one work mode the Gibbs phase rule can be used to
determine the number of independent variables F and is stated as
F = C + 2-f (1.20)
Besides the equation of state the system may be constrained to

follow a prescribed path. Considering a system with two inde-
pendent variables, e.g., v and p, undergoing an expansion process
described by the functional relationship v = v(p).With the equation
of state, T = T(v,p), values of the properties p, v and T can easily
TM
be determined for any p in the interval p{ > p > p2 . As we will
show in Chapters 4 and 5, the properties of the intermediate states
of a process between the end states are needed to determine the
work and heat. Of course, these quantities will be different for
each path followed. In Chapters 2 and 3 we will learn to determine
properties of commonly occurring systems for a number of impor-
tant processes.
References
Benedict, Robert P. (1977). Fundamentals of Temperature, Pres-
sure and Flow Measurement, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Faires, V.M. and Simmang, C.M. (1978). Thermodynamics. New
York: MacMillan.
Howell, J.R. and Buckius, R.O. (1992). Fundamentals of Engi-
neering Thermodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Keenan, J.H. (1941). Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Mendelssohn, K. (1960). Cryophysics. New York: Interscience.
Moran, M.J. and Shapiro, H.N. (1988). Fundamentals of Engi-
neering Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Nicholas, J.V. and White, D.R.(1994). Traceable Temperatures:
An Introduction to Temperature Measurement and Calibration.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Pavese, Franco and Molinar, Gianfranco (1992). Modern Gas-
Based Temperature and Pressure Measurements. New York: Ple-
num Press.
Reynolds, W.C. and Perkins, H.C. (1977). Engineering Thermo-
dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Zemansky, M.W. (1957). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
TM
Chapter 2
Processes of an Ideal Gas
2.1 Nature of a Cycle

In Chapter 1 a power plant cycle was used to illustrate the case
where the working substance passes through several thermody-
namics processes, viz., one of heating, one of cooling and another
of work production. All of these processes involve changes in the
thermodynamic state of the working substance. The substance
may also change form or phase, e.g., in a power plant the boiler
changes water in a liquid phase to steam which is a vaporous or a
gaseous phase of water, or the substance may remain in the same
phase while changing its temperature, pressure or volume, e.g.,
water in the pump is compressed before it flows into the boiler.
Almost always the substance, or system, undergoing a thermody-
namic process will incur a change in the energy content; all of the
aforementioned characteristics used to describe the condition or
state of the working substance are known as thermodynamic prop-
erties, e.g., pressure, temperature, specific volume, density and
specific internal energy previously introduced in Chapter 1.
The steam power plant cycle comprises a specific set of proc-
esses through which a system passes, and the end state of the final
process is also the initial state of the first process. Any cycle is
made up of processes, and each process of a cycle contains all the
intermediate thermodynamic states through which the system
passes in executing the process, i.e., in passing from the initial to
the final state of the process. Systems comprise a fixed mass of a
single chemical species, or pure substance, or a mixture of chemi-
cal species, e.g., oxygen and nitrogen as they appear together
naturally in air. Even if the system consists of a single pure sub-
stance, it can appear as a single phase, two phases or even all three
phases, since there are three possible phases: solid, liquid and gas.
The simplest system to consider is that of a perfect gas.
TM
2.2 The Perfect Gas
The perfect gas comprises molecules which are widely spaced, do
not have force interaction with each other and take up negligible
space themselves. Their movement is competely random, and
there is no preferred direction. If the gas is monatomic., then its
internal, or stored energy, is the sum of the translational kinetic
energy of each molecule in the system. Since there are three Car-
tesian directions, there are three degrees of freedom or three ways
of dividing the total kinetic energy. If the molecules are diatomic,
then they can have rotational kinetic energy about two axes of ro-
tation; thus, the system of diatomic gas has five degrees of free-
dom. This is important because the average energy per molecule
associated with each degree of freedom of a gas in equilibrium at
absolute temperature Tis given by
U kT
(2.1)
fN 2
where [/is the total internal energy of a system of N molecules, k

is the Boltzmann constant and/is the number of degrees of free-
dom for the molecule under consideration. For a monatomic gas/
= 3, and
(2.2)
3 2
On the other hand,/= 5 for a diatomic gas, and, in this case
TM
Denoting the number of moles of gas by n, then we can write
(2.4)
where NA is Avogadro's number, the number of molecules per

mole.
A mole of gas is an amount which is equal in units of mass to
the molecular weight of the gas. As an example, consider gaseous
oxygen O2 whose molecular weight is 32; thus, each mole of oxy-
gen has a mass of 32 units of mass. If the mole is a gram mole
(gmol), then there are 32 grams for each mole. For a kilogram
mole (kmol), there are 32 kilograms of gas per mole. If the mole is
a pound mole (Ibmol), then we have 32 pounds (lbM) of gas per
Ibmol.
Substituting (2.4) into (1.4) yields
pV = v\NAkT (2.5)
The Boltzmann constant k times Avogadro's number NA is called

the universal gas constant and is denoted by R; thus, (2.5) reads
pV = nR7 (2.6)
TM
which is the best known form of the equation of state of a perfect
gas.
Equations (2.2) and (2.3) can likewise be put in the molar
form, e.g., substituting (2.4) into (2.2) yields
- = ^~ (2.7)
3 2
or, alternatively,
3RT
u = ——- (2.8)
where is the molar internal energy u is defined as C//n. The molar

heat capacity at constant volume is defined by
Substituting (2.8) into (2.9) yields
3R
(2.10)
Substitution of (2.10) into (2.7) yields
TM
for a monatomic gas. Similarly, for the diatomic gas with two
additional degrees of freedom, substituting (2.4) in (2.3) yields
5N,kT
——r—— (2.12)
Substituting a definition of the Universal Gas Constant R, viz.,
R = NAk (2.13)
into (2.12) yields
5RT
U = -r- (2.14)
Molar heat capacity at constant volume for a diatomic gas is found

by substitution of (2.14) into (2.9); thus,
5R
Equation (2.11) is a general expression and can be applied to

gases, independent of the number of atoms forming its molecules.
The change of internal energy for a system comprised of n moles
TM
of a perfect gas accompanying a process which moves the system
from state 1 to state 2 is given by
(2.16)
Equations (2.6) and (2.13) can be expressed in terms of mass

units as well as moles by multiplying and dividing the right hand
side of these equations by the molecular weight m, which con-
verts the number of moles n in the system into the mass M of the
system, transforms the molar heat capacity cv of (2.16) into the
specific heat at constant volume cv, and changes the universal gas
constant R of (2.6) into the specific gas constant R. The resulting
relations are equations of state for the perfect gas, viz., that relat-
ing pressure, volume and temperature,
pV=MRT (2.17)
and that relating internal energy and temperature,
r2-Zi) (2.18)
In (2.17) and (2.18) the units of cv and R are energy units divided
by mass units and temperature units, e.g., joules per kilogram-
degree K or Btu per pound-degree R.
An expression for specific internal energy u, or internal energy
per unit mass, can be derived in two steps: first the right hand side
of (2.11) is multiplied and divided by the molecular weight m; the
equation for the internal energy U of a system of mass M becomes
TM
Next the specific internal energy u is substituted on the left hand
side of (2.19) and, we obtain
u = -~ = cvT (2.20)
and the change of specific internal energy becomes
A?v
i-AI/f i j = r (T — T}
~~~ is v \J. i*
J. -i I nI £*?.£*1Jt1I
If both sides of equation (2.10) for molar heat capacity cv are

divided by molecular weight m, the equation for the calculation of
specific heat at constant volume is
3R
cr=—— (2.22)
where the specific gas constant R has a different value for each
gas, e.g., its value for air is 53.3 ft-lbF/lbM-degR; thus, for a given
kind of gas cv has a constant value. Equation (2.20) shows that the
specific internal energy u is a function of temperature only; this
dependence on a single property is a very important characteristic
of a perfect gas.
A similar result is obtainable in a differential form from (1.18)
and (2.9); if both sides of the latter equation are divided by mo-
lecular weight m, then the expression,
TM
(2.23)
is the result. If (2.23) is substituted in the first term of (1.18), the

following expression for a differential change in specific internal
energy results:
dv (2.24)
The integrated form of (2.24) is
"- " , (2.25)

T— dv
Equation (2.25) becomes identical to (2.21) when the partial de-

rivative of u with respect to v with T held constant equals zero;
thus, we conclude that for perfect gases it is true that
=0 (2.26)
Equation(2.26) expresses the so-called Joule effect, since it was

concluded from a 19th-century experiment by James Prescott
Joule with a real gas. According to Faires and Simmang (1978)
Joule observed no temperature change in a compressed gas when
it was expanded freely, i.e., no energy was extracted by means of
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an orderly expansion involving a force on a moving surface; in-
stead the gas pressure first accelerated the gas itself but the kinetic
energy thus created was soon dissipated by internal friction. It can
be shown that (2.26) is strictly true for a perfect gas and only ap-
proximately true for a real gas.
Equation (2.14) can be written more concisely by using the
specific volume v, which is defined by
v=— (2.27)
The final form of the perfect gas equation of state becomes
pv = RT (2.28)
2.3 Processes
The first step in characterizing a process is to provide values for
the properties at the end states of the process, i.e., for the initial
and the final states. Initial and final values of pressure, tempera-
ture and specific volume are usually needed. Often a knowledge of
two properties, e.g., p and T or v and T, allows one to infer which
phase or phases of the substance are present at the beginning and
end of a process. In the present chapter we are considering only
the perfect gas; thus, only the gaseous phase is present, and (2.28)
is the appropriate equation of state. Fixing p and v fixes T, or fix-
ing p and T fixes v. Geometrically the relationship is one for
which there exists a particular surface inpv7"-space.
Visualization of thermodynamic processes by means of graphs
showing the simultaneous variation of two properties is a helpful
artifice for use in the solution of thermodynamics problems.
TM
Rather than the space coordinates, x, y, and z, used by the
mathematician, the thermodynamicist uses three properties, e.g.,
p, v and T, i.e., absolute pressure, specific volume and absolute
temperature, to form a Cartesian coordinate sysytem. The point
having coordinates (p,v,T) represents the state, and, in the case of
a process, the properties change and the state point moves in pvT-
space; thus, as the state changes during a process, the state point
traces a space curve, which is the geometric representation of the
process.
Projection of this space curve onto the /?v-plane, thepF-plane or
the vT-plane is an aid to understanding property variation for the
process being analyzed. The state point actually moves along a
surface in space that is defined by the equation of state of the
working substance; thus, the surface is the geometric representa-
tion of the equation of state. If the equation of state is that for a
perfect gas,_pF= MRT, where Mis gas mass and R is gas constant,
then the surface is as shown in Figure 2.1.
Process 1-2
pVT-surface
Figure 2.1 Surface inpvT-Space
TM
It can be seen that a general space curve might run between any
two states, for example, 1 and 2, but that the intersection of this
pvT-surface with a plane representing T = constant produces a
curve in space, which when projected on the pv-plam, is an equi-
lateral hyperbola as shown in Figure 2.2; such a curve is called an
isotherm. If the intersecting plane is one for which pressure is
constant, and the intersection is projected onto the /?v-plane, then
the curve is a straight horizontal line as shown in Figure 2.3; this
curve is an isobar on the pv-plane.
Figure 2.2 Isotherm Figure 2.3 Isobar
2.4 Gas Cycles

Some examples of gas processes as they appear in cycles will now
be given. If we have a series of processes which form a closure,
then we have constructed a cycle. Let us consider the cycle of a
perfect gas as depicted in Figure 2.4. We can imagine that the
gaseous system, i.e., a fixed mass of gas, is enclosed in a cylinder
with a movable piston at one end; this is shown under thepV-
diagram in Figure 2.4. The first process, process 1-2, is an iso-
thermal expansion, i.e., the gas expands or increases in volume by
virtue of the piston's movement to the right. We note that if the
volume of a fixed mass is increased, the mass per unit volume,
TM
V
gas
Figure 2.4 Three-Process Gas Cycle
i.e., the density p decreases, since p is MIV. Also the reciprocal of

this, VIM, i.e., the specific volume v, increases, since v is simply
1/p. Since this is an isothermal process, the temperature T must
remain constant throughout the change of state.
The next process in this cycle, process 2-3, is an isobaric com-
pression. In it the gas is compressed by the piston's movement to
the left so as to decrease the volume occupied by the gas. We infer
from the perfect gas equation of state (2.18) that, with/?, Mand R
constant, T is proportional to V, i.e., the temperature must be low-
ered (by cooling) in order to keep the pressure constant. Closure is
accomplished in the final process, process 3-1, which is an iso-
TM
choric process, i.e., one in which volume is held constant. Con-
stancy of volume implies that the piston remains fixed. Again us-
ing (2.14) we infer that for F, M and R constant, T must rise with
p. Process 1-2 is an example of Boyle's law, viz., that the product
ofp and F remain constant in an isothermal process. Processes 2-3
and 3-1 are examples of the law of Charles, which states that/> is
proportional to T for V constant and that V is proportional to T for
p constant.
2.5 Adiabatic and Isothermal Processes

A very important category of gas processes is called adiabatic, a
term that simply means there is no heat transferred to or from the
gas comprising the system. The walls containing the gas can prop-
erly be called adiabatic walls, which means that they are perfectly
insulated against heat. Consider again a piston-and-cylinder ar-
rangement as depicted in Figure 2.5 with the pressure-volume
variation shown on the pv-diagram directly above the piston and
cylinder. If the piston is moved to the right, the gas expands; thus,
the adiabatic expansion process is that designated as process 1-2
in Figure 2.5. Gas pressure on the face of the piston creates a force
to the right, which when the piston moves in the same direction,
does positive work on the piston, and the work entails a transfer of
energy from the gas to the surroundings, since the force is trans-
mitted along the piston rod to whatever mechanism is outside the
device shown. Actually anything outside the gaseous system is
called the surroundings, and work and heat may pass to or from
the surroundings; the actual mechanical equipment to effect the
transfer is not important to the thermodynamicist.
A reversal of the piston movement would cause an adiabatic
compression process. In an adiabatic expansion the volume in-
creases, the pressure decreases and the temperature decreases as
can be seen in Figure 2.5. The temperature drops because the gas
loses internal energy as energy as work flows from it to the sur-
TM
isothermal
adiabatic
gas
Figure 2.5 Adiabatic Process of a Perfect Gas

roundings, and we can infer from (2.19) that a loss of U(kUn < 0)
corresponds to a loss of temperature (T2 < Tj).
The isothermal process, shown in Figure 2.5 for comparison,
maintains the temperature constant (T{ = T2), a fact that requires
the addition of energy from the surroundings via heat transfer.
The walls of the cylinder for the isothermal process are clearly not
TM
adiabatic, and the isothermal process is a diabatic one, rather than
an adiabatic one.
The pressure-volume relationship for the adiabatic process is
given by
pV1 = C (2.29)
where C is a constant and the exponent y is defined as the ratio of

the specific heats,
y=^- (2.30)
where cp is the specific heat at constant pressure and cv is the spe-

cific heat at constant volume. The molar heat capacity at constant
volume has been defined in (2.9); when both sides of (2.9) are di-
vided by the molecular weight of the gas, we get the definition of
specific heat at constant volume, viz.,
(2.31)
where the subscript v refers to the constancy of the specific vol-

ume. When property symbols such as p,v or T are written as sub-
scripts, it usually means that property is being is taken as constant.
The derivative refers to the slope of a curve of specific internal
energy u as a function of temperature T when the volume of the
fixed mass of gas is kept constant. Experimentally a gas is con-
fined in an insulated chamber at fixed volume while energy is
added by electric resistance heating and data, viz.,w and T, are ob-
TM
served and plotted; actually Aw is inferred from a measurement of
the electrical energy input. It should be noted that since cv is de-
fined in terms of properties, viz., u and T, the specific heat is itself
a thermodynamic property. Although we are introducing it in this
chapter in connection with a perfect gas, this property, as defined
in (2.31), is perfectly general, i.e., the same definition holds for
real gases, liquids and solids.
The specific heat at constant pressure cp is also a defined prop-
erty, and its definition is equally general for all phases of pure
substances. Its numerical value is also obtained by measurement
in an experiment with a gas confined in a cylinder having a piston
at one end. Moving the piston out as electrical energy from a resis-
tance heater is added to the gas allows the pressure to be con-
trolled at a constant value. This specific heat is calculated from the
measured data from the definition:
(2-32)
where the subscript p refers to the constancy of pressure and h de-

notes the specific enthalpy; h is another defined property, and it is
clearly a property, and in fact an intensive property, because it is
defined in terms of three other intensive properties; its general
definition is:
= u + pv (2.33)
The specific enthalpy and the two specific heats defined above are
all important thermodynamic properties, as will become evident in
subsequent chapters. The general definition in (2.33) can now be
specialized for the perfect gas by substituting for u using (2.20)
and forpv using (2.28); the resulting expression applies to the per-
fect gas:
TM
(2.34)
Applying the general definition for cp, viz., that of (2.32), and
differentiating (2.34) gives a relationship between the two specific
heats:
cp=cv+R (2.35)
Thus, one needs to measure only one specific heat to have the
other one. Alternatively, one can substitute for cp in (2.35) using
the definition (2.30); the resulting equation (2.36) enables the cal-
culation of specific heats from a knowledge of y alone; thus, we
have
P
cv = —— (2.36)
If cv is eliminated with (2.30), then (2.35) yields instead
The latter forms are particularly useful in calculating these

properties for monatomic and diatomic gases, since y = 1 .67 for
monatomic and 1.4 for diatomic gases. As was true in deriving
(2.17), equations (2.36) and (2.37) also require the specific gas
constant R; this is defined as
R
R =— (2.38)
m
TM
The universal gas constant R is a universal physical constant,
since, as is observed in (2.13), it is the product of two universal
constants, k and JVA. In the English system the value of R is 1545
ft-lbp/lbmole-degR, and in the System International its value is
8314 J/kmol-degK; thus, the specific heats are easily determined
from (2.36), (2.37) and (2.38).
2.6 The Carnot Cycle
A very famous and useful cycle, known as the Carnot cycle, con-
sists of two adiabatic processes (adiabats) and two isothermal
processes (isotherms). This cycle is depicted in Figure 2.6 for a
Figure 2.6 The Carnot Cycle
TM
perfect gas system. Note that there are two temperatures T\ and r3,
since Tl = T2 and T3 = T4. As is shown in Figure 2.5 the adiabats
are steeper than the isotherms, and the adiabatic expansion, proc-
ess 2-3, lowers the temperature from T2 to T3, since T2 > T3.
Similarly, the adiabatic compression process, process 4-1, raises
the temperature from T4 to Tj.The four processes of the Carnot
cycle could take place in a piston engine like that depicted in Fig-
ure 2.5.
During the adiabatic processes the wall of the cylinder and
piston must be insulated, so that the processes can be adiabatic;
however, during the isothermal processes the walls must be con-
ducting, so that heat may flow to or from the gas in the cylinder.
Process 1-2 requires the addition of heat from the surroundings in
order to maintain the temperature at a constant value. Since the
gas is giving up energy via work done on the moving cylinder, the
energy must be replaced by allowing heat to flow into the gas
from an external thermal energy reservoir through the conducting
walls. We can represent the process schematically by a block la-
belled HTTER, which is an acronym for high temperature thermal
energy reservoir, as in Figure 2.7. There is also a low temperature
thermal energy reservoir LTTER which receives heat as it flows
out of the the confined gaseous system through the cylinder walls
during process 3-4.
To summarize the events associated with the four processes,
we will set up a table which classifies the processes and indicates
the role of each process in the cycle of events. Heat flows into the
gas during one process and out during another. Work is done by
the gas during two processes, and work is done on the gas during
the other two. It turns out that more work is done by the gas than
is done on it; therefore, the cycle is called a power cycle. The net
heat flow is from the hot reservoir to the cold reservoir.
TM
HTTER
• Heat to Engine
Engine Work
to or from Engine
Heat from Engine
LITER
Figure 2.7 Carnot engine
TM
In a power cycle the state point moves in a clockwise direction
as is seen in Figure 2.6, i.e., from state 1 to state 2, then to state 3,
then to state 4 and finally to state 1 again; thus, the state point has
traced its path in a clockwise sense. If we assume that the state
point moves in the opposite sense, i.e., through states 1-4-3-2-1,
Table 2.1 Processes of the Carnot Cycle
Process Heat Work
1-2 Into Gas Out of Gas
2-3 None Out of Gas
3-4 Out of Gas Into Gas
4-1 None Into Gas
the cycle would be a reversed Carnot cycle, would require a net

inflow of work and would move energy from the cold reservoir to
the hot reservoir. Since the reversed Carnot engine moves energy
from a cold reservoir to a hot one, it is producing refrigeration,
and the reversed Carnot cycle can be called a refrigeration cycle.
2.7 The Otto Cycle

An important cycle used to model the processes of an internal
combustion engine with spark ignition is called the Otto cycle.
This cycle is executed by a gas confined in a piston and cylinder.
The cycle is depicted in Figure 2.8; it comprises the following
four processes: process 1-2, an adiabatic compression; process 2-
3, a constant volume heating process; process 3-4, an adiabatic
expansion; and finally process 4-1, a constant volume cooling
process.
TM
Figure 2.8 Otto Cycle
In the automotive-engine application process 1-2 is called the

compression stroke and raises the pressure and temperature of the
air as it compresses it. The ratio of the starting volume of air V t to
the final volume V2 is called the compression ratio of the engine.
The volume swept out during the compression stroke multiplied
by the number of cylinders of the engine is called the displace-
ment volume of the engine. The displacement volume for a single
cylinder is the volume difference Vj - V2, and the volume occu-
pied by the gas at the end of the compression stroke, the clearance
volume, is V2. The compression ratio and the displacement are
terms commonly used to describe internal combustion engines.
State 2 models the point in the actual cycle where the spark
ignites the fuel in the air, and the temperature rises more or less at
constant volume. The peak temperature and pressure occur at state
3. Process 3-4 models the power stroke in which the heated gas
drives the piston back to the original cylinder volume. Process 4-1
TM
models the reduction of pressure accompanying the opening of the
exhaust valve by means of a constant volume cooling, a non-flow
process. This modeling of the flow process with a non-flow one is
successful despite the obvious difference between model and en-
gine process.
The state point moves through states 1-2-3-4-1 in a clockwise
sense; thus, one can infer that the Otto cycle is a power cycle. Of
course its purpose in automobiles and other vehicles is to provide
power to the wheels of the vehicle.
2.8 The Polytropic Process
In this chapter we have become familiar with several specific
processes of perfect gases. All of those previously considered can
be generalized as polytropic. The polytropic process can be de-
fined as one having the pressure-volume relationship
pV" = C (2.39)
where C is a constant, and n is the polytropic exponent. Each per-
fect gas process previously mentioned will have a distinctive
value of the polytropic exponent;, these are presented in tabular
form below.
Table 2.2 Polytropic Exponents of Gases

Type of process Value of exponent n
Isobaric ( p = constant) 0
Isochoric ( V = constant) 00
Isothermal ( T - constant) 1
Adiabatic ( no heat transfer) y
TM
2.9 Mixtures of Perfect Gases
Two or more gases in a homogeneous mixture constitute a pure

substance for which it is necessary to find an appropriate average
value of the principal properties, e.g., m, R, j, cv and cp. Dalton's
law of partial pressures provides the key to the determination of
these mixture properties. Dalton conceived of the mixture as the
composite of the individual component gases, i.e., each compo-
nent gas occupied all of the space available and was not affected
by the presence of the other gases in the mixture; thus, each ex-
erted its respective pressure on the bounding sufaces as though the
other gases were not present. Equation (2.6) can be used to ex-
press the number of moles of each component gas present in the
mixture, and the sum of the moles of each component is the num-
ber of moles of mixture; thus we can write:
n=£n, (2.40)
where v in the sum refers to the number of component gases in the

mixture. Equation (2.40) is an example of the conservation of the
number of molecules in the mixture; thus, substitution of (2.4) in
(2.40) and multiplication by Avogadro's number yields
(2.41)
where TVj denotes the number of molecules of the ith species pres-
ent in the mixture, which consists of a total of N molecules. Con-
servation of mass requires that
N
M=£M ; . (2.42)
TM
and the mass of each component is the number of moles times the
molecular weight, so that
n m
f i (2-43)
1=1
Applying (2.6) and (2.40) for the special case of a mixture of

three gases at a common temperature T, then we obtain the ex-
pression
pV p.V
£___ _ r\ p,V
-T2 p,V
-r3 /^ A A\
V ;
RT RT RT RT
Since V, R and T are the same for each gas, (2.44) reduces to
Dalton's law, i.e.,
(2-45)
where the subscripts refer to three species of gases, 1, 2 and 3.

Expressed in words, the Dalton relation states that the sum of the
partial pressures exerted by the component gases individually adds
up to the pressure exerted by the mixture of the gases. Since all
gases in the mixture have the same volume and temperature,
(2.45) and (2.17) combine to yield
MR = M, Rr + M2 R2 + M3 R3 (2.46)
TM
which permits the calculation of the gas constant R for the mix-
ture. The principle of conservation of energy is useful in obtaining
the specific heat at constant volume; a statement that the energy of
the mixture is the sum of the energies of the parts is
(2.47)
Applying (2.47) to the case of a mixture of three gases at a

common temperature T, and substituting for Ufrom (2.19) yields
Mcv = M,c , + M2cv 2 + M3cv 3 (2.48)
Equation (2.48) is useful in the calculation of the specific heat cv

of a mixture of gases. The other specific heat cp is obtained from
(2.35), and y is the ratio of the two specific heats. The molecular
weight of the mixture is obtained from (2.38).
2.10 Ideal Processes

Most of the processes considered in thermodynamics are ideal,
i.e., they are quasistatic in that they occur very slowly; each state
of the process is an equilibrium state; further frictional or other
dissipative processes or transfers of heat driven by finite tempera-
ture differences are ignored in the ideal model. In this chapter we
have considered only ideal processes of perfect gases.
In subsequent chapters we will discuss methods of dealing with
real effects, such as internal friction. Such methods usually in-
volve the use of correction factors or efficiencies to correct for
real effects; additonally, real gas effects are taken into account
TM
through the use of equations of state other than that of the perfect
gas, the use of variable specific heats and the use of experimen-
tally determined properties not represented by equations; data are
instead presented in tabular and chart form. Property determina-
tion from tables will be introduced in Chapter 3.
2.11 Example Problems

Example Problem 2.1. Air is compressed in a reciprocating air
compressor having a compression ratio (Vt / V3) of 6. The diame-
ter (bore) of the cylinder is 5 inches and the length of the stroke is
4.5 inches. The intake pressure and temperature are p1 = 14.5 psia
and T! = 80 degF. Compressed air is pushed out of the cylinder
during process 2-3, and new air is drawn in during process 4-1.
The discharge valve opens at state 3 and closes at state 4. The in-
take valve opens at state 4 and closes at state 1. For a discharge
pressure p2 — 87 psia, a polytropic exponent n = 1.2 and taking the
molecular weight of air to be 29, determine the mass of the air
compressed, the volume, temperature and mass of the air dis-
charged during each cycle.
Figure EP-2.1 Reciprocating compressor
TM
Solution: As a preliminary step find the displacement volume VD
of the compressor. This is the cylindrical volume swept out by the
piston moving between its extreme positions (bottom to top dead
center). The pressure- volume diagram above shows the processes
of the compressor cycle.
The displacement volume is
VD - 7rD2L/4 = TT (5)2 (4.5)/4 - 88.36 in3
V = 0.0511ft3
Find the volume Vj at the beginning of compression.

Vi - 6VD/5 = 6 (.051 1)/5 = 0.0613 ft3
The clearance volume follows from Vj and is
V 3 =V,/6 = 0.01021ft3
Utilize the equation of state to find the mass of air. The gas con-
stant is
R = R/m = 1545/29 = 53.3 ft-lbF/lbM-degR
The initial absolute temperature is
T, = 80 + 460 = 540 degR
The initial absolute pressure in psf is
Pi = (14.5 Ib/in2)(144 in2/ ft2) = 2088 psfa
The mass of air compressed is
M - P,V! /RT,
= (2088)(.061 3)/(53.3)(540)
M = 0.004447 Ib
The volume after compression is found using the polytropic rela-
tion with n = 1 .2.
TM
V2 = Y! (pi /p2)1/n = 0.0613(14.5/87)1/u
V2= 0.013772 ft3
The volume of the air discharged is V2 - V3 = 0.013772-0.010217
V2 - V3 = 0.003562 ft3
\
Use the general gas law to find T2;
note that MR = p^/Tj = p2V2/T2; thus,
T2 = (540)(87 /14.5)(0.013772/0.0613)
T2 = 727.9 °R
The density of the air discharged is p2 = p2/RT2
p2 = 87(144)/(53.3)(727.9) = 0.32291 lb/ft3
The mass of air discharged per cycle = p2(V2 - V3)
= 0.32291(0.003562)
Mass of air discharged = 0.0011502 Ib/cycle.
Example Problem 2.2. Consider a four-process cycle in which

the state point moves clockwise on the pV-plane as it traces out
the processes. Process 1-2 is an isobaric expansion in which the
volume doubles; process 2-3 is an isochoric cooling until T3 =
T2/2; process 3-4 is an isobaric compression; and the fourth proc-
ess is an isochoric heating. The system is air, taken to be a perfect
gas, and the pressure, volume and temperature at state 1 are 14.7
psia, 2 cubic feet and 100 degF, respectively. Assume the molecu-
lar weight of air is 28.97, as given by Moran and Shapiro (1988).
Determine the mass of air in the system; p,V and T at each state;
and the change of internal energy for each process.
Solution:
The mass of the system is calculated from the equation of state
applied to state 1.
TM
Figure EP-2.2 Four-process cycle
M= =(14.7)(144)(2)/(1545/28.97)(100+460)
M 0.142 pounds
The pV-diagram showso that p2 = pi = 14.7 psia. It is given that V2
= 2Vi ; thus, V2 = 4 ft . The temperature is found by applying the
general gas law, which follows from the equation of state, pV =
MRT, applied to both states 1 and 2, i.e., piVj/Tj = P2V2/T2; thus,
we find that
T = 560(1)(2) = 1 120 degR
The rise in temperature is interpreted as the result of the addition
of heat; heat addition would have been necessary just to maintain
the temperature, since the motion of the piston would have re-
sulted in energy flow from the gas via the work done on the piston
and hence a lowering of both pressure and temperature. To main-
tain the pressure constant requires more heat addition than that
needed to keep the temperature constant; hence, the temperature
rises in the isobaric expansion.
The next process, in which V3 = V2 = 4 ft3, is a constant volume
cooling. The final temperature is one-half the initial, so that T3 =
T2/2 = 1 120/2; thus, T3 = 560 degR. the pressure p3 is found from
the perfect gas equation of state (2.14); the mass of air M is
TM
known to be 0.142 Ibs, and the specific gas constant R for air is
determined from (2.31) as
R = R/m = 15457 28.97 = 53.3 ft-lbF/lbM-degR
Finally, we solve for p3.
p3 = MRT3/V3 = 0.142(53.3)(560)/4 = 1060 lbF/ft2
To convert the units from psf to psi we divide by 144 in /ft ; this
yields
p3= 1060/144 = 7.4 psia
The constant pressure compression process 3-4 is the reverse of
the expansion; thus, work adds energy to the gas and cooling re-
moves this energy plus some additional molecular kinetic energy
necessary to have the same wall pressure with a higher density of
molecules and hence a higher flux of molecules impacting the
wall. Since V4 = V l5 we know that V4 = 2 ft, and since the proc-
ess is isobaric, p4 = 1060 psfa. The temperature is found from the
equation of state in the following way:
T4 = p4V4/MR = (1060)(2)/(0.142)(53.3) = 280 degR
This is a very low (cryogenic) temperature, -180 degF, and the
cooling in process 3-4 would require a very cold reservoir, such a
a liquified gas, to actually effect such a process.
Lastly, we will calculate the change of internal energy for each of
the four processes using (2.15). Since it is a diatomic gas, we must
first use (2.12) to compute the molar heat capacity at constant vol-
ume cv; thus,
cv = 5R/2 = 5(1545)/2 = 3862.5 ft-lbp/lbmol-degR
Noting that division of molar heat capacity by molecular weight
gives specific heat, we find
cv = cv /m = 3862.5/28.97 = 133.3 ft-lbF/lbM-degR
TM
We could use the units given above for cv, but we can also convert
to thermal units using the mechanical equivalent of heat; the result
of the conversion is
cv= 133.3/778 = 0.171 Btu/lbM-degR
Using the latter value to compute internal energy changes AUi2,
AU23, AU34 and AU41 for each of the processes 1-2,2-3, 3-4 and 4-
1, respectively, we obtain
AU12 = Mcv(T2 - T,) = 0.142(0.171)(1120 - 560)
= 13.6 Btu
AU23 = Mcv(T3 - T2) = 0.142(0.171X560-1120)
= -13.6Btu
AU34 = Mcv(T4 - T3) = 0.142(0.171X280 - 560)
= - 6.8 Btu
AU41 = MCV(T! - T4) - 0.142(0.171X560 -280)
= 6.8 Btu
Note that the sum of the internal energy changes for the cycle is
zero, i.e., IAU = AU12 + AU23 + AU34 + AU41 = 0. A sum of
changes in the entire cycle for any other property would also be
zero, e.g.,
EAT = AT12 + AT23 + AT34 + AT41 = 0
Another point to note is that the two processes involving heat

addition, viz., processes 4-1 and 1-2, also involve positive changes
(increases) of system internal energy; further, the two processes of
heat rejection, viz., processes 2-3 and 3-4, undergo negative
changes (decreases) of system internal energy. The isochoric
(constant volume) processes, viz., processes 2-3 and 4-1, do not
TM
involve work, since there is no moving boundary (no volume
change); thus, there is no moving surface on which a force is act-
ing. During the isochoric processes energy is transferred only as
heat, since none is transferred as work. The isochoric cooling
process, process 2-3, shows an internal energy loss (negative sign)
of 13.6 Btu, which is the result of heat flow to an external thermal
energy reservoir. The isochoric heating process, process 4-1, in-
volves a gain (positive sign) of system internal energy in the
amount of 6.8 Btu which comes as heat from an external hot
thermal energy reservoir.
Example Problem 2.3. A mixture of two diatomic gases, CO and

H2, is formed by mixing 1 kg of CO with an equal mass of H2.
The mixture pressure is 2 bars and its temperature is 288 degK.
For the mixture find: a) R; b) m; c) v; d) the two specific heats;
and e) the partial pressures.
Solution:
a) The gas constant for the mixture is given by
R = (M 1 R 1 + M2R2)/M
R t = R/nii = 8314/2 = 4157 J/kg-degK for hydrogen, and
R2 = R/m2 = 8314/28 = 296.9 J/kg-degK for carbon monoxide.
R - (4157 + 296.9)/2 = 2227 J/kg-degK for the mixture.
b) The molecular weight is
m = R/R = 8314/2227 = 3.73 kg/kmol.
c) The specific volume is found from the equation of state as
v = RT/p = 2227(288)/200,000 = 3.21 m3/kg.
d) The specific heats are found from the ratio y; thus,
y = Cp/cv = 1.4 for diatomic gases.
TM
cv = R/(y -1) = 22277(1.4 -1) = 5568 J/kg-degK
cp = yR/(y - 1) = 7795 J/kg-degK
e) Write the equations of state for each component and for the
mixture, i.e.,
Pi V = n., RT
p2 V = n2 R T
pV = nRT
Solving the above set of equations for PI /p and P2/P, we find:
Pi = p (n1 / n) and p2 = p (n2 / n) and
n-i = MI / m^ = 1 / 2 = 0.5 moles of hydrogen.
n2 = M2 / m2 = 1 / 28 = 0.0357 moles of carbon monoxide.
n = n., + n2 - 0.5 + 0.0357 = 0.5357 moles
Pi = 2 ( 0.5/0.5357) = 1.867 bars, the partial pressure of H2.
p2 = 2 (0.0357/0.5357) = 0.133 bar, the partial pressure of CO.
References
Moran, MJ. and Shapiro, H.N.(1988).Findamentals of Engineer-
ing Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Problems
2.1 In an experiment modeled after a famous test by Joule in the
19th century a bottle of compressed air of volume V is connected
to an evacuated (empty; p = 0) bottle of the same size (some vol-
ume), and the valve between them is opened so that the gas pres-
sure finally reaches an equilibrium value. The air temperature be-
fore and after expansion was 80 degF. The pressure of the com-
pressed gas before release was 29.4 psia. The molecular weight of
TM
the air is 28.97, and the ratio of specific heats y is 1.4. The sytem
is insulated thermally and is surrounded by rigid walls (an isolated
system). Find the final (absolute) pressure: a) in psi; b) in psf c) in
Pa (pascals).
2.2 Using the data given in Problem 2.1 find the specific volume v
of the gas in ft3/lbM before and after expansion.
2.3 Using the data given in Problem 2.1 find the change of spe-
cific internal energy u of the gas. Find the change of specific en-
thalpy h. Hint: Use (2.18), (2.27) and (2.28). Also please note that
Ah,2 = cp(T2 - TI).
2.4 Find the specific heats of the air at constant volume and at
constant pressure (cv and c p) in Btu/lbM-degR using the data in
Problem 2.1.
2.5 Find the volume V in Problem 2.1 if the mass of the system is
one pound.
2.6 One pound of a diatomic gas occupies a volume of two cubic
feet. The absolute pressure of the gas is 100 psia, and its absolute
temperature is 540 degR. Determine its specific gas constant R
and its molecular weight m.
2.7 One bottle of air is at the pressure 20 psia and the temperature
500 degR, and a connected bottle of air having a volume of 2 ft is
at a pressure of 100 psia and a temperature of 600 degR. The
valve between the two bottles is opened, and the gases mix and
equilibrate at a final temperature of 560 degR and a final pressure
of 50 psia. What is the total volume of the two bottles?
2.8 One pound-mole of an ideal gas which is initially at a pressure
of one atmosphere and a temperature of 70 degF is compressed
isothermally to a pressure p2- In a second process, process 2-3, it
is heated at constant volume until its pressure is 10 atmospheres
and its temperature is 200 degF. The molar heat capacity at con-
stant volume for this gas is cv = 5 Btu/lbmol-degR. Find V l5 V2
and p2.
TM
2.9 One pound of air which is initially at 540 degR and occupies a
volume of 14•3 ft is compressed isothermally to state 2 where its
volume is 7 ft . It is then heated at constant pressure until V3 = 14
ft . Process 3-1 returns the air to its original state. The specific gas
constant R is 53.3 ft-lbF/lbM-degR, and y = 1.4. Find p l5 p2 and T3.
2.10 One possible value for the universal gas constant R is 8.314
J/gmol-degK. Find R for: a) units of cal/gmol-degK; b) units of
atm-1/gmol-degK. Hint: Note that 1 atm = 101,325 N/m 2 ,1 liter (1)
= 1000 cm3 and latm-1 = 101.325 J.
2.11 Start with the defining relationship of the polytropic process,
viz., pVn = constant, and derive the relationship between volume
and temperature:
2.12 Derive the pressure-temperature relationship for the poly-

tropic process:
n- 1
2.13 One gram mole of a certain gas having cv = 6 cal/gmol-degK

is expanded adiabatically from an intial state at 5 atm and 340
degK to a final state in which its volume is double the starting
value. Find the final temperature T2 and the change of internal en-
ergy AUi2. Hint: Note that this is a polytropic process with n = y;
see the result in Problem 2.11.
2.14 A horizontal insulated cylinder contains a frictionless adia-
batic piston. On each side of the piston are 36 liters of an ideal gas
TM
of y = 1.5 which is initially at 1 atm and 0 degC. Heat is slowly
applied to the gas on the left side of the piston, which raises the
gas pressure until the piston has compressed the gas on the right
side to a pressure of 3.375 atm. Find the T2 and V2 of the gas on
the right side, noting that the process is adiabatic; then calculate
the final temperature T2 for the gas on the left side; note this is a
diabatic process. Hint: Use the result of Problem 2.12 with the
polytropic exponent n set equal to y.
2.15 A cycle utilizes 1.5 kilogram-moles of a diatomic gas having
a molecular weight of 32. The polytropic exponents for the three
processes of the cycle are the following: for process 1-2, n = 1.25;
for process 2-3, n = 0; and for process 3-1, n = y = 1.4. pi = 1 bar;
Tj = 288 degK; V} = 4V2. Find: a) the pressures, volumes and
temperature of the end states; b) the change of internal energy for
each process; c) the change of specific enthalpy for each process.
2.16 A system of M pounds of air confined in a piston and cylin-
der engine executes the Carnot cycle shown in Figure 2.6. Vol-
umes are Vj = 1 ft3, V2 = 2 ft3, V3 = 4 ft3 and V4 - 2 ft3. The low-
est pressure and temperature, p3 and T3, are 14 psia and 540 degR,
respectively. Find the mass M of the system and the highest pres-
sure and temperature in the cycle.
2.17 An automobile engine is modeled by the Otto cycle pictured
in Figure 2.8. Air as a perfect gas comprises the system. The cyl-
inder diameter (bore) is 3.5 inches. The length traversed by the
piston in moving between end states 1 and 2 (the stroke) is 4
inches. The ratio of the volume before compression to that after
compression (Vj / V2) is called the compression ratio and is 8. Air
is taken into the engine at state 1 with pj = 14 psia and Tj = 540
degR. The maximum pressure occurs after the combustion (or
heating) process, i.e., after process 2-3, and it is p3 = 726 psia.
Find the temperature, volume and pressure at each of the four
states and the mass of the air comprising the system.
TM
2.18 Air is modeled as a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. Assume
that the correct mixture comprises 0.21 m3 of oxygen at 1 bar and
288 degK mixed with 0.79 m3 also at 1 bar and 288 degK. Note
that both gases are diatomic, so that y = 1.4 for each gas and for
the mixture. For the mixture at 1 bar and 288 degK and occupying
a volume of 1 m3, find: a) R; b) m; cv; and cp.
2.19 Oxygen is to be produced by liquefaction of the air in Prob-
lem 2.18. Find the number of moles of air that must be used to
produce one mole of oxygen.
TM
Chapter 3
Ideal Processes of Real Substances
3.1 Isothermal Compression of a Gas
If a gas is compressed isothermally, it will become denser and will

behave differently from an ideal gas. It becomes a real gas or va-
por under these conditions. In the ideal gas the molecules are so
far apart that they do not interact. With the real gas or vapor the
molecules are closer and do, in fact, attract or repel one another.
If the compression is continued, the point at which condensa-
tion begins is reached. Figure 3.1 shows an isothermal compres-
sion process, which becomes a condensation process at the point
where the slope changes from negative to zero. The locus of these
points on the p-v diagram is a curve labeled "saturation." This is
• critical point
critical isotherm
saturated vapor line

saturated isotherm
liquid line
triple point line
Figure 3.1 Isotherms and the vapor dome
TM
the saturated-vapor line and forms the right half of a dome-like
curve known as the vapor dome. The highest pressure on the va-
por dome, which is the point of zero slope, is called the critical
pressure, and the point of highest pressure is called the critical
point. The vapor dome to the left of the critical point has a large
positive slope and is called the saturated-liquid line.
Examination of Figure 3.1 allows us to delineate three regions
of the p-v plane. The first region is one of high specific volume v,
in which the molecules are widely separated, and the gas is gov-
erned by the perfect-gas equation of state. The second region is
located nearer to the saturated-vapor curve and is a region of
dense gas, called the superheated-vapor zone. The third region is
the one bounded on the right by the saturated-vapor curve and on
the left by the sataurated-liquid curve. This is the mixture zone,
and there is a mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid in
this zone.
A horizontal line drawn on Figure 3.1 from the saturated-liquid
line to the saturated-vapor line illustrates the proportion of mix-
ture that is vapor or liquid. If the state corresponds to the left end
of such a line, the system is one of 100 percent saturated liquid. If
the state is indicated by the point at the right end of the line, then
100 percent saturated vapor is indicated. A point at the middle of
the horizontal line indicates a state in which half of the substance
is saturated liquid and half is saturated vapor.
3.2 Mixtures
Using the concepts presented in Chapter 2, the equation of state is

geometrically represented by a surface inp-v-T space. Such a rep-
resentation is made in Figure 3.2. We note in this figure that the
equation of state is represented by several intersecting surfaces.
The surface labeled liq-vap in Figure 3.2, when projected onto the
p-v plane, appears as the vapor dome of Figure 3.1. The highest
TM

point of the vapor dome represents the critical point. The iso-
therms form the surface in the gaseous region to the right of the
Figure 3.2 Thermodynamic Surfaces inp-v-TSpace
vapor dome. The isotherm passing over the top of the vapor dome
is the critical isotherm. The isotherm which passes through the
vapor dome represents any isotherm. It has branches on three of
the surfaces. The right branch is on the superheated vapor surface;
the middle branch is in the liquid-vapor mixture zone; and the left
branch is on the liquid surface. All three branches of this curve
have the same temperature; pressure varies along the left and right
branches, but pressure remains constant on the middle branch.
Other properties are also different at each point on the iso-
therm. It is necessary to use tabulated properties to determine the
values of properties in each of the three zones traversed by the
isotherm. We will use the steam tables, found in Appendices Al
and A2, to illustrate how properties of real substances can be de-
termined. Such a procedure is equivalent to the use of an equation
of state, if one were one available.
TM
3.3 Use of Saturated Steam Tables
If the surface representing the liquid-vapor mixture zone in Figure

3.2 is projected onto the p-T plane, the curve between the triple
point and the critical point, as shown in Figure 3.3, results. This
curve is a plot of boiling point temperatures against liquid pres-
locus of
solid-liquid
mixture
vapor
' locus of
liquid-vapor
triple point mixture
Figure 3.3 Phase diagram
sures. For precise values of boiling point temperature we must re-

fer to a table like that in Appendix Al. This table contains the
properties of saturated steam (H2O) as a function of saturation
pressure; thus, the boiling point temperatures, or saturation tem-
peratures, for water can be obtained from this table. For example,
the table indicates a boiling point of 6°C for water at a pressure of
0.000935 MPa; however, if the pressure of the water is increased
to 1 MPa, the boiling point would be 179.91°C. A plot of satura-
tion pressure as a function of saturation temperature for H2O,
having the same form as curve in Figure 3.3, could be constructed
using data from the steam table found in Appendix Al. The result-
TM

ing graph would apply only to water, and substances other than
water would have unique curves of the same general form. The
diagram formed by this plot on the p-T plane is called a phase
diagram. The curve delineates the the states where phase change
occurs; thus, the area to the left of the curve represent purely liq-
uid states, whereas that to the right of represents the domain of
gaseous states. A point on the phase-change curve actual repre-
sents a line when projected to the p-v plane, e.g., the straight line
under the vapor dome in Figure 3.2, where the left end represents
a purely saturated liquid and the right end represents 100 percent
saturated vapor.
The steam table enables the determination of other properties
inside the liquid-vapor mixture zone. Referring to Figure 3.2 and
assuming that the temperature of the isotherm under the vapor
dome is known, the table can be used to give us the values of
pressure, specific volume, density, specific enthalpy and specific
entropy. Specific entropy is a property which will be introduced in
Chapter 6. Entropy is denoted by S and specific entropy by s;
specific entropy has units of energy by units of mass per degree,
e.g., kJ/kg-°K or Btu/Lb-°R. Density p is the reciprocal of specific
volume v, and enthalpy h was introduced previously.
The subscripts/and g are commonly used to indicate liquid
and vapor states, respectively. Consider one kilogram of water at a
pressure of one bar (0.1 MPa) and a temperature of 99.63°C; it is a
saturated liquid and has properties Vy= 0.0010432 m /kg and fy =
416.817 kJ/kg. On the other hand, when the entire kilogram of
liquid is vaporized by adding heat, its properties change dramati-
cally; they become vg = 1.694 m3/kg and hg = 2674.37 kJ/kg. One
should note that the pressure and temperature have not changed
during vaporization, but the volume and enthalpy have risen sig-
nificantly.
The mass fraction of a mixture that is saturated vapor is de-
noted by jc, which is known as the quality of the mixture. If the
quality of a mixture of saturated steam and water is at a pressure
TM
of one bar and a quality of 0.55, then the enthalpy of the mixture,
which can be calculated from
(3.1)
in which the factor (1 -x) = 0.45, and x = 0.55; thus, the calculated
enthalpy of the mixture becomes 0.45(416.817) + 0.55(2674.37) =
1659kJ/kg.
In (3.1) the factor (1 - x) represents the mass fraction of the
mixture which is liquid; thus, the mass of liquid per unit mass of
mixture times the enthalpy of the liquid per unit mass of liquid
contributes the enthalpy of the liquid present in the mixture per
unit mass of mixture. Similarly, the mass fraction of saturated va-
por x times the specific enthalpy of the saturated vapor hg yields
the contribution to the mixture enthalpy from the vapor present.
The units of the mixture enthalpy hmix, or simply h, are then en-
ergy per unit mass of mixture; thus, the mixture enthalpy in the
above example, viz., 1659 kJ/kg, has units of kilojoules per kilo-
gram of mixture.
A parallel process is used to calculate other properties of a
mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. For example,
specific volume v of the mixture is calculated by
(3.2)
Using values from the steam table for p = 1 bar, we find vj- =
0.0010432 m3/kg and vg = 1.694 m3/kg; thus, for x = 0.55, we
have a mixture specific volume v of 0.9322 m3 per kg of mixture.
Other properties, such as density p, specific entropy s, or specific
internal energy u, are handled in the same manner.
TM

3.4 Use of Superheated Steam Tables
Properties in the superheated vapor region, i.e., at points on the

gas surface in Figure 3.2, are found through the use of tables for
the particular substance, e.g., properties of superheated steam can
be found by means of the steam tables found in Appendix A2. In
this table values of v, h and s are given for specified pressure and
temperature, i.e., the state and the thermodynamic properties are
fixed by fixing p and T, or any dependent property is a function of
any two stipulated properties, e.g., enthalpy as a function of pres-
sure and temperature can be written as
= f(p,T) (3.3)
Although any of the three properties in (3.3) could appear as the

dependent variable with the remaining two as independent vari-
ables, the usual case is to have pressure and temperature specified
and the other properties treated as dependent.
As an example, suppose that steam enters a turbine in a power
plant at an absolute pressure of 70 bars (7 MPa) and a temperature
of 540°C; the entering enthalpy of the steam would be 3506.49
kJ/kg. If the pressure were 40 bars and the temperature were
540°C, the enthalpy would be 3536.32 kJ/kg. If the pressure were
55 bars at a temperature of 540°C, linear interpolation of tabulated
enthalpy values would yield 3521.4 kJ/kg. Specific volume v or
entropy s would be determined from the table in the same manner.
3.5 Use of Compressed Liquid Tables
The surface to the left of the vapor dome in Figure 3.2 contains
points representing states of a purely liquid phase, but the liquid is
not saturated unless the state point is on the saturated-liquid line.
Instead the states represented by points in this region are sub-
TM
cooled liquid or compressed liquid states. As with the superheated
vapor tables, two properties, usually pressure and temperature, are
used to enter a table of experimentally based properties. Appendix
A3 contains tables of this sort for compressed water. The table
contains the properties of compressed, or subcooled, water for
temperatures below the boiling temperature. For example, con-
sider the table for the pressure 60 bars. The saturation temperature
for this pressure is 275.62°C. If the steam has a temperature above
275.62°C, the properties in Appendix A2 will apply to the super-
heated steam at that pressure and temperature. If the temperature
is below 275.62°C, the water is compressed, and the table reflects
an abrupt change in specific volume, specific enthalpy and spe-
cific entropy, which is mostly associated with the phase change
from vapor to liquid.
Tables of this kind are consulted when the pressure for the state
considered is higher than the saturation pressure for a given tem-
perature; thus, they are tables of properties for compressed liquids.
The differences in enthalpy of a liquid at saturation pressure and at
an elevated pressure is not large. Consider the data presented in
Table 3.1 for water at 40°C. The saturation pressure corresponding
to 40°C is 0.07384 bar. The pressure is increased to 100 bars
Table 3.1 Compressed Water at 40°C

(From Moran and Shapiro(1992), 703)
pressure, bars enthalpy, kJ/kg spec. vol.,rn /kg

0.07384 167.57 0.0010078
25 169.77 0.0010067
50 171.97 0.0010056
75 174.18 0.0010045
100 176.38 0.0010034
TM

while keeping the temperature constant. We note that the specific
enthalpy rises by five percent with this very large pressure rise;
while the specific volume decreases by 0.44 percent. The volume
change is often neglected in such problems, and the enthalpy
change is estimated by the equation,
M = vf(p-PsJ (3.4)
which is an estimate of the work done in compressing the liquid.

Applying (3.4) to the data in Table 3.1, a pressure change of ap-
proximately 100 bars produces an enthalpy change of approxi-
mately 10 kJ/kg, while the actual change from the tabulated data is
8.8 kJ/kg.
3.6 Refrigerant Tables
Refrigerant tables such as those appearing in Appendices Bl, B2,

and B3 are constructed in the same way as the steam tables pre-
sented in Appendices Al and A2. The three refrigerants selected
for use in this text are R-22, R-134a, and R-12, and all tables are
similar in arrangement to those in Appendix A, except that the
units for R-22 and R-134a are slightly different, viz., temperature
is in degrees K, molar volume is in m3/mol, molar enthalpy is in
J/mol and molar entropy is in J/mol-°K. English units are used for
the refrigerant R-12. Generally, the tables are arranged and used in
the same manner as the steam tables.
It is noted that no tables of compressed liquid are provided.
Equation (3.4) can be used to calculate the effect of the excess
pressure on the enthalpy; however, refrigeration systems do not
normally require large pressure differences, and the difference is
usually neglected, i.e., the enthalpy at of the saturated liquid at the
liquid temperature is used.
TM
3.7 Processes of the Rankine Cycle
The four principal components of a steam power plant cycle were

discussed in Chapter 1. The schematic representation is repeated
in Figure 3.4. Four key states are identified, viz., states 1 through
Heat
Figure 3.4 Power Plant Cycle with H2O as Working Substance
4. State 1 is that of the steam leaving the steam generator and en-
tering the turbine or other prime mover. The steam is expanded
quickly in the turbine, so that the process may be considered to be
adiabatic, i.e., one without heat loss. Actually heat loss does occur
in the connecting piping and through the casing walls of the ma-
chine itself. Further, fluid friction acts on the steam as it passes
between the turbine blades. The ideal process for this expansion is
both adiabatic and frictionless, and it is governed by equation
(2.29). It will be shown in Chapter 6 that one property is held
constant in such an ideal process, viz., the specific entropy s is
constant during the process. For this reason the adiabatic expan-
TM

sion in the turbine is also called an isentropic expansion. Equal
entropy throughout the process means that s{ - s2, thus, if steam
throttle conditions are 70 bars and 420°C, we find that s1 = 6.522
kJ/kg-°K. The condition of equal entropies means that s2 = 6.522
kJ/kg-°K as well.
Recalling that fixing two properties also fixes the state and the
other properties, then fixing s2 andp2 will suffice to fix the state of
the exhaust steam. State 2 is typically located under the vapor
dome, as shown in Figure 3.5. This is the mixture zone and the
properties depend on the proportion of vapor and liquid; thus,
equation (3.1) is used to determine the enthalpy h2 of the wet
steam.
The ideal cycle for the components shown in Figure 3.4 is the
Rankine cycle. The process 2-3 is one of condensation, and the
Figure 3.5 Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle process is ideal in the sense that no pressure change

occurs, i.e., p2 = /?3; in addition, no subcooling of the condensate
below the saturation temperature occurs, i.e., T3 = Tfsat-
TM
The pumping process changes the state from a saturated liquid
to a compressed liquid. The change of enthalpy in this process is
very small and can be estimated by (3.4). The ideal process is
adiabatic and is thus isentropic; thus, we can use the relation s3 =
s4. By fixing p4 and *4 we can easily determine the properties of
the compressed liquid from the tables in Appendix A3.
The steam generating unit or boiler is used to add heat to the
compressed liquid, thus generating saturated or superheated steam.
The state changes from 4 to 1 in the boiler as is indicated in Figure
3.4. State 1 is represented by a point on the saturated vapor line in
Figure 3.5, but state 1 could also be shown in the superheated va-
por region to the right of the saturated vapor line. In either case
the line joining 1 and 4 will be a horizontal, constant pressure line.
The four processes of the Rankine cycle are the following:
1-2 isentropic expansion
2-3 isobaric cooling
3-4 isentropic compression
4-1 isobaric heating
3.8 Processes of the Refrigeration Cycle
CONDENSER
VALVE COMPRESSOR
——— > EVAPORATOR ——— >

4 1
Figure 3.6 Vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
TM

A typical refrigeration cycle comprises four components: a com-
pressor, a condenser, a valve and an expander, as is illustrated in
Figure 3.6. A refrigerant, such as R-134a (see Appendix B), enters
the compressor as a vapor and is compressed. It is assumed that
the compression is adiabatic and frictionless, i.e., it is an isen-
tropic compression. In Figure 3.7 the isentropic process is shown
as process 1-2 and occurs along a line of constant entropy.
saturated
vapor line
saturated
liquid line
Figure 3.7 Refrigeration cycle
The pressure-enthalpy plane is used in Figure 3.7 for the refrig-

eration cycle. Process 1-2 in thep-h plane represents the isentropic
compression. In this process the pressure, temperature and en-
thalpy increase together. Process 2-3 is an isobaric cooling proc-
ess. Figure 3.7 indicates state 3 of the refrigerant as it leaves the
condenser is a little to the left of the saturated liquid line; thus, it
is a slightly subcooled liquid. Process 3-4 is the expansion occur-
ing in the valve and is called a throttling process. It is ideal in the
TM
sense that we assume constancy of enthalpy, i.e., /z3 = A4, and this
is a realistic approximation to the situation found in practice;
however, the process is non-ideal in that the energy stored in the
compressed gas is wasted through frictional processes. This effect
will be analyzed more carefully in Chapter 6.
The final process 4-1, which closes the cycle, is one of great
importance, because it is the refrigeration process, i.e., heat from
the surroundings is absorbed by the refrigerant during process 4-1.
The temperature of the refrigerant at state 4 is much lower than
that of the surroundings, so that heat is easily transferred to it from
the warmer surroundings. The ideal process is isobaric and iso-
thermal, since the process is one of vaporization of the liquid in
the mixture at state 4. State 1 is that of a saturated vapor; point 1 is
on the saturated vapor line in Figure 3.7. The refrigerant could exit
the evaporated in a slightly superheated state, in which case the
state point would be displaced to the right of its location in Figure
3.7. The temperature for superheated vapor would be elevated
above the saturation temperature corresponding to the evaporator
pressure.
3.9 Equation of State for Real Gases
Figure 3.1 shows a critical isotherm with a point of inflection

touching the top of the vapor dome. The point of tangency of the
critical isotherm is the critical point, and the properties at this
point are the critical properties. Of particular interest are the criti-
cal pressure pc and the critical temperature Tc. Each chemical
substance has its unique values of critical pressure and tempera-
ture. Some examples are given in Table 3.2 below. The critical
values of pressure and temperature must be known to establish the
equation of state for real gases. The equation of state is
pv = ZRT (3.5)
where Z is the compressibility factor, a non-dimensional number,
TM

Table 3.2 Critical Pressure and Temperature
(From Faires and Simmang (1978), 611)
Substance Critical Critical

Pressure, atm Temperature, °K
Air 37.2 132.8
Ammonia 111.3 405.6
Argon 48.34 150.9
Carbon Dioxide 72.9 304.4
Freon 12 39.6 384.4
Helium 2.26 5.2
Methane 45.8 191.1
Nitrogen 33.5 126.1
Oxygen 50.1 154.4
Water 218.3 647.2
which is a function of the reduced pressure pR and the reduced

temperature TR. The reduced pressure and temperature are defined
as
£_ (3.6)
PC
and
T - (3.7)
R
~T.
The functional relationship between Z, pR and TR, which is indi-

cated by
(3.8)
TM
Generalized compressibility charts, which allow the graphical de-
termination of Z from a knowledge of reduced pressure and tem-
perature, can be constructed. According to Faires and Simmang
(1978), such charts are based on data for many different gases;
thus, they apply to any gas.
An alternative approach is to use data tabulated from the ALL-
PROPS program. An example of tabulated values of compressi-
bility factor is shown in Appendix C. The values of Z tabulated in
the appendix are for nitrogen, but they are typicasl for other gases
as well. In general, Z deviates significantly from unity when gases
exist at very high pressure or very low temperatures. Engineering
applications, such as the gas turbine, utilize gases at relatively low
pressures and moderate or high temperatures; for these conditions
Z=l.
3.10 Enthalpy Change for Real Gases
Enthalpy change can be considered by means of the methods of

section 1.8. We start with the equation of state in the form
) (3.9)
which in differential form can be written as
(3.10)
Applying equation (2.32) and noting that equation (2.34) shows

that, for a perfect gas, h is a function of T only; thus, the deriva-
tive with respect to p in (3.10) will be zero for a perfect gas, and
(3.10) becomes
TM

dh = cpdT (3.11)
The integrated form of (3.11) is
pdT (3.12)
Equation (3.12) is appropriate for a gas which is not calorically

perfect, i.e., the specific heat is a function of T, but the gas is per-
fect in that it is governed by (2.28), the equation of state of a per-
fect gas.
Rather than substituting an algebraic function of T into (3.12)
in place of cp, tables of h as a function of T can be constructed for
various gases. An example of a table of enthalpies of air at low
pressures is presented in Appendix D. To use the table one needs
to know the temperatures 7\ and T2; with this information the ta-
ble is entered and h{ and h2 are found. Tables such as the one in
Appendix D can be found in the literature, e.g., in Moran and
Shapiro (1992), and do not include significant variations of com-
pressibility factor, i.e., Zs 1.
At extremely high pressure it is necessary to account for com-
pressibility in the determination of enthalpy. This can be accom-
plished through the use of a program such as ALLPROPS to cal-
culate enthalpy for real gases. An example of a table of enthalpies
for gas at high pressures is presented in Appendix E. Real gas ef-
fects can cause the compressibility factor to deviate significantly
from unity.
References
Faires, V.M. and Simrnang, C.M. (1978). Thermodynamics. 6 ed.

New York: MacMillan.
Moran, MJ. and Shapiro, H.N.(1992). Fundamentals of Engineer-

ing Thermodynamics. 2 ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TM
Problems
3.1 In Chapter 1 the steam and water cycle of a power plant was
discussed. Referring to Figure 3.4, we identify four states between
components employed in the cycle; these states are identified as 1,
2, 3 and 4. The turbine inlet state is state 1. The pressure p{ enter-
ing the turbine is 60 bars and the temperature 7\ is 400°C. De-
termine the specific enthapy and specific volume of the entering
steam.
3.2 If the steam exhausts from the turbine at pressure of 1 bar and
a temperature of 99.64°C, determine the quality, specific enthalpy
and specific volume of the exhaust steam at state 2 (refer to Figure
3.4). Assume that s2 = s{.
3.3 The exhaust steam is condensed to water in the condenser. If

the condensed steam leaves the condenser as a subcooled liquid at
a pressure of one bar and a temperature of 80°C, what is its spe-
cific enthalpy and specific volume (state 3 in Figure 3.4).
3.4 The pump compresses the water from/?3 = 1 bar to p4 - 60 bar.

Assume the temperature remains at 80°C during the compression
process. Find the specific enthalpy and specific volume of the
compressed liquid leaving the pump (state 4 in Figure 3.4).
3.5 The steam generating unit, or boiler, heats the liquid from T4
up to the turbine inlet tmperature T{. If the amount of heat re-
quired to vaporize the water and superheat the steam is equal to
the change of enthalpy h\ - h4, determine the heat addition to the
water and steam per kilogram of steam flowing through the boiler
(see Figure 3.4).
TM

3.6 The turbine expands the steam from state 1 at which pl - 60
bars and 7\ = 400°C to state 2 at p2 = 1 bar. If the work done by
the steam during this adiabatic expansion is calculated by h{ - h2,
determine the work done by the steam per unit mass of through-
flow.
3.7 The exhaust steam from the turbine passes over the cooler
tubes of the steam condenser during process 2 - 3 . Condensed
water, known as condensate, leaves the condenser in a subcooled
state at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 80°C. If the heat
removed from the steam during condensation is given by h2 - h3,
determine the heat removal in the condenser per kilogram of con-
densate.
3.8 A newly proposed cycle is to utilize steam confined in a cylin-

drical chamber with a movable piston at one end. The system exe-
cutes four processes: 1-2 is a constant pressure heating at 10 bars
pressure; 2-3 is a constant volume cooling which reduces the pres-
sure to 1 bar; 3-4 is constant pressure cooling; and 4-1 closes the
cycle with a constant volume heating process which ends at state 1
with a saturated liquid at 10 bars pressure. State 2 is a saturated
vapor at 10 bars; thus, process 1-2 is a process involving total va-
porization of the original liquid. Process 3-4 is a condensation
process which begins with a high quality wet steam and ends with
a low quality mixture. Use the steam tables to determine quality,
specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific internal energy at
all four states.
3.9 A Carnot cycle is to utilize steam confined in a cylindrical

chamber with movable piston at one end. The system executes
four processes: 1-2 is a constant temperature heating in which
saturated liquid at 10 bars is boiled until the quality is 1.0; process
2-3 is an isentropic expansion; process 3-4 is a constant tempera-
ture cooling at 1 bar; and process 4-1 is an isentropic compression.
Use the steam tables to determine the quality, specific volume,
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specific enthalpy and specific internal energy at each of the four
states. Hint: For the isentropic processes use the equalities, s2 - s3
and $i = s4.
3.10 Estimate cp for superheated steam at 1 bar and 200°C using

the superheated steam tables and the definition of cp provided by
(2.32). Hint: Use the ratio of finite differences, viz.,
Ah
Determine the differences in the above equation at 1 bar using

temperatures on each side of the desired temperature.
3.11 Find the change in volume of one kilogram of water when it

is compressed at a constant temperature of 100°C from 1 bar to
100 bar.
3.12 Five kilograms of air are heated from 27°C to 227°C at a

constant pressure of one bar. Use the air tables to determine the
initial specific enthalpy, the final specific enthalpy, the average
specific heat of the air in the above range of temperatures and the
change of internal energy.
3.13 Steam enters a nozzle at a pressure/?] of 30 bars and a tem-

perature rt of 800°C. The steam expands isentropically in the
nozzle and leaves the nozzle at high velocity with a temperature T2
of 300°K. Using the steam tables determine the initial and final
enthalpies of the steam. Find the quality of the exiting steam.
Since the expansion is isentropic, use equal entropies, Si = s2.
3.14 Ten kilograms of air is compressed at a constant temperature

of 300°K during process 1-2 from an initial pressure of 1 bar to a
final pressure of 3 bars. Process 2-3 is a constant pressure heating
TM

which ends in a gas volume F3 equal to the starting volume V\.
Use the perfect gas equation of state to find Vl and T3. Use the air
tables to determine specific enthalpies at states 1, 2 and 3. The gas
constant for air is 286.8 /kg-°K.
3.15 A supersonic wind tunnel uses compressed nitrogen from a

large storage tank, having a volume of 1700 cubic feet, to create
high speed flow in the test section of the tunnel. The nitrogen is
stored at 100°F and 500 psia. Use the tables to determine the value
of the compressibility factor Z for the compressed gas. Determine
the specific volume of the stored nitrogen and the mass of gas in
the tank.
3.16 Compressed air at 10 MPa pressure is heated from 7^ = -100

°C to TI = 100°C during a constant pressure heating process. Find
the compressibility factors, Zj and Z2, at the end states, i.e., states
1 and 2. Also determine the specific enthalpies, hi and h2, cor-
rected for real gas effects. The gas constant for air is 286.8 J/kg-
3.17 An ideal vapor-compression cycle utilizes R-134a as the re-

frigerant. The compressor receives saturated vapor at Z\ = -6°F
from the evaporator. The vapor is compressed to/?2 = 220 psia and
T2 = 150°F. Saturated liquid leaves the condenser at T3 = 132.2°F.
The liquid enters the expansion valve and exits with an unchanged
enthalpy, i.e., h3 = h4. Determine the enthalpies h{, h2, and h3; also
find the quality x4 at the evaporator inlet.
TM
Chapter 4
Work
4.1 Gravitational Force
Intuitively we conceive of a force as a push or pull; additionally,

one must conceive of an object upon which the force acts. Since
the object has finite dimensions and size, it must possess
properties of both volume and mass. The most commonly
observed force is that of gravity, which is the pull of the earth on
every object on or near the earth's surface.
The magnitude F of the gravitational force is quantified by
means of Newton's law of gravitation, viz.,
GmmE
~~~ (4.1)
where G is the gravitational constant, 6.67xlO"n N-m2/kg2, mE is

the earth's mass, 5.968xl024 kg, RE is the earth's radius, 6.37xl06
m, and m is the mass of the object.
It is seen from (4.1) that the magnitude of the gravitational
force F, also called weight, is directly proportional to the mass m
of the object upon which it acts, so that
F = mg (4.2)
where g is the constant of proportionality. Comparing (4.1) and

(4.2) it is clear that
GmE
"-
(4.3)
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When numerical values are substituted in (4.3), one finds that the
constant g has a value of 9.81 m/s2. When (4.2) is compared with
Newton's second law of motion,
F = ma (4.4)
it is noted that, for a free-falling body, the gravitational force is

the force producing the acceleration, and the acceleration must
equal to g, i.e., g is the gravitational acceleration, and
a=
S (4.5)
4.2 Work in a Gravitational Field
Since work is done by the gravitational force as a body moves

downward in free fall, a body falling from rest will acquire a
kinetic energy exactly equal to the work done on it. Using the
principle that work is force times displacement, we can write
W = jFdz = mg(z, - z2) (4.6)
where the positive z direction is upward, and the force of gravity is

downward, so that z\ > z2, and F = -mg.
The work done by an external force in elevating the body from
z2 to Zi can be calculated using (4.6) but with reversed limits. The
work of lifting the body has the same magnitude but the opposite
sign. If the body is taken as the thermodynamic system, the work
done by the external agency in lifting it is also the thermodynamic
work. It is the thermodynamic work because the stored energy of
the system has been changed, viz., the potential energy has been
increased by mg(z\ - z2). The work of the gravitational field is
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negative, but the work of the external force, i.e., the
thermodynamic work, is positive.
If F is replaced with ma from (4.4), and acceleration is
expressed as a derivative of velocity with respect to time, then the
work to accelerate a body from velocity Uj to velocity u2 is given
by
rrr f t f dv , f du dz , f. . , ,,, „,
W= J\madz = J\m—dz- J \m——dz= ifmujdv (4.7)
dt dz dt *{
where the velocity u of the falling body is substituted for the time
derivative of the vertical coordinate z. Integration of (4.7) yields
W = -m\)\--mv\ (4.8)
Equation (4.8) states that the work done by the gravitational force
on the body during its fall from elevation zl to elevation z2 is equal
to the increase in the kinetic energy of the object, whereas (4.6)
shows that the same work is equal to the loss of potential energy
by the object during the change of elevation. Eliminating W
between (4.6) and (4.8) yields
1 2 1 2
mgzl - mgz2 = - wo2 - - mul (4.9)
One can view (4.9) as a statement of constancy of mechanical

energy, i.e., potential energy and kinetic energy, for a free-falling
body.
What then is the role of work in the exchange of energy
accompanying the object's fall? The differential work dW done
during an infinitesimal part of the fall is given by the scalar
product of two vectors, the force F and the differential
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displacement ds', thus, the work for a finite displacement is given
by the integral
W= \F_.ds (4.10)
For the falling body (4.10) yields a positive result, since the force
and displacement vectors both have the same sign.
Equation (4.9) shows that potential energy is replaced by
kinetic energy through the action of the gravitational force acting
through the distance of fall. Equations (4.6) and (4.8) show that
the work equation (4.10) can be used to predict the change of
potential energy and the change in kinetic energy; thus, the work
produces changes in both potential and kinetic energy.
As mentioned above, thermodynamic work is work that
changes the energy stored in a system. The stored energy
comprises three energy forms: internal energy U, potential energy
mgz, and kinetic energy mv /2.
= AE (4.11)
where &E denotes the increase in stored energy of the system, and
E is defined by
E = U + mgz + ~mu2 (4.12)
If the free-falling body is taken as a thermodynamic system,

the body does not undergo a change of stored energy, since there
is no change in its internal energy, i.e., no change in temperature,
and there is no change in the total mechanical energy during the
fall, i.e., the potential energy change equals the kinetic energy
change. The resulting thermodynamic work is zero. Clearly, the
inertia force ma is equal and opposite to the gravitational force
mg; thus, the net force and the net thermodynamic work are zero.
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4.3 Moving Boundary Work
Work resulting from the action of fluid pressure on a moving

boundary, which can be a fluid or solid surface, is a major means
of transferring energy to or from a thermodynamic system. The
magnitude of the differential pressure force acting on a moving
surface ispdA, where p denotes the pressure of the fluid in contact
with the surface, and dA is the differential surface area. The
direction of the pressure force is inward towards the surface,
which is opposite to the direction of the area vector dA_; thus, the
pressure force on a surface of area A is given by
F =-\\pdA (4.13)
The pressure is uniform in thermodynamic systems in equilibrium,

which means that/? can be treated as a constant in (4.13); thus,
(4.13) becomes
F = -pA (4.14)
Substitution of (4.14) into (4.10) then noting that the dot product,
A • ds., yields the differential volume, dV, and the expression for
work becomes
W=\pdV (4.15)
which is the correct expression for moving boundary work. The

differential volume dV is the volume change of the system in
contact with the moving surface.
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V
Figure 4.1 Area under Process Curve onp-VPlane
An example of a moving boundary is the face of a piston which

is moving in a cylindrical chamber in which a gas is confined.
Here the confined gas is the system. The process of the expansion
of a gas in a piston-cylinder device is shown with pressure-volume
coordinates in Figure 4.1. The area under the process curve from
point 1 to point 2 is a graphical representation of the work
associated with the process 1-2, since it represents the value of the
integral in (4.15). It should be noted that the work expressed by
(4.15) is positive since dV is a positive differential in the case of
an expansion; however, should the process be reversed so as to
compress the gas, then dV and the work would be negative.
Positive -work is done by the system on its surroundings, whereas
negative work is work done by the surroundings on the system.
As was mentioned in Chapter 1, both work and heat ate path
functions, i.e., their values depend on how the state point moves as
a change of state takes place; therefore, integration of (4.15)
requires an expression of pressure as a function of volume, e.g.,
the polytropic relationship expressed by (2.32). Substitution of
(2.32) into (4.15) results in the integral
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(4.16)
The integration of (4.16) yields the work expression,
W=P2 V2-Pl V, (
1-n
which can be used to calulate the work for any value of polytropic
exponent except n = 1. For n = 1 the integration of (4.16) yields
the relation
W = plV1ln(V2/Vl) (4.18)
As indicated in Table 2.2, a polytropic process with n = 1 is an

isothermal process when the system is a perfect gas.
Clearly an infinite number of paths between any two end states
are possible. The polytropic process is a convenient way to
represent a very large number of practical processes, but other
representations are surely possible, e.g., the linear relationship
expressed by p = mF + b in which m represents the slope of the
straight line and b the intercept; a linear relationship between
pressure and volume can occur with a system confined by a piston
and cylinder, e.g., when the piston is spring-loaded. The main
point to understand from the above discussion is that work is a
path function.
4.4 Flow Work
The processes discussed in Chapter 2 involve changes of state

of a system of fixed mass undergoing energy exchanges with its
surroundings through work or heat interactions. This is often
called a closed or non-flow system, since no mass flows across the
system boundaries. The simplest construct for visualizing these
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processes is the the piston and cylinder, which provides
confinement for the material system and provides a moving
boundary across which energy flows as work and a cylindrical
wall through which energy can flow as heat. Should fluid pass
across system boundaries, e.g., through a valve or port in the wall
of the cylinder, the system would be called an open system, and a
new form of work called flow -work would come into play.
The air compressor of Example Problem 2.1 draws air into the
cylinder during the intake stroke, and then discharges air after the
compression is accomplished during the opposite motion of the
piston. During the outflow process the piston does work on the air,
and the inflowing air does work on the piston. There is no change
of state during these processes, but work is done; this is so-called
flow work, and it is different from moving boundary work
discussed in the previous section for a non-flow system.
In Example Problem 2.1 flow work occurs in process 2-3 as the
piston sweeps air out of the cylinder through a discharge valve.
Like the compression process 1-2 this sweeping process is
negative work, but it is different because the properties of the air
do not change during the sweeping process. Since the pressure is
constant, the work done by the piston in process 2-3 isp2(V2- F3).
In flows through a pipe there occurs flow work across any
arbitrarily chosen cross section. Choosing a parcel of flowing
fluid, say a cylindrical volume of diameter D and length L which
occupies the section of the pipe just upstream of a given section.
Fluid upstream of the parcel acts like the piston in Example
Problem 2.1, i.e., the upstream fluid pushes the parcel across the
given section. The work to accomplish this action is the pressure
times cross sectional area times displacement; thus, the flow work
to move this parcel through the section is puD L/4 or simply
pressure times volume, pV. Flow work per unit mass is then
pressure times specific volume, pv.
The concept of flow work is particularly useful in engineering
analysis of thermodynamics of practical flow machines and
TM
devices, e.g., compressors, turbines, pumps, fans, valves, etc. For
analysis of these devices the control-volume method will be
introduced in Chapter 5 and utilized in subsequent chapters. The
control-volume method it utilized to account for the flow of some
property across its boundaries. Applied to thermodynamics the
method accounts for energy flow across the boundaries of the
control volume. Flow work is treated as an energy flow associated
with the fluid flow, as indeed it has been shown to be.
Specific enthalpy h, defined by (2.33) as u + pv, allows the
combination of two forms of energy contained in flows into or out
of control volumes. Even though flow work is, in fact, work and
not conceptually a property, it is the product of two properties and
can be lumped together with specific internal energy to form the
highly useful property enthalpy, which measures two forms of
energy occurring in flowing systems. Thus, flow work usually
appears in flow equations as part of the property enthalpy and is
thereby separated from moving boundary work.
4.5 Cyclic Work
The concept of a thermodynamic cycle was introduced in

Chapters 1 and 2. The concept of work as an area under a process
was introduced in the present chapter. Since a cycle comprises a
set of processes, the work of a cycle is logically the sum of the
works of the individual processes in the cycle. Recall that the
work is positive when the state point moves from left to right on
the p-V plane, and it is negative when the state point moves from
right to left. Clearly for the cyclic process to close at the starting
point, there must be movement of the state point in both directions
to effect a closure.
TM
V
Figure 4.2 Net Work of a Cycle
In Figure 4.2 the state point moves from state a to state b along
the upper path. The area under process a-b represents the positive
work of this process. On the other hand, process b-a moves the
state point along the lower path, and the area under the curve b-a
represents negative work. The two processes together constitute a
cycle, and the enclosed area of the figure represent the net work of
the cycle, i.e., the sum of the works of the two processes, one
positive and the other negative. The net work of a cycle can be
either positive or negative. Since the path a-b from left to right has
a larger area beneath it than does the path b-a, the enclosed area is
positive, and the cycle is said to be a power cycle. Had the state
point moved along the lower path in going from a to b, the
positive work would have been the smaller, and the net work
would have been negative; this is called a reversed or refrigeration
cycle.
TM
Net Work
V
Figure 4.3 A Four Process Cycle
Consider the four process cycle of Figure 4.3. There are four
processes, some of which result in positive work, and some result
in negative work. The net work is represented in the figure by the
enclosed area. The net work can be expressed as the sum of four
work terms, each representing a positive or a negative number.
The net or cyclic work is given by the cylic integral of dW\ thus,
12 23 34 '41 (4.19)
which is a statement that the cyclic or net work is the sum of the
works for the four processes of the cycle. Of course, four is chosen
arbitrarily; there can be any number of processes in a given cycle.
TM
4.6 Work for the Otto Cycle
Let us analyze the Otto cycle depicted in Figure 4.4. This is a

four process cycle comprising two adiabatic and two isochoric
processes. Since isochoric, or constant volume, processes have no
volume change, the work calculated from (4.15) will be zero; thus,
)?23 and W$i in (4.19) will be zero for the Otto cycle. On the other
Figure 4.4 Otto Cycle
hand, the work for the adiabatic processes can be calculated from
(4.17) by setting n = y. The cyclic work for the Otto cycle is the
sum of W12 and W34; thus,
1-y 1-y
The first term on the right of (4.20) is negative work. The second
term is positive work and is the larger term; thus, the net work is
positive, and the Otto cycle is a power cycle. The positive net
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work means that more work is done by the system on the
surroundings than the surroundings do on the system. Referring to
Figure 4.4 it is seen that the enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1 represents the
net work of the cycle.
The system is a perfect gas confined in a cylinder with a piston
as an end wall; then (4.20) becomes
1-y
Employing (2.18) and (2.36), the net work of (4.21) becomes
= Ul-U2+U3-U4 (4.22)
Studying (4.19) through (4.22) shows that work for the adiabatic
compression and expansion processes of the Otto cycle can be
expressed alternatively in terms of pressure-volume terms or in
terms of internal energy change.
Since the work processes 1-2 and 3-4 of the Otto cycle are
adiabatic, there is no heat transfer to or from the system; thus,
only work affects the amount of stored energy in the system. By
comparing corresponding terms in (4.19) and (4.22), we can write
some applicable relationships, viz.,
W12=U,-U2 (4.23)
and
W34=U3-U4 (4.24)
TM
One could also observe that there are internal changes in
processes 2-3 and 4-1, but these are not associated with work. In
these processes the internal energy change is effected only by the
heat transfers Q2T, and Q4i. Since heat transfer alone changes the
internal energy in these processes, we can write
Q2,=U3~U2 (4.25)
and
Q4l=Ul-U4 (4.26)
4.7 Adiabatic Work and the First Law
Although (4.23) and (4.24) were derived from the perfect-gas

model, the results are general and independent of the model used
to describe the system. If the system comprised liquid, vapor,
solid or a combination of these, (4.23) and (4.24) would be
equally valid providing the work process was also adiabatic. The
principle observed is that, in the absence of heat transfer, work
alone affects the level of stored energy in the system. To
generalize we can write
=
âdiabatic U initial ~ ^ final \*"*' '>
The principle expressed in (4.27) includes work modes other than

moving boundary work expressed in (4.15). Each term in (4.27)
can represent a summation, i.e., the work term can represent the
sum of all of the work modes involved in the process and the
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internal energy term can represent the sum of the internal energies
of all of the chemical species and their respective phases
comprising the system.
We can observe that the cyclic integral of any property is
zero. This is easily shown for any cycle, but we shall write the
cyclic change of internal energy as a sum of integrals; this is
$dU = f dU + Jk/ + jk/ + $dU (4.28)
After integration (4.28) it is apparent that the sum is zero; thus,
U2-Ul+U3-U2+U4-U3+Ul-U4 (4.29)
is clearly equal to zero. Substituting (4.23), (4.24), (4.25) and

(4.26) in (4.28) yields
(4.30)
Replacing the work terms by means of (4.19) and noting that the
cyclic heat transfer is the sum of the heat transfers occuring in the
two non-adiabatic processes, we can write
(4.31)
TM
Setting the integral of internal energy equal to zero for the cycle
we arrive at
(4.32)
which is a statement of the equality of cyclic work and cyclic heat

transfer derived from a consideration of the Otto cycle. The
principle can be shown to be true for any other cycle as well.
The differential equation corresponding to (4.31) is often called
the first law of thermodnamics, i.e.,
(4.33)
This statement of the first law has been derived from

consideration of the Otto cycle, but it does not relate to any
particular cycle; thus, it is a perfectly general statement governing
changes of system internal energy. It is general in application
because it is really a statement of the principle of the conservation
of energy applied to a system. The meaning of (4.33) is that
energy tranfers between a system and its surroundings, whether by
heat transfer or by work, result in corresponding and equal
changes in internal or stored energy of the system.
4.8 Work for the Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is an example of a four process cycle. This is

the most basic power plant cycle. It typically uses steam and water
as the working substances, but it can use a variety of other
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P
substances as well, e.g., ammonia and mercury are also used. The
mechanical components needed for the cycle are depicted in
Figure 1.1. The processes are shown in Figure 4.4 on the p-v
plane. The cycle comprises process 1-2, an adiabatic expansion in
a turbine; process 2-3, an isobaric compression (cooling) in a
condenser; process 3-4, an adiabatic compression of liquid; and
process 4-1, an isobaric expansion (heating) in a boiler. The
system is a fixed mass of water or other working substance, which
flows around through the several mechanical components and
undergoes changes of state inside each of them.
The cyclic work for the Rankine cycle is the sum of the works
for the processes, viz.,
(4.34)
TM
WI2 and W34 represent works for adiabatic processes; thus, for a
unit of mass in the flowing system, we can apply (4.27) to obtain
Wn + W34 =u,-u2+u3-u4 (4.35)
The isobaric or constant pressure work of processes 2-3 and 4-1 is

determined from (4.16) by setting n = 0 andp = C; thus, we obtain
Substitution of (4.35) and (4.36) into (4.34) and rearranging the

terms yields
(4.37)
where the definition (2.33) has been substituted to obtain the form
given. If the working substance is steam, the work of the cycle is
calculated by substituting values of specific enthalpy found in
Appendix A. To estimate h4 - h3, an equation like (3.4) can be
utilized in lieu of the tables of Appendix A3. Such an equation is
easily developed from (2.33) in differential form, viz.,
= du + pdv + vdp (4.38)
TM
Setting dQ equal to zero and writing the terms of equation (4.33)
as specific energy, we obtain
pdv = -du (4.39)
where pdv represents the differential specific work and du is the

differential specific internal energy. Substituting (4.39) into (4.38)
and integrating yields
dh = vdp (4.40)
Integration of (4.40) for process 3-4 of the Rankine cycle, with

specific volume treated as a constant equal to the specific volume
of a saturated liquid Vy-at state 3, gives
(4-41)
The enthalpy difference h4 - h3 is the magnitude of the pump

work and includes flow work as well as moving boundary work.
In (4.37) the magnitude of the pump work is subtracted from the
turbine work hi -hi to give the net work of the cycle.
4.9 Reversible Work Modes
Moving boundary work is the reversible work mode that most

frequently occurs in practice. It is calculated using (4.15) and is
called pdV work or work of fluid compression or expansion. The
integral sign in (4.15) implies that the process over which the
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integration is taken consists of a set of equilibrium states, i.e., that
the whole system of gas, vapor or liquid has the same properties at
any given time and that the change occurs with infinite slowness.
The very slow process is termed a quasistatic process. A
quasistatic process can be reversed because there are no losses
within the fluid due to fluid friction. In a piston-cylinder system
reversibility would mean that a system once compressed from V\
to V2 could be returned along the same path to Vl with its final
state being identical to its initial state; hence, the term reversible
work mode can be applied to the moving boundary work
calculated by (4.15).
In addition to moving boundary work on or by a compressible
system, Reynolds and Perkins (197 8) and Zemansky and Dittman
(1981) identify a number of reversible work modes used to
describe other work processes occurring in nature. These are: the
extension of a solid, the stretching of a liquid surface, changing
the polarization of a dialectric material by an electric field, and
changing the magnetization of a magnetic material by a magnetic
field. A detailed exposition of the aforementioned reversible
work modes is presented by Reynolds and Perkins and Zemansky
and Dittman.
Several reversible work modes could conceivably occur in the
same thermodynamic system. Each additional work mode would
then add an additional independent variable, thus increasing the
number of properties required to establish the state of the system.
The state postulate mentioned in Chapter 1 requires that the
number of independent variables be equal to the number of
reversible work modes plus one. Each work mode provides an
additional way for energy to flow in or out of the system; the extra
variable required by the 'plus one' part of the statement refers to
either heat transfer or irreversible work, the latter being the
equivalent of heat transfer.
TM
4.10 Irreversible Work
Reversible moving boundary work was mentioned in the

previous section. A reversible process was described as one that
could be reversed, e.g., if a piston compressed a confined gas from
F! to F2, and if the piston then expanded the gas to its original
volume Fj, then the pressure would be pb and every other
property would also have its original value. A reversible process is
ideal and is never realized in practice; however, reversible
processes often model reality with sufficient accuracy to be of
practical value, e.g., the expansion process of gas flow in nozzles
is adequately modeled as a reversible adiabatic process; only a
small correction need be applied to make the predicted nozzle exit
velocity totally realistic.
Some processes are clearly irreversible. For example, when an
electric motor turns a stirrer in a liquid, there is no way for the
stirred fluid to reverse the flow of energy, so that an equal amount
of work is done by the fluid on the motor. Irreversibility is
introduced into work processes by means of some non-ideal
feature of nature. Some examples of non-ideal characteristics are
friction, uncontrolled expansion of gases, heat transfer with a
temperature difference, magnetization with hysteresis, electric
current flow with electric resistance, spontaneous chemical
reaction and mixing of gases or liquids having different
properties.
According to Moore (1975), friction between solids in contact,
results from the interaction of roughness asperities of the two
surfaces which results in local welding, shearing and ploughing of
harder asperities into the softer material. The product of the
tangential frictional force and the relative displacement measures
the irreversible work, and this work results in an equal increase of
internal energy of the two materials involved. Since a dissipative
process of this sort cannot be reversed to transfer work back to the
surroundings, it is clearly an irreversible process.
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Fluid motion involves the sliding of one layer of fluid upon the
other in a manner similar to the sliding of two solids in contact,
and the result is fluid friction. Whitaker (1968) formulated the
expressions for the rate at which irreversible work is done on each
element of fluid per unit volume. The resulting function is called
viscous dissipation and is particularly intense where high
gradients of velocity exist in fluids, e.g., near solid boundaries in a
thin region known as the boundary layer. Another site of high
viscous dissipation is within small vortices or eddies generated by
turbulent flows.
A nozzle is a device, which by virtue of its design, guides a
compressible fluid to an efficient expansion from a higher to a
lower pressure and yields high fluid velocity at its exit. On the
other hand, an uncontrolled expansion of a compressible fluid,
such as occurs in a valve, results in the generation of many
turbulent eddies and high viscous dissipation downstream of the
valve.
Irreversible work associated with friction between solid or fluid
surfaces increases the internal energy of the system affected. The
work done by an external force or by the surrounding fluid
resulted in a rise of thermal energy, which is a more random form
of energy. This process is called dissipation or degradation of
energy, i.e., the energy once available as work can no longer be
converted to work and thus remains unaccessible.
Besides mechanical friction McChesney (1971) describes
joule or ohmic heating in electrical conductors, which derives
from the electric resistance of the conductor. The free electrons in
the conductor are accelerated by electric fields, but they give up
kinetic energy when colliding with lattice nuclei. The directed
kinetic energy is thus converted to the vibratory energy of the
lattice and is less accessible for conversion to work. The process is
an irreversible one, and electrical resistance heating is treated as
irreversible work.
The irreversible work processes described above result in
higher temperatures in the affected systems, and the effect of the
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irreversible work could be produced by heat transfer; hence, the
conception of a mechanical equivalent of heat, which will be
discussed in Chapter 5.
Some other obviously irreversible processes do not involve
irreversible work, e.g., the transfer of heat from a hot to a cold
body cannot be reversed; the mixing of two different gases cannot
be 'unmixed;' and the formation of a compound such as as H2O
from a spontaneous reaction of H2 and O2 will not reverse itself at
ordinary room pressure and temperature. Such non-work
processes as these will be examined in terms of entropy and
availabilty changes in Chapters 6 and 7.
Example Problem 4.1. Consider the compressor problem given

as Example Problem 2.1. Determine the work done by the
compressor during process 1-2. The data for the end states are:
Pi = 14.5 psia;/?2 = 87 psia; Vl = 0.0613 ft3; and F2 = 0.01377ft3.
Solution: Apply the work equation for the polytropic compression

with n = 1.2 to the system comprising the confined air at state 1.
_ P2 V2 -p, V, _ 87(144)(0.01377)-14.5(144)(0.0613)
YV I f "~~ ~*~
" 1-n 1-1.2
W12 =-222.6ft -Ib
Note: The negative sign indicates that work is done on the system
by the surroundings.
Example Problem 4.2. Using the data from Example Problem 2.1
determine the flow work done by the piston during the discharge
process 2-3. During the flow process p2 = p3 = 87 psia.
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Solution: The piston acts against constant pressure air and
displaces the volume V2 - F3 from the cylinder during the
discharge process. The volume of air V3 remains in the cylinder
after the discharge process, and the air occupying this volume has
displaced the escaping air by pushing it across the cylinder
boundary. The work of the piston is calculated for a constant
volume process:
- V2) =87(144)(0.010217-0.013377)
= -44.5 ft-lb
The negative sign indicates that the work was done by the
surroundings.
Example Problem 4.3. Determine the net work done by the

piston (surroundings) on the air during the complete cycle
1-2-3-4-1 using the data from Example problem 2.1.
Solution: Use the results from the previous examples for W12 and
W23. Use n =1 .2 for process 3-4:
W34=(p4V4-p3V3)/(l-n)
= 14.5(144)(0. 045476) - 87(144)(0. 01021 7)
1-1.2
W34 =165, 2ft-lb
The flow work done on the .surroundings by the inflowing air is

W14, During the inflow p} =p4. The work for the process is:
W4l = P,(V,-V4) = 14.5(144)(0.0613 - 0. 045476) = 33ft - Ib
The net work of the cycle is
W34+W4l = -222.6-44.5 + 165.2 + 33
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Wml = -68.9'ft -lb/ 'cycle
Example Problem 4.4. Determine the net work of the cycle of

Example problem 2.2.
Solution: Work is zero in the two constant volume processes.
processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isobaric; thus,
W~ = Wn+W34=Pl(V3 -Vl
Wmt = 14. 7(144)(4 -2) + 7.4(144)(2 -4) = 2102ft - lb

The positive sign indicates the net work of the cycle is done by the
system on the surroundings.
Example Problem 4.5. An Otto cycle (see Figure 4.4) is executed

by air confined in a single piston and cylinder, the diameter of the
cylinder is 5 inches, and the length of the piston's stroke is 4.5
inches, the compression stroke starts with intake air at 14.5 psia
and 80°F and ends with V2 - V}I6. The maximum temperature in
the cycle occurs at state 3 with T3 - 3000°R. Determine the cyclic
work.
Solution:
7 = 14,5(6)u =178.15/7^
3000 =
483.36/w/a
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=3934psia
Using (4.22) to obtain cyclic work, we have
= 0.004447 ( 133.3 )( 540 - 1105.7 + 3000 - 1465)
= 574.6 ft -Ib
We can check the work with (4.20):
l-y 1-y
1 44[1 78(0.0 1 02) - 1 4.5(0.06

___________ ___1)——————————————
+ 3 9.3(0.06 1) - 483(0.0 1 02)1
jdW = 574.7 ft -Ib
Example Problem 4.6. Consider a power plant or Rankine cycle

which receives one million Ib/h of steam from the boiler at the
turbine throttle having/?! = 1000 psia, Tj = 1000°F and h{ =1505
Btu/lb. The turbine exhaust steam leaves the turbine atp2 = 1 psia
and h2 = 922 Btu/lb. After condensation, it leaves the condenser as
a saturated liquid having v3 = 0.01614 ft3/lb. Find the net power
output of the plant in KW.
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Solution: Utilize (4.37) and (4.41):
, , , . 0.01614(1000-1)144
h4-h3 = v3(p4 -p3) = ———— ^———^—— = 3Btu/lb
/ /o
Wml = <jdW = h]-h2+h3-h,= 1505 -922-3 = 580Btu / Ib
Power is the mass flow rate of steam times the work output per
unit mass of steam flowing. A conversion factor of 3413 Btu/hr
per kilowatt is need to convert to kW, the usual power unit.
10 (58
Power = mWnet
ml = °^ = 169,939kW
3413
References
McChesney, Malcolm (1971). Thermodynamics of Electrical

Processes. London: Wiley-Interscience.
Moore, Desmond F.(1975). Principles and Applications of

Tribology. Oxford: Pergamon.
Reynolds, William C. and Perkins, Henry C.(1977). Engineering

Thermodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Whitaker, Stephen (1975). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.

Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Zemansky, Mark W. and Dittman, Richard H. (1981). Heat and

Thermodynamics, 6 ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Problems
4.1 Six pounds of a diatomic gas is compressed by a piston

operating in a cylinder. During the compression the pressure
varies inversely with volume, and the volume changes from 4
cubic feet to 2 cubic feet. The starting pressure is 100 psia. Find
the work for the process. Is the work positive or negative? Is the
work done on or by the gaseous system?
4.2 Assume the gas in Problem 4.1 obeys the perfect gas equation
of state. What is the temperature change? What is the change in
internal energy of the system during the compression?
4.3 Repeat Problem 4.1 for an adiabatic process (n = 1.4).

Determine the change of internal energy of the gaseous system.
4.4 One pound of a diatomic gas occupies 2 cubic feet at a

pressure of 100 psia and a temperature of 540°R. The gas is
compressed adiabatically with n = 1.4 until the pressure is
doubled. Determine the work done on the system during the
process. What change in the system internal energy occurs during
the process?
4.5 A gas is confined in a cylinder whose cross-sectional area is

100 square inches. As heat is added to the gas a piston moves a
distance of one foot while maintaining the pressure constant at
3360 Ib/ft absolute. Determine the work done during the process.
4.6 A cycle comprises two isobaric and two constant volume

processes. The four processes appear on tthe p-V plane as a
rectangle. The highest pressure in the cycle is 200 psia, and the
lowest is 100 psia. The maximum volume is 10 ft, and the
minimum is 2 ft3. Determine the net work of the cycle if the state
point moves in a clockwise sense. What is the net work for a
counterclockwise movement of the state point?
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4.7 Six pounds of nitrogen are compressed at constant pressure of
100 psia from a volume of 4 ft3 to a volume of 2 ft3. The gas is
then heated at constant volume until its pressure doubles. A third
process in which pressure varies linearly with volume closes the
cycle. Find the work of each of the three processes and the net
work of the cycle.
4.8 One pound of air, considered as a perfect gas, occupies 14 ft3

at a temperature of 540°R at state 1. In process 1-2 the system is
compressed isothermally to a final volume of 7 ft3. It is then
heated at constant pressure during process 2-3 until its final
volume is 14 ft. A constant volume closure returns the air to its
original state. Find the work for each process and the net work of
the cycle.
4.9 An engine uses a three-process cyclewith a system of 1.5

kilogram moles of diatomic gas are in the cylinder. The gas has a
molecular weight of 32, is diatomic and obeys the perfect gas
equation of state. The three processes of the cycle are polytropic
with exponents n = 1.25 for the compression, n - 0 for the isobaric
heating and n = 1.4 for the expansion process. The pressure at
state 1 is 1 bar, and the temperature this state is 288°K. The
volume ratio VjlV2 is four. Find the work for each process and the
4.10 A Carnot cycle is executed by air in a cylinder with a piston

at one end. The pressure and temperature at state 1 are 14 psia and
540°R, respectively. Process 1-2 is an isothermal compression
from 4 ft to 2 ft. Process 2-3 is an adiabatic compression which
ends with a final volume of 1 ft . Process 3-4 is an isothermal
expansion, and process 4-1 is an adiabatic closure. Determine the
work for each process and the net work of the cycle.
4.11 A cylinder of an automobile engine is assumed to contain air

as a perfect gas, which executes the Otto cycle. The cylinder has a
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diameter of 3.5 inches and a stroke of 4 inches. The compression
ratio VjlV2 is 8. The engine draws in room air at 14 psia and 80°F,
whch are the pressure and temperature at state 1 of the cycle. The
compression process 1-2 is followed by a constant volume
heating process 2-3. At state 3 the pressure is 726 psia. The
adiabatic expansion process 3-4 is followed by the constant
volume closure process 4-1. Find the work of each process and the
4.12 A long cylindrical chamber contains 1 kilogram of air at one

end separated by an adaibatic free piston from 2 kilograms of wet
steam at the other end. Initially the air has a temperature of 300°K,
and both air and steam have pressures of 1 bar. An electric
heating coil immersed in the steam operates to evaporate all the
liquid phase in the wet steam. When the heating coil is removed
the resulting steam is in a saturated state with its final quality x2 =
I. The final temperature of the air is 337°K. Find the work done
by the piston during the adiabatic compression of the air. What
work is done by the steam on the piston?
4.13 Steam in a piston-cylinder assembly expands from a pressure

of 30 bars to 7 bars by a polytropic process with n = 1.4155. The
mass of the steam is 1.854 kg. Other data are: ul = 2932.5 kJ/kg;
v; = 0.0994 m3/kg; and u2 = 2572.5 kJ/kg. Determine the work
W12 done during the process. Determine the internal energy
change during the process. Is the work done by or on the system?
Use the integrated form of the first law (4.33) to find the heat
transfer for the process, i.e., use the the first law for the process
1-2:
Q12=U2-U1+WU
Heat transfer is positive if heat is added to the system and negative

when rejected by the system. Is Q12 added or rejected?
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4.14 An insulated cylindrical container is sealed at both ends and
contains two gases. At one end there is one kilogram of air,
initially at a pressure of 5 bars and an absolute temperature of
300°K, and it is separated by means of a conducting free piston
from 3 kilograms of carbon dioxide, which is initially at a pressure
of 2 bars and a temperature of 450°K. When the piston is allowed
to move to an equilibrium position, the pressure of both gases is
2.44 bars, and the temperature of both gases is 413.7°K. Find the
work done by the air, the internal change of the air, the internal
change of the air and carbon dioxide together and the heat transfer
to the air. Use the integrated form of (4.33) to calculate Qn for the
air.
4.15 One gram-mole of gas is expanded isothermally with T =

273°K from V, - 10 liters to V2 = 22.4 liters. The gas obeys the
van der Waals equation of state, viz.,
where R = 8.31 joules/g-mol-°K is the universal gas constant, and

a and b are constants; a — 1.4x10 dyne-cm /g-mol and b = 32
cm /g-mol. Find the work done during the process.
4.16 An insulated cylindrical container is sealed at both ends and

contains air. At one end there is one liter of air, initially at a
pressure of 2 atmospheres and an absolute temperature of 300°K,
and it is separated by means of an insulated free piston from 2
liters of air, which is initially at a pressure of 1 atm and a
temperature of 300°K. When the piston is allowed to move to an
equilibrium position, the temperature of the air is 329. 6°K on one
side of the piston and 270.4 on the other side.. Find the work done
by the air on one side of the piston, the corresponding internal
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change of the air, and the internal energy change of both masses of
air together.
4.17 A 2-kilogram system comprising a mixture of steam and

water in equilibrium is contained in a piston-cylinder apparatus.
The mixture undergoes an isobaric heating from a quality of 0.2 to
a quality of 1.0 at a constant pressure of 1 bar. Determine the work
done by the sytem, the change of internal energy and the heat
transfer Qn. Use the integrated form of (4.33) to find the heat
transfer.
4.18 A system of 26 pounds of air is initially at 1 ami and 75°F. It

is compressed isothermally to state 2. It is then heated at constant
volume until its pressure is 3 atm and its temperature is 244°F.
Find the work for each process and the overall work W]3
4.19 One kg-mole of a perfect gas having a molecular weight of

30 executes a three-process cycle. In process 1-2 the gas is heated
from 300°K to 800°K at a constant pressure of 0.2 MPa, after
which it is cooled at constant volume until the temperature is
returned to 300°K. The final process is an isothermal compression
to closure at state 1. Find the work for each process and the net
work of the cycle.
4.20 A horizontal, insulated cylinder contains a frictionless, non-

conducting piston. On each side of the piston there are 36 liters of
an ideal gas at 1 atm and 0°C. heat is added to the gas on the left
side until the piston has compressed the gas on the right to a
pressure of 3.375 atm. The ratio of specific heats j - 1.5 for the
gas. Find the work for the adiabatic compression of the air on the
right side of the piston.
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4.21 One gram mole of a gas is expanded adiabatically from 5 atm
and 340°K to a final state in which the volume has doubled. If the
ratio of specific heats for the gas is 4/3, determine the work done.
4.22 Determine the work per cycle for a single cylinder air
compressor having a bore of 3 inches and a stroke of 4 inches. The
clearance volume at the time of discharge is negligible. The
compressor draws in air at 14.7 psia and discharges it at 90 psia.
Find the net work per cycle.
4.23 A system of one pound-mole of an ideal gas is initially at 1

atm and 70°F. It is compressed isothermally to state 2. It is then
heated at constant volume until its pressure is 10 atm and its
temperature is 240°F. Find the work for each process and the
overall work W13
4.24 One pound of nitrogen is confined in a cylinder having a

movable piston having a cross-sectional area of 10 in2 at one end.
Heat is added to the gas and the piston moves back against a
spring whose spring constant is 100 Ib/in. During the heating
process the pressure of the gas changes from 15 to 115 psia.
Assuming perfect gas properties determine the initial anf final
values of temperature and volume, the work done by the gas, the
change of internal energy and the heat transfer. Use the integrate
form of (4.33) to determine the heat transfer.
4.25 Consider a system comprising 0.5 pounds of air initially at

100 psia and 540°R. The system executes a three-process cycle:
process 1-2 is an isothermal compression untilp2 — 1p\\ process 2-
3 is a constant volume cooling until/»3 -p\. Determine the work
of each process and the net work of the cycle.
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Chapter 5
Heat and the First Law
5.1 Definition of Heat
Zemansky and Dittman (1997) state that "heat is internal energy in

transit." We recognize that work, too, is energy in transit. This
terminology distinguishes work and heat from the amount of
energy contained by a body or a system. It is then simply the
amount of energy that has flowed into or out of a system or
control volume during the course of a process. Internal, kinetic or
potential energy is an amount of energy stored in a system, and it
can be withdrawn or added to by means of the work or heat
interaction with the environment around the system. Heat and
irreversible work are equivalent and indistinguishable in effect,
e.g., the irreversible work effected by the stirring a liquid will
cause a rise of temperature and a change of state entirely
equivalent to the addition of an equal amount of energy by means
of heat conduction throught the wall bounding the system, say by
means of a Bunsen burner.
What is it that happens to the system when energy is added? The
molecules of a gas or liquid translate with greater velocity and
thus contain greater kinetic energy. In solids the atoms bound in
their lattice structure oscillate with greater energy increasing the
stored energy within the solid material. Energy enters the system
as work when an external force move through a distance, whereas
energy flows into the system as heat when there is a temperature
difference between the surroundings and the system. On the other
hand, if there is no temperature difference between the system and
its surroundings, no heat will flow in or out of the system, and the
system is said to be in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
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The movement of energy as a result of temperature differences is
called heat transfer.
Heat transfer occurs in three forms: conduction, convection and
radiation. The rate of heat transmission by one of these modes is
governed by a physical law. The law of conduction is that of
Fourier, which may be stated by
,dT
q = -M~-
& (5.1)
where q denotes the rate of flow of energy as heat in the re-

direction in units of energy per unit of time, e.g., J/s or Btu/hr; k
represents the thermal conductivity of the material through which
the heat is conducted in units of energy per unit length per degree,
e.g., J/m-°K or Btu/ft-°F; A is used for cross- sectional area normal
to the direction of heat flow; and the gradient of temperature T in
the x-direction is the final factor in the Fourier equation and has
units of degrees per unit length.
Convection is a form of heat transfer associated with the
motion of fluid past a solid surface through which heat is
transferred. The motion of the fluid hastens the transfer of heat by
increasing the average temperature difference in the thin layer of
fluid nearest the solid surface, i.e., by increasing the temperature
gradient in the relatively still layer of fluid closest to the surface.
The rate of heat transfer q is given by Newton's law of cooling
q = hA(Ts-TF) (5.2)
where h denotes the convection heat transfer coefficient, A

represents the area of the solid surface, 7^ indicates the surface
temperature and TF is the fluid temperature. The heat transfer
coefficient h is a function of the fluid properties, the roughness of
the solid surface and the velocity of the main part of the flow with
respect to the solid surface; it is usually found by experiment. A
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common situation is one with heat flowing through a solid wall to
or from a liquid or gaseous system. The heat may flow to or from
the surroundings, which may be a liquid or a gas, through a wall
used to confine a liquid or gaseous system. At an inner or outer
suface of the wall, the heat transfer rate is directly proportional to
the temperature difference between the surface and the contacting
fluid.
Heat transfer by radiation is a particularly important mode of
energy transfer when the hottest component, either system or
surroundings, is at an elevated temperature, and when there is no
shield between the system and the surroundings. Radiant heat
transfer is really the transmission of energy by means of
electromagnetic waves which have wave lengths slightly greater
than those of visible light. This radiation can pass through a gas or
through a vacuum. Solar radiation is an example of the passage of
electromagnetic radiation through a vacuum.The law governing
radiant heat transfer is the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states
that
q = FvA(T}r-T*) (5.3)
where F denotes a geometric factor, a denotes the Stefan-

Boltzmann constant, A represents the surface area of the hot
surface, TH represents the absolute temperature of the hot suface
and Tc denotes the absolute temperature of the cooler surface.
The above discussion of the modes of heat transfer and their
rate equations shows that heat transfer occurs only when a
temperature difference exists between the system and its
surroundings, and that the rate of energy flow as heat increases
with temperature difference. The limiting case of energy flow as
heat would occur with no temperature difference; this is called
reversible heat flow, an interesting and useful idealization.
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5.2 Reversible Heat Transfer
In the previous section we noted that heat transfer occurs when

energy flows from one point to another by virtue of a temperature
difference. If the temperature difference between the hotter body,
which gives up the thermal energy, and that of the cooler body,
which receives the heat, is reduced, then the rate of heat transfer is
likewise reduced. In the limit there will be no temperature
difference, and the heat transfer will require an infinite time to
occur. Heat transfer with no difference of temperature is called
reversible heat transfer. It is analogous to work without friction,
which is termed reversible work. Although reversible heat transfer
never occurs in nature, it is a useful construct in thermodynamics.
The Carnot cycle, for example, is a completely reversible cycle
(see Figure 2.6 for a depiction of the Carnot cycle). To execute the
Carnot cycle, a gaseous system is first compressed adiabatically
and reversibly in a piston-cylinder apparatus until its temperature
is raised to the temperature TH, the temperature of the high-
temperature thermal energy reservoir. Heat transfer from the
thermal energy reservoir to the system occurs at a constant
temperature TH while the gaseous system does reversible work on
its surroundings. The system is expanded reversibly and
adiabatically until its temperature reaches Tc , the temperature of
the low-temperature thermal energy reservoir, is reached. The
system rejects heat at temperature Tc during the isothermal
compression while reversible work is done on it. In the Carnot
cycle we find that all four processes involve only reversible work,
and the isothermal processes involve purely reversible heat
transfer. It is indeed an ideal cycle.
In the above discussion we have used the concept of a thermal
energy reservoir. When energy is removed from or added to such a
reservoir, the temperature of the reservoir does not change,
because it is conceived as being very large, i.e., it has an infinite
mass; however, when a system of finite mass is heated or cooled,
the temperature of the system changes. Even in this case, however,
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the concept of reversible heat transfer can be applied. For
reversible heat transfer to occur the system of finite mass must
exchange heat with an infinite number of thermal energy
reservoirs, each a a different temperature corresponding to the
temperature of the system at a given point in the process. The heat
transfer to or from the system can be calculated by introducing the
specific heat c, which is defined as
c = dQ (5.4)
MdT
where M is the mass of the system, dTis the differential change of

temperature and dQ is the amount of energy transferred as heat. If
we monitor the amount of energy added to a system and the
corresponding temperature change of it, we can easily determine
its specific heat c. Units of specific heat are energy units divided
by mass and temperature units. Average specific heat values in the
range of temperatures from 0 to 100°C are presented in Table 5.1
in English units for some common substances.
Table 5.1 Specific Heats of Common Materials

(from Hudson, R.G. The Engineers Manual)
Substance c, Bm/lb-°F
asbestos 0.195
bronze 0.086
gasoline 0.500
steel 0.118
water 1.000
Specific heats for gases vary with the kind of process

accompanying the heat transfer as well as the temperature of the
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gas. Specific heats for gases at constant volume and constant
pressure were defined in (2.31) and (2.32), respectively. The
constant volume heating process does not involve work, so that
dW'm (4.33) is zero, and dQ - dU, i.e., all of the heat transfer goes
into the internal energy rise; thus, (5.4) becomes
(5 5)
(5>5)
which is equivalent to (2.31). On the other hand, the constant

pressure heating process involves moving boundary work, pdV;
thus, (5.4) becomes
_
Cp
_ ( }
~ -
which is the same as (2.32). Specific heats of gases are often
tabulated along with other thermophysical properties, e.g., such
tables of properties appear in Incropera and DeWitt (1990). More
often, however, gas specific heats are simply calculated from
(2.36) and (2.37).
It is clear that the amount of heat transferred to or from a
system can be calculated from (5.4). For a system of finite mass
undergoing a temperature change from T: to T2, (5.4) is integrated
between the end states; thus, we have a working equation for the
calculation of heat transfer, viz.,
(5.6)
If T2 exceeds Th the heat transfer is from the surroundings to the

system. If the temperature decreases, the heat transfer occurs from
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the system to the surroundings. In the former case, a positive sign
for Q12 indicates that heat is added, and in the latter case, a
negative sign for heat transfer indicates a heat rejection by the
system.
5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics for Systems
The first law statement appearing in (4.33) is usually integrated

for application to engineering problems. The resulting equation
applied to an arbitrary process, or state change, from state 1 to
state 2 can be expressed as
Qn=U1-Ul+Wn (5.7)
The first law is simply a statement of the principle of conservation

of energy as applied to a thermodynamic system. For a gas (2.18)
can be used to calculate the change in internal energy, U2 - Uj or
AU12. Greater precision in the evaluation of AU12 can be achieved
through the use of tables of properties of gases or vapors. The
work term W12 appearing in (5.7) can represent moving boundary
work, but it can also include other reversible work modes, as well
as irreversible work. Moving boundary work is evaluated from
(4.15), and work modes resulting from electrostatic, magnetic, and
capillary forces are not considered here.Equations comparable to
(4.15) can be derived for other for other reversible work modes,
for example, work in moving charge with an electrochemical cell
or work in changing the magnetization of a paramagnetic solid,
these cases are analyzed by Zemansky and Dittman (1997).
Irreversible work involves mechanical or electrical energy
dissipation and will be introduced in subsequent sections.
Heat transfer Q12 can be calculated from (5.6) or from (5.7).
To use (5.6) to determine the heat transfer for a gaseous sysytem,
one must know the specific heat for the particular process
executed by the system. If the process is one of constant volume
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or of constant pressure, the specific heats are usually known;
however, if the process is an arbitrary one, the specific heat is
generally unknown. When the first law equation (5.7) is used to
determine heat transfer, the need to know the specific heat of the
system for each kind of process is avoided.
5.4 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
If irreversibilty exists in a process, i.e., if dissipative effects are

present, the process is called irreversible. The process cannot be
reversed because mechanical energy has been converted to
thermal or internal energy by the process. An example of
irreversible work occurs in Example Problem 5.2 in which
electrical energy is dissipated to thermal energy by the passage of
electrical current through a resistor. The effect of this energy
transformation is the same as that of heat transfer; in both cases
the thermal energy of the system is increased, and it would be
impossible to distinguish between the two effects by observing the
end states of the system; thus, we can say that there is an
equivalence between mechanical or electrical energy and heat.
Originally units of heat were defined differently than units of
work, with the British thermal unit and the calorie used for heat
and ft-lb or joules used for work. Since dissipated work can be
measured, and the equivalent heat transfer in calories or Btus can
be determined by measuring temperature rise, the equivalence of
these units, or the conversion factor relating one unit to the other
can be found experimentally.
As noted in Chapter 1, J.P. Joule performed experiments of this
type in the nineteenth century (1878) and arrived at the
mechanical equivalent of heat, which is often denoted by the
symbol J. Alien and Maxwell (1962) describe these experiments
and indicate that Joule's original value for J was 772.55 foot-
pounds per British thermal unit. Later experimenters found
slightly different values, and the accepted value of Jis today given
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as 778 foot-pounds per British thermal units. In the metric system
Jis 4.186xl07 ergs per calorie or 4.186 joules per calorie.
To determine numerical value of J, James Prescott Joule
constructed a calorimeter which contained water which was stirred
by means of a paddle wheel. The latter was rotated, and the
angular displacement was determined during a 3 5-minute test. The
calorimeter drum was filled with water and would have spun
about its vertical about its vertical axis, had it not been restrained
by a couple created by a cord wound around its girth and kept taut
by a weight hanging over a pulley. The work done on the system
was the moment of the force on the cord times the angular
displacement of the drum.The internal energy rise of the water
was computed from the (5.6) on the premise that the irreversible
work done by the paddle wheel was equivalent to an equal amount
of energy added as as heat.
In employing (5.7) it is important that each of the three terms
have the same units. The mechanical equivalent of heat is useful
in converting one or more of the quantities used in (5.7). When the
SI system of units is used, the specific heats, internal energy and
enthalpy are usually expressed in joules, so that no need for the
conversion factor / arises; however, the British units often utilize
Btu and ft-lb in the same problem. In the latter situation J =778 ft-
Ib/Btu should be used to obtain homogeneous units in (5.7).
5.5 Control Volume Form of the First Law
Until now the system has been the basis for applications of the
first law, but the same law can be adapted to the so-called control
volume. Control volume refers to a volume in space, usually a
machine, device or machine component which receives,
discharges or bothe receives and discharges fluids. An example of
a control volume is a valve, a section of pipe or a gas turbine, i.e.,
a device through which fluid flow occurs. Another example could
be a tank with fluid flowing into or out of it. The choice of the
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control volume is up to the engineer and is a matter of
convenience.
In developing the appropriate equation for a general control
volume we need to broaden the differential form of the first law
presented in (4.33) so as to include kinetic energy and potential
energy as well as internal energy; thus, we would write the first
law for a system as
(5.8)
where E is the stored enrgy of the system defined in (4.12). This is

done because the flowing system has kinetic energy and often its
altitude changes during its transit through the control volume.
Control
Volume
inlet Outlet
Fluid Fluid
State 1; State 2
cv
Figure 5.1 Schematic of generalized control volume
Figure 5.1 depicts schematically the control volume, indicated

by region C, through which a flow is taking place. Each parcel of
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TM

fluid carries a certain energy with it, viz., its stored energy or the
product of the mass of the parcel and its specific energy e, which
is defined as
2
— + gz (5.9)
Additionally, the flow work per unit mass, pv, is passing into the
control volume with the incoming flow and out of it with the
outgoing flow. The sum of the specific internal energy and the
specific flow work is usually written as the enthalpy h, in
accordance with (2.33).
The mass rate of flow in the inlet or exit pipe is the product of
cross-sectional area A of the pipe, velocity u of the fluid and the
density p of the fluid. This can be visualized as the cylinder of
fluid passing a transverse section of the conduit per unit of time,
viz., A\>, which is the correct expression for the volume per unit
time of fluid passing the section, times the mass per unit volume,
i.e., the density p. The mass flow rate is given by
m=Apv (5.10)
which can be used to calculate mass flow at the inlet or exit of the
control volume. If the flow is steady, and the mass flow rate into
the control volume equals the mass flow rate out of the control
volume, then we can write
4PlUl=^2P2U2 (5.11)
where the subscript 1 refers to the inlet and the subscript 2 denotes
outlet properties. (5.11) can be modified to accommodate multiple
streams; in this case the left side would have an additional term
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for each stream greater than one, and the right side would likewise
have a number of terms corresponding to the number of exiting
streams. Example Problem 5.5 illustrates this kind of problem.
When the flow is steady the properties at any point within the
control volume do not change with time, and the outflow equals
the inflow as indicated by (5.11); however, when the flow is
unsteady, there is no constancy of properties with time, and no
equality of inflow and out flow may be assumed.
Referring to Figure 5.1 and considering the flow of a fluid
system which enters the control volume (CV) at state 1 and leaves
at state 2. At time t the system occupies the regions indicated in
Figure 5.1 as inlet fluid and control volume, but the system moves
to a new position at time t + At when it occupies the region
marked conrol volume (CV) and outlet fluid. During the time
interval At fluid has passed into the CV in the amount AM/ which
is calculated by the expression
iA/ (5.12)
In the same period the amount of outflow fluid AM2 is given by
AM2 = p 2 ^ 2 u 2 Ar (5.13)
These incremental masses carry specific energy e and flow work

pv. The energy A£/ entering the control volume with the fluid is
expressed by
(5.14)
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TM

and that leaving the control volume is formulated as
A£2 = AM2(e2 +p2v2) (5.15)
The change of the stored energy of the system AE can be

expressed as
AE = Et+&, -E,= Ecvt + A£2 - Ecvt - M, (5.16)
Both sides of (5.16) are divided by A/, and the limit as A/ -» 0 is

taken. The resulting expression is
Jr~i J-JT~**\
— =— + m2(e2+p2v2)-ml(el+p}vl) (5.17)
at at J cv
Adapting (5.8) to the control volume problem, we express the

terms as energy per unit time. Noting that as A?-»0 the time rate of
heat transfer and work are identical for the system and the control
volume, since the system is located in the control volume at time
t. The first law as a rate equation is
*) =M (5.18)
dt ) cv dt dt cv
The first term on the right hand side of (5.18) is replaced by the
three terms on the right hand side of (5.17); finally, q and w to
TM
replace the heat and work derivatives results in the control-volume
form of the first law, viz.,
dE]
(5.19)
where the heat transfer rate and the rate of work in (5.19) express
the rates at which energy is transferred to or from the system at the
instant it is in the control volume. Note that the work term
includes all forms of work except the flow work, which has been
separated from it and is treated as an energy content of the fluid.
It is possible that each term of (5.19) may represent mutiple
terms, e.g., if there are several streams into or out of the control
volume, it will be necessary to add terms of exactly the same form
but with different subscripts. An example of this type of
application is given in Example Problem 5.5.
Equation (5.19) can be applied to unsteady as well as steady
flow problems. In many unsteady problems mass flows in and out
are unequal, and, in fact, the inflow or the outflow can be zero.
The stored energy of the control volume can increase or decrease
as well. Some problems of this type are included in the present
chapter, but most of the applications in this text assume steady
flow.
The steady state form of (5.19) has many practical applications
in engineering. For the steady state, or steady flow, case the time
derivative of E is zero and
m} = m2 = m (5.20)
If (5.19) is divided by mass flow rate m, we obtain the steady

flow energy equation in its most common form, viz.,
TM
TM

(5.21)
where specific enthalpy h, defined in (2.33), has been substituted

for u +pv on both sides of the steady flow energy equation.
Most of the applications covered in subsequent chapters of this
book will make use of the steady flow energy equation, e.g.,
specific work W and specific heat transfer Q in the basic
components of power plants and refrigeration systems are
determined through the use of some form of (5.21). The present
chapter includes a few examples to indicate the power of this
important equation.
5.6 Applications of the Steady Flow Energy Equation
Let us apply (5.21) to the four components of the basic steam

power plant depicted in Figure 3.4. Using the same numbering
Turbine
Figure 5.2 Power plant turbine as a steady flow device
TM
scheme as in Figure 3.4, we consider the turbine, the condenser,
the pump and the boiler as separate steady flow devices. Figure
5.2 depicts the turbine as a box, and arrows show the flow of
energy in or out. If we assume negligible heat transfer and
negligible changes in kinetic and potential energy, (5.21) reduces
to
(5.22)
Ideally the turbine casing is assumed to have adiabatic walls, but

the heat transfer can be estimated by means of (5.1), (5.2) and
(5.3) for greater precision. Typically changes in potential energy
and kinetic energy from turbine inlet to turbine outlet are a
negligible fraction of the enthalpy difference in (5.22). Neglect of
the kinetic energy and potential energy differences are applied to
the condenser, pump and boiler as well; however, heat
exchangers, such as the condenser and the boiler involve heat
transfer and no work. The pump, on the other hand involves
adiabatic work.
Condenser
Figure 5.3 Power plant condenser as a steady flow device
TM
TM

Using the energy diagrams presented in Figures 5.3, 5.4 and
5.5, it is clear that the steady flow equation for the condenser
would reduce to
Q = h3-h2 (5.23)
had the direction of heat transfer been taken as into the control
volume, i.e., in the direction assumed in the first law equation.
Since the heat transfer is out of the control volume, Q in (5.23)
would then carry a negative sign, and, correspondingly, h3 < h2. If
the magnitude of the heat rejected in the condenser is denoted by
QR, and the energy balance is as depicted in Figure 5.3, then the
heat rejected in the condenser is correctly expressed as
QR=h2-h3 (5.24)
Often the latter form will be used, and the direction of heat
transfer is understood.
Figure 5.4 Power plant pump as a steady flow device
TM
Heat transfer in the boiler is into the fluid and is therefore
positive; thus, the heat addition is denoted by QA. The energy
balance for the boiler yields the expression
(5.25)
Boiler
Figure 5.5 Boiler as a steady flow device
The net heat transfer for the cycle is the algebraic sum of the heat
transfers which is expressed as
(5.26)
TM
TM

We have previously derived the principle that the net work of
the cycle is equal to the net heat transfer. If we calculate the net
work from the algebraic sum of the component works, we obtain
Wmt=W,-Wp (5.27)
where Wt denotes turbine work, and Wp represents pump work.

The latter work is obtained from the energy balance for steady
flow through the pump (see Figure 5.4) which yields
(5.28)
which indicates that the work is really a negative quantity, but that
the magnitude of work Wp is positive. In this case the direction of
energy flow as work is into the control volume and into the fluid.
Sustitution of (5.22) and (5.28) into (5.27) yields
(5.29)
which is identical to the result for Qnet in (5.26). The general

principle of the equality of cyclic work and cyclic heat transfer
expressed in (4.32) is confirmed here through the use of the
control volume form of the first law.
The foregoing steady flow analysis demonstrates the power of
the first law in the control volume form. Application of the steady
flow energy equation to the power plant cycle confirms the
equality of net work and net heat transfer. We may observe in
passing that not all of the heat added in the boiler is converted into
work, i.e., some of the heat is rejected. The general principle
TM
expressing the inability of power cycles to convert all of the heat
added into work is one form of the second law of
thermodynamics, which is to be presented in Chapter 6. The
measure of how well the conversion of heat to work is carried out
is called thermal efficiency and is defined as the ratio of net work
of the cycle to heat added in the cycle; thus, thermal efficiency TI
is defined by
(5 3Q)
QA
The thermal efficiency as defined in (5.30) is used extensively in

subsequent chapters of this text and is principally utilized to
compare cycles and to predict performance of power plants.
Example Problem 5.1. Heat is transferred to a gallon (8.34 Ib) of

water. The temperature rises from T} = 80°F to T2 = 212°F during
the heating process. Determine the energy transferred as heat.
Solution: Use (5.6); obtain c from Table 5.1.
Q12 = Mc(T2 - T,) = 8.34(1,000)(212 - 80) = HOlBtu
Example Problem 5.2. An electric immersion heater is used to

heat one gallon of water from 80°F to 212°F during ten minutes of
operation. Find the heat transfer from the heated resistor to the
water during this ten minute period. If the voltage across the
resistor is 110 volts, determine the resistance of the heater in
ohms.
TM
TM

Solution: Use equation (5.6) and c from Table 5.1. The result is
exactly as calculated in Example problem 5.1; thus, Q12 =1101
Btu. Next we can take the resistor itself as the system. Assume
that the resistor does not change its temperature during the ten
minute period considered; thus, its internal energy remains
constant and U} = U2. Equation (5.7) becomes Q}2 = W12, and here
the work is irreversible, since the process cannot be reversed. The
electric power supplied is the rate at which irreversible work is
done, viz., 110.1 Btu/min. Using Ohm's law combined with an
expression for the rate of doing work in the resistor (system), i.e.,
the product of work per unit charge (volt) and charge flow
(amperes), we obtain
^12- = I2R = (—V ff = — = ^11())2 - (110-15to/mm)(60min//zr)

RJ R R 3Al3Btu / watt - hr
where W12/t represents power in watts, E is potential difference in

volts and R is electrical resistance in ohms. Solving the above
equation yields R = 6.25 ohms.
Example Problem 5.3. One pound of air is confined in a cylinder
at an absolute pressure p} of 3360 lb/ft2 and an absolute
temperature Tt of 540°R. A piston at one end of the cylinder has a
cross-sectional area of 100 in and moves a distance of one foot as
heat is added at constant pressure to the gas. Determine the work
done during the process 1-2, the increase of internal energy and
the heat transferred during the process.
Solution: The work is simply the pressure times the volume

change, i.e.,
Wnn =r\
p(V22 -V,)
;/ = 33601^^ J - Ib
——} = 2333ft
TM
To calculate the internal energy change, we need the final
temperature T2. First calculate the volume V} using the equation of
state for a perfect gas.
3360
Noting that M, R and/? remain constant during the process, we can

solve for T2 using
, = T. (V, + &¥)/¥,= 540\

2 [
-57 + 0'694} = 583.8° R
' ' ' 8.57 )
( R \
= Mcv(T2 -T,) = M\——jj(T2 - T,)
At/,, = (l{-^-1(583.8 - 540) = 5769.7ft - Ib

\L4-l)
Finally, the heat transfer is found from the first law, i.e.,
Q12 = AU12 + Wn = 5769.7 + 2333 = 8169ft - Ib
Example Problem 5.4 A heat exchanger comprises a single pipe

carrying water at a pressure of 1 bar and a flow rate of 0.1 kg/s.
The pipe wall is heated by an electric resistance heater, and the
water is heated from 20°C to 80°C in the heat exchanger.
Determine the rate of heat transfer and the heat transfer per unit
mass of water flowing.
Solution: Apply (5.21). Assume negligible change in kinetic and
potential energy and zero work. The enthalpies are those for
subcooled water and are found in the superheated steam tables in
TM
TM

Appendix A2. h}= 83.9 kJ/kg and h2=334.9 kJ/kg. Substituting in
(5.21) we obtain
q = m(hj -h,) = 0.1(334.9 - 83.9) = 25.1kW
m 0.1
Example Problem 5.5. A Hilsch tube 'separates' hot and cold

molecules of air. Compressed air enters the steady flow device
through a pipe at section 1 with a temperature of 300°K. The air
is divided by a tee fitting into two branch pipes, the left branch of
which emits cold air at T2 = 267°K while the right branch
discharges hot air at T3. The cold air mass flow is 42 percent of
the supply air mass flow. All tubes are insulated to prevent heat
transfer to the environment. Determine the hot air temperature.
Solution: Apply (5.21) with zero heat transfer and work and
negligible change in kinetic or potential energy. It is necessary to
modify the steady flow mass and energy equation to account for
two outflows rather than one; thus, the mass flow equation reads
ml = m2 + m3 = 0.42ml + 0.5 8/w,
and the steady flow energy equation becomes
mfa = m2h2 + m3h3 = OA2mlh2 +0.58m,/z3
Since ht and h2 are known from the air tables in Appendix D, we

can solve for h3 and T3; thus, solving the enrgy equation for h3, we
have
hz,3 = (h,
// - 0.42h
nsti )»// 0.58
2
/ > « = ——————5———'-
300.43-0.42(267.3) = 324.4LJ
..... / kg
.58
TM
From Appendix D this enthalpy corresponds to T3 = 323.9°K, the
temperature of the hot air.
References
Alien, H.S. and Maxwell, R.S. (1962). A Text-book of Heat, Part

I. London: MacMillan.
Hudson, Ralph G.(1944). The Engineers' Manual. New York:

Wiley.
Incropera, Frank P. and De Witt, David P. (1990). Fundamentals

of Heat and Mass Transfer. New York: Wiley.
Zemansky, Mark W. and Dittman, Richard H. (1997), Heat and

Thermodynamics, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Problems
5.1 Two cycles, a-b-c-a and a-c-d-a, appear on the p-V plane as
shown in Figure P5.1 below. The cycles are executed by systems
of the same perfect gases having the same mass and the same
properties. Determine the sign of the heat transfers Qab, Qbc, Qca,
Qac> Qcd, and Qda.
Figure P5.1
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TM

5.2 For the processes described in Problem 5.1 determine the sign
of the following differences:
5.3 Which of the two cycles described in Problem 5.1 has the
highest thermal efficiency? Hint: Note that the net work for cycle
a-b-c-a is identical to the net work of cycle a-c-d-a; use (5.30).
5.4 Solve for the heat transfer accompanying the compression in

Problem 4.1. The gas is air, and the process is isothermal. Assume
perfect gas properties.
5.5 The starting state in the cycle described in problem 4.6 has the
properties p1 = 100 psia, T, = 540°R and Vt = 2 ft3. The system is
air with R = 53.3 ft-Lb/Lb-°R and y = 1.4. Assume perfect gas
properties, determine the heat transfer for each of the four
processes.
5.6 Determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle described in

Problem 5.5. Hint: Use (5.30).
5.7 Using the data from Problem 4.7 find the heat transfer for each
of the three processes of the cycle. Assume perfect gas properties.
5.8 Solve for the thermal efficiency of the power cycle of Problem
5.7. Hint: Use (5.30).
5.9 Using the data from Problem 4.8 find the heat transfer for each
of the three processes of the cycle. Assume perfect gas properties.
5.10 Solve for the thermal efficiency of the power cycle of

problem 5.9. Hint: Use (5.30).
TM
5.11 Using the data from Problem 4.9 find the heat transfer for
each of the three processes of the cycle.
5.12 Solve for the thermal efficiency of the power cycle of

Problem 5.1 1. Hint: Use (5.30).
5.13 Using the data from Problem 4.10 for the Carnot cycle to
determine QA and QR for this cycle.
5.14 Determine the efficiency of the Carnot cycle in Problem 5.13.

Compare the efficiency obtained from (5.30) with that found with
the standard equation for Carnot cycle efficiency, viz.,
f \
T —T
—— -*3
-J-*! 1
where T3 is the temperature of the thermal energy reservoir

supplying energy to the engine, and Tj < T3.
5.15 Solve for QA and QR in the Otto cycle of Problem 4. 1 1 .
5.16 Determine the thermal efficiency for the cycle of Problem

5.15 using (5.30). The standard equation for Otto cycle efficiency
is
an
where r denotes the compression ratio Vj/V2 d x=(j-l)/j.
5.17 Use the data given in Problem 4.12. Determine the final
pressure of the air and steam after the electric heater is removed
from the steam. The steam is initially at a quality of x1 - 0.9 with
a pressure of 1 bar. The final pressure of the steam is equal to the
TM
TM

final pressure of the air. The steam loses energy as work to the air,
but there is no heat transfer from the steam through the piston or
through the cylinder walls. The final quality of the steam is x2 —
1.0. Determine the heat transfer from the heating coil to the steam.
each of the two processes. Assume perfect gas properties.
each process. Assume properties of a diatomic, perfect gas.
5.20 Determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle in problem

5.19. Use (5.30).
5.21 Using the data from Problem 4.23 find Q12 and Q2j.
5.22 Using the data for the three-process cycle of Problem 4.25
determine the heat transfer for each process. Determine QA and QR
for the cycle. Is this a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle?
5.23 Air from the room at p0 = 14.7 psia and T0 - 90°F is allowed
to slowly fill and insulated, evacuated tank having a volume of 33
ft. When the valve is opened, the atmosphere provides the flow
work necessary to push a volume V0 of room air into the tank.
Although no heat is transferred, the temperature of the air in the
tank rises to a final value 7}. Find Tf, the mass of air collected in
the tank after the flow has ceased, the volume of outside air V0,
and the work done by the atmosphere on the air in the tank.
5.24 A room with insulated (adiabatic) walls has the dimensions

20 ft by 20 ft by 10 ft. Heat is added to the room air from a wall
heater which raises its temperature from 20°F to 80°F. The room
presssure is maintained at 14.7 psia during the heat transfer. Find
the energy added to the room air.
TM
Chapter 6
Entropy and the Second Law
6.1 Entropy as a Property
We have become familiar with the Carnot cycle, which comprises

two adiabatic processes and two isothermal processes (see Figure
2.6). If we assume that the working substance is a perfect gas, then
the isothermal process involves no change of internal energy, and
the first law tells us that Q=Wfor the process; thus the heat trans-
fer for the heat added is given by
& = JWW; ln| ^ I (6.1)
and the heat rejected is expressed by
QR = MRT, ln| §-1 (6.2)
Utilizing (2.17) and (2.29) we can derive the volume-temperature

relation, viz.,
T
4. = p- (6.3)
T4
Thus, we observe that
TM
(6.4)
Applying (5.30) to determine the thermal efficiency of the Carnot

cycle, we find that
T -T
which is a very useful relation for the determination of Carnot cy-

cle efficiency. Comparison of (5.30) and (6.5) shows that QA and
QR for the Carnot cycle are related to the higher and lower tem-
peratures (Tj > T3) according to
QA=QR(T,/T3) (6.6)
which is useful in showing the existence of an important property,

viz., the entropy S. Zemansky (1957) has shown that (6.6) is in-
dependent of the working substance and consequently is useful in
defining a thermodynamic temperature scale which has no de-
pendence on thermometric properties of substances.
Consider an arbitrary cycle depicted on the p-V plane as
shown in Figure 6.1. We inscribe an infinitesimal Carnot cycle
within the boundaries of the cycle so that the isothermal process a-
b, which occurs at the higher temperature Ta, crosses the cycle
boundary at the top of the figure, and the isothermal process d-c,
which takes place at the lower temperature Tc, crosses the cycle at
the bottom of the figure. For this Carnot cycle the heat transfer
dQa is added at temperature Ta, and the heat transfer dQR is re-
jected at Tc. Applying (6.6) we have
TM
dQc=dQa(Tc/TJ (6.7)
isotherm
ad ia bats
any cycle
isotherm
Figure, 6.1 Infinitesimal Carnot Cycles
Writing (6.7) as the ratio of dQ to T, integrating both sides from

the left to the right end of the diagram and adding the integrals
leads to the important result,
(6.8)
T
This is significant because we know that the cyclic integral of a

thermodynamic property is zero. We infer then that (6.8) is, in
TM

fact, a property. The property is called entropy and is denoted by
the symbol S; thus, we can write
jdS = 0 (6.9)
For reversible heat transfer entropy is defined as
(6.10)
It follows that specific entropy 5 is written in differential form as
(6.11)
MdT
6.2 The Tds Equations
Since (6.10) and (6.11) apply to reversible processes, the differen-

tial form of the first law (4.33) can be substituted into the expres-
sions for dS or ds. For (6.11) the result of this substitution is
du + pdv
as-——-— (6.12)
T
TM
If (2.24) is substituted in (6.12), an equation for the calculation of
entropy change can be derived. The first step in the derivation is
Ids = cv dT+[(8 u/d v)T + p^v (6.13)
Next we represent entropy as a function of two independent vari-

ables, viz., s(T,v), which in differential form and multiplied by T
becomes
Tds=l(——} dT+T\~} dv (6.14)

UrJ UvJ
Comparing coefficients of (6.13) and (6.14) we have
Using the third Maxwell relation from Appendix F in (6.15) and

eliminating the derivative in (6.13), we obtain the first Tds equa-
tion, viz.,
7l——1 dv (6.16)
TM
In a similar manner one can derive the second Tds equation.
Eliminating du from (6.12) by using the differential form of (2.33)
yields
Tds = dh-vdp (6.17)
Substituting for dh from the differential form of the equation of

state relating h,p and T, i.e.,
dh = (d h/d T)pdT + (d h/dp)Tdp (6.18)
yields
Tds = cp dT + [(d h/d p)T -v\dp (6.19)
Comparing coefficients with the differential form of s(T,p) and

using the fourth Maxwell relation from Appendix F transforms
(6.19) into the second Tds equation, i.e.,
Tds = cpdT-T(d v/d T)pdp (6.20)
where (2.32) has been used in the first term on the right.
TM
6.3 Calculation of Entropy Change
The two Tds equations are useful in quantifying the entropy

change and are usually used in integrated form. For example, if a
liquid, gas or solid is heated at constant pressure, we use only the
first term on the right side of (6.20), since the term containing dp
is zero in this case. Integrating (6.20) to find the change of entropy
from state 1 to state 2 yields
s*-*i=\c,— (6.21)
If the specific heat is assumed to be constant over the range of

temperatures in the process, then (6.21) becomes
(6.22)
where Tj and T2 refer to the absolute temperatures of the end

states.
For a constant volume process cp in (6.20) and (6.21) is re-
placed with cv. This is derived from (6.16) by setting dv equal to
zero and integrating. The difference between cp and cv is very
small for liquids and minuscule for solids; thus, the subscript is
often omitted when (6.22) is applied to liquids and solids, and
values of specific heat such as those found in Table 5.1 are used
for cp in (6.22).
If it is desired to calculate the difference between cp and cv, an
appropriate equation can be derived by eliminating Tds between
(6.16) and (6.20) and imposing a constant volume constraint. With
this procedure the term involving dv vanishes, and the remaining
terms yield
TM
c-cv=T(dv/dT)D(d p/3T)v (6.23)
The right hand side of (6.23) can be evaluated from tables of

properties or from the applicable equation of state. For example, if
the substance is a perfect gas, then the term on the right side of
(6.23) reduces to the gas constant R, which agrees with (2.35), the
specific heat relation for perfect gases.
The pressure derivative in (6.23) can be expressed in terms of
the coefficients of expansivity and compressibility through the use
of a mathematical identity, viz.,
(d P/dT\(dT/dv)p(dv/d p)T=-l (6.24)
which can be written in terms of (3 and K, coefficients of expan-

sivity and compressibility, respectively; thus,
— ffi-)^
(6.25)
K
where the coefficients are defined by the relations
(6.26)
and
TM
P\ (6.27)
Properties such as p and K are available in tables such as those
found in Zemansky (1957); they can be estimated from tables ofp,
v and T, such as those in Appendices A and B of this book. Fur-
ther, the Tds equations can be stated in terms of these coefficients;
thus, (6.16) becomes
— + $-dv (6.28)
T K
while (6.20) can be written as
dT
-}vdp (6.29)
Equations (6.28) and (6.29) are useful in the calculation of

entropy change. To carry out an integration one needs an equation
of state relating p, v and T, or, if numerical integration is used,
tabular data can be used in lieu of &p-v-T relationship. The perfect
gas equation of state will be used to illustrate the integrated result.
For the perfect gas the definitions, (6.26) and (6.27), yield p = T1
and K =p . When (6.28) and (6.29) are integrated using the above
expressions for expansivity and compressibility, the results are
s2-Sj= cv In ( T 2 / T j ) + R In (v2 / v,) (6.30)
TM
and
s2-sI=cpln(T2/T1)-Rln(P2/Pl) (6.31)
where the specific heats are assumed to be constant for the process
considered. If the specific heat varies significantly with tempera-
ture, an average value of specific heat can be used. Another ap-
proach is the use of gas tables, which often provide values for the
integral ofcpdT/T, thus accounting for specific heat variation with
temperature.
The tacit assumption underlying the derivation of (6.30) and
(6.31) is that the process joining states 1 and 2 is a reversible
process; however, it is observed that the integrated form of the
equation does not depend on the path that joins the end states. The
change of entropy calculated by (6.30) and (6.31) will be correct
for any process, reversible or irreversible, joining the two end
states. The reason is that entropy is a property, and its change is
independent of path, even when the path is an irreversible one.
6.4 The Temperature-Entropy Diagram
Because of the relationship indicated by (6.10), the new property,

entropy, can be used graphically to show the amount of heat trans-
ferred during a reversible process. If we rewrite (6.10) in inte-
grated form, we see that
Qn = [TdS (6.32)
so that the integral in (6.32) is represented by an area under a

process curve on the T-S plane; Figure 6.2 illustrates this idea.
TM
Figure 6.2 Heat and the T-S Diagram
As the state point moves through the processes of a cycle, the

area under the curves for the processes of the cycle represent both
positive and negative quantities of heat transfer. An example is
shown in Figure 6.3, in which the Carnot cycle is depicted. The
two adiabatic processes, represented by curves 2-3 and 4-1, have
no area under them, which illustrates that they involve no heat
transfer whatever. On the other hand, curve 1-2, depicts a process
in which there is positive heat transfer, i.e., heat transfer occurs
from the surroundings to the system; thus, Q12 denotes a heat ad-
dition, the amount of which is represented by the rectangular area
under the curve 1-2. On the other hand, the curve 3-4 is formed as
the state point moves from right to left, so that dS < 0 and \TdS is
a negative quantity; therefore, the rectangular area under curve 3-4
represents the quantity of heat rejected in the cycle. Finally, the
rectanglar area enclosed by the boundary 1-2-3-4-1 represents the
net heat transfer, which is clearly positive, since the heat addition
is larger than the heat rejection. We recall the principle surnma-
TM
rized in (4.32), viz., the net heat transfer of a cycle equals the net
work for the cycle.
Figure 6.3 Carnot Cycle on the T-S Plane
The T-S plane is useful for depicting processes involving heat

transfer in the same way the p-V plane is useful for illustrating
processes involving work. For cycles, the enclosed area represents
the net heat transfer in the former case and the net work in the
latter case. It is noted in Figure 6.3 that the adiabatic processes are
also processes in which the entropy does not change; hence, they
are called isentropic processes. This kind of process is used fre-
quently to model real processes which occur in cycles. For the
above reasons, the T-S diagram is frequently preferred for the de-
piction of cycles.
6.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Power cycles, i.e., cycles comprising processes traced out as the

state point moves in a clockwise sense, will always involve posi-
tive heat transfer as the state point moves from left to right and
TM
negative heat transfer as the state point moves from right to left.
The fact that every power cycle includes processes in which heat
is rejected allows the following inference to be made: an engine,
operating in a (power) cycle, cannot convert all of the energy it re-
ceives from heat transfer into work. To paraphrase this statement,
we can say that no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency as
high as 100 percent; this principle is one form of the second law
of thermodynamics..
Zemansky (1957) writes that the Kelvin-Planck version of the
second law of thermodynamics states that " it is impossible to
construct an engine that, operating in a cycle, will produce no ef-
fect other than the extraction of heat from a reservoir and the per-
formance of an equivalent amount of work." The reason for this is
that the engine, working in a cycle, must reject heat during at least
one process of the cycle.
To facilitate thinking about heat engines it is convenient to
imagine an arrangement like that shown in Figure 6.4. The reser-
voirs are for thermal energy or mechanical energy. Thermal en-
ergy reservoirs may be at any temperature, but the main point is
that they are so vast in size that the temperature is not changed by
a gain or loss of energy by heat transfer. Heat transfer takes place
reversibly, heat that is added can be extracted at will, i.e., the sys-
tem with which the reservoir exchanges heat is at the same tem-
perature as the reservoir itself. The mechanical energy reservoir
can be imagined as a device for mechanical energy storage, e.g., a
spring of some sort might be used to save mechanical energy. It
must be frictionless, so that the exact amount of mechanical en-
ergy stored can be withdrawn at any time. The Carnot engine is a
perfect example of an engine which exchanges heat with thermal
energy reservoirs (TERs) and mechanical energy reservoirs
(MERs). The acronyms TER and MER were coined by Reynolds
and Perkins (1977).
The Carnot engine can be conceived as a single-cylinder piston
engine filled with a gas. The Carnot cycle executed by the gaseous
TM
High
Temperature
Reservoir
Mechanical
Energy
Reservoir
Low
Temperature
Reservoir
Figure 6.4 Thermal and Mechanical Energy Reservoirs
system is depicted in Figure 6.3. During process 1-2 the gas re-
mains at temperature Tj, the temperature of the high-temperature
TER, as heat transfer Q12 occurs. The heat transfer Q}2 is added to
the gaseous system and is denoted by QA. The entropy change of
the high-temperature TER resulting from the negative heat trans-
fer is
*S» = -QA / T, (6.33)
The heat rejection QR from the engine gas to the low-temperature

TER occurs at the temperature T3 and results in an increase of en-
tropy given by
TM
&S43=QR/T3 (6.34)
The entropy change in the MER is zero since there is no dissipa-

tion of energy by friction and therefore no frictional heating of the
MER. The gas in the engine is executing a cycle; therefore, for
each cycle the change of entropy is zero. Summing the entropy
changes for the gaseous system and its surroundings, i.e., the
TERs and the MER, we obtain
(6.35)
where &Sisoi refers to the isolated system, which is defined as a

system having boundaries across which no energy passes in the
form of heat or work; all of the elements shown in Figure 6.4
would be included in the isolated system considered here.
Applying the result of (6.6) to (6.35) we find that the net en-
tropy change for the isolated system is zero. This is true in general
for all isolated systems in which there are no processes involving
dissipation or transfer of heat with a temperature difference. The
Carnot engine provides a limiting case, since it is a completely re-
versible engine; however, real processes do involve non-ideal ef-
fects which render them irreversible, i.e., the net entropy change
for isolated system is nonzero for systems involving real proc-
esses.
One real process is the transfer of heat with a temperature dif-
ference. Figure 6.5 illustrates the effect of heat transfer with a
temperature difference on entropy change. To illustrate the effect
we are considering the flow of heat from a TER at temperature Ta
to a TER at temperature Te with Ta > Te.
TM
Figure 6.5 Heat Transfer between Reservoirs
For the two TERs the quantity of energy transferred is the same;
thus, the area under the process curves a-b and e-f, which repre-
sents Q, is the same area. The net entropy change for the isolated
system comprising the two reservoirs is
(6.36)
Clearly the sum indicated in (6.36) is positive, and we can con-

clude that heat transfer with a temperature difference produces a
net increase in entropy of the isolated system. Referring to (6.5)
one sees that energy at a higher temperature has a greater potential
to do work than the same energy at a lower temperature. The heat
transfer considered above is thus analogous to the degradation of
energy through frictional effects in mechanical processes.
TM
The net effect of friction or other dissipative effects is to trans-
fer organized or directed energy, such as work, into randomly di-
rected or chaotic forms, such as those found in molecular motion
or atomic lattice vibrations. Thus, the internal energy of the af-
fected system is increased. The ultimate effect of this transforma-
tion of mechanical energy to thermal energy is the same as that of
positive heat transfer, and the dissipated energy produces a posi-
tive change in the entropy of the system just as would heat addi-
tion.
If the isolated system depicted in Figure 6.4 involved irre-
versible heat transfer or irreversible work, then the net entropy
change would be positive rather than zero; thus, we could write
ASisol > 0 (6.37)
which is called the entropy postulate, a third form of the second

law of thermodynamics.
Referring again to Figure 6.5 we can see that if the direction of
the heat transfer processes were reversed, i.e., if heat flowed from
the colder TER to the hotter, the net change of entropy would be
negative. Clearly heat flow from a colder to a hotter body does not
occur in nature, and, if it did, it would certainly violate (6.37),
which precludes negative entropy change for isolated systems. Of
course, machines could be inserted between the TERs, e.g., an
engine and a refrigerating machine, as depicted in Figure 6.6.
Of course refrigeration machines transfer energy from colder to
hotter bodies. A domestic refrigerator transfers heat from cold
food to warmer room air, but electrical energy is required to drive
the compressor to produce this effect. The Clausius statement of
the second law of thermodynamics which declares the impossibil-
ity of heat flow from a colder to a hotter body in an isolated sys-
tem is rendered by Zemansky (1957) in the following maxim: "it
TM
is impossible to construct a device that, operating in a cycle, will
produce no other effect than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a
hotter body."
TER
Refrigerator
Q2-
TER
T2
Figure 6.6 Engine and Refrigerator between Reservoirs
If the engine in Figure 6.6 is a Carnot engine, then the efficiency

is determined by the temperatures Tj and T2 of the TERs (7} > T2~),
as given by (6.5). If the refrigerator is the reversed Carnot cycle,
then its efficiency is determined in the same way, so that Qi~Qi-
and Q2 = Qr. The entropy change of the isolated system is zero,
and there is no net heat transfer from the cold to the hot reservoir;
thus, the second law is not violated. On the other hand, if it is as-
sumed that the engine driving the Carnot refrigerator is more effi-
cient than the Carnot engine, then Qr < Q1 and Q2- < Q2\ thus, the
cooler TER is being cooled by Q2 - Q2- during each cycle, and the
hotter TER is being heated during each cycle by Q} - Qr. There
would be a transfer of energy from the cooler to the hotter reser-
TM
voir in violation of the Clausius statement of the second law.
Additionally, the net entropy change is
AS« =rfi; -Qf)/Tt -(Q2-Q2,)/T2 (6.38)
which violates the second law as stated in the entropy postulate

given by (6.37), since the numerators of the two terms of (6.38)
are equal, while the denominators are unequal, i.e., T2 < Tj. The
violation of the second law implies that the presumption that any
engine can have a higher efficiency than the Carnot is erroneous;
thus, we take the Carnot cycle efficiency as given by (6.6) as the
highest possible efficiency for a heat engine operating in a cycle.
The Carnot engine efficiency given by (6.6) provides us with
an upper limit for the fraction of the heat added to a system under-
going cyclic changes that can be realized as net work output. It
also gives us insight as to how changes in system parameters can
improve the effiency of a power cycle, e.g., by lowering the tem-
perature of the TER to which the engine rejects heat. Additionally,
for a given heat addition, the maximum amount of work realizable
for any two temperatures can be computed; this is sometimes
called the available energy, since it is that part which is available
for conversion to work.
It is seen that the first law states that energy can be converted
from one form to another, whereas the second law limits the
amount of the conversion of heat to work. A second law anaysis is
a useful method for analyzing components of power or processing
plants to locate sites of major losses of available energy as a first
step in the improvement of overall performance. The methodology
of availability analysis will be introduced in Chapter 7.
Example Problem 6.1. A system comprising five pounds of water

is heated at constant pressure from an initial temperature of 40°F
TM
to a final temperature of 200°F. Find the change of entropy of the
system.
Solution: Use (6.22) with cp = 1 Btu/lb-°R to find the specific en-
tropy change.
200 + 46
s22-s,=
l ((l)ln
J ° = 0.2776 Btu /lb- deg
K R
40 + 460
Since the system comprises five pounds of water, the entropy

change for the system is given by
S,-S, = M(s2 -s,) = 5(0.2776) = 1.388Btu / degR
Example Problem 6.2. Use the steam tables to estimate the dif-
ference between cp and cv for water at 1 bar and 20°C. Hint: Use
the property changes to evaluate the derivatives in (6.23).
Solution: Select property values from the steam table in Appendix
A2.
In evaluating the volume derivative of (6.23) we select values of
specific volume and temperature at 1 bar and above and below
20°C; these values are: v, = 0.0010001 m3/kg; T, = 0°C; v2 =
0.0010079 m3/kg; T2 = 40°C. The value of the derivative is ap-
proximately
(d v\ ^ v2 -v, = .0010079-0.0010001
(d TJ ^ T£ 2-T,~1
40-0 p
=1.95xlO'7m3/kg-degK
The temperature difference in the denominator is 40° and can be
written as °C or as °K.
TM
The next step is to evaluate p using the definition (6.26); using
the data available above, we find
0 1.95xlO~7 , _ . _ 1 A - 4 , „-!
B » ————— = 1.942x10 deg K
0.001004
Zemansky (1957) gives a value of 2.08x10'V1 for p at 273°K,

which shows that the approximation is reasonably valid.
In a similar way K can be estimated from steam table data:
At 20°C the steam tables show v, - 0.0010018 m3/kg with/?; = 1
bar, and v2 = 0.0010014 at p2 = 10 bars; thus, K is estimated by
—iffLll / (0.0010014-0.0010018\
v U / J r * 0.0010016\ (lO-l)xlO5 )
= 4.44x10'10m2/N
Zemansky(1957) gives K = 4.58x10"10 m2/N for water at 20°C.

Applying (6.25) to find the pressure derivative we obtain
1-942x10-
Finally we use (6.23) to determine the specific heat difference;

this is
c - cv = (293)(1.95x10'"')(437,387) = 25 J/ kg - deg K
TM
Zemansky (1957) gives cp = 4182 J/kg-°K for water at 20°C;
therefore, the difference beteen cp and cv is less than one percent.
This difference is often neglected in the calculation of heat trans-
fer or entropy change.
Example Problem 6.3. During an irreversible process air is com-

pressed from state 1 to state 2. The pressures and temperatures
are: p, = I bar, T1 = 288°K, p2 = 4 bars, and T2 = 450°K. Deter-
mine the change of specific entropy.
Solution:
Using (6.31) to find entropy change, (2.37) to find cp, and (2.38)
to determine R, we find
s23-s, = in——-0.287(In4) =0504kJ/kg-degK

' 0.4 288
The value found by means of (6.31) is slightly low, possibly be-

cause we have use a constant value of cp = 1.0045kJ/kg-degK. We
can improve on this value by using an average value of specific
heat, cpav, defined by
r<. dT 45207-288
tJ£.\Jl 18
ZOO.JO
450-288
imniti r I l r rs
= 1.01043kJ /kg- deg K
where the value of the integral in the numerator of the above ex-
pression is obtained from the enthalpies found in Appendix D.
Using the average value of specific heat for the range of tempera-
TM
tures from 288°K to 450°K, the value obtained for the entropy
change becomes 0.053075kJ/kg-degK, which is a better result.
Example Problem 6.4. A block of aluminum having a mass of

100 kg and a specific heat of 0.21 cal/g-degK is initially at
1000°K. Determine the maximum work obtainable from an engine
inserted between the aluminum block and a thermal energy reser-
voir at 270°K.
Solution: Determine the heat removed from the block. Note that
this is QA, the heat added to the working substance in the engine.
The final temperature of the block will be the temperature of the
reservoir, the first step in the solution is to write the sum of the
entropy changes for all the components of the isolated system.
The entropy change of the engine is omitted, since it will operate
in a cycle, and AS = 0 for the engine. The remaining terms are the
entropy change in the reservoir and the entropy change for the
block; their sum becomes ASisol in (6.37). The second law for this
problem is written as
AS,,0/ = (QA -W)/T2 + Mcpln(T2 /T,)>0
where the heat addition from the block is
QA = Me (T{ - T2) = 100000(0.21)(1000-270) = 15330000ca/
For maximum work the above inequality is made an equality, i.e.,

the engine must be a completely reversible engine, like the Carnot,
so that ASisoi = 0. Solving for maximum work we obtain
TM
Wmax=QA+T2Mcpln(T2/T,)
270
Wmax = 15330000 + 270(100000)(0.21)
\ /< / ln
max = 7906080cal
References
Reynolds, William C. and Perkins, Henry C. (1977). Engineering

Thermodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Zemansky, Mark W. (1957). Heat and Thermodynamics. New

York: McGraw-Hill.
Problems
6.1 Sketch the following cycles on the T-S plane: the Otto cycle;
the Rankine cycle; the reversed Carnot cycle; and the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle.
6.2 Use the data from Problem 2.1 to determine the change of
specific entropy of the air as a result of the expansion process.
6.3 Use the data from Problem 2.7 to determine the change of en-
tropy of the air as a result of the mixing of the air from the two
bottles.
6.4 Find the change of entropy for processes 1-2 and 2-3 of the
ideal gas system in Problem 2.8.
6.5 Determine the entropy change for each of the three processes
executed by the system described in problem 2.9.
TM
comprising the cycle described in Problem 2.15.
6.7 Determine the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle described

in Problem 3.9.
6.8 Determine the change in entropy of the air which undergoes

the heating process described in Problem 3.12.
comprising the cycle described in problem 3.14.
6.10 Determine the change in entropy of the mass of air which

flows into the tank in Problem 5.23.
6.11 Ten pounds of air are heated at constant pressure from 25°F
to 275°F . Determine the heat transfer and the entropy change.
6.12 A Carnot engine is operated in a reversed cycle between two

reservoirs having temperatures T} = 1500°K and T2 = 500°K. Re-
ferring to Figure 6.3 the reversed cycle would be 1-4-3-2-1. If the
refrigeration is QA, the energy absorbed at heat transfer at tempera-
ture T2, find the tons of refrigeration produced by the reversed
Carnot engine per kilowatt of power supplied to the engine from
an outside power source. Hintl ton of refrigeration = 12000
Btu/hr; lkW = 3413 Btu/hr.
6.13 Eight kilograms of water at 10°C are mixed with ten kilo-
grams of water at 65°C. The process occurs in a vessel with adia-
batic walls at a pressure of 1 bar. Determine the increase of en-
tropy for the isolated system.
6.14 Compressed air enters a valve at 440°R and 220 psia and ex-
its the valve at 60 psia. This process is a throttling process. Apply
the steady flow energy equation to determine the exit temperature.
TM
Assume an adiabatic flow with negligible change in kinetic energy
from inlet to outlet. What change of specific entropy takes place
during the throttling process.
6.15 From the T-S diagram a 1000°K b

determine which of the two
power cycles, cycle A or
cycle B, has the highest ther-
mal effiency. What is the effi-
ciency of cycle A?
Figure P6.15
6.16 If 100 Btu of energy is transferred as heat from a TER at

100°F to a second TER at 0°F, what is the entropy change of the
isolated system?
6.17 An inventor claims to have designed a new engine which

produces power at a thermal efficiency of 0.75 while receiving
heat transfer from hot gases at 1540°F and rejecting heat to a pond
at 60°F. Is this efficiency possible? Explain.
6.18 A Carnot engine receives 10000 kJ of heat transfer from

TER No.l at 1000°K. The engine then rejects heat to TER No.2
which is at 600°K. How much energy as work is stored in an
MER? What is the entropy change of TER No. 1? What is AS for
TER No.2? What is the change of entropy for the engine, the
TERs and the MER collectively.
6.19 Steam at five bars and 553°K having a specific enthalpy of

3022.9 kJ/kg and a specific entropy of 7.3865 kJ/kg-°K enters a
well-insulated turbine at low velocity. The exhaust steam has a
pressure of 0.3 bar, a quality of 0.993 and a neligible velocity. If
TM
the flow rate of steam is 33000 kg/hr, what is the turbine power in
kW? Determine the change of specific entropy of the steam.
6.20 Two 100-pound masses having a common specific heat of

0.2 Btu/lb-°R are used as thermal energy source and sink for a
Carnot engine which produces infinitesimal work during each cy-
cle. The work so produced is stored in a MER. Initially the masses
have temperatures of 1500°R and 390°R, and the engine operates
between the two masses until the two masses have the same tem-
perature. Find the common final temperature of the masses, the
work stored in the MER and the entropy change of the isolated
system.
6.21 Five cubic feet of nitrogen at 14.7 psia and 200°F are con-
fined in a tank with five pounds of oxygen at 14.7 psia and 100°F.
Initiallly the two gases are separated by a partition which is later
removed so that the gases mix by diffusion. The tank walls are
adiabatic, and no stirring is done. Assuming the gases behave as
perfect gases determine the final temperature of the mixed gas and
the change of entropy of the isolated system.
6.22 A block of beryllium having a mass of 4000 pounds and a

specific heat of 0.425 Btu/lb-°R has an initial temperature of
1000°R. An engine which operates in a cycle receives heat from
the block, produces work (stored in a MER) and rejects heat to a
TER at 400°R. Finally the block temperature is lowered to 400°R,
and the engine stops. Determine the maximum work obtainable
from the engine.
6.23 Two blocks of aluminum, each having a mass of 200 kg and

a specific heat of 0.175 cal/g-°K, are initially at 1200 °K. Deter-
mine the minimum work required of a reversed cycle engine, op-
erating between the two blocks and receiving work from a MER,
to lower the temperature of one of the blocks to 600°K.
TM
Chapter 7
Availability and Irreversibility
7.1 Available Energy
The heat transfer process depicted in Figure 7.1 is accompanied by

a rise in temperature and an increase in entropy. The rise of tem-
perature means that the mass of the system receiving the energy is
finite, i.e., it is not a reservoir. The heat addition is given by
= \TdS (7.1)
j QA-T O AS
T0AS
Figure 7.1 Available Energy
Theoretically this heat transfer can be reversible if the system

is placed in contact with an infinite number of reservoirs, each at a
temperature which is exactly equal to the system temperature. For
TM
such a reversible heat transfer there would be no change of en-
tropy for the ensemble comprising the system and the TER sup-
plying the energy. More realistically modeled the net entropy
change would, of course, be positive.
Another useful artifice is that of a Carnot engine which exe-
cutes a cycle having an upper temperature equal to the temperature
of the system at any value between T, and T2 and always discharg-
ing energy as heat transfer to a TER at temperature T0. The col-
lective work done is found by summing the infinitesimal quanti-
ties produced during each cycle as the upper temperature of the
Carnot cycle varies from T{ to T2. The area under the process
curve 1-2 in Figure 7.1 represents the transferred heat QA. The
heat rejected QR by the Carnot engine is represented by the area
T0&S, where AS1 is the entropy change from state 1 to state 2. The
net work done by the engine is the same as the net heat transfer,
viz., QA - QR.
Clearly the net work is increased when QR is reduced, i.e.,
when the temperature T0 at which the heat is rejected is lowered.
The lowest value T0 can have is called the lowest available cold
body temperature. This will usually correspond to a large body of
water or the atmosphere, i.e., a reservoir where energy as heat can
be dumped. When T0 denotes the lowest available cold body tem-
perature, then T0t±S is called the unavailable energy, whereas the
corresponding net work, QA - IÂS is known as the available en-
ergy. It is the part of any heat transfer which could theoretically be
converted into work, given the lowest available sink temperature
T0 in the local environment.
7.2 Entropy Production
The expression entropy production refers to the net increase of

entropy in an isolated system. Consider a system as depicted in
Figure 7.2. The system exchanges heat with a thermal energy res-
ervoir (TER), and work is added to and removed from a mechani-
TM
cal energy reservoir (MER). If irreversibilities exist in heat trans-
fer or work processes, then there will be an incremental increase
Isolated System
dW dS™, = dS + dS
Figure 7.2 Entropy Production with Irreversibility
in entropy, i.e., there will be some entropy production dP, which

is equal to dSnet, within the isolated system. The second law of
thermodynamics tells us that the net entropy change dSnet, or the
entropy production dP, of an isolated system must be greater than
or equal to zero. Heat transfer with a temperature difference and
friction or other process of energy dissipation will make the proc-
ess irreversible and contribute to the net entropy increase of the
isolated system.
The net increase of entropy can be found by summing the en-
tropy changes in each part of the isolated system. The entropy
change in the MER is assumed to be zero. The heat transfer be-
tween the system and the TER is also assumed to be reversible,
i.e., the place of thermal contact between the system and the TER
has a common temperature T; thus, the entropy increase of the
TM
TER is the magnitude of dQ divided by the temperature T. The
entropy change dS of the system includes the changes arising from
both internal friction and temperature difference. The resulting
expression for entropy production dP is
(7.2)
If no internal friction and temperature difference exists in the sys-

tem, then dP is zero, the processes executed by the system are re-
versible, and the formulation of (6.10) applies for the determina-
tion of entropy change.
7.3 Availability
An engine which is converting heat added to its working sub-

stance while executing a cycle will produce the maximum amount
of work when it operates in the Carnot cycle. A Carnot engine can
be interposed between a system at temperature T and a TER at
temperature T0 to eliminate the internal irreversibility associated
with the transfer of heat with a temperature difference. This ar-
rangement is shown in Figure 7.3. If the heat added, dQ, is infini-
tesimal, then the work correspondingly performed by the Carnot
engine will be infinitesimal; this may be written as
dWCE=dQ(l-T0/T) (7.3)
where T0 is the temperature of the environment, which is assumed

to be at the so-called dead state, i.e., the state fixed by the envi-
TM
ronmental conditions, i.e., the atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture, T0 and p0.
Atmospheric Work
+ p0dV
Atmospheric
Heat Transfer
Figure 7.3 Availability of a System
If the availability is defined as the maximum useful work ob-

tainable from a system in bringing it from any state, defined by its
pressure p and its temperature T, to the dead state, then clearly a
Carnot engine should be installed between the system and the en-
vironment to produce the maximum possible work from the sys-
tem heat transfer to the environment while keeping the net entropy
change of the isolated system at zero, i.e., there will be no irre-
versibilities in the processes undergone, and the entropy produc-
tion is set at zero. The work produced by the system dW^ is aug-
mented by the work of the Carnot engine dWCE, as expressed in
(7.3).
The change of pressure and temperature of the system is ac-
companied by a change of internal energy dU and a change of
TM
volume dV. The useful work dW of the system and the Carnot en-
gine is reduced by the atmospheric work p0dV done on the envi-
ronment at the boundaries of the system; thus, the first law of
thermodynamics applied to this system yields
dQa =dU + p0dV + dW (7.4)
With zero net change of entropy, the change of entropy of the

system is calculated from (7.2); thus,
dS = dQu / T0 (7.5)
Substituting (7.5) into (7.4) and solving for the useful work gives
(7.6)
Integration over the states from the original system state to the
dead state yields an expression for the availablity A, which is the
equivalent to the maximum value of the useful work in going from
the given state to the dead state; this is
= Wma3i=U-U0+Po(V-V0)-T0(S-S0) (7.7)
The maximum amount of useful work when the system passes

from state 1 to state 2 is the difference in the availablities, A] - A2',
TM
thus, the maximum useful work obtainable between states 1 and 2
is given by
Al-A2=Ul-U2 + Po(Vl -VJ-T& -S2) (7.8)
If irreversibilities are present in the system processes, then

there will be a corresponding reduction the the availability. Substi-
tuting (7.2) into (7.4) and integrating between states 1 and 2, we
find that the maximum work Wmax without irreversibility is re-
duced from A; - A2 to
(7.9)
which is W, the reduced maximum work with irreversibility. The

last term of (7.9) is called the irreversibility, and it measures the
amount of reduction of possible work wrought by the presence of
friction and heat transfer with temperature differences.
Finally, the reduced maximum work can be increased by allow-
ing heat exchange with thermal energy reservoirs other than the
atmosphere. If a TER is added, additional work comes from two
Carnot engines, the first of which is located between the TER and
the system, and the second located between the system and the
atmosphere; thus, (7.3) in integrated form is to the right hand side
of (7.9). The resulting work expression for a single TER is
W=A,-A,+QA(l-T0/TTER)-T0kSnel (7.10)
where QA denotes the heat added to the system from the TER at
temperature TTER, and T0 is the atmospheric temperature. Addi-
TM
tional TERs would simply add additional terms of the same form
to (7.10).
7.4 Second Law Analysis of an Open System
Two approaches to second law analysis are evident: the entropy

production determination and the availability accounting, and
these methods have been discussed for closed systems, i.e., sys-
tems with no flow across the system boundaries. We now apply
the same approaches to the control volume or open system.
To determine the rate of entropy production we will use a
modified form of (7.2),
dt dt T dt
where the entropy production due to irreversible effects, and the

time derivative of Q by T denotes the rate of entropy change cor-
responding to heat exchange with a TER. The flow of entropy
within a flowing fluid must also be accounted for when a control
volume such as that in Figure 5.1 is considered. In (5.17), which
applies to energy flow, the rate of change of system energy is ex-
pressed in terms of the rate of change of control volume energy
and the rates of inflow and outflow of energy (including flow
work). Using Figure 5.1 and the methodology of chapter 5, an en-
tropy equation analogous to (5.17) is
dS dS\ ,_ ,_.
— =— +m2s2-mlsl (7.12)
at dtJcv
TM
where m/ denotes the mass rate of inflow which carries specific
entropy sl into the control volume, while m2 represents the mass
flow rate carrying specific entropy s2 out of the control volume.
Along with entropy production, resulting from irreversibilities,
and the heat addition, the difference in entropy flow rates in and
out of the control volume also contributes to the rate of increase of
entropy. The substitution of (7.12) in (7.11) results in the modified
equation,
dS}
——
dP 1 dQ
——+ _ _ * L c_ e
,_,„
(7.13)
= + m m
l l 2 2
dt)cy dt T dt
If the heat transfer is directed into the control volume, the second
term on the right hand side of (7.13) is positive, and it is negative
for the outflow of heat. If there are multiple heat transfer points on
the boundary of the control volume, or if there are multiple
streams entering and leaving the control volume, then a separate
term for each heat transfer point or each stream will appear on the
right side of (7.13).
A common situation is that of steady flow. In this case the left
hand side of (7.13) will be zero, and the rate of entropy production
can be determined from a knowledge of heat transfer rates, mass
flow rates and properties of the flowing fluid at the inflow and
outflow points. According to the second law of thermodynamics,
the rate of entropy production must be greater than or equal to
zero. The principle expressed in the second law and the entropy
balance expressed in (7.13) can be utilized to check the validity of
experimental or test data or the claims of inventors or manufactur-
ers. Additionally, the entropy production rate determined from
(7.13) can be used to check the performance of flow devices in
TM
operational plants or as a means of predicting efficiencies of plant
components during the design stage.
For the steady flow case mj = m2 = m, and the left side of
(7.13) is zero. If it is further assumed that the control volume ex-
changes heat only with the surroundings at temperature T0 and that
the kinetic energy and potential energy terms of the steady flow
energy equation are negligible, then (5.21) becomes
„,„
(7.14)
Substituting for the heat transfer term on the left hand side of
(7.14) using (7.13), and solving for the power, we have
~- = m[(hl-T0sl)-(h2-T0s2)}-T0^ (7.15)
The last term on the right hand side of (7.15) is called the irre-
versibility rate, and the expression h - Tgg is termed the steady-
flow availability function and is denoted by b. If the terms of
(7.15) are divided by the mass flow rate, the result is
= bl-b2-I (7.16)
where W denotes specific work leaving the control volume, and /

represents the irreversibility per unit mass of flowing fluid. Clearly
the maximum work obtainable from a steady flow which enters
the control volume at state 1 and leaves at state 2 is found from
(7.16) by setting the irreversibilty / equal to zero.
TM
If kinetic and potential energy terms are included in the steady
flow energy equation, then (7.16) becomes
(7.17)
The second law efficiency s is defined for a work-producing

device by
W
(7.18)
b,-b2
whereas the definition for work-absorbing machines is
(7.19)
W
For heat exchangers the second law efficiency is given by
(7.20)
where the numerator is the availability rate of the cold fluid

(output), and the denominator is the availability rate for the hot
fluid.
TM
Example Problem 7.1. The input power delivered to a speed re-

ducer is 10 kW, and the output power delivered from the reducer
is 9.8 kW. The gear box has a surface temperature of 40°C and the
room air is at a temperature of 25°C. Determine the rates of en-
tropy production for the gear box and for the isolated system
comprising the gear box and the atmospheric air surrounding the
gear box.
Solution: Assuming steady state and using the rate form of (7.2),
we have
dtTdt
The rate of heat transfer through the wall of the gear box is equal
to the irreversible work done by frictional forces within the gear
box; thus, in this problem we have
= 10-9.8 = 0.
dt
The entropy production in the gear box is then
— = °'2 = 0.00064kW/°K
dt 40 + 273
Since no Carnot engine is inserted between the gear box wall and
the atmosphere (a TER at T0 = 25°C), the heat is transferred di-
TM
rectly to the TER, and the entropy production for the isolated sys-
tem, including the atmosphere as a TER, is
dP 0.2
= 0.00067 kW/"K
dt 25 + 273
Example Problem 7.2. A counterflow heat exchanger operates
2 Hot Ammonia 1
——— i*— ^=
3 * Cold Water -t
Figure EP 7.2. Counterflow Heat Exchanger
with negligible kinetic and potential energy changes of the two

fluids. Heat is transferred from ammonia, which enters as a satu-
rated vapor with hj = 1615.56 kJ/kg and s} = 5.5519 kJ/kg-°K and
leaves as a saturated liquid with h2 = 511.54 kJ/kg and s2 = 2.0134
KJ/kg-°K. The ammonia flows at a rate of 5 kg/min, and the
flows at 132 kg/min. The water temperature rises from 15°C to
25°C in the heat exchanger and has a specific heat of 4.18 kJ/kg-
°K. There is negligible heat transfer to the surroundings, and at-
mospheric conditions are 1 bar and 15°C. Taking the heat ex-
changer as the control volume, determine the rate of entropy pro-
duction and the second law efficiency.
TM
Solution: Applying (7.13) successively to the hot and cold sides
of the exchanger and assuming steady flow, the sum of the two
equations yields the sum of the two entropy production rates, i.e.,
— = mA(Sj-sl) + mw(s4-ss)
298
= 5(2.013 - 5.552) +132(4.18 )Ln——
288
fjp
— = L138kJ/min-°K = 0.019kW/°K
dt
where the specific entropy change for the water is calculated from
(6.22). The steady flow availability functions are calculated from
the given properties, e.g., for state 1 we have
b, =/?!-?>, = 1615.56 -288(5.5519) = 16.6 IkJ / kg
and for states 3 and 4, the difference is
and the second law efficiency is calculated from (7.20); thus,
(b4-b}) 132(0.702)
5(16.61 + 68.3)
TM
Problems
7.1 Two kilograms of air are heated from 25°C to 275°C. The
lowest available TER temperature is 10°C. Determine the heat
transfer, entropy change, the available energy and the unavailable
energy.
7.2 One kilogram of saturated liquid water is vaporized com-

pletely in an isobaric, adiabatic chamber at a pressure of three
bars. The heat transfer to the water is from hot air at a pressure of
one bar, located in an adjacent chamber. The air temperature drops
from 490 to 420°K. The lowest available TER temperature is
278°K. Work is exchanged only with MERs. Determine the trans-
ferred heat, the mass of air required, the entropy change of the
water and the entropy change of the air.
7.3 Using the data given in Problem 7.2 determine the available
and unavailable energy in the energy transferred as heat from the
air.
7.4 Using the data from Problem 7.2 find the available and un-
available energy of the energy transferred as heat to the water.
7.5 Using the data from problem 7.2 determine the entropy pro-
duction for the isolated system comprising both water and air.
7.6 Eight pounds of water at 50°F are mixed with ten pounds of
water at 150°F. For the isolated system comprising both masses of
water determine the entropy production associated with the mix-
ing process.
7.7 A tank with adiabatic walls contains ten cubic feet of dry air at
a pressure of 14 psia and a temperature of 80°F separated by a
partition from one cubic foot of saturated steam at a pressure of
0.5057 psia, a temperature of 80°F and a specific volume of 632.8
TM

ft /lb. the partition is removed and the two gases mix by diffusion.
Determine the entropy production of the isolated system associ-
ated with the mixing of the two gases.
7.8 The input shaft power of a speed reducer is 100 kW, while the
output shaft power is 96 kW. The temperature of the casing is
75°C, while the the room air is at 26°C. Determine the rate of en-
tropy production and the irreversibility rate in the speed reducer
and in the isolated system which includes the reducer and the sur-
rounding atmospheric air.
7.9 The output shaft power of an electric motor is 100 kW, while
the input electrical power is 106 kW, The temperature of the mo-
tor casing is 65°C, while the the room air is at 26°C. Determine
the rate of entropy production and the irreversibility rate in the
motor and in the isolated system which includes the motor and the
surrounding atmospheric air.
7.10 Find the change of availability of one kilogram of air which

undergoes a process from;?; = 3 bars and Tj - 100°C top2 = 0.5
bar and T2 = 10°C, if the air behaves as a perfect gas, and the dead
state isp0 = 1 bar and T0 = 288°K.

undergoes a constant volume process from p\—\ bar and 7/ =
30°C to p2 = 5 bars, if the air behaves as a perfect gas, and the
dead state isp0=l bar and T0 = 288°K.

undergoes a constant pressure process at/? = 1 bar from Tj — 60°C
to T2 — 350°C, if the air behaves as a perfect gas, and the dead
state isp0 = 1 bar and T0 = 288°K.
7.13 A counterflow heat exchanger operates at steady state with

air flowing on both sides with equal flow rates. On one side air
TM
enters at 800°R and 60 psia. It exits at 1040°R and 50 psia. On the
other side of the conducting wall air enters at 1400°R and 16 psia,
and it exits at 14.7 psia. The outer casing wall is modeled as adia-
batic, and kinetic and potential differences are neglected. Atmos-
pheric pressure and temperature are 1 atm and 520°R, respec-
tively; this is taken as the dead state. Determine the second law
efficiency of this heat exchanger.
7.14 A boiler used in a steam power plant is really a heat ex-

changer. The combustion gases, modeled as air, enter the boiler
with a flow rate of 383 kg/s, an enthalpy of 1278 kJ/kg and an
entropy of 3.179 kJ/kg-°K and leave via the smoke stack at an
enthalpy of 503 kJ/kg and an entropy of 2.22 kJ/kg-°K. Atmos-
pheric temperature is 288°K. Heat from the combustion gases is
transferred to water which flows into the boiler at the rate of 94
kg/s entering the boiler as a compressed liquid having an enthalpy
of 185 kJ/kg and an entropy of 0.602 kJ/kg-°K and leaving the
boiler as a superheated vapor which has an enthalpy of 3348 kJ/kg
and an entropy of 6.66 kJ/kg-°K. Find the irreversibility rate and
the second law efficiency for the boiler.
7.15 Find the irreversibilty rate of the turbine which is connected

to the boiler in Problem 7.15 if the process of the steam in the
turbine is irreversible so that the entropy of the exhaust steam is
7.26 kJ/kg-°K. Assume that the walls of the turbine casing are
adiabatic and that the kinetic energy and potential energy changes
are negligible.
7.16 Air flows through a valve at the rate of 10 kg/s. It enters the
valve at an absolute pressure of 15 bars and a temperature of
244°K and exits the valve at an absolute pressure of 11 bars.
Room air is at 288°K. Assuming the walls of the valve and piping
are adiabatic, and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential en-
ergy, determine the maximum power available from the change of
state.
TM
7.17 Superheated steam enters a well-insulated turbine at the rate
of 11 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2975 kJ/kg and an entropy of 7.15
kJ/kg-°K and is exhausted as wet steam with an enthalpy of 2408
kJ/kg and an entropy of 8.00 kJ/kg-°K. Neglecting kinetic and
potential energy changes, determine the actual power produced
and the maximum available power from the turbine for a dead
state temperature of 288°K.
7.18 An insulated Hilsch tube is a steady flow device used to pro-

duce streams of cold and hot air from ordinary compressed air at
room temperature (80°F). Compressed air at 75 psia and 80°F en-
ters the device at section 1. The air is forced into a vortex located
at the tee section, and the cold air flows through an orifice to the
left branch, while the hot air is diverted to the right. Both cold and
hot streams of air are expanded to a pressure of 1 atm and are dis-
charged from the tubes into the room. Measurements indicate that
40 percent of inlet air flow exits as cold air at 20°F, and that the
remaining flow emerges as hot air at a temperature of 120°F.
Check the validity of these results by checking for a possible vio-
lation of the first or second law of thermodynamics.
orifice
cold air out I ' hot air out
i
compressed
air in
Figure P7.18 Hilsch Tube
TM
Chapter 8
Refrigeration
8.1 The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle was introduced in Chapter 2. The cycle 1-2-3-4-

1, as depicted in Figure 2.6, is a Carnot cycle, and it is a power
cycle as well. In Figure 2.6 we note that the state point moves in a
clockwise sense in the p-V plane. The area enclosed by the two
isothermal and two isentropic processes represents net positive
work, or work done by the system on the surroundings. State point
movement in the opposite sense is depicted in Figure 8.1 for a
Carnot cycle on the T-S plane, but in this case the enclosed area
represents negative net work, i.e., work which enters the system
from the surroundings. The latter cycle is the so-called reversed
Carnot cycle.
Figure 8.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle
TM
The thermal efficiency r| of a power cycle is given by (5.30).
Applied to a Carnot cycle operating between two thermal energy
reservoirs of temperatures Tj and T3 where, Tj > T3, we find that
the work, represented by the area enclosed by the four processes,
is given by (I1/ - T3)AS where AS represents the entropy change of
the process of heat addition, a positive quantity. Similarly, the
heat added during the cycle is given by T}AS, and the ratio of
work done to heat added is defined as the thermal efficiency of the
cycle. Thus, we find that the thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle
is given by
T - T1
(8.D
On the other hand, the reversed Carnot cycle depicted in Figure

8.1 requires a net input of work, and the output is the heat added.
Process 3-4 is the only process in which heat is added, and the
amount of heat added is T3AS. The work input is represented by
the enclosed area and is (T2 - T3)AS. The output over the input is
referred to as the coefficient of performance p rather than the ef-
ficiency T); thus, the reversed Carnot cycle has a coefficient of
performance given by
P= V (8-2)
1 J
2 3
Equation (8.2) is used to calculate the ratio of refrigeration, i.e.,

heat absorbed by the working substance used in the cycle, to the
net work input required to produce the refrigeration effect. The
quantity (3 is umtless, or it may be thought of as having any energy
unit divided by the same energy unit, e.g., a coefficient of per-
TM
formance P = 0.3 means that for each Btu of work input 0.3 Btu
of refrigeration is produced; likewise this value can be interpreted
as a ratio of rates, e.g., 0.3 Btu/hr of refrigeration for each Btu/hr
of power input. Often tons of refrigeration are used in lieu of
Btu/hr units (12000 Btu/hr = 1 ton of refrigeration). A ton of re-
frigeration is the rate of cooling required to freeze a ton of water at
32°F during a 24-hour period.
Another aspect of the reversed Carnot cycle is its use for heat-
ing rather than refrigeration. Just as T3AS represents the heat addi-
tion or the refrigeration, the quantity TjAS represents the heat re-
jection from the working substance to the thermal energy reservoir
at the temperature T{, In a practical situation this thermal energy
reservoir could represent a space to be heated by the heat rejec-
tion, and the low temperature thermal energy reservoir can repre-
sent the source of the heating energy. In this case the cycle is
called a heat pump.
Theoretically the cyclic processes of a real refrigerant could be
modelled by a reversed Carnot cycle providing the machine could
execute nearly isentropic compressions and expansions and the
heat transfers occurred very slowly through highly conductive
walls. Such a hypothetical machine would be of little practical in-
terest, but the theoretical reversed cycle is of interest because it
sets an upper limit for the coefficient of performance of any ma-
chine operating between two reservoirs at fixed temperatures, e.g.,
operation could be between a refrigerated space at some very low
temperature and the atmosphere.
8.2 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle was introduced in sec-

tion 3.8. Figure 3.7 shows the processes of the ideal vapor- com-
pression refrigeration cycle on the p-h plane. The same cycle is
presented in Figure 8.2 on the T-s plane. The cycle is somewhat
similar to the reversed Carnot cycle in that heat is added at con-
TM
stant temperature during the process 4-1, and the saturated vapor
is compressed isentropically in process 1-2. Part of the cooling
takes place isobarically in the superheated region, as indicated in
process 2-a, and the remainder is isothermal cooling during proc-
ess a-3. The cooling process would become identical to that of the
Refrigeration
Figure 8.2 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
reversed Carnot cycle, if state 2 were made to coincide with state

a, i.e., if point 2 were on the saturated vapor line. The throttling
process 3-4 always entails an increase in entropy and is never
identical with the closing process of the reversed Carnot cycle,
i.e., it is patently not isentropic.
TM
Practically, the vapor-compression cycle is realized through
the utilization of four steady flow devices: the compressor com-
presses the gaseous refrigerant in process 1-2, the condenser cools
the refrigerant until it is liquified in process 2-3, the expansion
valve promotes flashing of a portion of the liquid into vapor which
is accompanied by a drop in temperature and pressure in process
3-4, and the evaporator which absorbs the energy transferred from
the cold surrounding during process 4-1. Figure 3,6 illustrates the
arrangement of the four steady flow elements required by this re-
frigeration cycle.
To evaluate the required work input, the required cooling, the
refrigeration produced, and the coefficient of performance for a
cycle of the type shown in Figure 3.6, we apply the steady flow
energy equation (5.21) to each of the four steady flow devices. Let
us begin the analysis with the compressor.
Defining a control volume which encloses the compressor,
(5.21) reduces to
W = h2-hl (8.3)
where W denotes the magnitude of the compressor work per unit

mass of the flowing refrigerant, hi is the enthalpy of the gaseous
refrigerant exiting from the evaporator, and h2 is the enthalpy of
the compressed gas leaving the compressor. To evaluate the spe-
cific work one must have access to tables of properties for the
chosen refrigerant, e.g., see Appendix B.
Similarly, the equation for the heat transfer from the refrigerant
during its passage through the condenser can be determined from
equation (5.21). The simplified equation is
(8.4)
TM
where Qcis the heat transfer from the refrigerant to a coolant, e.g.,
air or water, h2 is the enthalpy of the gaseous refrigerant entering
the condenser, and h3 is the enthalpy of the liquid refrigerant
leaving the condenser. The cooling effect could be provided, for
example, by passing atmospheric air over the tubes containing the
hot, condensing refrigerant. Another heat transfer arrangement
utilizes cooling water insider the tubes of the condenser with the
refrigerant condensing on the outer surfaces of the tubes and col-
lecting in the space below the tube bundle. Liquid from the con-
denser is forced by the pressure of the gas above it into the piping
and through the expansion valve.
Passage through the expansion valve is accompanied by a free
expansion, as the valve connects the high pressure zone of the
condenser with the low pressure zone of the evaporator. This free
expansion is called throttling and involves no work and no heat
transfer. Some of the liquid refrigerant flashes into vapor at the
low pressure of the evaporator. The phenomenon of flashing is, in
effect, a sudden boiling of the liquid which enters the evaporator
at a temperature greater than the saturation temperature at evapo-
rator pressure. Both liquid and vapor are cooled down to evapora-
tor temperature. The enthalpy h4 leaving the valve and entering
the evaporator is found by applying equation (5.21) to a control
volume which encloses the valve. Because there is no work and no
heat transfer, the simplified equation is
h,=h, (8.5)
which is the throttling equation. Application of equation (3.1) to

(8.5) yields
(8.6)
TM
Since the saturated liquid at temperature T3 is higher than satura-
tion temperature corresponding to the lower pressure p4, boiling
begins when the liquid enters the low-pressure zone, and the frac-
tion x4 of the original liquid is quickly vaporized. According to
equation (8.6), the enthalpy of the saturated liquid at state 4 must
be lower than that of the original liquid at state 3; thus, the tem-
perature must fall until equilibrium is reached at the new pressure.
As a result of the flashing associated with throttling, the tubes
in the evaporator contain low-pressure, low-temperature refriger-
ant; however, the quality x4 is very low at the inlet to the evapora-
tor. The cold mixture of liquid and vapor absorbs energy by means
of radiation, convection and conduction from the cold surround-
ings, which are at a higher temperature than the boiling refriger-
ant. This is the refrigeration effect, and the associated heat trans-
fer is determined from the steady flow energy equation (5.21)
which becomes
QE=hl-h4 (8.7)
where QE is the heat transfer from the cold surroundings to the re-
frigerant flowing in the evaporator, hj is the enthalpy of the gase-
ous refrigerant leaving the evaporator, and h4 is the enthalpy of the
vapor-liquid refrigerant mixtur entering the evaporator. Refriger-
ant exits the evaporator as a saturated or superheated vapor at
very low temperature.
The heat transfer QE is the specific heat transfer. The heat
transfer rate qE is found by multiplying the mass flow rate of re-
frigerant mR by the specific heat transfer, i.e.,
<lE=mR(QE) (8.8)
Vapor produced in the evaporator enters the suction side of a

reciprocating or centrifugal compressor, where it is compressed
TM
and finally discharged as a compressed gas at a temperature con-
siderably above that of the atmosphere. To transfer heat from the
compressed gas to cooling air or cooling water, the refrigerant
must leave the compressor at an elevated temperature.
In effect the refrigeration unit transfers heat from the cold
space to the environment with the aid of a compressor driven by
an external power source. The output of the cycle is the refrigera-
tion QE, and the input is the work of compression; thus, the coef-
ficient of performance for the refrigeration cycle is given by out-
put over input, i.e.,
(8.9)
If the objective of the vapor-compression cycle is heating

rather than refrigeration, the output would be Qc rather than QE,
and the coefficient of performance for the heating cycle would be
given by
P»=^ (8.10)
A practical unit which utilizes the heat transfer from the condenser
for heating is called a heat pump. An application of this device
would be in home heating when the surroundings are at a low
temperature. Energy would be absorbed from the cold enviroment
outdoors and transferred to the warmer interior of the home.
Since isentropic processes occur only in ideal cycles, the com-
pression process 1-2 can be made more realistic by replacing it
with process 1-2' (see Figure 8.2). In the latter case some increase
of entropy is indicated. Non-isentropic compression implies en-
tropy production and frictional losses. Zero entropy production
implies 100 percent compressor efficiency. As evident in Figure
8.2 the temperature rise is greater for the non-isentropic compres-
TM
sion than for the isentropic one; thus, the enthalpy rise, or the
work of compression, is greater for the non-isentropic compres-
sion. If the denominator of (8.9) or (8.10) is replaced with h2> - hh
the coefficient of performance would be reduced; thus, the effect
of non-isentropic compression is to reduce the coefficient of per-
formance.
Often the effects of friction and entropy rise are included
through the use of a compressor efficiency r|c; this is defined as
Equation (8.11) defines efficiency as the isentropic work over the

non-isentropic work for the same pressure rise and starting state.
The numerator is easily evaluated through the use of refrigerant
properties obtained from tables (see Appendix B). Pressures are
known at the end states of process 1-2, and the temperature at state
1 is known. The tables give values of enthalpy and entropy at state
1. State 2 is determined by its pressure and its entropy based on sI
= s2', this gives the enthalpy at state 2 and allows the calculation of
isentropic work. At this point equation (8.11) can be used to de-
termine the actual compressor work. In this calculation an esti-
mate of efficiency is made from available performance data from
compressors of similar design. Compressor efficiency varies from
60-85 percent depending upon the design and speed of the com-
pressor.
Usually a compressor is driven by an electric motor, although it
could be driven by a prime mover, such as a steam or gas turbine
or a diesel or spark ignition engine. It is possible to estimate the
power required to drive a compressor by multipying the specific
work of the compressor by the mass flow rate of refrigerant mR
flowing, the latter quantity having been determined from (8.8),
i.e., the mass flow rate of refrigerant is determined from the tons
(or kW) of refrigeration required.
TM
The continuity equation shows that the mass flow rate mR af-
fects the size of the inlet to the compressor, since the mass flow
rate is also expressed as flow area times velocity by specific vol-
ume, i.e.,
mR = A,u, /v t (8.12)
where the numerator represents the volume flow rate of vapor at

the compressor inlet. For the reciprocating compressor this vol-
ume flow rate must match the rate at which volume is swept out
by the piston; thus, the following equality applies:
"V^CtfFJiu (8.13)
where N is the crankshaft speed in revolutions per second, Vd is

the displacement volume, i.e., volume swept out by the piston
during one stroke, and % is the volumetric efficiency of the com-
pressor. Volumetric efficiency ranges from 60 to 85 percent.
Stoecker and Jones (1982) report that modern reciprocating com-
pressors operate at speeds up to 3600 rpm. Equation (8.13) allows
the determination of the displacement volume of the compressor,
i.e., appropriate dimensions for the cylinder and the radius (throw)
of the crankshaft.
It is noted that mR can be used with (8.4) to determine the
coolant requirement, since the cooling water or air needed to carry
away the energy rejected from the refrigerant in the condenser is
exactly equal to the energy given up by the refrigerant; thus, the
mass flow rate of coolant mc used in the condenser can be esti-
mated from the balance of the two flow rates of energy, i.e.,
mc=mR(Qc)/[cp(Tmt-Tin)] (8.14)
The specific heat cp of the coolant is estimated by 1 Btu/lb-R and

4.19 kJ/kg-K for water and by 0.24 Btu/lb-R and 1 kJ/kg-K for air.
TM
8.3 Refrigerants
Refrigerants are the working fluids in vapor-compression refrig-

eration cycles. As shown in section 8.1 the reversed Carnot cycle
executed between the same two thermal energy reservoirs will
produce the same coefficient of performance for all refrigerants;
however, a difference exists with the vapor-compression cycle; it
is the throttling process. Throttling results in an entropy increase,
and the amount of the entropy increase depends on the properties
of the refrigerant. Saturation pressures of refrigerants are different
at the same condenser and evaporator pressures; thus, the density
at the compressor inlet will vary and hence the size of the com-
pressor needed to handle the refrigerant.
Faires and Simmang (1978) list 13 commonly used refriger-
ants, viz., ammonia, butane, carbon dioxide, two kinds of carrene,
R-ll, R-12, R-22, R-113, R-114, methyl chloride, sulfur dioxide,
and propane. Some are undesirable because they are toxic (e.g.,
methyl chloride) or flammable(e.g., butane). Others are undesir-
able because of the high pressures they require at normal cycle
temperatures (e.g., carbon dioxide).
Many of the refrigerants on the above list have been phased out
because of environmental concerns. The most undesirable are the
so-called chlorofluorocarbons (e.g., R-12). These have a long life
and tend to deplete the ozone layer as well as contribute to global
warming. Baehr and Tillner-Roth (1995) suggest that the CFCs be
replaced by the natural refrigerants, viz., water, air, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons such as butane or by the hydro-
fluorocarbons, such as R-134a. Baehr and Tillner-Roth have pub-
lished tables for five environmentally acceptable refrigerants, viz.,
ammonia, R-22, R134a, R-152a, and R-123. R-134a and R-152a
are expected to replace R-12, and R-123 will replace R-ll. Ulti-
mately substitutes will probably be found for R-22 as well.
TM
8.4 Gas Refrigeration Cycle
Air or other gas can be used as a refrigerant if it is expanded to a

low temperature in a gas turbine which is used to supply some of
the power required to drive the compressor. The turbine exhaust is
cold and can be passed through a heat exchanger or mixed with
warmer air. The heat exhanger replaces the evaporator of the va-
por-compression refrigeration cycle. A gas refrigeration cycle is
shown in Figure 8.3 and comprises the following processes: 1-2
isentropic compression in a compressor, 2-3 cooling at constant
pressure in a heat exchanger, 3-4 isentropic expansion of the gas.
Heat Exchanger
2
External
Turbine Power Compressor
Power
Heat Exchanger
Figure 8.3 Equipment for Gas Refrigeration Cycle
to a very low temperature in a gas turbine, and 4-1 contant pres-

sure heating of the cold air in a heat exchanger, thus producing re-
frigeration. A steady flow energy analysis of the heat exchanger as
a control volume shows that the refrigeration is the change of en-
TM
thalpy occurring during process 4-1. The compressor work done
during process 1-2 is shared by the gas turbine and an external
power source, both of which are connected to the compressor me-
chanically.
Figure 8.4 Reversed Brayton Cycle
The four processes described above are depicted on the tem-

perature-entropy plane in Figure 8.4. Since the ideal gas refrigera-
tion cycle comprises two isobaric and two isentropic processes, it
is like the Brayton cycle for gas turbine power units; however, it is
a reversed cycle, i.e., the state point moves counterclockwise, and
thus it is called the reversed Brayton cycle. Since the Brayton cy-
cle is an ideal cycle, it is made more realistic by replacing the two
isentropic processes with irreversible adiabatic processes; thus, the
dashed lines in Figure 8.4 depict the irreversible adiabatics asso-
ciated with the inclusion of frictional effects. To calculate the en-
TM
thalpy changes in processes 1-2', we use the compressor effi-
ciency as defined in equation (8.1 1). For the expansion process 3-
4' we use the turbine efficiency, which accounts for frictional
losses in the turbine and is defined as
r\T--
-n
In (8.15) the numerator represents the actual turbine work, and the
denominator represents the ideal or isentropic work between the
same pressures. Turbine efficiencies range from 60 to 85 percent
as with compressors depending on the design and speed of the
machine.
A gas such as air is used as the working substance for the cy-
cle, it is reasonable to assume that the compressor will take in gas
at low pressure and at a temperature depressed below that of am-
bient air, e.g., at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 273°K.
During compression the pressure and temperature of the gas will
be elevated, but the heat exchanger used in process 2-3 will cool
the air to a temperature somewhat above that of ambient air. After
the gas expands through the turbine, also known as the turboex-
pander, the exhaust temperature will be very low and capable of
absorbing significant amounts of energy at low temperature in a
second heat exchanger. Since the gas discharged from the second
heat exchanger will be at low temperature, a regenerative heat ex-
changer can be added to return the gas to its original state and si-
multaneously provide additional cooling for the compressed gas
prior to entry into the turboexpander. Lower turboexpander inlet
temperatures results in lower exhaust temperatures and greater re-
frigeration capacity. Despite its inherently low coefficients of per-
formance, reversed Brayton cycle refrigeration with regenerative
heat exchangers has a wide variety of applications, including
liquification plants and cryocoolers. Brayton cryocoolers have
TM
been developed which provide small amounts of refrigeration at
temperatures as low as 65°K, i.e., see Timmerhaus (1996).
8.5 Water Refrigeration Cycle
A cycle which uses water as the refrigerant can be used where the
cold room temperature exceeds 4°C. Refrigeration is accom-
plished by flashing liquid water into a space that is maintained at a
very low pressure, say less than 1 kPa, by means of a steam driven
ejector system or other vacuum-producing device. The system is
sometimes called vacuum refrigeration because of the need for
sub-atmospheric pressures in the flash chamber. When an abun-
dance of steam is available, steam jet ejectors are used to remove
the vapor created during the flashing process and to maintain the
vacuum. Steam and flashed vapor are condensed in a separate
condenser, which is kept at low pressure by using secondary
ejectors whose steam is condensed in an after-condenser. The cold
liquid water is collected in the flash tank and is pumped into a
heat exchanger where it receives a cooling load.
Water is also the refrigerant when it is used with a solution of
lithium bromide salt. This is also known as a form of the absorp-
tion system of refrigeration. Figure 8.5 shows the necessary com-
ponents of the lithium-bromide absorption system. When heated
in the generator, the solution of LiBr and water gives off water
vapor, which is condensed in the adjoining condenser. Energy as
heat transfer is removed from the condensing water vapor at the
rate qc. Energy is is transferred to the generator at the rate qG as
heat transfer from an external source, e.g., solar energy could be
used. As the temperature of the solution in the generator rises,
water vapor is driven off to the condenser. The concentration of
LiBr in the solution would rise as water is lost, but the water is
replaced by fresh solution which arrives from the absorber at a
certain mass flow rate mA. At the same time the more concentrated
generator solution is flowing at the mass flow rate ma to the ab-
sorber where water is added before it is pumped back to the gen-
TM
erator. The concentrated solution from the generator is also hotter
and energy as heat transfer must be removed from the absorber at
the rate qA. Finally the refrigeration takes place in the
Water Vapor
Generator Condenser
Solution Liquid
Water
Water Vapor
Absorber Evaporator
Pump
Figure 8.5 LiBr-Water Absorption Refrigeration System
evaporator at the rate qE as the throttled mixture of water and wa-

ter vapor is evaporated at low pressure and low temperature. Since
the energy input is heat transfer instead of work, the coefficient of
performance is defined by
TM
P = —— (8.16)
If /-*
JL Cj
When calculations are to be made for absorption systems, one uses

steam tables for the pure water in the condenser and evaporator
and a temperature-pressure-concentration diagram of LiBr-H2O
solutions.
8.6 Ammonia-Water Absorption Refrigeration
The same elements as are depicted in Figure 8.5 for the LiBr-
water system are present in the ammonia-water system. The dif-
ference is that ammonia serves as the refrigerant in the latter case,
whereas water is the refrigerant in the former case. Condensation
of ammonia takes place in the condenser, after which the liquid
ammonia is throttled through a valve and evaporated in an evapo-
rator. The ammonia vapor is then absorbed by water in the ab-
sorber, which is pumped to the generator where it is heated.
Heating in the generator drives off ammonia which goes to the
condenser, and the cycle continues. The four heat transfer proc-
esses have the same directions as for the Li-Br-water system, and
the coefficient of performance is also defined by (8.16).
Example Problem 8.1. An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration

cycle utilizes R-22 as the refrigerant and operates between a con-
denser temperature of 340°K and an evaporator temperature of
270°K. Saturated vapor enters the compressor, and saturated liquid
enters the expansion valve. Find the compressor work, the heat
transfer to the coolant in the condenser, the refrigeration, and the
coefficient of performance.
Solution:
TM
Using the state numbers as shown on Figure 8.2, the tables in Ap-
pendix B1 give the following property data:
For Tj = 270°K, hl = 34922 J/mol, s, = 151.77 J/mol-°K, and

/z7= 16976 J/mol
For T3 = 340°K, h3 = 24909 J/mol, p3 = 2.80806 Mpa

s =S
i 2> P2=P^ andhs = h4
Noting that states 1 and 2 have the same entropy. State 1 is satu-
rated vapor and state 2 is superheated vapor. The pressure at state
2 lies between table values of 2.5 and 3 Mpa. Using the super-
heated vapor table for a pressure of 2.5 Mpa in Appendix Bl, we
find h = 38711 J/mol at s = 151.777 J/mol-K by linear interpola-
tion. Next we interpolate at p - 3 Mpa and the same entropy to
obtain h = 39141.39 J/mol. A further interpolation between the
two pressures is needed to obtain the enthalpy value at p2 =
2.80806 Mpa; thus, we obtain
= f2.80806-2.5V
^ V 3-2.5 )
Using (8.3) to determine the specific work of the compressor, we

find
W = h2-h,= 38976.23 - 34921.9 = 4054.3 J/mol
Next the condenser heat transfer is obtained through (8.4); this is
TM
Qc=h2-h3 = 38976.23 - 24908.7 = 1 4067. 53 J/ mol
Then the evaporator heat transfer, i.e., the refrigeration, is calcu-

lated by (8.7) and is
QE=hj-h4= 34921.9 - 24908.7 = 1001 3.2 J / mol
Finally, the coefficient of performance is computed with the help

of (8.8), i.e.,
W 4054.3

cycle utilizes R-134a as the refrigerant and operates between a
condenser temperature of 340°K and an evaporator temperature of
enters the expansion valve. Find the compressor work, the heat
transfer to the coolant in the condenser, the refrigeration, and the
coefficient of performance.
Solution:
The solution of this problem will follow the identical steps used in
Example Problem 8.1 except that the R-134a tables (Appendix
B2) will be used instead of the R-22 tables.; therefore, the results
will be shown without showing the detailed calculations.
h, = 40481.6 J/mol, Sj = s2 = 176.403 J/mol-K,^ = 1.97154 Mpa

h3 = h4 = 30495.4 J/mol, h2 = 44769.659 J/mol (by interpolation).
W = h2-h,= 44769.659 - 40481.6 = 4288.059 J / mol
TM
Qc=h2-h3 = 44769.659 - 30495.4 = 1 4274.26 J / mol
QE=h,-h4 = 40481.6 - 30495.4 = 9986.2 J/ mol
QE = 9986.2
W 4288.059
It is noted that the coefficient of performance for the R-134a sys-

tem is only about 6 percent less than that for an identical system
with R-22; however, the condenser pressure is significantly lower
fortheR-134a.

enters the expansion valve. Find the change of entropy in the
evaporator, and use this value to check the refrigeration deter-
mined in Example Problem 8.1.
Solution:
Data from the tables of Appendix Bl are the following:

h3 = 24908.7 J/mol
For T, = 270°K, hf= 16975.6 J/mol, hg = 34921.9 J/mol,
sf= 85.3094 J/mol-K, sg = 151.777 J/mol-K and
Sj=Sg.
Equations (8.5) and (8.6) are needed to determine the quality x4 of
the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor emerging from
the expansion valve; thus, we have
h4-hfJ 24908.7-16975.6 njj^

x,4 = ——— - = ——————— = 0.442
h,-hf 34921.9-16975.6
TM
As (3.1) expresses the enthalpy of a mixture, so the entropy of the
mixture of state 4 is expressed analogously in terms of the specific
or molar entropy of saturated liquid and saturated vapor; thus,
+X4Sg
Utilizing the above equation to determine the molar entropy at

state 4, we have
s4 = (1 - 0.442)85.3094 + 0.442(151.777) = 1 14.688 Jl mol - K
The change of entropy in the evaporator is
bsE=Sl-s4= 151.777 - 114.691 = 37. 086 J/ mol - K
Finally, the heat transfer or refrigeration can be represented

graphically as the area under the process curve on the T-s plane,
i.e., it can be calculated from
QE = TEAsE = 270(37.086) = 10013.2 J / mol
which is identical to the value of QE obtained from the steady flow

energy equation in Example Problem 8.1. Dividing by the molecu-
lar weight of R-22 (molecular weight = 86.469) yield a value of
QE in kJ/kg units. The latter units are useful when determining the
flow rate requirement to produce refrigeration at a specified rate,
i.e., tons or kW of refrigeration is stipulated.

enters the expansion valve. Find the required mass flow of refrig-
erant to produce refrigeration at the rate often tons.
TM
Solution:
Use the results from Example Problem 8.3, and divide by the mo-
lecular weight as suggested above. The specific refrigeration is
10013.2 =
E
^ 86.469 *
Each ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 12000 Btu/hr, and the re-

frigeration rate is the mass flow rate of refrigerant mR times the
specific refrigeration; thus,
12000(10) = 0.303622kg
maR = ————-—-— „,„,,„, I, s
3413(115.801)
As a check we can calculate the rate of refrigeration from the mass

flow of refrigerant. The refrigeration rate is
qE = mR (QE) = 0.303622(115.801) = 3516kW = 120000fl/w / h
which is 10 tons of refrigeration.
Example Problem 8.5 A reversed Brayton cycle produces 25

tons of refrigeration at 275°K and operates between compressor
inlet conditions (state 1) of 1 atm and 275°K and high-pressure
heat exchanger outlet conditions (state 3) of 3.5 atm and 300°K.
Assume that compressor and turbine operate with efficiencies of
75 percent. If the cycle utilizes air as the working substance, de-
termine the required mass flow rate of air and the required exter-
nal power input.
Solution:
TM
The compressor work is
= cp(T2-Tl) __ 2,04(393.35-275) =
i] 0.75
The turbine work is
Wt =r\Tcp(T3 -T4) = 0.75( 1.004 )(300 - 209.74) = 67. 97 kJ/ kg
The required external work is the difference in the compressor and

the turbine work, viz.,
Wext = WC-W,= 158.43 - 67.97 = 90.46U / kg
The temperature of the exhaust is found from the steady flow en-
ergy equation applied to the turbine, i.e.,
W f>7 97
T4 =T,-^-
3 = m--^-~ = 232.3° K
cp 1.004
The refrigeration is determined from the steady flow energy equa-

tion applied to the low temperature heat exchanger; i.e.,
QA = CP (Ti ~T4') = 1-004(275 - 232.3) = 42.87 kJ / kg
The coefficient of performance is found the definition, viz.,
Q±=4W=
W... 90.46
TM
The mass flow rate of air required to produce 25 tons of refrigera-
tion is dividing rate of refrigeration by specific refrigeration; thus,
25(12000) - 2.0Jkg
- ——!_____£_ „., /.s
mA
3413(42.87)
The external power requirement is found by multiplying the spe-

cific work by the mass flow rate of refrigerant, i.e.,
pa = mA(Wex) = 2.05(90.46) = 185.44KW
References
Baehr, H. D. and Tillner-Roth, R. (1995). Thermodynamic Prop-

erties of Environmentally Acceptable Refrigerants. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.

York: MacMillan.
Stoecker, W.F. and Jones, J.W. (1982). Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Timmerhaus, Klaus D. (1996). "Cryocooler Development."

AIChE Journal, 42:3202-3211.
Problems
8.1 A Carnot engine operates between thermal energy reservoirs 1

and 2 which have T, = 1000°K and T2 = 300°K. Find the thermal
efficiency of the engine operated as a power cycle. If the engine is
operated in a reversed cycle, determine the tons of refrigeration
TM
per KW of electrical power supplied. (1 ton = 12000 Btu/hr; 1
= 3413Btu/hr.)
8.2 A reversed Carnot cycle is to operate between thermal energy

reservoirs at 310°K and 270°K. Assume that a reciprocating ma-
chine is designed to execute this cycle using R-22 used as the re-
frigerant. Assume that heat transfer associated with condensation
and evaporation occurs within the cylinder of the machine. De-
termine the condensing pressure, the evaporating pressure and the
coefficient of performance expected for the ideal cycle.
8.3 An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle utilizes R-

134a as the refrigerant and operates between a condenser tempera-
ture of 340°K and an evaporator temperature of 270°K. Saturated
vapor enters the compressor, and saturated liquid enters the ex-
pansion valve. The molecular weight of R-134a is 102.032. Find
the required mass flow of refrigerant to produce refrigeration at
the rate of ten tons. Is this rate more or less than required for the
refrigerant R-22 to produce 10 tons under the same conditions?
8.4 Calculate the coefficient of performance for an ammonia re-

frigeration cycle comprising a compression 1-2, a constant pres-
sure cooling 2-3, a throttling 3-4 and a constant pressure heating
4-1. The enthalpy of the gas entering the compressor is 523
Btu/lb. The vapor leaves the compressor with an enthalpy of 625.2
Btu/lb. Saturated liquid leaves the condenser having a specific
enthalpy of 97.9 Btu/lb. If 5 tons of refrigeration is produced by
the unit, what mass flow rate of ammonia is required? What motor
power is required to drive the compressor?
8.5 A 5-ton refrigeration unit uses R-12 as the refrigerant. The

compressor draws in saturated vapor at -20°F and discharges su-
perheated vapor at 160 psia and 160°F. The refrigerant leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid. Condenser cooling water enters at
80°F and leaves at 100°F. Find the heat transfer to the cooling
TM
water in the condenser, the specific work of the compressor, the
compressor efficiency, the coefficient of performance, the mass
flow rate of refrigerant, the mass flow rate of cooling water, and
the motor horsepower required to drive the compressor.
8.6 A refrigeration unit uses R-12 as the refrigerant. The compres-

sor draws in saturated vapor at 0°F and discharges superheated
vapor at 100 psia. The compressor efficiency is 70 percent. The
refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the flow
rate of 13 Ib/min. Find the heat transfer to the cooling water in the
condenser, the actual specific work of the compressor, the coeffi-
cient of performance, the tons of refrigeration produced, and the
motor horsepower required to drive the compressor.
8.7 A reversed Carnot cycle is to operate between thermal energy

reservoirs at 80°F and 10°F. Assume that the cycle utilizes an isen-
tropic turbine for process 3-4, in lieu of the expansion valve of a
vapor compression cycle, and an isentropic compressor for proc-
ess 1-2. R-12 is used as the refrigerant. A condenser is used to
condense saturated vapor from the compressor to saturated liquid
at compressor discharge pressure. Determine the specific com-
pressor work, the specific refrigeration, and the coefficient of per-
formance expected for the ideal cycle.
8.8 The refrigerant R-12 is used in a heat pump which maintains a

condenser temperature of 80°F and an evaporator temperature of
20°F. Superheated vapor leaves the compressor is at 115°F. The
rate of heating the air in the home is 40000 Btu/hr. Determine the
mass flow rate of refrigerant and the power required to drive the
compressor.
8.9 A 5-ton refrigeration system utilizes R-12 as the refrigerant.

The compressor, which runs at 1800 rpm, has a volumetric effi-
ciency of 80 percent. The compressor draws in saturated vapor at
-40°F and discharges superheated vapor at 160 psia and 180°F.
TM
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at 160
psia. Cooling water enters the condenser at a temperature of 70°F
and leaves at 90°F. Find the refrigeration in Btu/lb, the specific
work of the compressor, the compressor efficiency, the coefficient
of performance, the mass flow rate of refrigerant, the displacement
volume of the compressor, and the mass flow rate of condenser
cooling water.
8.10 An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration system utilizes R-

12 as the refrigerant. Saturated vapor enters the compressor at
10°F, and saturated liquid leaves the condenser at 90°F. The mass
flow rate of R-12 is 15 Ib/min. Find the power required to drive
the compressor, the tons of refrigeration produced, and the coef-
ficient of performance. If the unit is used for domestic heating,
what heating capacity in Btu/hr is possible? What is the coeffi-
cient of performance for heating?
8.11 An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration system utilizes R-

12 as the refrigerant. A mixture of 90 percent saturated vapor and
10 percent saturated liquid leaves the evaporator at -10°F, and
saturated liquid leaves the condenser at 110°F. Both streams enter
a heat exchanger, and the warm liquid from the condenser heats
the cold vapor from the evaporator so that the refrigerant enters
the compressor as a saturated vapor at -10°F. The refrigerant from
the condenser then passes from the heat exchanger to the expan-
sion valve and then into the evaporator. The mass flow rate of re-
frigerant is 14 Ib/min. Find the power required to drive the com-
pressor, the tons of refrigeration produced, and the coefficient of
performance of the unit.
8.12 A 25-ton refrigeration unit uses R-12 as the refrigerant. The

low-pressure compressor draws in saturated vapor at -20°F and
discharges superheated vapor at 50 psia and 70°F into a direct
contact heat exchanger. The high-pressure compressor receives
saturated vapor at 50 psia from the heat exchanger and discharges
TM
it at 180 psia and 156°F. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid at 180 psia, passes through an expansion valve
into the direct contact heat exchanger maintained at 50 psia. Satu-
rated liquid from the heat exchanger passes through a second ex-
pansion valve into the evaporator. Find the heat transfer to the
cooling water in the condenser, the specific work of each com-
pressor, the compressor efficiencies, the coefficient of perform-
ance, the required mass flow rate of refrigerant, and the motor
horsepower required to drive each of the compressors.
8.13 An insulated Hilsch tube, similar to that described in Prob-

lem 7.18, is used to produce a stream of cold air at a pressure of
14.7 psia and a temperature of 10°F and a stream of hot air at 14.7
psia and 135°F. The supply air enters the device through a 1-inch
diameter pipe at a pressure of 75 psia, a temperature of 80°F. The
average velocity of the air in the supply pipe is 50 ft/s. The cold
air produced by the device is used for refrigerating a second fluid.
Both fluids enter a heat enchanger in which the cold air tempera-
ture rises to 90°F. A compressor having an efficiency of 75 per-
cent is used to compress the supply air from 14.7 psia to 75 psia.
The air is cooled to 80°F before it is utilized by the Hilsch tube.
Determine the tons of refrigeration produced by the Hilsch tube,
and the power required to drive the compressor.
8.14 A reversed Brayton cycle produces 25 tons of refrigeration

at 275°K and operates between compressor inlet conditions (state
1) of 1 atm and 268°K and high-pressure heat exchanger outlet
conditions (state 3) of 3.5 atm and 320°K. A regenerative heat ex-
changer (Figure P8.14) cools the air from the high-pressure heat
exchanger to a turboexpander inlet temperature of 278°K; the
cooling for this heat exchanger is provided by the cold air exiting
from the low-temperature heat exchanger. Assume that both
compressor and turbine operate with efficiencies of 77 percent. If
the cycle utilizes air as the working substance, determine the air
temperature T5 leaving the low-pressure heat exchanger, the coef-
TM
ficient of performance, the required mass flow rate of air, and the
required external power input.
LP Heat Exchanger
T4- from
turboexpander
! =268°K to Compressor
Regenerative
Heat Exchanger
T6 = 320°K
HP Heat Exchanger
T2- from
'' T3 =278°K to Turboexpander Compressor
Figure P8.14 Regenerative Heat Exchanger
8.15 A vacuum refrigeration system receives warm water at 20°C

which is flashed into water vapor and liquid water at 10°C. Water
vapor is removed from the flash tank at the rate of 3 m /s and the
rest flows out as chilled water at 10°C. The chilled water is
pumped through a heat exchanger where it receives its cooling
load and from which it exits at 20°C. Determine the refrigerating
capacity of this unit.
TM
Chapter 9
Air Conditioning
9.1 Scope
In Chapter 8 we have seen that refrigeration units can be used for

cooling or heating regions of matter, e.g., they can be used in pre-
serving food. Their use in cooling and heating of air used in
homes and buildings is universal; thus, refrigeration cycles, ma-
chines and systems are vital to the functioning of air-conditioning
systems, but the term "air conditioning" implies more. Air condi-
tioning refers to the treatment of air to control humidity as well as
temperature so as to create an environment which is comfortable
to the occupants of the conditioned space.
The field of air conditioning involves the machinery used to
handle the air and the refrigerants, viz., fans and compressors. It
involves pumps, piping and valves; it involves fans, ducts and
dampers; it includes thermostats and controls. It is a multifaceted
field.
In this chapter we will present the thermodynamic aspects of
air conditioning, which focuses on the properties and processes of
mixtures of water vapor and dry air, i.e., air which has a non-zero
relative humidity. Air conditioning involves humidification of air
as well as its dehurnidification. Thermodynamic processes of
moist air involve changing its relative humidity by heating and
cooling as well as by evaporation of water or by mixing one
stream of air with another stream of different temperature and
humidity. Before considering examples of these processes we will
need to define some basic terms to facilitate our description of the
thermodynamic processes of moist air.
TM
9.2 Properties of Moist Air
Some properties of mixtures of perfect gases are discussed in sec-

tion 2.9. Generally speaking, the principles introduced in Chapter
2 involve the conservation of mass or of the number of molecules,
e.g., the sum of the masses of the component gases in a mixture
equals the mass of the mixture. Since the temperatures of the
component gases of a mixture are the same, and since each com-
ponent gas occupies the same volume, the sum of the partial pres-
sures exerted by each component gas equals the pressure exerted
by the mixture on the walls enclosing the gas. The latter principle
is called Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and is stated mathe-
matically in (2.45) for a three-component mixture of gases. It is
vital for the calculation of properties of water vapor and dry air;
thus we write
Pm=Pa+P* (9-1)
where pm is the pressure of the mixture of air and water vapor, pa

is the partial pressure of the dry air, and pv is the partial pressure
of the water vapor. Equation (9.1) is useful in computing the mass
Ma of the dry air using (2.17), the perfect gas equation of state;
thus,
Ma=(pm-pJV/(RaT) (9.2)
where Ra denotes the specific gas constant of the dry air, V repre-
sents the volume occupied by the air, and T is the temperature of
the air.
Since the vapor pressure is very low at the temperatures en-
countered in air-conditioning systems, (2.17) may also be applied
to the vapor; thus, the mass of water vapor in the same volume F
is
TM
Mv=pvV/RvT (9.3)
where ./?v is the specific gas constant for water. Ra and Rv are cal-
culated from (2.38) and are 461.6 J/kg-K for water vapor and
287.08 J/kg-K for air. When these values are substituted into (9.2)
and (9.3) and Mv is divided by Ma, the common quantities divide
out, and the ratio is the mass of vapor per unit mass of dry air.
This ratio is known as the absolute humidity or the humidity ratio
w. The resulting equation for w is
w = 0.622pv/(pm-pj (9.4)
Generally the mixture pressure pm is the pressure of the at-

mosphere, the pressure inside an air conditioned space or the pres-
sure inside an air conditioning duct. Determination of pm is de-
termined by reading a barometer or, at most, a barometer and a
manometer. The water vapor pressure pv is easily determined from
the relative humidity (j> which is defined as the ratio of the partial
pressure of the water vapor to the saturation pressure of of water at
the temperature of the mixture, i.e.,
(9.5)
When the air is so moist that/>v equals/?^, the relative humidity is

100 percent; this is saturated air. The corresponding humidity ratio
is obtained from (9.4) as
(9.6)
TM
Figure 9.1 illustrates the relationship of pv and psat, the two
quantities appearing in (9.5); the line b-a-d represents a line of
constant pressure pv. The horizontal line e-c-a represents a con-
stant temperature line at the temperature of the mixture. These
lines intersect a point a, which represents the state of the water va-
por in the mixture. For a given mixture temperature the saturated
state, represented by point c, is the maximum pressure the vapor
could have at that mixture temperature; this pressure is psat, which
appears in the denominator of (9.5). The saturation pressure is
easily determined from the mixture temperature and the saturated
vapor tables for water in Appendix Al. Equation (9.5) can be used
to determine^, provided the relative humidity is known.
Figure 9.1 T-S Diagram for Water Vapor
If the relative humidity is not known, then the humidity ratio is

determined from two temperatures, the wet-bulb and the dry-bulb
temperatures, read from a so-called sling psychrometer. This de-
TM
vice utilizes a phenomenon known as adiabatic saturation, which
will be discussed in detail in the next section. The steady flow en-
ergy analysis of the adiabatic saturation process in the sling psy-
chrometer results in an equation for the calculation of humidity
ratio w. Equation (9.4) is used with the calculated humidity ratio
to determine the partial pressure of the water vapor in the mixture.
Lastly (9.5) is utilized to calculate the relative humidity of the air-
water vapor mixture.
Besides partial pressures of components, humidity ratio, and
relative humidity, other properties of air-water vapor mixtures are
of interest, viz., density, specific volume, and enthalpy. Density p
is the ratio of mass to volume, and the mass is the mass of water
vapor plus the mass of the dry air. Since the volume of the mixture
is the same as the volume of each component, we can compute the
density of the mixture from the sum of the component densities;
thus,
P. = P , + P 0 (9.7)
where pa and pv are found from (9.2) and (9.3), respectively. The
specific volume for the mixture is the reciprocal of the density.
Finally, specific enthalpy of the mixture is usually calculated for a
unit mass of dry air rather than for a unit mass of mixture; thus,
the specific enthalpy is given by
hm=cpT+whg (9.8)
where cp is the specific heat of dry air, T is the mixture tempera-

ture in degrees C, w is the humidity ratio, and hg is the specific
enthalpy of the water vapor. The units of each of the two terms are
those of energy per unit mass of dry air. In order to add enthalpies
for air and water vapor, the reference temperatures must be the
same for the two substances. This condition is fulfilled, since both
take 0°C for the temperature where the substance has zero en-
TM
thalpy. The other assumption in (9.8) is that the enthalpy of the
saturated vapor is that of a superheated vapor at the same tempera-
ture, i.e., the enthalpy of the vapor is a function of temperature
only. This is not strictly true, but it is a very good approximation
in the temperature range of interest, viz., 0-50°C. To illustrate this
point consider an extreme case wherein the pressure of the super-
heated vapor is 2 kPa and the temperature of the mixture is 50°C.
Appendix Al indicates that hg is 2590.38 kJ/kg, whereas the exact
value of the enthalpy, as computed by ALLPROPS, is 2593.06
kJ/kg. The error amounts to 0.1 percent. For air conditioning ap-
plications, one can use hg at the mixture temperature in place of
the enthalpy for the superheated vapor.
In applying the steady flow energy equation to control volume
analyses, we can use (9.8) multiplied by the mass flow rate of the
dry air. If we have evaporation within the control volume, we will
have to use the enthalpy of a saturated liquid for the evaporating
water times the rate at which the water is evaporated. This will be
the situation in the next section in which we assume a process of
humidification which produces completely saturated air, i.e., air in
which the relative humidity is 100 percent.
9.3 Adiabatic Saturation
Figure 9.2 represents a control volume through which air flow

takes place. Adiabatic side walls bound the control volume except
for the inflow and outflow areas. Water at the wet-bulb tempera-
ture is evaporating into the air stream. Air at a relative humidity <)>/
and at the temperature I1/, the dry-bulb temperature, enters the
control volume at section 1. The same air exits at section 2 with
100 percent humidity and at the temperature T2, the wet-bulb tem-
perature.
The process described above is known as adiabatic saturation
of air. During the process the temperature of the air-water vapor
mixture is lowered because the warmer inlet air transfers heat to
TM
the cooler water. This transferred heat provides the energy supply
need for the evaporation of the water.
Control Volume
m a h, m,,rb
H,O
Figure 9.2 Adiabatic Saturation of Air
Referring to the T-S diagram of Figure 9.1, the adiabatic saturation

process is represented by the dashed line a-w, where Ta is the dry-
bulb temperature, and Tw is the wet-bulb temperature; thus, the
inlet and exit temperatures, T; and T2, of Figure 9.2 correspond to
the temperatures Ta and Tw, respectively, of Figure 9.2. Addi-
tionally, the evaporating water is assumed to remain at Tw during
the process. The steady flow energy equation, applied to the con-
trol volume of Figure 9.2, is
(9.9)
where ma is the mass flow rate of dry air in or out of the control
volume, and mw is the rate of evaporation of water into the air
TM
stream, which can be expressed in terms of the humidity ratios,
i.e.,
mv=ma(w2-wl) (9.10)
Substitution of (9.8) and (9.10) into (9.9) results in
CPT, + w,\, + (w2 ->n)/z /2 = cpT2 + w2hg2 (9.11)
Equation (9.11) can be used to determine the humidity ratio Wj

from measured values of dry-bulb temperature T} and wet-bulb
temperature T2. For these measured values of temperature the
saturated steam tables provide the specific enthalpy of saturated
vapor hgi, the saturation pressure psal2, the specific enthalpy of
saturated liquid hp, and the specific enthalpy of saturated vapor
hg2. To determine w/ the above values are substituted into (9.11)
along with w2, which is computed from (9.6).
In a practical psychrometer the entire stream of air is not satu-
rated. Instead the wet-bulb thermometer is shrouded with a thin,
wet gauze, so that a small amount of air flows through the gauze
and creates an envelope of saturated air around the bulb of the
wet-bulb thermometer; thus, the instrument registers T2. An alter-
native approach is to move the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers
through the still air; this is the method utilized in the sling psy-
chrometer.
The above discussion of adiabatic saturation indicates that air
blown over a moist surface is cooled by evaporation, as is the wa-
ter supplying the moisture. The application of this principle makes
possible the design of cooling towers and evaporative coolers.
Evaporative coolers do not use enviromentally harmful substances
and are recommended for space cooling in climates where the
humidity is low. Condenser cooling water from large refrigeration
and air conditioning plants, as well as condensing water from
many steam power plants, utilize cooling towers. The condensing
TM
water is sprayed into the cooling tower, and it is cooled as it falls
by a stream of oppositely directed air. Typically the air is heated
in the cooling tower and, at the same time, is humidified by the
hot condensing water; however, the air may be cooled if the con-
denser cooling water is close to the temperature of the entering air.
The function of the tower is to cool the cooling water, and the
water is cooled by evaporation to the flowing air as it flows slowly
over strips of material which create a large area of wet surface
along its route to the tank at the base of the tower; thus, the
warmer water provides most or all of the energy for its own
evaporation. Updraft fans are usually installed at the top of the
tower to control the air speed and hence the rate of evaporation
and cooling of the water.
9.4 Processes of Mixtures
Evaporative cooling is a process in which moisture is added to the

air driving its relative humidity towards 100 percent; however,
some processes do not involve humidification of the air, nor do
they involve dehumidification. Figure 9.1 shows the adiabatic
saturation process a-w, which we have already considered. Next
we will analyze isothermal and isobaric processes of mixtures of
air and water vapor.
Consider the first the case of the isothermal compression or
expansion of a mixture of air and water vapor. Referring to Figure
9.1, the process from a to c or c to a is an isothermal process. If
we treat the dry air and the water vapor as perfect gases, then
(2.28) applies to each gas, and the ratio of volumes is the same for
air and water vapor; thus, the humidity ratio w, determined from
(9.4), remains constant at all states between point a and point c in
Figure 1. If the process extends into the region e-c, which is under
the vapor dome, then condensation or evaporation will occur, and
the humidity ratio w will change from the original value at point a.
Next we consider the constant pressure cooling or heating
process a-b or b-a in Figure 9.1. Point a represents a superheated
TM
state of water vapor. When the mixture of air and water vapor un-
dergo a cooling or heating at constant pressure, both partial pres-
sures remain constant, as well as the mixture pressure. Equation
(9.4) shows that if the partial pressures remain constant, then the
humidity ratio also remains constant. Condensation begins if the
isobaric cooling is continued past point b, i.e., under the vapor
dome. Point b is known as the dew point.
Cooling of air in air conditioning units is done at constant
pressure and can involve condensation as well as cooling. Refer-
ring to Figure 9.1, it is seen that cooling beyond the dew point,
i.e., to the left of point b, will result in condensation. As the cool-
ing process proceeds from a to b in Figure 9.1, the relative hu-
midity moves towards 100 percent, and the temperature of the
mixture falls towards the dew point. This is called sensible cool-
ing, and there is no change in humidity ratio. If the cooling proc-
ess continues past this point, water is condensed from the air, and
the temperature of the air continues to fall; however, the air re-
mains saturated but at a lower temperature and humidity ratio than
at the dew point. This is called cooling and dehumidification, a
two-stage process. The refrigeration capacity qAC is calculated by
qAC=ma(hl-h2) (9.12)
where hj and h2 are calculated from (9.8), and ma denotes the mass
flow rate of dry air through the air conditioning unit. Simply pro-
viding cooling coils, an air conditioning unit may also provide
heating, humidification, and mixing with return or outside air.
The objective of a design is always to provide air of a certain tem-
perature, humidity, and freshness.
When two streams merge to form a third stream, the steady
flow energy equation and the continuity equation are usually
needed to analyze the problem. The merging air streams, which
are designated streams 1 and 2, have specific enthalpies hf and h2
and humidity ratios w/ and w2, respectively, and the resultant
TM
merged stream, stream 3, has specific enthalpy h3 and humidity
ratio Wj. If the dry-air mass flows of streams 1 and 2 are mal and
ma2, respectively, the steady flow equations are the following:
»»«, A + ma2h2 = (mal + ™a2 )*3 C9' 1 3)
which is the energy equation, and
malwl + ma2w2 - (mal + ma2)w3 (9.14)
which is the continuity equation for water vapor. The continuity

equation for the mass flow of air has been used in (9.13) and
(9. 14) and is
mal+ma2=ma3 (9.15)
9,5 Example Problems
Example Problem 9.1. The cooling tower shown in Figure EP

9.1 is used to cool 20 kg/s of water which enters the tower near the
top at a temperature of 38°C. An air stream which flows at the rate
of 15 m3/s enters the tower at a temperature of 35°C and a relative
humidity of 40 percent and leaves the tower with a temperature of
31 degrees and a relative humidity of 100 percent. If the atmos-
pheric pressure is 101 kPa and the make-up water enters the tower
at a temperature of 35°C, determine the temperature of the cooled
water leaving the tower.
Solution:
From the table in Appendix Al we Fmdpsat = 5.627 kPa for 35°C,

andpsat2 = 4.4954 kPa for 31°C. From the same table we have hp
TM
= 158.43 kJ/kg at 38°C, h/5 = 145.89 kJ/kg at 35°C, hgl = 2563.57
kJ/kg at 35°C, and hg2 =2556.35 kJ/kg at 31°C.
Using the give relative humidity, the vapor pressure of the enter-
ing air is
pvl = (0.4)(5.627) = 225kPa
The humidity ratios at the inlet and exit are
w, = 0.622———— = 0.01417
101-2.25
44954
w,2 = 0.622 = 0.028974
101-4.4954
Determine the density and mass flow rate of the dry air stream.
water in
mwh0 t
air in
mwhr4
water out
Figure EP 9.1 Cooling Tower
TM
(101-2.25)(1000)
7J7 _, ,
p, 1 = -—————————- = 1.117 kg/m 3
287(308)
mA = (1.117 )(15) = 16.76kg/ s
Calculate the mass rate of flow of make-up water. This is equal to

the amount of water evaporated while cooling the air, i.e., ma(w2 -
w,).
mnm = 16.76(0.028974 - 0.01417) = 0.248kg / s
Calculate the enthalpies of the air in and the air out of the tower.
Note that the air temperature is in degrees Celsius, since reference
temperature for zero enthalpy is 0°C for water. The specific heat at
constant pressure is calculated from (2.37).
y-1 1.4-1
h, = cpTj + Wjhg, = 1.0045(35) + 0.01417(2563.6) = 71.48kJ/kg
h2 = cpT2 + w2hg2 = 1.0045(31) + 0.02897(2556) = 105.2kJ/ kg
Solve the steady flow energy equation for the enthalpy hf4 of the
exiting water. Note that all the energy quantities for the energy
equation appear on the figure. The energy equation is
TM
ma\ + mwhf, + mmuhfs = mah2 + mwh/4
Substituting in the above we have
16.76(71.48)+ 20(158.43)+ 0.248(145.89) = 16.76(105.2 l) + 20/z/4
Solving for hj-4 yields 131.97 kJ/kg which corresponds to a water

temperature of 31.67°C. This is the final result.
Example Problem 9.2. An air conditioning system takes in air at

210m /min having a temperature of 27°C, a pressure of 101 kPa,
and a humidity ratio 0.0111. Air leaves the unit at a temperature of
13°C and a humidity ratio of 0.0083. Determine the refrigerating
capacity and the mass flow rate of condensate from the unit.
Solution:
See the saturated steam tables in Appendix Al. The values found
are: psatl = 3.5671 kPa; hgl = 2549.11 kJ/kg; psat2 = 1.4979 kPa;
hg2 = 2523.63 kJ/kg.
Calculate the enthalpies of the entering and leaving air.
\ = 1.0045(27) + 0.0111(2549.11) = 55A2kJ / kg
h2 = 1.0045(13) + 0.0083(2523.63) = 34.00fc// kg
Calculate the density and mass flow rate of dry air in the air con-
ditioner. First the partial pressure of the vapor is calculated from
(9.4); then the dry air density is computed from (9.2) using the
mass of the dry air over the volume.
TM
Mlliq01)/M22
vl
1 + 0.0111/0.622
0.0083(101)70.622
———-—-———— = l.33kPa
1 + 0.0083/0.622
0.287(300)
ma = 210(1.15249) / 60 = 4.034kg I s
The refrigerating capacity is then calculated from (9.12).
qAC = 4.034(55.42 - 34.00) = 86.4kW = 24.6tons
The rate of flow of condensate is
mc = ma(w! -w2) = 4.034(0.0111 - 0.0083)(3600) = 40.7 kg/hr
Relative humidities are calculated using (9.5).
. 1.7708
<b, = ——— = 0.496
' 3.5671
133
, 2 --L¥
1.4979
TM
References
Moran, MJ. and Shapiro, H.N. (1992). Fundamentals of Engi-

Stoecker, W.F. and Jones, J.W. (1982). Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Problems
9.1 A mixture of water vapor and air exerts a pressure of 93 kPa at

a temperature of 33°C. Its humidity ratio is 0.14. Calculate the
partial pressure of the water vapor, the relative humidity, the
density of the dry air, the density of the water vapor, the density of
the mixture, and the specific volume of the mixture.
9.2 A sling psychrometer is used to measure the dry- and wet-

bulb temperatures of the air in a room. If the mixture pressure of
the room air is 101 kPa, the dry-bulb temperature is 30°C, and the
wet-bulb temperature is 25°C, determine the humidity ratio and
the relative humidity of the air.
9.3 Determine the relative humidity in an office if the room pres-

sure is 1 atm, the dry-bulb temperature is 24°C, and the wet-bulb
temperature is 15°C.
9.4 A conference hall has a volume of 25,000 m3. If the air in the
hall is at a pressure of 1 atm, a temperature of 27°, and a humidity
ratio of 0.012, determine the relative humidity of the air and the
total mass of water vapor in the hall.
9.5 Atmospheric air having an initial relative humidity of 50 per-

cent is compressed isothermally at 27°C until the relative humidity
TM
is 100 percent. If the mixture pressure is initially 100 kPa, deter-
mine the final mixture pressure.
9.6 Atmospheric air has a temperature of 30°C and a relative

humidity of 56 percent. If the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa,
dtermine the specific enthalpy of the air and the dew-point tem-
perature.
9.7 Atmospheric air at a pressure of 1 ami, a temperature of

28°C, and a relative humidity of 50 percent is compressed adia-
batically to 4 atm. Determine the vapor pressure before compres-
sion and after compression. What is the dew-point temperature
after compression?
9.8 Condenser cooling water from a central refrigeration plant

enters a cooling tower at 40°C at a mass flow rate of 395 kg/s.
Cooled water at 20°C is returned to the condenser at the same flow
rate. Atmospheric air at 25°C, 1 atm, and 35 percent relative hu-
midity enters the tower. The air exits the tower at a temperature of
35°C and a relative himidity of 90 percent. Make-up water is
supplied at 20°C. Determine mass flow rates of the entering air
and of the make-up water.
9.9 A cooling tower is used to cool water from 45°C to 25°C.

Water enters the tower at the rate of 110,000 kg/hr. Air enters the
tower at 20°C and 55 percent relative humidity and leaves at 40°C
and 95 percent relative humidity. The barometric pressure is 92
kPa. If no make-up water is supplied, determine the mass flow of
air into the tower and the mass flow of cooled water out of the
tower.
9.10 Water at 38°C enters a cooling tower at the flow rate of 4500
kg/hr, and cooled water exits at 27°C. Air at latm, 21°C, and 40
percent relative humidity enters the tower. The air leaves the
tower at 29°C and 90 percent relative humidity. No make-up water
TM
is used. Determine the mass flow rate of entering air and the rate
of evaporation of water.
9.11 Air at 35°C, 1 bar and 10 percent relative humidity enters an

evaporative cooler. Water enters the cooler at 20°C. Air leaves the
cooler at 25°C. Determine the ratio of kg of water to kg of air en-
tering the cooler. Note: one bar equals 100 kPa.
9.12 A ducted air stream flowing at the rate of 18.4 mVmin has a
temperature of 13°C and a relative humidity of 20 percent. This
stream is mixed with a second stream flowing at 25.5 m3/min and
having a temperature of 24°C and a relative humidity of 80 per-
cent. Both ducts are at atmospheric pressure, which is 101 kPa.
Determine the temperature and relative humidity of the mixed
stream.
9.13 A ducted air stream flowing at the rate of 20 kg/min has a

temperature of 15.6°C and a relative humidity of 30 percent. This
stream is mixed with a second stream flowing at 40 kg/min and
having a temperature of 32°C and a relative humidity of 70 per-
cent. Both ducts are at atmospheric pressure, which is 101 kPa.
Determine the temperature and relative humidity of the mixed
stream.
9.14 Air flowing at the rate of 40 m3/min in a duct has a tempera-

ture of 27°C, a pressure of 101 kPa, and a relative humidity of 70
percent. The air enters a dehumidifier from which it exits as satu-
rated air at 10°C. Condensate at 10°C is collected from the cooling
coil and is drained at a steady rate out of the dehumidifier. De-
termine the heat transfer rate from the moist air and the mass flow
rate of the condensate.
9.15 Air flowing at the rate of 50 m3/min enters an air conditioner

at a temperature of 28°C, a pressure of 100 kPa, and a relative
humidity of 70 percent. The air enters a dehumidifier from which
TM
it exits as saturated air. Condensate at the same temperature as the
saturated air is collected from the cooling coil and is drained at a
steady rate out of the dehumidifier. The saturated air enters a
heater in which the temperature rises to 24°C and the relative
humidity decreases to 40 percent. Determine the temperature of
the air leaving the dehumidifier, the heat transfer rate in the de-
humidifier, the heat transfer rate in the heater, and the mass flow
rate of the condensate.
9.16 Air having a temperature of 5°C, a pressure of 101 kPa, and

a relative humidity of 95 percent and flowing at 55 m3/min enters
a heater which heats the air to 24°C. The air then enters a humidi-
fier where steam is injected into the air stream, and the tempera-
ture is raised to 26°C, and the relative humidity is increased to 50
percent. Determine the heat transfer rate to the air in the heater
and the mass flow rate of steam supplied in the humidifier.
9.17 Air having a temperature of 55°C, a pressure of 101 kPa,

and a relative humidity of 9 percent and flowing at 55 m3/min en-
ters a humidifier which cools the air to 40°C. The humidifier util-
izes water at 20°C which is sprayed into the air stream. Determine
the humidity ratios at the inlet and exit of the humidifier and the
rate at which water is sprayed into the air.
9.18 An air conditioning system operates at a pressure of 101 kPa

and mixes outdoor air with return air. Outdoor air is supplied at
120 kg/min at a temperature of 35°C and a humidity ratio of
0.016. The return air is flowing at 180 kg/min and has a tempera-
ture of 24°C and a humidity ratio of 0.0093. Determine the tem-
perature and humidity ratio of the mixed stream.
9.19 The humidifier of an air conditioning system operates at a

pressure of 101 kPa. Saturated steam at 101 kPa flows into the
unit at the rate of 0.14 kg/min is mixed with the air stream which
is entering the humidifier at the rate of 20 kg/min at a temperature
TM
of 15°C and a humidity ratio of 0.0020. Determine the tempera-
ture and humidity ratio of the air stream leaving the humidifier.
9.20 An air conditioning system operates at a pressure of 101 kPa

and mixes outdoor air with return air. Outdoor air is supplied at 30
m /min at a temperature of 34°C and a humidity ratio of 0.016134.
The return air is flowing at 24 m3/min and has a temperature of
25°C and a relative humidity of 55 percent. The combined flow
passes over the cooling coil and emerges at a temperature of 15°C
and a relative humidity of 95 percent. Determine the refrigerating
capacity of the system in tons.
TM
Chapter 10
Steam Power Plants
10.1 Scope
In Chapter 9 we used the steam tables in Appendix A to solve

problems involving low-pressure water vapor which is mixed with
dry air. In this chapter we will continue to use the steam tables to
determine thermodynamic properties of saturated liquid, com-
pressed liquid, saturated vapor, mixtures of saturated vapor and
saturated liquid, and superheated vapor. The quantities will be
used to determine energy transfers in turbines, condensers, boilers,
feedwater heaters, pumps and other equipment found in modern
power plants.
We will emphasize the thermodynamic aspects of steam power,
which involves the properties and processes of water as liquid, as
vapor, and as a mixture of vapor and liquid. Thermodynamic
processes of water involve loss and gain of energy as well as
change of phase accompanying heating and cooling in heat ex-
changers, compression of liquid in pumps, and expansion of vapor
in turbines. Before considering the prediction of these changes
with the help of the steam tables, we will need to review the
Rankine cycle, which was first presented in Chapter 3.
10.2 Rankine Cycle
The devices for a basic steam power plant were first described
in Chapter 1. They were pictured schematically in Figure 1.1 and
again in Figure 3.4. Referring to these figures we note that steam
is generated from water in a boiler and then delivered to a prime
mover, such as a steam turbine. The latter machine converts ther-
mal energy to work which is transferred through a shaft to an
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electrical generator from which it exits as electrical energy. The
process of the expansion of the steam in the turbine is ideally isen-
tropic, i.e., adiabatic and frictionless. This steam expansion occurs
in process 1-2 of the ideal Rankine cycle shown on thep-v plane

in Figure 3.5 and on the T-s plane in Figure 10.1. The ideal iso-
baric cooling process 2-3 takes place in the condenser, in which
the large volume of exhaust steam from the turbine is reduced to
saturated liquid at condenser pressure. As in the refrigeration con-
denser, the condensing steam in the power plant condenser must
also be at a temperature higher than the cooling water used to
condense it. The pressure corresponding to the condensing tem-
perature is typically a vacuum, i.e., the absolute pressure is less
that that of the atmosphere. Liquefaction of the working substance
in the condenser is very important, because the work required to
pump the liquid into the boiler is many times less than the work
for pumping the uncondensed vapor into the boiler. The pumping
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process 3-4 compresses the liquid without significantly changing
its volume. No change of temperature is indicated in Figure 10.1;
rather, the state points appear close together. In state 4 the water is
a compressed liquid, and its enthalpy is slightly higher than the
condensate collected in the bottom of the condenser (state 3). The
cooling process is ideal in the sense that it is internally reversible,
and thus no pressure change occurs as a result of fluid friction,
i.Q.,p2 =P3- In addition, it is assumed that no subcooling of the
condensate below the saturation temperature occurs, i.e., T3 = Tsat.
The condensing process is not externally reversible; thus, cooling
water used in the condenser is at a temperature lower than that of
the condensing steam.
The liquid-compression process, which takes place in a pump,
changes the thermodynamic state from that of a saturated liquid to
that of a compressed liquid. The change of enthalpy in this process
is very small and can be estimated by (3.4). The ideal process 3-4
is isentropic; thus, we can use the relation s3 = s4 and a knowledge
of the pressure to determine state 4. Using known values of p4 and
s4, the properties of the compressed liquid can be determined from
the tables in Appendix A3.
Process 4-1 begins in the hot tubes of the furnace walls of the
boiler. These tubes circulate boiling water to and from the steam
drum which serves as a reservoir for saturated steam. The satu-
rated steam flows from the steam drum into superheater tubes
where its temperature is raised isobarically to throttle conditions at
state 1 prior to delivery to the steam turbine. The change of state
from 4 to 1 takes place in the boiler and is indicated in Figure
10.1. The compressed liquid is heated at constant pressure, and its
temperature rises from state 4 to state a. Ta is the saturation tem-
perature for the pressure/^; thus, boiling begins at a and continues
until state b, which is located on the saturated vapor line. The
process 4-b takes place in the circulatory tube system that gener-
ates saturated steam for the steam drum. The final heat addition
occurs in the superheater tubes which terminate in a header that
conducts the superheated steam at state 1 out of the boiler.
TM
In the boiler the combustion gases in the furnace are much
hotter than the steam or water in the tubes; this large temperature
difference accounts for a high degree of external irreversibility in
the transfer of heat from the gas to the water. To imagine proc-
esses such as 4-a and b-1 in Figure 10.1 without external irre-
versibilty, one would require an infinite number of thermal energy
reservoirs which would allow the heat transfer to proceed in infini-
tesimal steps with no temperature difference between the fluid re-
ceiving the energy and the fluid giving up the energy. This con-
struct is useful in conceiving of completely reversible heat transfer
but, of course, is impossible to realize in practice. The process 4-1
is taken to be internally reversible, i.e., without fluid friction, but
externally irreversible as a result of heat transfer from hotter gases
to a colder fluid.
We will now examine the four basic components of the
Rankine cycle to determine the amount of energy transfer as work
or heat occurring in each device. To accomplish this we will make
use of the steady flow energy equation (5.21). We will neglect the
kinetic and potential energy terms of (5.21) as they are negligible
in this application. The heat transfer term is taken as zero for the
turbine and pump, and the work term is assumed to be zero for the
boiler and condenser.
We will first apply the steady flow energy equation to the
steam turbine. The shaft work leaving the control volume sur-
rounding the turbine is
Wl=hl-h2 (10.1)
The isentropic turbine work is given by (10.1). This is the appro-

priate work for the ideal Rankine cycle; however, the actual work
is given by h t - h2>, which is less than the ideal work, since the in-
creased entropy resulting from friction also raises the enthalpy to
h2> > h2. The ratio of actual to ideal work is the turbine efficiency,
i.e.,
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(10.2)
When we apply the steady flow energy equation to a control

volume enveloping the steam condenser, we obtain the equation
Qc=h2~h3 (10.3)
which can be used to determine the heat transfer per unit mass of
flowing steam which accompanies the condensation process; it is
the heat transfer from the hot turbine exhaust steam to the cooling
water. Since the condenser may cool beyond mere condensation,
i.e., the temperature of the condensate may be lower than than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure,
we show the actual temperature T3> on Figure 10.1 as well as the
ideal temperature T3. Although the actual heat transfer will be h2 -
h3; equation (10.3) correctly expresses the condenser heat transfer
for the ideal Rankine cycle, i.e., no subcooling of the condensate
occurs in the ideal Rankine cycle.
Next we apply the energy equation to a control volume which
encloses the pump and find
Wp=h,-h, (10.4)
which is the expression for the ideal pump work. The actual pump
work is h4> - h3 and is greater than the ideal. The pump efficiency
is the ratio of ideal to actual pump work; thus,
h4,-h3
TM
Since the compression 3-4 is isentropic, the pump efficiency is
taken to be 100 percent for the ideal Rankine cycle.
Applying the steady flow energy equation to the boiler we find
that the expression for heat transfer to the boiler feedwater is
given by
QA=h{-h4 (10.7)
which is correct for the ideal Rankine cycle; however, the actual
heat transfer to the feedwater is given by /// - h4~, which accounts
for the pump's frictional losses.
Following (5.30) the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is
Wt-Wn
ri = ———p- (10.8)
QA
When we substitute (10.1), (10.4), and (10.7) into (10.8), we have

the following expression for the thermal efficiency of the ideal
Rankine cycle:
It is clear that the thermal efficiency, the work interactions and

the heat transfer quantities may be calculated from the enthalpies.
These values are found in tables such as those in Appendix A. The
enthalpy at the throttle /?/ is found in the saturated or superheated
steam tables. If the steam is saturated, then one needs only the
pressure or temperature to enter the table. If the steam is super-
heated, one needs two properties, usually pressure and tempera-
ture, to use the table. Since the exhaust steam is usually wet, i.e.,
the quality x is less than unity, one will need to use the fact that s}
equals s2 to determine the quality x2 at state 2. Following (3.1) the
enthalpy h2 is calculated from
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h2=(l-x2)hf2+x2hs2 (10.10)
and the quality x2 is determined from an entropy equation of a

form identical to that of (10.10), viz.,
s2 = (l-x2)s/2 + x2sg2 (10.11)
where s2 is known because it is equal to Sj.

The ideal Rankine cycle shown in Figure 10.1 bears some re-
semblance to the Carnot cycle shown in Figure 6.3, especially
when state 1 falls on the saturated vapor line. Because of the
similarity in form of the two cycles, one can apply the same
qualitative rules for improving the thermal efficiency, i.e., increas-
ing the average temperature of the working substance in the boiler
will increase the thermal effiency of the cycle, and lowering the
condensing temperature will also improve the thermal efficiency
of the cycle. These improvements are implemented by decreasing
the temperature between the working substance and the thermal
energy reservoir with which it is exchanging energy by the heat
transfer.
The concepts of entropy production and irreversibility were in-
troduced in Chapter 7, and it was noted there that friction and heat
transfer with a temperature difference produce entropy production
and irreversibility. The heat transfer processes in the Rankine cy-
cle are partly isothermal, becuse they occur partly under the vapor
dome. It is easy to imagine these isothermal processes as heat
transfer between the working substance and two thermal energy
reservoirs, one at a temperature above the boiling temperature of
the water and the other at a temperature below the condensing
temperature of the steam. We will approach conditions of external
reversibility and zero entropy production as the temperature dif-
ferences between the working sustance and the reservoirs are di-
minished. Although this situation is easy to imagine for isothermal
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processes, the need for multiple thermal energy reservoirs arises
when the non-isothermal processes are considered.
Referring to Figure 10.1 it is clear that the heating of the liquid
water in process 4-a cannot be isothermal; therefore, one can only
conceive of heat transfer approaching irreversibility if the water
receives energy from a large number of thermal energy reservoirs
at temperatures graduated from T4 and Ta. The same situation
arises in process b-1. Since an infinite number of heat exchangers
would be best, a finite number of heat exchangers, operating at a
finite number of temperatures between the condenser temperature
and the boiler temperature, would be advantageous in process 4-a.
The heating of feedwater in steps is accomplished by extracting
steam from the turbine at various pressures and temperatures and
using this steam to heat the feedwater in stages; the process is
called regenerative feedwater heating. Similarly, process b-1 can
be replaced with a finite number of heat transfer stages; thus, the
saturated steam would be heated in a finite number of heat ex-
changers called reheaters. These approaches to reducing external
irreversibility will be considered in subsequent sections.
10.2 Regenerative Cycle
Faires and Simmang (1978) describe an ideal regenerative cy-

cle as one in which the feedwater is pumped through the hollow
turbine casing with the water moving from the low-pressure to the
high-pressure end. In this way the initially cold water picks up
heat from the steam at the same temperature as the steam itself.
Such a heat exchanger is only posssible when no resistance to heat
flow exists in the wall of the turbine, nor does resistance exist in
the steam or water in contact with the walls. If this theoretical
construct were applied in a practical design, a temperature differ-
ence would exist between the steam and the water, but it would be
minimal. One problem with such a design is that removal of heat
from the steam used in the last stages of the turbine will decrease
the quality of the steam, i.e., the steam will become wetter. The
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droplets of wet steam in steam turbines cause erosion of the blade
surfaces; however, when a portion of the steam is extracted from
the turbine, the steam continues to expand adiabatically in subse-
quent stages without becoming excessively wet.
The ideal regenerative cycle described by Faires and Simmang
is approximated in practice by multiple steam extractions from the
turbine. The extracted steam at different temperatures intermediate
between the turbine throttle temperature 71/ and and the turbine
exhaust temperature T2 is used to heat boiler feedwater in separate
heat exchangers. This arrangement results in a cost-effective effi-
ciency improvement. Although multiple feedwater heaters are
used in modern steam power plants, we will illustrate the principle
of regenerative feedwater heating by using a single heat ex-
changer, i.e., only one steam extraction from the turbine.
First we will consider that the heat exchanger is an open feed-
water heater, i.e., a heat exchanger in which the extracted steam
and the feedwater come into contact and mix. The resultant mix-
ture is then pumped to boiler pressure and injected into the boiler.
The T-s diagram for a single open feed water heater is shown in
Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2 Regenerative Cycle with One Open Heater
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Figure 10.2 shows an expansion of the entire mass flow of
steam from state 1 down to state b. Steam at state b is extracted
from the turbine and is mixed with condensate from the condenser
which has been pumped up to pressure pb. Taken as a control vol-
ume the open feed water heater takes in steam at enthalpy hb and
compressed feedwater at enthalpy h4 Both streams mix and leave
the open heater as a single liquid stream at enthalpy hc, which is
assumed to be the enthalpy of a saturated liquid at extraction pres-
sure. Since there is no heat transfer or work across the control sur-
face, the steady flow energy equation is
yht+(l-y)h4=he (10.12)
where y denotes the mass fraction of the steam that is extracted at

state b. Equation (10.12) can be solved for the mass fraction y re-
quired for the assumed outlet enthalpy hc.
It should be noted that the mass fraction y extracted affects the
work calculation, because the steam turbine handles the entire
steam flow during the expansion 1-b, but it expands only the frac-
tion l-y during the process b-2. Similarly, the low-pressure pump
compresses the mass fraction l-y of the entire steam flow during
the process 3-4. The steady flow energy equation the turbine con-
trol volume yields the following expression for isentropic turbine
work:
^=/i1-A4+(l-^)(A*-^) GO-13)
Consideration of the energy flows to and from a control volume

for the low-pressure pump also yields an isentropic work expres-
sion involving y; it is
W=(l-y)(h<-h3) (10.14)
TM
The high-pressure pump handles the entire flow, and the energy
equation for this second pump yields the following expression for
isentropic work:
Wp2=hd-hc (10.15)
The heat transfer in the boiler is reduced by the regenerative

heating and is computed using
QA=h{-hd (10.16)
since the enthalpy rise of process 4-c is accomplished by regen-

erative heating, i.e., heat transfer from the working substance it-
self, rather than from an outside source.
Regenerative heating is often used with closed feedwater heat-
ers rather than open feedwater heaters. The differences in the two
arrangements are evident from a comparison of Figures 10.2 and
10.3. Extracted steam is condensed in the shell of a tube-and-shell
condenser. Feedwater flows through the tubes of the heat ex-
changer and is heated by the condensing steam to a temperature Tet
< Tc. As an idealization one can assume that Te = Tc. The water at
state c is throttled to state d in the condenser where it is condensed
and recirculated with the feedwater back to the boiler. The feed-
water is taken into the boiler at temperature Te\ thus, the heat
transfer in the boiler is given by
QA =*,-*. 00.17)
The pump receives the condensate in state 3 and compresses it to

boiler pressure during the process 3-4; thus, the pump work is the
same as in the ideal Rankine cycle, viz., h4 - h3. The turbine work
is calculated using (10,13) as with the open heater; however, the
mass fraction y of bled steam is different, and an energy balance
on the closed heater yields the expression
TM
y = (he-h4)/(hh-hc) (10.18)
Thermal efficiency is the ratio of net work to boiler heat trans-

fer, and, with regenerative heating the boiler heat transfer is re-
duced. Since the isentropic turbine work is also reduced as the re-
sult of the steam extraction, it is not clear that the thermal effi-
ciency is improved; however, the salutary effect of adding energy
at a higher average temperature does give an improvement in the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
10.3 Reheat-Regenerative Cycle
Regenerative feedwater heating is a modification to the basic

Rankine cycle that raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle. It
was observed that a reduction in specific work occurs owing to the
mass fraction of the steam flow that is extracted for feedwater
heating. One way to compensate for the loss is to utilize reheating.
This feature is illustrated by process b-2 in Figure 10.4. The steam
expands in the first section of the turbine down to the saturated
vapor line. It is withdrawn from the turbine at this point in the ex-
pansion and returned to the boiler reheat tubes for re-superheating.
Finally it is returned to the turbine and expanded down to the con-
denser pressure; this is process 2-3. It is clear from a comparison
of Figures 10.3 and 10.4 that the enthalpy change of the steam is
greater in process 2-3 of Figure 10.4 than it would be in process b-
2 of Figure 10.3; thus, there is an increase in specific work and in
power. It is also clear that the exhaust steam will be dryer, which
reduces blade erosion in the low-pressure turbine stages.
Figure 10.4 shows the ideal reheat-regenerative cycle with a
single feedwater heater. Modern steam plants utilize multiple
feedwater heaters in combination with the reheating feature. The
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Figure 10.3 Regenerative cycle with one closed heater.
efficiency will improve with the addition of another feedwater

heater, but, since the rate of improvement in efficiency decreases
with the increasing number of heaters, there is an optimum num-
ber. The optimum number of heaters in a power plant is deter-
mined from a knowledge of the initial cost of each additional
heater, the savings of fuel costs resulting from improved effi-
ciency, the period of amortization of each heater, and the potential
earnings of the purchase price of each heater if it is otherwise in-
vested. Technically speaking, the combined cycle is advanta-
geous in that it produces both more power and better economy of
fuel.
With reheat-regeneration cycles some changes are necessary in
the calculation of the work of the turbine and in the boiler heat
transfer. The enthalpy drop for process 1-b must be added to that
of process 2-3 to obtain the specific work. Boiler heat transfer
must be increased by the enthalpy rise in process b-2. If steam has
TM
Figure 10.4 Reheat-regenerative cycle with one closed heater.
been extracted prior to the process, this must be taken into account
as has been shown in the previous section.
10.4 Central Stations
A central or power station is made up of one or more units.

Each unit comprises one or more turbines, pumps, boilers, con-
densers, and heat exchangers, arranged as previously described.
Typically the steam expansion takes place in turbine stages; there
is a high-pressure turbine, an intermediate pressure turbine, and a
low pressure turbine. All the turbines can run on the same shaft, or
they can have separate shafts; however, the tandem arrangement is
very common. After the steam is expanded in the high-pressure
turbine, it is reheated, passes through the intermediate-pressure
turbine, and finally divides into two streams, each of which trav-
erses one half of a low-pressure turbine. Each of the three turbines
TM
has its own efficiency, and these efficiencies normally range from
85 to 90 percent.
Typically, in power plants units, there are several heat ex-
changers, e.g., the high-pressure turbine may supply bleed steam
for the last closed feedwater heater, the intermediate-pressure tur-
bine may supply bleed steam to the next two closed heaters, and
the low-pressure turbines may supply bleed steam for three or
more closed feedwater heaters and one open heater. Only the low-
est pressure heater sends its condensate directly to the condenser;
instead, each sends its condensate to the heater just below it in
pressure. With this design all but the lowest pressure stream of
bled steam supplies heat to the feedwater at more than one point.
The open heater serves as a deaerator and allows a freeing of
harmful gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia.
The performance of power plants or of individual turbines are
usually discussed in terms of heat rates. The heat rate is the recip-
rocal of the thermal efficiency and is commonly given in Btu per
kW-hr. The overall unit heat rate would be found by determining
the rate of chemical energy release in the boiler from the burning
of fuel in Btu/hr and dividing that quantity by the generator output
in kW less the auxiliary power requirement in kW. For example, a
large unit operating using steam at the rate of 2.38 million Ib/hr, a
turbine throttle steam pressure of 2400 psia, a throttle steam tem-
perature of 1000°F, and a condenser pressure of 1 psia, produces
a generator output of 416 MW at a heat rate of 7654 Btu/kW-hr.
The unit thermal efficiency is obtained by taking the reciprocal of
this times the conversion factor 3413 Btu/kW-hr; this calculation
yields a thermal efficiency of 0.446, which is a high thermal effi-
ciency. The combined power plant cycle, in which steam and gas
turbines are used together, can increase the power plant efficiency
to even higher levels. This cycle will be discussed in Chapter 13.
Typically steam for power production is generated from the
combustion of fossil fuels in the furnace of a boiler, although
other fuels and other energy sources are sometimes used; for ex-
ample, nuclear fission reactors and subterranean geothermal steam
TM
are also available as energy sources for steam power plants. Most
power is generated using coal, oil, or natural gas as the primary
fuel. The thermochemistry of combustion of hydrocarbon fuels
will be considered in the next chapter.
Example Problem 10.1. Determine the thermal efficiency of an

ideal Rankine cycle which operates between a steam boiler pres-
sure of 18 MPa and a condenser temperature of 42°C. Assume that
the steam leaving the boiler is saturated vapor. What mass flow
rate of steam is required for the steam power plant based on this
cycle to produce a net power of 150 MW?
Solution:
From the table in Appendix Al we find T, = 357.038 °C, gj =
5.10286 kJ/kg-K, ht = 2508.86 kJ/kg, p2 = 8.2058 kPa, sfl =
0.596294 kJ/kg-K, sg2 = 8.21482 kJ/kg-K, hfl = 175.15 kJ/kg, and
hg2 = 2576.13 kJ/kg. From Appendix A3 we find h4 = 192.5kJ/kg
by interpolation.
First we find the quality x2 of the turbine exhaust from (10.11).
r
j£
-*>-*' _ 5.10286-0.596294 _
——— ——— '—— \J.*jy ± mj
- s - s , 8.21482-0.596294
o J
Next the enthalpy h2 is found from (10.10).
h2=(l- 0.5915)175.15 + (0.5915)2576.13 = 1595.33kJ / kg
We are ready now to calculate the thermal efficiency from (10.9).
TM
2508.86 -1595.33 - (192.5 -175.15) n ,„
T) = —————————————————————— = 0.387
2508.86-192.5
Determine the specific net work of the cycle.
Wnel=W,-Wp=h,-h2-(h4-h3)
Wmt = 2508.86 -1595.33 - (192.5 -175.15) = 896.18 kJ/ kg
Calculate the mass flow of steam from the power requirement.
P = __________
= —— ISOOOOkW ,„ „ / .s
167.4kg
m4 =
WM 896.18kl/kg
Example Problem 10.2. Determine the thermal efficiency of an

ideal regenerative cycle which operates between a steam boiler
pressure of 18 MPa and a condenser temperature of 42°C. Steam
for heating the feedwater is extracted from the turbine at a pres-
sure of 0.7 Mpa and piped to an open feedwater heater. The feed-
water emerges from the open heater as a saturated liquid at 0.7
Mpa. Assume that the steam leaving the boiler is saturated vapor.
Solution:
Note that the data are the same as in Example Problem 10.1. This
problem provides an opportunity to compare the Rankine and re-
generative cycle efficiencies.
First calculate the quality of the extracted steam. Note that Sj = sb.
Apply (10.11) using subscript b rather than 2.
5.10286-1.98951 0.66034
- ___________ ._„.
x =
* 6.70427-1.98951
TM
To determine hb we apply (10.10), again using the subscript b in
place of 2.
hb = (1 - 0.66034)696.467 + 0.66034(2762.14) = 2060.5 IkJ I kg
Using (3.4) we find the enthalpy of the compressed liquid leaving

the low-pressure pump.
h4=h3+ vf (ph-p2) = l 75.15 + 0.0010087(700 - 0.6978)

h4=175.85kJ/kg
Next we use (10.12) to determine the mass fraction y of the steam

which is extracted.
696.467-175.85
y = ———————————————— = 0.2/0
2060.51 -1 75.85
The turbine work is calculated from (10.13).

W,=h1-hh+(l-y)(hb-h2)
Wt = 2508.86 - 2060.51 + (1- 0.276 )(2060.51 - 1595.33)
W, = 785.1 6kJ/ kg
Equations (10.14) and (10.15) are used to determine the pump

work; thus,
Wp=(l-y)(h4-h3)
Wp=(l- 0.276 )(1 75.85 - 1 75.15) + 706.68 - 696.47
Wp=W.72kJ/kg
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Wnel = Wt-Wp = 785.16 -10.72 = 774.4V / kg
Equation (10.16) is utilized to compute the heat transfer in the

boiler; it is
QA=h,-hd= 2508.86 - 706.68 = 1802.18kJ / kg
Finally, the cycle thermal efficiency is given by
W 7744
T, = IJSL = "** = o.43
QA 1802.18
This is the result for the ideal regenerative cycle, and it is higher
than that obtained for the ideal Rankine cycle in Example Problem
10.1. We find a thermal efficiency of 43 percent with regenera-
tive feedwater heating and an efficiency of 39 percent without re-
generative heating.
Example Problem 10.3. A steam condenser receives 79.5 kg/s of

exhaust steam from a steam turbine. The steam enters the con-
denser with an enthalpy of 2083 kJ/kg and leaves it as condensate
with a enthalpy of 175 kJ/kg. Cooling water enters the condenser
at a temperature of 15°C and leaves at a temperature of 35°C. De-
termine the mass flow rate of the cooling water required to con-
dense the steam.
Solution:
Consider a control volume which encloses the condenser. Two

streams flow into the control volume, and two flow out. There is
no heat transfer with this control volume. The steady flow energy
equation is
TM
79.5(2083) + mcw (62.25) = 79.5(175) + mcw (145.89)
Solving for the mass flow rate of cooling water yields
mcw= 1813.6kg / s
Example Problem 10.4. Determine the net power output, the rate
of heat transfer in the boiler, and the thermal efficiency for an
ideal reheat-regenerative cycle which operates between a steam-
turbine throttle state defined by_p, = 8 MPa and T, = 460°C and a
condenser temperature of 39°C. The mass flow rate of the steam
at the throttle is 100 kg/s. The expanding steam is extracted from
the turbine at a pressure of 1.0 Mpa. Part of the steam flows into
the reheaters where it is heated to 440°C and returned to the tur-
bine for further expansion. The remainder of the extracted steam is
used for feedware heating; it flows through the shell of a closed
feed-water heater where it condenses, is trapped at the heater and
subsequently flashed into the condenser. Assume that the tempera-
ture of the compressed feedwater leaving the heater is the same as
the saturation temperature for steam at a pressure of 1.0 Mpa.
Solution:
This is a problem involving a closed feedwater heater and reheat

at the same pressure; thus, Figure 10.4 illustrates the processes.
Using the numbering scheme from Figure 10.4 and obtaining data
from the tables in Appendix A, we obtain the following values:
hj = 3297.2 kJ/kg hb = 2776.4 kJ/kg h2 = 3348.6 kJ/kg

sj = 6.58 kJ/kg-K sb = 6.58 kJ/kg-K s2 = 7.586 kJ/kg-K
TM
he = 766 kJ/kg hs = 170.6 kJ/kg hc = 762 kJ/kg
s^ = 0.5563 kJ/kg-K fy, = 162.6 kJ/kg s5 = 7.586 kJ/kg-K

5g5 = 8.271 kJ/kg-K \5 = 2570.8 kJ/kg
Solve for % and h3.
JîL, 7.586-0550
3
-J 8.271-0.5563
/is = (1 - x 3 )A /3 + *3/zg3 = (1 - 0.911)162.6 + 0.911(2570.8)

h3=2357kJ/kg
Using (10.18) calculate the mass fraction y of inlet steam bled

from the turbine.
766-170.6 .fl.
y = ——————— = n0.296
2776.4-762
Calculation the boiler heat transfer.
QA=hl-he+(l-y)(h2-hh)
QA = 3297.2 - 766 + (1- 0.296)(3348.6 - 2776.4)
QA =2934kJ/kg
Calculate the turbine work.
W,=hl-hh+(l-y)(h2-h3)
W, = 3297.2 - 2776.4 + 0.704(3348.6 - 2357)
W, =1218.9kJ/kg
TM
Compute the pump work.
W
p=n5-h4 = 170'6 ~ 162~6 = 8U/kg
Wnet = Wt-Wp = 1218.9 -8 = 1210.9kJ / kg
Finally, determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
w*= 1210.9 =
QA 2934
References

York: MacMillan.

Problems
10.1 Determine the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle

which operates between a steam boiler pressure of 4 MPa and a
condenser temperature of 42°C. Assume that the steam leaving the
boiler is saturated vapor. What mass flow rate of steam is required
for the steam power plant based on this cycle to produce a net
power of 150 MW?
10.2 Determine the net specific work, the heat transfer in the
boiler, and the thermal efficiency for an ideal Rankine cycle which
operates between a steam boiler pressure of 7 MPa and a con-
TM
denser temperature of 39°C. Assume that the steam leaving the
boiler is saturated vapor.
10.3 Determine the rate of heat transfer in the boiler and in the
condenser for an ideal Rankine cycle which operates between a
steam boiler pressure of 7 MPa and a condenser temperature of
39°C and produces a net power output of 200 MW. Assume that
the steam leaving the boiler is saturated vapor.
10.4 Determine the net power output, the rate of heat transfer in
the boiler, the mass rate of flow of cooling water, and the thermal
efficiency for an ideal Rankine cycle which operates between a
steam-turbine throttle state defined by pj = 8 MPa and Tl = 500°C
and a condenser temperature of 39°C. The mass flow rate of the
steam is 79.5 kg/s. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and
leaves at 35°C.
efficiency for a Rankine cycle which operates between a steam-
turbine throttle state defined by pl = 8 MPa and T, = 500°C and a
condenser temperature of 39°C. Turbine efficiency is 85 percent,
and pump efficiency is 70 percent. The mass flow rate of the
steam is 94 kg/s. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and
leaves at 35°C.
efficiency for an ideal Rankine cycle which operates between a
steam-turbine throttle state defined byp, - 8 MPa and T\ - 540°C
and a condenser temperature of 39°C. The mass flow rate of the
steam is 176 kg/s. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and
leaves at 26.5°C.
TM
the boiler, the volume rate of flow of cooling water, and the ther-
mal efficiency for a Rankine cycle which operates between a
steam-turbine throttle state defined by/?, = 8 MPa and T, = 540°C
and a condenser temperature of 39°C. Turbine efficiency is 85
percent, and pump efficiency is 80 percent. The mass flow rate of
the steam is 176 kg/s. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C
and leaves at 26.5°C.
efficiency for an ideal regenerative cycle which operates between
a steam-turbine throttle state defined by pj = 8 MPa and Tl =
500°C and a condenser temperature of 39°C. The mass flow rate
of the steam at the throttle is 79.5 kg/s. Steam is extracted from
the turbine at a pressure of 0.7 Mpa and mixed in an openfeedwa-
ter heater with condensate from the condenser. The mass fraction
of the steam extracted is such that the mixed stream is saturated
liquid at 0.7 Mpa. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and
leaves at 35°C.
a steam-turbine throttle state defined by PI = 8 MPa and Tj -
of the steam at the throttle is 79.5 kg/s. Steam, extracted from the
turbine at a pressure of 0.7 Mpa, flows through the shell of a
closed feedwater heater where it condenses, is trapped at the
heater and subsequently flashed into the condenser. Assume that
the temperature of the compressed feedwater leaving the heater is
the same as the saturation temperature for steam at a pressure of
0.7 MPa. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at
35°C.
TM
efficiency for a (non-ideal) regenerative cycle which operates
between a steam-turbine throttle state defined by pj = 8 MPa and
TI - 480°C and a condenser temperature of 39°C. The steam in
the turbine exhaust has a quality of 84 percent. The mass flow rate
of the steam at the throttle is 197 kg/s. Saturated steam, extracted
from the turbine at a pressure of 0.6 Mpa, enters the shell of a
closed feedwater heater where its condensate is trapped and
flashed the condenser. Assume that the temperature of the com-
pressed feedwater leaving the heater is the same as the saturation
temperature for steam at a pressure of 0.6 MPa. Cooling water
enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at 35°C.
a steam-turbine throttle state defined by p} = 8 MPa and T} =
of the steam at the throttle is 83.3 kg/s. Steam, extracted from the
dosed feedwater heater where it condenses, is trapped at the
heater and then flashed into the condenser. Assume that the tem-
perature of the compressed feedwater leaving the heater is 110°C.
Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at 35°C.
a steam-turbine throttle state defined by pj = 8 MPa and Tt =
of the steam at the throttle is 181 kg/s. Steam, extracted from the
TM
dosed feedwater heater where it condenses, is trapped at the
heater and subsequently flashed into the condenser. Assume that
the temperature of the compressed feedwater leaving the heater is
the same as the saturation temperature for steam at a pressure of
0.6 MPa. Cooling water enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at
35°C.
the boiler, and the thermal efficiency for an ideal reheat cycle
which operates between a steam-turbine throttle state defined by
Pi - 8 MPa and Tj = 500°C and a condenser temperature of 39°C.
The mass flow rate of the steam is 79.5 kg/s. The steam is ex-
tracted from the turbine after the pressure reaches 0.5 MPa; it is
reheated 440°C in the boiler and returned to the turbine for further
expansion.
10.14 Determine the net power output and thermal efficiency for
the ideal Rankine cycle using the steam throttle and condenser
conditions given in Problem 10.13. Compare the Rankine cycle
results with those for the reheat cycle.
TM
Chapter 11
Internal Combustion Engines
11.1 Introduction
Internal combustion engines differ from external combustion en-

gines in that the energy released from the burning of fuel occurs
inside the engine rather than in a separate combustion chamber.
Examples of external combustion engines are gas and steam tur-
bines. The gas turbine power plant utilizes products of combus-
tion from a separate combustor as the working fluid. These gases
are used to drive the gas turbine and produce useful power. The
steam power plant utilizes a separate boiler for burning fuels and
creating hot gases which convert water to steam. The steam
drives the steam turbine to produce useful power. On the other
hand, internal combustion engines usually burn gasoline or diesel
fuel inside the engine itself. If they use gasoline, they are called
spark-ignition engines, since the spark from a spark plug ignites a
mixture of air and gasoline trapped in the cylinder of the engine.
The spark ignition (SI) engine operates ideally on the Otto cycle.
The diesel engine, also called the combustion ignition (CI) en-
gine, burns diesel fuel which is ignited as it is injected into the
cylinder filled with very hot compressed air.
Although there are some rotary internal combustion engines,
internal combustion engines are usually reciprocating engines.
Spark ignition engines usually use gasoline mixed with air, and
these form the products of combustion upon being ignited. The
high-pressure gases formed during combustion of the fuel and air
provide impetus to the mobile pistons which reciprocate in cylin-
ders. The pistons are connected to a rotating shaft, the crankshaft,
by means of a connecting rod, which is connected at one end to
the wrist pin located in the interior of the piston and at the other
end to the crank pin of the crankshaft. As the crankshaft rotates
through 360 degrees, the piston moves from the top of the cylin-
TM
der (assuming a vertical cylinder axis) to the bottom and back to
the top; thus, the piston makes two full strokes per revolution of
the crankshaft. Since the engine cycle comprises four strokes of
the piston: the intake stroke, the compression stroke, the expan-
sion stroke and the exhaust stroke, the complete cycle for a four-
stroke engine requires two revolutions of the crankshaft.
Exhaust
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 11.1 Four-stroke Cycle
Figure 11.1 (a) shows the piston moving down during the in-
take stroke. Note that the valve on the left is open and is admit-
ting air to the cylinder as the piston moves down. Figure 11.1 (b)
shows that the valve on the left as well as that on the right closed
as the piston moves up while the piston compresses the fuel-air
mixture previously admitted. When the piston approaches top
dead center, a process of combustion is initiated by a spark cre-
ated in a spark plug located in the center of the cylinder head.
The effect of combustion is to heat the trapped gas and thus to
raise its pressure; its chemical constitution is modified somewhat
as well, e.g., the carbon in the fuel unites with the oxygen in the
air to form carbon dioxide gas, and the hydrogen combines with
the oxygen of the air to form water vapor. At this point Figure
TM
11.1 (c) applies, and the pressurized piston is forced down as the
hot gases expand. At a crank angle of about 50° before bottom
dead center the exhaust valve on the right side opens, and the gas
in the cylinder blows out through the valve by virtue of the pres-
sure excess of the gas in the cylinder. After bottom dead center is
passed, the upward moving piston sweeps the cylinder almost
clear of the gases formed in the combustion process; this is the
exhaust stroke indicated in Figure 11.1 (d). The sweeping process
is not complete, because a small volume of burned gas, the resid-
ual gas, exists in the cylinder when it is at top dead center. The
residual gases are retained for the next engine cycle because of
the existence of the clearance volume, the volume between the
piston crown and the cylinder head; thus, the residual gas mixes
with and dilutes the newly induced fuel-air mixture.
The processes described above apply to the diesel engine, or
compression-ignition engine, as well as to the spark-ignition en-
gine, except that the diesel engine inducts pure air into the cylin-
der rather than a fuel-air mixture. Instead of a spark plug there is
a fuel injector, which sprays pressurized fuel directly into the
cylinder when the piston is near top dead center. Because the
pressure and temperature of the compressed air are higher in the
diesel engine than in the spark-ignition engine, the fuel ignites
immediately upon contacting the hot air, and the injection of fuel
continues during a portion of the expansion stroke. Otherwise the
two forms of internal combustion engines incorporate the same
kinds of processes in their four-stroke cycles. In both kinds of
machines heating of the gases used to drive the piston is the result
of burning fuel in air.
Because of pre-mixing of fuel and air in the SI, spark-ignition,
engine, the combustion process can be modeled by a constant
volume process. On the other hand, the basic CI, combustion-
ignition, engine uses direct injection of fuel into the compressed
air as it is expanding; thus, this process best modeled by a con-
stant-pressure process. The ideal cycles for the two engines, the
Otto and Diesel cycles, will be considered after fuels and com-
bustion are discussed.
TM
11.2 Fuels
Prime movers of every kind require a working fluid that receives

energy from a source. In a thermodynarnic discussion the source
can be a thermal energy reservoir. In reality the source is often
chemical energy which becomes thermal energy as the result of
oxidation, e.g., fuel is burned in air. The release of thermal en-
ergy by chemical union of an element with oxygen is an exo-
thermic chemical reaction. The amount of heat release per unit
mass of fuel is called the heating value of the fuel. Some repre-
sentative heating value of fuels are given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Fuel Properties

(Source: Heywood (1988), 915)
Fuel Molecular Lower heating
Weight value, kJ/kg
Gasoline 110 44,000
Diesel fuel 170 43,200
Natural gas 18 45,000
Methane 16.04 50,000
Propane 44.1 46,400
Isooctane 114.23 44,300
Methanol 32.04 20,000
Ethanol 46.07 26,900
Carbon 12.01 33,800
Carbon monoxide 28.01 10,100
Hydrogen 2.015 120,000
Fossil fuels exist throughout the world and are used in the op-
eration of prime movers. Stationary steam power plants utilize
coal, oil, and gas to generate steam in their boilers. Stationary
TM
gas-turbine power plants use oil and natural gas, whereas gas
turbines in aircraft engines utilize kerosene-based jet fuel. For the
most part spark ignition engines use gasoline, although some
engines use natural gas or ethanol. Compression-ignition engines
use diesel fuel. According to Ohta (1994) petroleum and natural
gas reserves may be exhausted in the 21st century, whereas coal
reserves will not be depleted for at least two centuries.
Both gasoline and diesel fuel are mixtures of hydrocarbons
and are derived from petroleum fuels. Petroleum is a fossil en-
ergy resource occurring naturally in subterranean vaults as crude
oil. Crude oil is fractionated into gasoline, kerosene, gas oil and
residual oil. To meet the demand for gasoline it is necessary to
supplement that produced by fractional distillation with that pro-
duced by cracking.
11.3 Combustion
Since combustion of fuels usually takes place in the presence of

air, the composition of air is needed to write the chemical equa-
tions; thus, in considering the burning of carbon in air, one writes
C + O2 + 3.76N2 -> CO2 + 3.76 JV2 (11.1)
Even though the nitrogen is inert, it is not ignored, because it ab-

sorbs energy from the chemical reaction of carbon and oxygen
and thereby affects the combustion temperature of the products of
the reaction. The properties of the combustion products are im-
portant since they must be known to compute the heat transfer
from the combustion gases in a boiler to the steam or water in the
boiler tubes. Likewise the properties of the combustion products
are important in an internal combustion engine or a gas turbine,
because they become the working substance which gives up en-
ergy to the piston or turbine blades in the prime mover.
An equation such as (11.1) expresses a chemical reaction in
terms of moles of reactants and moles of products. In (11.1) there
TM
are 5.76 moles of reactants and 4.76 moles of products. The air in
the reactants comprises one mole of oxygen and 3.76 moles of
nitrogen. This is the proportion of moles of each of the two com-
ponents found in ordinary atmospheric air. There is also one mole
of carbon, but since it is a solid, its molecules do not exert a par-
tial pressure in its pure form; however, when it combines with
oxygen to become carbon dioxide in the products, it is a gas and
does exert a partial pressure on the surroundings. The gases found
in the reactants or in the products can be treated as perfect gases
and assumed to conform to the principles of Section 2.9.
Equation (2.6) can thus be applied to each component in the
mixture and to the mixture of gases as though it were a single
species. Noting that each component of a mixture has the mixture
temperature and the mixture volume,the ratios of the partial pres-
sure of the ith species to the mixture pressure is given by
(H.2)
The molecular weight of the gas must be multiplied and divided

by the right hand side of (2.6) to obtain the mass form of the
equation of state, viz., equation (2.7), which can be used to obtain
the mass of each gas in a mixture. Alternatively one can find the
mass of each reactant and of each product by multiplying the
number of moles n by the molecular weight m of the gas; this
gives the mass per mole of the fuel. With either method of calcu-
lating the mass of gases, one needs the molecular weight of gases
appearing in the equations. Table 11.2 lists the molecular weights
of some gases commonly appearing in combustion equations. In
(11.1) we have 3.76 moles of nitrogen at 28.01 g/mol which gives
105.3 grams of nitrogen per mole of carbon, or per 12.01 grams
of carbon. One mole of oxygen also appears in (11.1); this would
be 32 grams of oxygen also present with the nitrogen and the hy-
drogen. The ratio of the mass of air, i.e., oxygen plus nitrogen, to
the mass of fuel, which is the carbon, is called the air-fuel ratio.
TM
In (11.1) the air-fuel ratio is 137.3 grams of air by 12.01 grams of
fuel which amounts to 11.43. This is an important term for dis-
cussing the combustion of fuels in air and is denoted by A/F.
Table 11.2 Gas Molecular Weight

(Source: Moran and Shapiro (1992), 694)
Gas Molecular Weight

Air 28.97
Carbon dioxide 44.01
Carbon monoxide 28.01
Hydrogen 2.018
Nitrogen 28.01
Oxygen 32.00
Sulfur dioxide 64.06
Water 18.02
Fossil fuels contain carbon, hydrogen, and sometimes sulphur.

These three elements unite chemically with oxygen in the air to
form C02, H2O, and SO2 when the chemical reaction is complete.
The reaction is incomplete when there is insufficient mixing or
insufficient oxygen. In this case the products may contain carbon
monoxide, which can be burned if additional oxygen becomes
available. If, on the other hand, there is excess oxygen in the re-
actants, a small percentage of oxygen will be present in the prod-
ucts.
For complete combustion of a fuel in air, the amount of air is
said to be stoichiometric air. The air-fuel ratio for this mixture is
called the stoichiometric air-fuel mixture. Mixtures with less air
than is needed for complete combustion are called fuel-rich mix-
tures, and those with excess air are called fuel-lean mixtures.
Sometimes the fuel-air ratio F/A is used in lieu of the air-fuel ra-
tio A/F; it is simply the reciprocal of the air-fuel ratio. The ratio
of the actual fuel-air ratio to the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is
TM
called the equivalence ratio and is denoted by <|>. If fuel is burned
in stoichiometric air, the equivalence ratio is unity.
In addition to the air-fuel ratio, the heating value or chemical
energy release associated with the combustion reaction is very
important. This is easily calculated from the chemical equation
and a knowledge of the enthalpies of formation of the compounds
involved in the reaction. Some enthalpies of formation are given
in
Table 11.3 Enthalpies of Formation

(Source: Heywood (1988), 77)
Compound Heat of Formation,
kJ/kmol
Carbon dioxide -393,520
Water vapor -241,830
Liquid water -285,840
Carbon monoxide -110,540
Methane -74,870
Propane -103,850
Methanol vapor -201,170
Liquid methanol -238,580
Isooctane vapor -208,450
Liquid isooctane -249,350
Table 11.3. The heating value at standard conditions, i.e., 25°C

and 1 atm, is obtained by summing the products of the number of
moles for each species in the reactants by the respective enthalpy
of formation from Table 11.3 and subtracting the sum of the same
products for the species in the combustion products; in mathe-
matical form we have the following expression for the heating
value of a fuel at standard conditions:
(11.3)
TM
Uncombined elements, like oxygen and nitrogen, are taken to
have zero enthalpy of formation and are not shown in the table.
This is a very practical value and finds use with internal combus-
tion engines, steam power plants, gas turbine power plants, and
jet propulsion engines. Heating value is used to express the en-
ergy release when fuel is burned in the engine, combustor, or
boiler. The product of fuel mass and heating value is the energy
released from the combustion, and this is available for conversion
to mechanical energy.
The efficiency with which the fuel's energy is converted into
mechanical energy is called the fuel-conversion efficiency, and it
is defined by
W
T fI , = ——^— (11.4)
where Wnet is the net work of the engine cycle per cylinder, Mf is
the mass of fuel burned per cycle per cylinder, and QHY is the
lower heating value of the fuel used in the engine.
11.4 Ideal Cycles
The ideal cycle which models the four-stroke spark-ignition en-

gine is the Otto cycle. It is pictured in Figure 2.8 on the p-V plane
and again in Figure 1 1 .2, this time on the T-S plane. The intake
stroke is modeled by the constant pressure process 0-1 in Figure
2.8, and the exhaust stroke is along the same line 1-0. The flow
work associated with each process have opposite signs and do not
contribute to the net work. On the other hand the enclosed area 1-
2-3-4-1 in both figures represents the net work of the cycle.
The first process, designated 1-2, is an isentropic compression.
Next, the process 2-3 is a constant volume heating process. The
heat transfer QA is added to the gas without piston movement.
The process models the burning of the fuel-air mixture at nearly
TM
constant volume. The fact that the piston moves during the burn-
ing, and that the gases change composition from reactants to
products is ignored in the model.
Figure 11.2 Otto/Diesel Cycle
At state 3 the temperature and pressure are the highest in the

cycle. From this state the gas expands down to state 4 during the
power stroke. Near the end of this stroke the exhaust valve opens,
and the gas is throttled through it as it returns to the initial pres-
sure. The gas remaining in the cylinder at any instant during the
outflow of exhaust gas through the valve has been expanded ap-
proximately isentropically as it pushes out the exhaust gas. This
rather complex occurrence is modeled in the Otto cycle by a
simple cooling constant-volume process 4-1.
TM
With the cold air standard the working substance is assumed
to be cold air during all four processes. This means that the ratio
of specific heats y remains at 1 .4, and so do the specific heats cv
and cp. A better modeling could be obtained by approximating the
variation of specific heat ratio y. One linear approximation,
which is consistent with data tabulated by Heywood (1988) for
air at low density, is the following:
7=1.4217-0.0000817' (11.5)
where T is the average air temperature for the process in degrees

Kelvin. Utilizing average values for y, one can calculate average
values for the specific heats from (2.36) and (2.37) as required for
the process.
The ratio of volumes VjlV2, which is the volume in the cylin-
der at bottom dead center divided by the volume at top dead cen-
ter, is called the compression ratio. Its value determines the pres-
sure and temperature before combustion; thus, we use the isen-
tropic relations,
(11.6)
and
(11.7)
The highest temperature in the cycle can be found from the

amount of fuel burned per cycle, the quantity of energy added as
heat transfer in process 2-3, or from a given maximum pressure.
When the mass of fuel burned is multiplied by the heating value
of the fuel, one obtains the energy input which is equivalent to
the heat transfer QA occurring in process 2-3; thus, we can write
TM
QA = MfQHy (11.8)
which enables the calculation of the equivalent heat transfer for

process 2-3.
Since process 2-3 is a constant volume process, no work is
done during the process, and (5.7) can be written as
QA=U3-U2 (11.9)
Using (2.18) the right hand side of (11.9) can be expressed in

terms of temperatures; thus, we write
QA = Mcv(T3-T2) (11.10)
If p3 is given, the temperature T3 is found from the general gas

law, i.e.,
T 3 = T 2 \ (11.11)
v;v
Since the ratio of volumes Vj/V2 is equal to the ratio V3IV4, we
can compute the temperature T4 at the end of the expansion proc-
ess from the isentropic relation of temperature and pressure, viz.,
id
T4=T3^y (11.12)
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle which models the events in
the diesel engine; this cycle has the same appearance as the Otto
cycle on the T-S plane. During the combustion process the fuel is
ignited as it is sprayed into the cylinder. Since the piston is mov-
TM
ing during the fuel injection process, the pressure variation can be
modeled as constant; thus, the difference between the Diesel and
Otto cycles is that the process 2-3 represents a constant-pressure
heating rather than a constant-volume heating process; therefore,
the equivalent heat transfer in process 2-3 is given by
QA = Mcp(T3-T2) (11.13)
On the T-S plane constant pressure processes have the same

form as constant volume; hence, the two cycles can be repre-
sented by the same diagram in Figure 11.2. Equations governing
the other three processes are identical to those of the Otto cycle.
11.5 Engine Testing
Fuel-conversion efficiency has been introduced already and is the

primary measure of engine economy. In terms of power (11.4)
can be written as
where mf is the mass rate of fuel flow, Pi is the indicated power,

and QHV is the lower heating value of the fuel. The indicated
power PI in (11.14) denotes the power based on the indicated
work, i.e., the work represented by the enclosed area of the cycle
on the p-V diagram; this efficiency is called the indicated fuel-
conversion efficiency. Another kind of power, brake power, is
also used to define fuel-conversion efficiency; it is obtained by
measurement of shaft torque T and speed N while the engine is
running on a laboratory test stand. Torque is usually measured
with a device called a dynamometer, which is driven by the en-
gine and restrained from rotating by a load cell; the latter instru-
ment registers the torque produced by the engine. Brake power is
TM
often given in horsepower. If torque T is reported in Ib-in, and
speed N is in rpm, then the brake power Pb in hp is given by
TN
P--L2— (11.15)
63,000
Brake power in hp is converted to kW units by multiplying by

0.746 kW/hp. To obtain the brake fuel-conversion efficiency TI^
we simply substitute Pb for Pt in the numerator of (11.14); this
substitution yields
Rearranging (11.16) we can divide the mass flow rate of fuel by

the brake power to obtain yet another measure of engine econ-
omy, viz., the brake specific fuel consumption. The latter is thus
defined by
mf
fosfc = _L. (n 17)
Ph
and the expression for efficiency becomes
T}fh=———-——— (11.18)
bsfc(QHy)
I / .if J _/" / yi^l \ ^- /
As an example we will take a typical value of bsfc for auto-

motive engines as provided by Heywood (1988); the value given
is 300 g/kW-h in metric units, which is equivalent to 0.493 Ib/hp-
h in English units. To use bsfc in metric units in (11.18) we will
need to divide this bsfc by 1000 to convert to kg and again by
3600 to convert to seconds. If we choose to use bsfc in the usual
English units, we will need to divide by 2545 Btu/hp-h. We also
TM
need a value of lower heating value QHV for gasoline, which is
given in Table 11.1 as 44, 000 kJ/kg in SI units; this is equivalent
to 18,918 Btu/lb in English units. With either set of units the re-
sult is r\f = 0.273, which is a typical value of fuel-conversion ef-
ficiency for automotive engines.
Besides fuel-conversion efficiency and specific fuel consump-
tion, there are a number of other parameters which measure en-
gine performance. We have mentioned indicated power Pt and
brake power Pb. Indicated power is the power that flows from the
gases in the cylinder to the piston, and brake power is the power
that flows through the engine shaft at the point where it connects
to the load. The loss of power as it passes through the mechanical
components is the friction power PJ-. The friction power is easily
determined by a test procedure known as motoring. In this case
the dynamometer is used as a motor to drive the engine without
the engine firing, i.e., without any fuel flowing. Using the meas-
ured torque and speed the friction power is calculated from
(11.15). The experimental determination of brake power and fric-
tion power enables the calculation of indicated power, since
Pi = Pb+Pf (11-19)
Determination of friction power, brake power, and indicated

power also enables the calculation of mechanical efficiency r\m,
which is defined as
It is recalled that indicated work Wi is represented by area on

the p-Vplane which is enclosed by the four processes of a power
cycle. If the area representing the net work of the cycle is re-
formed as a rectangle having the length F/ - V2, then the height
TM
of the rectangle is called the indicated mean effective pressure
Pm,i, i-e.,
W^p.M-VJ (11.21)
where Vj - V2 is the displacement volume VD. An expression for

indicated power per cylinder can be obtained by multiplying
(11.21) by the number of cycles per minute, i.e., by N/2; this
leads to an equation for indicated power, viz.,
pmiLANn.
P =
66,000
where Pt is the horsepower for a four-stroke engine, pm j is the

indicated mean effective pressure in psi, L is the stroke in feet,
i.e., the distance in feet traveled by the piston in moving from top
dead center to bottom dead center, A is the piston area in square
inches, N is the rpm of the engine, and ncyi is the number of cyl-
inders in the engine.
Mean effective pressure can be indicated (imep) or brake
(bmep). The general form of the equation applying to either imep
or bmep is
(11-23)
The brake mep for automotive engines typically lies in the range
of 7 to 10 atmospheres.
An important use of the brake mep is as a measure of the
torque of the engine. If the brake power P in (11.23) is replaced
by torque times speed, then we arrive at the equation
TM
which shows clearly that engine torque varies directly with brake
mep and with displacement volume of the engine.
The mean effective pressure defined by (1 1.23) can be related
to several efficiencies by substituting (11.14) in the numerator
and by recognizing that the denominator NVD is proportional to
the mass flow rate of air passing through the engine. A new effi-
ciency, the volumetric efficiency r\v, is defined by
(".25)
and (11 .25) is used to eliminate the denominator of (1 1 .23); thus,

we have
(11.26)
ma
Equation (11.26) can be used to obtain a similar expression for

brake mean effective pressure by noting that one can infer from
(11.23) that
m b
n — ' H
Mm - \l
and we can use the fact that the fuel-air ratio is the same as the
ratio of the mass flow of fuel to the mass flow rate of air; thus, we
have
F
™f (11.28)
A m.a
The result of the substitution of (11.27) and (11.28) into (11.26)

is a new expression for brake mep, viz.,
TM
Example Problem 11.1. Determine the air-fuel ratio and the

molar composition of the products for the complete combustion
ofisooctaneinair.
Solution:
Note that isooctane is C8Hi8; thus, 8 moles of O2 are required for

the carbon, and 4.5 moles of O2 are required for the hydrogen to
form water. The reaction is expressed as
CSH1S + 12.5(O2 + 3.76N2 ) -» 8CO2 + 9H2O + 47 N2
which is verbalized as one mole of fuel unites with 12.5 (4.76)

moles of air to form 8 moles of carbon dioxide, 9 moles of water,
and 47 moles of nitrogen. Of course, the nitrogen is inert. The
molar composition of the products is found by dividing the num-
ber of moles of each species by the total number of moles of
products; thus,
%C0,2 =—(100) = 123%

64 '
%H22O = —(100) = 14.06%

64 V '
%N22 =—(100) = 73.44%

64 V '
TM
The air-fuel ratio is the mass of air divided by the mass of fuel;
thus,
114.23
This is the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for isooctane; therefore,

the equivalence ratio of this mixture is unity.
Example Problem 11.2. Determine the lower heating value for

isooctane considering the complete combustion of isooctane in
air.
Solution: First we need the chemical equation for the reaction.
CsHlg +12.5(02 + 3.76N2) -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + 47 N2
Equation (11.3) is now applied to the reaction with the enthalpies

of formation supplied from Table 11.3.
Qm = -208,450 - [8(-393,520) + 9(-241,830)]

QHV = 5,116,180kJ/kmol = 44,788 kJ/kg
where the conversion from kJ/kmol units to kJ/kg is found by

dividing by the molecular weight of isooctane, which is 114.23.
Comparing the above value with the value found in Table 11.1,
we find a difference of only one percent.
It should be noted that the enthalpy of formation for water va-
por was used in the above calculation. This because the lower
heating value of the fuel was desired, and the lower heating value
is the energy release with the water vapor in the products uncon-
densed. If the higher heating value had been desired, it would
have been necessary to use the enthalpy of formation for liquid
water rather than for water vapor.
TM
Example Problem 11.3. Determine the fuel-conversion effi-
ciency of an engine which operates on the Otto cycle with air as
the working fluid. The engine has a compression ratio of 6 and
receives a heat transfer of 400 Btu/lb during process 2-3. Assume
that;?, = 14.2 psia and Tl = 60°F.
Solution:
The mass M of air used is not give. Assume M= 1 Ib.
Note that the net work of the cycle is the sum of the work for the
two isentropic processes. Work for each of the two isentropic
processes is calculated with (4.17) using n = y. The first step is to
calculate the properties at the end states of the four processes. A
trial value of y is used to determine the temperature; this gives
= 520(6) °-4 = 1065°^
Based on the above calculation an average temperature for this

process is 793°R or 440°K, which according to (11.5) corre-
sponds to a ratio of specific heats of 1.386. Repeating the calcu-
lation with this value of y yields T2 = 1038°R.
T2=520(6)°'386 =1038°R
T3 is found from (11.10). The specific heat is calculated from

(2.36) and is
cv =——-— = — — — — = $.n%Btul Lb-R

m(y-l) 28.96(0.386)
TM

The temperature at the end of the constant volume heating is
computed from (1 1.10); it is
= T2 2+QA A/cv = 1038

0.178
This value gives an average temperature for process 2-3 of

1200°K, which corresponds to y = 1.324. Correcting the first cal-
culation, we now have cv = 0.211 Btu/lb-R, which yields a cor-
rected temperature,
T3 = 1 038 + - = 2934° R
0.211
For process 3-4 we use the isentropic relation with a trial value of
y - 1.324; this gives
=2934- =1642°R
The average temperature is 1271°K, which gives y = 1.319. The

corrected value of TA is
( A '
T4=2934\-\ = 1657°R
\6J
The net work of the cycle is calculated from (4.17) in the form
Wml=R(T2-T1+T4-T3)/(l-j)
TM
= 1.986(1038-520) 1.986(1657-2934)
ne>
~ 28.96(-0.386) + 28.96(-0.319)
Wnet = -92.03 + 274.52 = 182.5 Btu / Ib
Calculate the fuel-conversion efficiency for the cycle. It is
T1/=
^7 :
References
Heywood, J.B. (1988). Internal Combustion Engine Fundamen-

tals. New York: McGraw-Hill.

neering Thermodynamics. New York: Wiley.
Ohta, T. (1994). Energy Technology: Sources, Systems and

Frontier Conversion. Oxford: Elsevier.
Problems
11.1 Determine the air-fuel ratio for the complete combustion of

isooctane in 50 percent excess air.
11.2 Determine the air-fuel ratio for the complete combustion of

butane in stoichiometric air. Butane is C4H10 and has a molecular
weight of 58.12.
11.3 A mole of gaseous fuel comprises 0.6 mole of methane

CH4, 0.3 mole of ethane C2H6, and 0.1 mole of nitrogen burns in
stoichiometric air. The molecular weight of ethane is 30.07. De-
termine the air-fuel ratio.
TM
11.4 A mole of propane burns in stoichiometric air. The products
have a mixture pressure of 1 atm. Determine the air-fuel ratio and
the partial pressure of the CO2 in the products.
11.5 Propane is burned in 25 percent excess air. Determine the

air-fuel ratio, the equivalence ratio, and the molar composition of
the exhaust gas.
11.6 A lean mixture of propane and air is burned in an engine.

The molar composition of the dry exhaust gas from the engine is
the following: 10.8% CO2 and 4.5% O2. The moles of H2O are
not included in the calculation of the moles of dry exhaust gas.
Determine the air-fuel ratio.
11.7 Determine the higher and lower heating values for gaseous
methane at 25°C and 1 atm.
11.8 Determine the higher and lower heating values for hydrogen
at standard conditions. Note that hydrogen has zero enthalpy of
formation.
11.9 Determine the higher and lower heating values for liquid
methanol at 25°C and 1 atm.
11.10 Determine the higher and lower heating values for gaseous
butane at 25°C and 1 atm. The enthalpy of formation for butane at
standard conditions is -126,150 kJ/kmol, and its molecular weight
is 58.12.
11.11 Determine the higher and lower heating values for natural
gas at 25°C and 1 atm. The molar composition of the gas is the
following: 92% methane; 4% ethane; 4% nitrogen. The enthalpy
of formation for ethane at standard conditions is -84,680 kJ/kmol,
and its molecular weight is 30.07.
TM
11.12 Convert the heating value obtained in Problem 11.11 for
natural gas in kJ/kg units into Btu per standard cubic foot units.
Note that one pound-mole of any gas at 1 ami and 77°F occupies
391.94 ft , and that 2.2046 pound-moles equals one kilogram-
mole.
11.13 Determine the fuel-conversion efficiency of an engine

which operates on the Otto cycle with air as the working fluid.
The engine has a compression ratio of 6.25 and reaches a maxi-
mum temperature of 3600°R during process 2-3. Assume that/>7
= 14.2psiaandr ; = 60°F.
11.14 The engine in Problem 11.13 has four cylinders, and each
cylinder has a displacement volume of 36.56 in . Displacement
volume is defined as Vj - V2. Determine the power produced by
the engine when it is running at 2500 rpm.
11.15 Determine the fuel-conversion efficiency of an engine

which operates on the Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid.
The engine has a compression ratio of 17 and reaches a maximum
temperature of 4000°R during process 2-3. Assume that/?; = 14
psia and Tt = 60°F.
11.16 The engine in Problem 11.15 has four cylinders, and each
cylinder has a displacement volume of 400 in . Displacement
volume is defined as Vj - V2. Determine the power produced by
the engine when it is running at 1000 rpm.
11.17 Determine the cutoff ratio V3IV2 and the indicated mean ef-
fective pressure, defined as the net work of the cycle over the
displacement volume, for the engine from Problem 11.16.
11.18 A spark-ignition engine, having a compression ratio of 8,

takes in air at a pressure of 1 atm. Taking y = 1.35, and assuming
TM
MfQHV=93McvTl(V1-V2)/V1
find the pressure ps at the end of combustion, the fuel-conversion

efficiency, and the indicated mean effective pressure. Indicated
mean effective pressure (imep) is defined as the net work of the
cycle divided by the displacement volume.
11.19 The engine in Problem 1 1.18 is modified so that the com-

pression ratio is increased to 10. What effect does the modifica-
tion have on the value of p3, t|f, and imep?
11.20 The engine in Problem 11.18 is modified so that/?/ is in-

creased to 1 .5 atm. What effect does the modification have on the
value ofpj, %, and imep?
11.21 Determine the fuel-conversion efficiency of a gasoline-

fueled, SI engine which operates on the Otto cycle. The engine
has a compression ratio of 9, and the fuel-air ratio is 0.06. As-
sume that y = 1.3, p, = 100 kPa, and Tj = 320°K. Also determine
the imep.
11.22 Show that the indicated fuel-conversion efficiency for the

Otto cycle reduces to
- (I-.)'-
where rc denotes the compression ratio.
11.23 Derive an expression for the indicated fuel-conversion ef-

ficiency of the Diesel cycle in terms of the ratio of specific heats,
the compression ratio, and the cutoff ratio.
TM
11.24 A spark-ignition engine has 6 cylinders, a compression ra-
tio of 8.5, a bore of 89 mm, a stroke of 76 mm, and a displace-
ment of 2.8 liters. If the engine develops a brake power of 86 kW
while running at 4800 rpm, find the brake mean effective pres-
sure.
11.25 Calculate the volumetric efficiency of a four-cylinder

spark-ignition engine having a displacement of 2.2 liters and a
compression ratio of 8.9. When the engine is operated at 3260
rpm, the mass flow rate of air inducted by the engine is 0.06 kg/s.
Assume that the density of the air inducted is 1.184 kg/m .
11.26 A four-stroke diesel engine is operated at 1765 rpm and

inducts air having a density of 1.184 kg/m . The displacement of
the engine is 0.01m3, the volumetric efficiency is 0.92, and the
fuel-air ratio is 0.05. Determine the mass flow rates of air and
fuel used by the engine. If the engine has six cylinders, what mass
of fuel is injected per cylinder per cycle?
11.27 A spark-ignition engine has four cylinders, a compression

ratio of 8.9, a bore of 87.5 rnm, a stroke of 92 mm, and a dis-
placement of 2.2 liters. If the engine develops a brake power of
65 kW while running at 5000 rpm, find the brake mean effective
pressure.
11.28 A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke SI engine having a displacement of

one liter and a compression ratio of 5.7 produces a brake power
of 13 kW at 2600 rpm. The engine inducts air at 101.3 kPa and
298°K while burning isooctane at the rate of 5 kg/h. During a
friction test on a dynamometer, the torque to overcome friction
was 11.2 N-m at 2600 rpm. Assuming stoichiometric burning,
determine the brake mean effective pressure, the brake fuel-
conversion efficiency, the volumetric efficiency and the mechani-
cal efficiency.
TM
11.29 A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke SI engine having a displacement of
one liter and a compression ratio of 5.7 produces a brake power
of 13.2 hp at 2000 rpm. The engine inducts air at 2025 Ib/ft and
532°R while burning gasoline at the rate of 8.91b/h. The volu-
metric efficiency of the engine was 0.74. During a friction test on
a dynamometer, the torque to overcome friction was 6.1 Ib-ft at
2000 rpm. Determine the brake mean effective pressure, the brake
fuel-conversion efficiency, the mechanical efficiency, and the
mass flow rate of air inducted.
11.30 A turbocharged, 4-stroke diesel engine is being designed.

The engine is to deliver the rated brake power of 430 kW. The
designer has selected 8 cylinders, a brake mep of 1250 kPa, and a
rated speed of 2950 rpm. Efficiencies are estimated as: mechani-
cal efficiency = 0.88; indicated fuel-conversion efficiency = 0.40;
and volumetric efficiency = 0.86. The stroke is to be 1.2 times the
bore (piston diameter). Compressed air from the turbocharger is
to enter the engine at a pressure of 2 atm and a temperature of
325°K. Determine the fuel-air ratio, the bore, and the rated
torque.
TM
Chapter 12
Turbomachinery
12.1 Introduction
The field of turbomachinery treats flow through machines

which have rotating members, known as rotors, which interact
with the flowing fluid. Generally, turbomachinery does not in-
clude a treatment of rotary machines which involves the positive
displacement of fluids, e.g., a gear pump is not classified as a tur-
bomachine, whereas a centrifugal pump is.
Although the study of steam power plants, gas turbine power
plants, and jet engines typically involves turbomachines, such as
turbines, compressors, and pumps, the analysis of the internal
flows, e.g., in the turbine or compressor blades, is not treated.
This detailed analysis of flow in the machines themselves is tra-
ditionally a feature of the field known as turbomachinery.
To analyze flow through turbomachines one finds it necessary
to employ the conservation equations, viz., those equations that
express conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. Usually a
control volume is identified, around or within the machine, and
then the steady flow forms of the conservation equations are ap-
plied. Generally the objective of the analysis is to determine the
performance of the machine under stipulated conditions. Mass
and energy flow analysis help the designer or operator predict
dimensional and power requirements, which make possible a va-
riety of engineering decisions.
The methodology of the control volume and the development
of the steady flow energy equation were introduced in Chapter 5.
In the present chapter equations (5.11) and (5.21) are applied to
some of the most common forms of turbomachines. The next
section will restate these equations in the context of a turbo-
machine application as well as introduce an additional angular
TM
momentum equation. The equations presented in the next section
are general enough to apply as well to all types of turbomachines
considered in other sections of this chapter.
12.2 General Principles
Figure 12.1 shows the schematic of a longitudinal sectional view

of a turbomachine rotor which can rotate at an angular speed co
about its axis of symmetry, i.e., about the £J-axis. Fluid enters the
machine at radial coordinate T} and exits from the rotor at radial
position r2. Fluid flows into the control volume through area A}
located at section 1 , and it flows out through area A2. The conti-
nuity equation (5.11) applies to this situation; thus, we write
(12.1)
which equates the product of density p, fluid velocity u, and
Figure 12.1 Control volume containing a rotor
TM
cross-sectional area A at sections 1 and 2. This equation is based
on the conservation of mass and states that the mass flow rate ni]
equals the mass flow rate m2\ equation (12.1) states that m} = m2.
The angular momentum equation corresponding to (12.1) is
not derived in this book. It is derived from Newton's second law
by Logan (1993) and reads
r = OT(ueir, -u e 2 r 2 ) (12.2)
where T is the torque interaction between the fluid and the rotor
about the i^-axis, m is the mass rate of flow of fluid through the
turbomachine, and ue is the 0 or tangential component of the
fluid velocity. The power P of the turbomachine can be obtained
by multiplying both sides of (12.2) by the angular speed co. The
resulting expression for power is
P = m(cor,uei -cor 2 u 02 ) (12.3)
Since the energy WT transferred between the rotor and the fluid
per unit mass of fluid flowing is the rotor power divided by the
mass flow rate of fluid, we can write
WT = (corÛe, - (cor) 2 u e2 (12.4)
where cor is the tangential velocity of a point on the rotor located

a distance r from the axis of rotation. It is sometimes called the
blade speed. Equation (12.4) is known as the Euler equation, and
it is very basic to turbomachinery. Since WT divided by the me-
chanical efficiency r\m is, in fact, the specific or shaft work Ws
which crosses the boundary of the control volume via the shaft of
the turbomachine, this term would appear in (5.21) as the work;
thus, we can write
(12.5)
TM
where gz denotes the potential energy per unit mass due to the z-
coordinate, which is directed opposite to the gravitational field.
Equations (12.4) and (12.5) are used in concert when a tur-
bomachine is analyzed. It should be noted that WT will have a
positive sign when energy flows from the fluid to the rotor, as is
the case with power producing machines, e.g., turbines. On the
other hand, WT will be negative for fans, pumps, and compres-
sors, since, in this case, energy flows from the rotor to the fluid.
Further, it should be noted that one of the terms in (12.4) can be
zero for some turbomachines, e.g., fluid usually enters a centrifu-
gal pump or compressor in a purely axial direction; therefore, the
fluid entering has no tangential component of velocity, i.e., the
term involving uei will be zero. The energy transfer WT depends
solely on the term involving ue2.
12.3 Centrifugal Pumps
When the steady flow energy equation is applied to centrifugal

pumps and fans, the working fluids handled by turbomachines are
incompressible fluids, i.e., they are liquids or low-speed gases,
and the density p can be treated as a constant. When (2.33) is
used to substitute for the enthalpy terms in (12.5), we obtain
2 2
(12.6)
Not all of the terms in (12.6) are needed, e.g., there is little or no
heat transfer and a negligible change in z. The rise of internal en-
ergy u2 - Uj reflects the loss of mechanical energy during the pas-
sage of the fluid through the rotor; this is the energy loss EL due
to fluid friction; thus, the mechanical energy loss per unit mass of
fluid flowing is given by
EL=u2-ul (12.7)
TM
If the control volume is enlarged to include the entire casing of
the pump or fan, then the energy loss EL reflects the frictional
losses in the rotor and in the casing, i.e., the total fluid frictional
loss of mechanical energy during its passage through the turbo-
machine.
(12.8)
Fluid Out
*
Fluid In
Figure 12.2 Pump inside of control volume
Figure 12.2 illustrates the situation in which the control vol-

ume includes the entire pump. Applying (12.8) to this control
volume, the loss term EL denotes the fluid frictional losses for the
entire pump. The actual work input is -Ws, which appears in
(12.8); however, the ideal -work input -Wsi, which is usually called
TM
the pump head H, can also be calculated by setting EL in (12.8)
equal to zero; thus, we obtain an expression for head of a pump,
viz.,
(12.9)
Ideal work is done when all of the work increases the mechanical
energy, and no mechanical energy is degraded into internal en-
ergy. The ratio of the pump head H to the energy transfer -WT is
called the hydraulic efficiency of the pump; thus, the hydraulic
efficiency r\H is defined by
The hydraulic efficiency is the fraction of the work input that

goes into raising the mechanical energy of the fluid, and the re-
maining fraction 1 - r\H of the energy transfer goes into raising
the internal energy of the fluid. The temperature rise of the fluid
which results from the dissipation of mechanical energy is usu-
ally indiscernible. It produces an effect equivalent to that of heat
addition; thus, the entropy of the fluid increases as it flows
through the turbomachine.
Although the hydraulic efficiency is nearly equal to the pump
efficiency, the pump efficiency is slightly less and is defined by
where r\m is the mechanical efficiency, which is the ratio of the

energy transfer to the shaft work, and r|v is the volumetric effi-
ciency, which is the ratio of the flow rate out of the pump to the
flow rate in the rotor; the latter includes fluid leaked back to the
TM
inlet of the rotor. Typically both of the latter efficiencies are close
to unity.
The pump efficiency is useful because it links the ideal work,
i.e., that which is equal to the actual rise in mechanical energy, to
the actual power requirement to drive the pump; thus, the power
required to drive the pump is given by
(12.12)
where m is the mass flow rate of fluid discharged from the pump,
and His the head. The head His also called the total head.
Equation (12.4) is applied to a control volume which encloses
only the rotor, as in Figure 12.1. Since the fluid enters the rotor in
an axial direction, v% = 0, and the magnitude of the energy trans-
fer for a centrifugal pump becomes
-r r =or 2 u 9 2 (12.13)
where the tangential component of the fluid velocity exiting the

rotor is usually determined from the angle at which the fluid exits
the rotor.
A pump rotor receives fluid through a circular opening con-
centric with the axis of rotation. Fluid enters the rotor and is
forced to rotate through the action of vanes which are installed
inside the rotor and move with the rotor. The fluid is guided by
the vanes to the rotor exit where it exits at velocity u2 into the
pump casing. The pump casing is spiral-shaped to accommodate
the spiral path of the fluid which is collected in the pump's pe-
ripheral passage known as a volute. A typical velocity diagram
for the fluid exiting from the rotor tip is shown in Figure 12.3.
The figure shows that the absolute velocity u2 can be resolved
into two components, the radial component ur2 and a tangential
component ue2; there is no axial component at the rotor exit. The
vane velocity, or tip speed, &r2, is shown as the base of the veloc-
TM
cor.
U62
Figure 12.3 Velocity diagram at the rotor exit
ity triangle. In the diagram the vane speed is added vectorially to

the velocity vre!2, which is the fluid velocity relative to the mov-
ing vane tip at the rotor exit. The angle P is the fluid angle and is
very close to the blade angle at the rotor exit.
The fluid angle P2 plays an important role in the calculation of
the energy transfer -WT, since the (12.13) requires u92, and this
tangential component is computed by
u e2 = (12.14)
The radial component of velocity or2 is also important, since it

is proportional to the mass flow rate. If the flow area at the rotor
exit is taken as the area in (12.1), then the radial component of
velocity is normal to that area and would appear in (12.1). The
exit flow area for a pump rotor is the product of the circumfer-
ence of the rotor 27ir2 and the axial width b2 of the vane at the
TM
rotor exit; thus, the mass flow rate m2 expressed in (12.1) be-
comes
m2 =2nr2b2pvr2 (12.15)
The methods presented in this section also apply to the cen-

trifugal compressor, in that the form of the rotor and the flow
path of the fluid correspond closely to those of the pump. Besides
having a spiral-shaped volute to collect the fluid leaving the rotor,
the compressor may also have a vaned or vaneless diffuser to
slow the flow as it leaves the rotor. The casings of pumps and
compressors are also shaped to provide some diffusion of the
flow prior to discharge. Diffusers do not involve energy transfer,
but the do raise the fluid pressure as they reduce the velocity of
the fluid.
Equations (12.13) - (12.15) apply equally to pumps and com-
pressors, but there are, of course, some differences. Differences
between methods for the compressor and pump will be covered in
the next section.
12.4 Centrifugal Compressors
The fluid handled by a compressor is gaseous and must be

treated as a compressible fluid rather than an incompressible
fluid; thus, equation (12.5), with the potential energy and heat
transfer terms dropped, is the appropriate form of the steady flow
energy equation for centrifugal compressors. Customarily, the
enthalpy and kinetic energy terms are combined by defining the
total enthalpy hg in the following way:
2
(12.16)
Total enthalpy is needed, since the gas speeds are high in the
compressor rotors. During its passage through the rotor, the gas is
TM
compressed adiabatically, and the shaft work done is equal to the
change of the total enthalpy, viz.,
1x7 — z, _ z, ft 9 17\
—"'s — 03 —"01 î^.i /^
The ratio of the ideal isentropic total enthalpy rise to the shaft
work is called the compressor efficiency, which is defined as in
(8.11), except that total enthalpy is used in lieu of the enthalpy;
thus, we have
(12.18)
where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 refer to the compressor inlet, the

rotor outlet, and the compressor outlet, respectively. Figure 12.4
shows the numbering of the stations for the compressor. The
work of compression, h03 - h0/, results in a certain rise of total
Control Volume
.; compressor
• exit
compressor
casing
compressor:
inlet
Figure 12.4 Compressor control volume
TM
pressure when the gas is passing through the rotor of the com-
pressor. The isentropic compression used to accomplish the same
total pressure rise requires the ideal work, h03is -h01. Equation
(12.18) shows that the compressor efficiency is the ratio of the
ideal work to the actual work. This efficiency is called total-to-
total efficiency and can be applied to axial-flow compressors as
well.
The shaft power can be expressed in terms of temperatures and
pressures. First, we note that the actual shaft work is given
by (12.17) which is modified by (12.18) to read
~Wss=(h03is-h01)/T\c (12.19)
Since (2.34) and (2.35) allow temperature to be substituted for

enthalpy, we can modify (12.19) to read
-W =
where T0 is the total temperature and corresponds to the total

enthalpy h0 already introduced in (12.16).
Pressure and temperature are related in a certain way in the
adiabatic compression of a gas. This was introduced in Section
2.8 as a polytropic process with n = y. As indicated by Problem
2.12, the basic relation given in (2.39) can be converted to a form
which relates temperature and pressure. In the present case, we
have an isentropic compression process/?; top^, i.e.,
TM
Turbomachinery 297
Figure 12.5 Compressor processes
Referring to Figure 12.5, it is clear that process joining states 1

and 01 is isentropic; similarly, that joining Sis and 03is and that
between 3 and 03 are also isentropic. These processes are con-
ceived to be flow compressions which start with energy h + u2/2
and end with energy h0, i.e., the stagnation enthalpy. In terms of
temperature, the difference between the total temperature T0 and
the temperature T is the kinetic energy divided by the specific
heat, viz., \?/2cp. One should observe in figure 12.5 that the
points 03 and 03is are on the same constant pressure line, i.e., the
pressures, p03 andp03is are equal. Because of this equality and the
fact that all processes are isentropic, we can write
Ill
I v
— 1T
~ 0l (12.22)
Substituting (12.22) into (12.20) and factoring TOI yields
TM
-w. = P03
-1 (12.23)
The shaft work is equal to the energy transfer from the rotor to
the fluid divided by the mechanical efficiency, and the energy
transfer is given by (12.13), as in pumps. Making these substitu-
tions and solving for the pressure ratio, we have
= Poi 1 + (12.24)
Finally the power to drive the compressor can be found by using

(12.23) to obtain the specific work -Ws and then multiplying by
the mass flow rate of gas handled by the rotor; thus, the power is
given by
(12.25)
Centrifugal pumps and compressors have rotors and casings

which are similar to radial hydraulic and gas turbines. Although
the physical appearance of the turbines and pumps is the same,
the flow direction is diametrically opposite. In pumps and com-
pressors the fluid flows radially outward, whereas in radial tur-
bines the water or gas flows radially inward.
12.5 Radial-flow Gas Turbines
Many turbomachines have stators as well as rotors. Stators guide

the fluid but do not change its energy. One example is a vaned
TM
Control Volume
turbine
inlet
turbine
outlet
Figure 12.6 Turbine control volume
diffuser in a centrifugal compressor. The stator vanes of a radial

gas turbine would be similar, except that the gas would enter the
machine through the volute of the casing, pass through tthe stator
vanes, and then enter the rotor at its tip. The function of these
stator vanes is to guide the gas at just the right angle as it flows
onto the moving vanes of the rotor.
Figure 12.6 shows that gas flows into the turbine casing at
station 1 and enters the rotor at station 2. Between stations 1 and
2 the stator vanes, or nozzles, expand the gas and increase its ve-
locity. It is not uncommon for the absolute velocity of the gas to
be supersonic at station 2. Typically, the stator vanes of a radial
gas turbine direct high-speed gas onto the rotor tip at an angle of
15-20 degrees to the tangential direction. The gas velocity, rela-
tive to the moving rotor, is directed radially inward, as shown in
Figure 12.7. The gas leaves the rotor at station 3, and, ideally, it
will be moving axially at that point; thus, the tangential compo-
nent of velocity is zero at station 3.
TM
Figure 12.7 Velocity diagram at rotor inlet
Figure 12.7 shows that the tangential component of the gas

velocity ue2 a* station 2 is the same as the tip velocity ®r2. Since
UQJ = 0, the energy transfer from the fluid to the rotor, as obtained
from (12.4), reduces to
fFr =(cor 2 )
TT/ / \ *•
(12.26)
/ "I ?\ ^ X"\
To determine the turbine efficiency the energy transfer from

(12.26) is compared with the maximum work obtainable from an
isentropic expansion of the gases from the inlet conditions, p01
and TO], down to the exhaust pressure p3, where p3 < p4. The
maximum energy available for conversion to work is the same as
the kinetic energy c0 /2 obtained by expanding the gas from p01
down to p3 in an isentropic nozzle, where c0 is called the spouting
velocity. Taking a control volume that encloses an isentropic
nozzle and applying the steady flow energy equation, between
conditions at station 1 and the pressure at station 3, we find that
the maximum kinetic energy is
TM
cl=2cp(TOI-T3is) (12.27)
Factoring T01 in (12.27), substituting for cp from (2.37), and ap-

plying the isentropic relation (12.21), we obtain the final form of
(12.27), viz.,
(12.28)
Turbine efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual energy

transfer from (12.26) to the isentropic energy transfer. For the
turbine described in this section, the correct expression for tur-
bine efficiency % is
r\l=2(®r2f/c20 (12.29)
This efficiency is similar to that defined in (8.15). In the present

case we are using total and static temperatures and pressures;
thus, it is called the total-to-static efficiency. Typical values of r\t
range from 0.70 to 0.80. This definition of efficiency is also ap-
plied to axial-flow turbines, as will be shown in Section 12.5. In
the next section we will use the total-to-total compressor effi-
ciency defined in (12.18) for axial-flow compressors.
12.6 Axial-flow Compressors
Axial-flow compressors compress gases in stages, each stage

having a ratio of total pressures of 1.2 to 1.5. The number of
stages in a single compressor may vary from 3 to 15, or even
higher, depending on the required overall pressure ratio.
TM
-Rotor blades
Stator blades
Flow
/-Rotor axis
Figure 12.8 Axial-flow compressor stage
A longitudinal section of a single stage is shown in Figure

12.8. Each stage consists of a row of rotor blades and a row of
stator vanes. The rotor blades have airfoil-shaped cross sections
and are attached to a wheel which is itself mounted on a rotating
shaft. The tips of the rotating blades pass very close to the casing
but do not rub against it. The stator vanes are downstream of the
rotor blades but are stationary. They are attached to the casing
and their tips approach the rotating hub but do not quite touch it.
Since the pressure of the gas in the compressor is raised as the
fluid moves through the machine, the height of the blades de-
creases as the number of the stage increases. The pressure gradi-
ent also creates leakage around the blade or vane tips; thus, clear-
ances between blade or vane tips and casing or hub is held to a
minimum. Motion of the blades through the fluid forces the gas
to move downstream and to change direction in both rotor and
stator. Figure 12.9 shows turning that occurs in the rotor of a
TM
4—————————————>4- — >
fi\f
Figure 12.9 Velocity diagram at midspan of rotor blade
single compressor stage. Station 1 is the entrance to the rotor, and

station 2 is the rotor exit. The blade speed cor is determined at
midspan, i.e., the radius r is the average of the hub radius and the
tip radius.The relative velocity vector is turned by the rotor blade,
and its magnitude is decreased in the process. Note that the tan-
gential component of the absolute velocity o/ is zero; therefore,
according to (12.4), the energy transfer from the rotor to the fluid
for a single stage is given by
WT = -corue2 (12.30)
which can be used to determine the energy transfer for the entire
compressor by summing the transfers for all the stages. As with
the centrifugal compressor, the ratio of the isentropic energy
transfer to the actual energy transfer is the compressor efficiency.
If only a single stage is considered, then the overall efficiency is
TM

Flow
Station No. r
1- j
j^^X" -X'-X" V.X' S' ^ S S S S

Stator
2-
Rotor
3 —
Hub Mean Tip
Figure 12.10 Axial-flow turbine stage
replaced with the stage efficiency t|s. The pressure ratio for the
overall machine can be calculated using (12.24). If the pressure
ratio for the stage is desired, T|C in (12.24) is replaced with r^.
12.7 Axial-flow Gas Turbines
Blade profiles for a turbine stage are depicted in Figure 12.10.

The gas passes through the stator vanes or nozzles first and then
through the moving rotor blades. It is assumed that the velocity of
the fluid leaving the rotor is purely axial, so that i% = 0. It is
further assumed that the velocity triangle is symmetrical, so that
u3 coincides with ure/> The velocity diagram for the turbine rotor
is shown in Figure 12.11. The angle a is called the nozzle angle
and ranges typically from 15 to 25 degrees. When the above as-
sumptions are applied to (12.4), they lead to a simplified form for
TM
re!3
U2
Aue
->f-
cor (»r
Figure 12.11 Velocity diagram for axial turbine at midspan
the energy transfer, viz.,
nr 2 2
W, r = co r (12.31)
where the radius r in (12.31) is the mean radius of the blade, i.e.,
it is the average of the tip and hub radii. Efficiency is obtained
from (12.29), which applies to any single stage of a multistage
turbine; in this case, it is called stage efficiency. It can be applied
multistage turbine, if stations 1 and 3 refer to the first station of
the first stage, and station 3 denotes the last station of the last
stage, and if the WT is replaced with the sum of energy transfers
for all the stages. The spouting velocity c0 for a single stage is
determined from (12.28), as with the radial-inflow turbine, or it
can be applied to the overall multistage turbine.
References
Logan, E. (1993). Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applica-

tions. New York: Marcel Dekker.
TM
Problems
12.1 A centrifugal water pump has a hydraulic efficiency of

0.858, a volumetric efficiency of 0.975, and a mechanical effi-
ciency of 0.99. If the head of the pump is 2252 ft-lb/sl at a speed
of 870 rpm and a flow rate of 5.35 ft3/s, determine the energy
transfer and the power required to drive the pump. The density of
the water is 62.4 lb/ft3.
12.2 A centrifugal water pump runs at an angular speed of 93

rad/s with a pump efficiency of 0.83. The tangential component
of the fluid velocity is zero at the pump inlet and 116 ft/s at the
rotor exit. The radius r2 of the rotor is 19 inches. If the change in
fluid kinetic energy from the inlet to the exit is negligible, de-
termine the energy transfer and the pressure rise in the pump.
12.3 A centrifugal water pump delivers 25 liters/s while raising

the pressure by 330 kPa. If the power of the motor driving the
pump is 10 kW, find the pump efficiency. The density of the wa-
ter is 1000kg/m3.
12.4 A centrifugal water pump delivers 5.63 ft3/s while running at

1760 rpm and receiving a motor power of 122 hp. The rotor di-
ameter is 13.5 inches, the axial vane width at the rotor exit is 2
inches, the pump efficiency is 80 percent, and the density of the
water is 62.4 lb/ft3. Find the tip speed of the rotor, the radial
component of the velocity at the rotor exit, and the pressure rise
across the pump.
12.5 If u62 for the pump of Problem 12.4 is 53 percent of the tip
speed,, calculate the hydraulic efficiency and the energy loss in
ft-lb of energy per Ib of fluid flowing. If the water enters the
pump at a temperature of 80°F, estimate the entropy rise s2 - st of
the water passing through the pump. Hint: As« EL/T.
TM
12.6 A centrifugal water pump delivers 300 gpm (gallons per mi-
nute) while running at 1500 rpm. The angle P2 made by the rela-
tive velocity with respect to the tip velocity is 30°. The rotor di-
ameter is 6 inches, the axial vane width at the rotor exit is 0.5
inch, and the density of the water is 62.4 Ib/ft . Find the tip speed
of the rotor, the radial component of the velocity at the rotor exit,
and the energy transfer from the rotor to the fluid.
12.7 If EL for the pump of Problem 12.6 is 15 percent of the en-

ergy transfer, calculate the hydraulic efficiency and the energy
loss in ft-lb of energy per Ib of fluid flowing. If the water enters
the pump at a temperature of 80°F, estimate the entropy rise s2 - Sj
of the water passing through the pump. Hint: As« ELIT.
12.8 A centrifugal water pump achieves a pressure rise of 35 psi

and delivers 2400 gpm (gallons per minute) while operating at a
speed of 870 rpm. The rotor diameter is 19 inches, the axial vane
width at the rotor exit is 1.89 inches, and the density of the water
is 62.4 Ib/ft3. Assume that the energy loss in the pump is 15 per-
cent of the energy transfer. Find the energy transfer from the rotor
to the fluid, the tip speed of the rotor, the radial component of the
velocity at the rotor exit, and the angle p2 made by the relative
velocity with respect to the tip velocity.
12.9 Air enters a centrifugal compressor at 1 atm and 518°R.

There is zero tangential component of velocity at the inlet. At the
rotor exit the angle p2 = 63.4° and the radial component of veloc-
ity ur2 = 394 ft/s. The tip speed of the rotor is 1640 ft/s. For a
mass flow rate of 5.5 Ib/s, determine the ratio of total pressures
produced by the compressor and the power required to drive it.
Assume r\m = 0.95 and r\c = 0.80.
12.10 Air enters a centrifugal compressor at a total pressure of 1

atm and a total temperature of 528°R. Air enters the rotor axially
at 328 ft/s at a flow rate of 1350 ft3/min measured at inlet condi-
TM
tions and is discharged at 24. 7 psia. If the compressor is driven
by a 80-hp motor running at 15,000 rpm, determine the compres-
sor efficiency. Assume r\m = 0.96.
12.11 Air enters a centrifugal compressor at a pressure of 101

kPa and 288°K. Flow enters the rotor axially with U; = 100 m/s.
At the rotor exit the angle p2 = 63.4°, the radial component of
velocity ur2 = 120 m/s, and the tip speed of the rotor is 500 m/s.
For a mass flow rate of 2.5 kg/s, and assuming a mechanical ef-
ficiency of 95 percent and a compressor efficiency of 80 percent,
determine the ratio of total pressures produced by the compressor
and the power required to drive it.
12.12 A radial-flow gas turbine having a rotor tip radius of 6

inches runs at 24,000 rpm. The relative velocity at the rotor inlet
makes an angle of 90 degrees to the tangential direction. Air en-
ters the turbine at a temperature of 700°R and leaves the rotor
axially at a pressure of 14.7 psia. Determine the mass flow rate
required to produce an output power of 100 hp.
12.13 For the air turbine in Problem 12.12 determine the total
pressure p01 required for the conditions stipulated.
12.14 A radial-flow gas turbine having a rotor tip radius of 2.5

inches runs at 60,000 rpm. The relative velocity at the rotor inlet
makes an angle of 90 degrees to the tangential direction. Air en-
ters the turbine at a pressure of 32.34 psia and a temperature of
1800°R and leaves the rotor axially at a pressure of 14.7 psia. The
mass flow rate of air is 0.71 Ib/s. If the ratio of specific heats y is
1.35, determine the power output and the total-to-static effi-
ciency.
12.15 A radial-flow microturbine having a rotor tip radius of 3.3

mm runs at 4400 rps. The relative velocity at the rotor inlet
makes an angle of 90 degrees to the tangential direction, and the
TM
gas leaves the rotor axially at a pressure of 1 atm. Assuming a
total-to-static efficiency of 70 percent, determine the mass flow
rate of gas required to produce an output power of 7 watts.
12.16 For the radial-inflow gas turbine in Problem 12.15, de-

termine the total pressure p01 required for the conditions stipu-
lated.
12.17 Air at 14.7 psia and 519°R enters an axial-flow compressor

stage with an absolute velocity of 350 ft/s. The rotor blades turn
the relative velocity vector through an angle of 25 degrees. The
blade radius at midspan is 9 inches, and the speed is 9000 rpm.
Assuming the stage efficiency is 90 percent, find the energy
transfer and the pressure ratio of the stage.
12.18 A multistage compressor comprises three identical stages

having the same features as the stage in problem 12.17. Deter-
mine the overall pressure ratio and the compressor efficiency.
12.19 Air at 14.7 psia and 519°R enters an axial-flow compressor

stage with an absolute velocity of 490 ft/s. the rotor blades turn
the relative velocity vector through an angle of 30 degrees. The
blade radius at midspan is 11 inches, and the speed is 6000 rpm.
Assuming the stage efficiency is 90 percent, find the energy
transfer and the pressure ratio of the stage.
12.20 A single-stage, axial-flow gas turbine transfers 784,000 ft-

Ib of energy to the blades per slug of gas flowing. The gas veloc-
ity leaving the stage is 250 ft/s, and the total-to-static efficiency
of the stage is 0.85. Determine the midspan blade velocity and the
pressure ratio p01/p3 across the stage.
12.21 A multistage, axial-flow turbine expands air from a total

pressure of 51.5 psia and a total temperature of 600°R to an ex-
haust static pressure of 14.7 psia with an efficiency of 0.85. What
mass flow rate of air is required for the turbine to develop 100 hp.
TM
12.22 A single-stage, gas turbine has a rotor midspan blade
speed of 600 ft/s and a midspan blade radius of 1.5 feet. Air en-
ters the rotor with a nozzle angle of 27 degrees. The rotor exhaust
velocity is axial. Find the turbine rotational speed and the energy
transfer.
12.23 A single-stage, gas turbine has a rotor midspan blade speed

of 1000 ft/s. Air enters the rotor with a nozzle angle of 27 de-
grees. The rotor exhaust velocity is axial. If the specific heat of
the gas is 0.27 Btu/ lb-°R, find the stage energy transfer and total
temperature drop T01 - T03.
12.24 A single-stage, gas turbine has a rotor midspan blade

speed of 1200 ft/s. Air enters the rotor with a nozzle angle of 15
degrees. The rotor exhaust velocity is axial. If the mass flow rate
of air through the turbine is 50 Ib/s, find the turbine power and
the energy transfer.
12.25 A single-stage, axial-flow gas turbine produces 1000 hp

with a gas flow rate of 10 Ib/s. The exhaust velocity u3 = 600 ft/s.
Find the blade speed and the nozzle angle.
TM
Chapter 13
Gas Turbine Power Plants
13.1 Introduction
The simplest form of gas turbine requires three components: the

gas turbine itself, a compressor, and a combustor in which fuel is
mixed with air and burned. These three basic elements are de-
picted schematically in Figure 13.1. The system comprising these
three components is an external-combustion engine, as opposed
to an internal-combustion engine. The latter type of engine is dis-
cussed in Chapter 11.
Air In
Combustor
Compressor Turbine
Exhaust
Figure 13.1 Basic gas turbine power plant
TM
The gas-turbine engine can be used to produce large quantities
of electric power and thus to compete with the steam turbine
power plant. Gas turbines can also be used to produce small
amounts of power, as in auxiliary power units. They can be used
to power ships as well as ground vehicles like tanks, trains, cars,
buses, and trucks, and, of course, gas turbines are widely used to
power aircraft.
Figure 13.2 Thermodynamic cycle for gas turbine power plant
The thermodynamic cycle which comprises the basic proc-

esses of a gas turbine power plant is called the Brayton cycle. In
Figure 13.2 the Brayton cycle is shown on the T-S plane. It com-
prises four processes: process 1-2' represents the adiabatic com-
pression in the compressor, process 2'-3 traces states in the con-
stant-presssure heating of the combustor, process 3-4' is the adia-
batic expansion of the gas in the turbine, and process 4'-l repre-
sents the constant pressure cooling process in the atmosphere.
When the compression and expansion processes are isentropic, as
TM
in the cycle 1-2-3-4-1, the cycle is called the ideal Brayton cycle.
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle is a function of
pressure ratio pjpi, and its value is the highest possible effi-
ciency for any Brayton cycle at a given pressure ratio.
The thermal efficiency of any cycle is defined by (5.30). In the
Brayton cycle the net work is the algebraic sum of the turbine
work Wt, which is positive, and the compressor work Wc, which is
negative; thus, the thermal efficiency is written as
W +Wc
' (13.1)
QA
where QA is the energy added to the flowing gas in the combustor

as a result of the exothermic chemical reaction which occurs as
the fuel burns in air.
In the following sections the methods for computing Wt, Wc,
and QA will be shown for the ideal Brayton cycle, the standard
Brayton cycle, and for variations on the Brayton cycle which in-
volve the use of heat exchangers. Finally, the combined cycle,
Brayton plus Rankine, is considered.
13.2 Ideal Brayton Cycle
For the ideal cycle we can assume that the working fluid is cold
air, i.e., a gas having a molecular weight of 28.96 and a ratio of
specific heats y of 1 .4, and that the air behaves as a perfect gas.
The compression and expansion processes are isentropic for the
ideal cycle. According to (5.21) work for compression is given by
Wc=hol-hm (13.2)
where any change in potential energy is assumed negligible, and

the solid boundaries of the compressor are assumed to be adia-
batic. Assuming that the working substance is a perfect gas and
TM
applying (2.34) and (2.35) to the right hand side of (13.2), we
obtain
Wc=cp(Tol-T02) (13.3)
where T0] and T02 are the total temperatures at stations 1 and 2,
respectively. Total temperature T0 refers to the temperature
achieved when the flow is decelerated adiabatically to a negligi-
ble velocity; it corresponds to the total enthalpy h0 defined by
(12.16).
Using the same method employed to derive (13.3), when the
steady flow energy equation is applied to the turbine, we find that
wt=Cp(Tm-TM) (13.4)
For the steady-flow energy balance on a control volume that
encloses the combustor, in which the combustion process is sup-
planted by an equivalent heat transfer process between an exter-
nal energy source and the flowing air, the equivalent heat transfer
QA is given by
QA=cf(Tm-Tn) (13.5)
Finally, substitution of (13.3), (13.4), and (13.5) into (13.1)

yields an expression for the thermal efficiency of the ideal Bray-
ton cycle in terms of the absolute temperatures of the four end
states, i.e.,
=
i T -T-*02
•'OS
In lieu of the temperatures, or temperature ratios, found in

(13.6), it is possible to substitute pressure ratios using
TM
r -r
^02 ~ -'
and
(13.8)
which are derived as indicated in Section 2.8 and in Problem

2.12. Equation (13.7) is the p-T relationship for the isentropic
compression process, and (13.8) is the p-T relation for the isen-
tropic expansion process. When the pressure ratios in the two
eqautions are replaced by the cycle pressure ratio rp and substi-
tuted into (13.6), the resulting ideal Brayton cycle thermal effi-
ciency is
(13.9)
where the exponent a equals (y - l)/y. Although the ideal effi-

ciency is seen to depend solely on the cycle pressure ratio, the
Brayton cycle 01-02'-03-04'-01 in Figure 13.2 depends as well
on the turbine inlet temperature T03. This is shown in the next
section.
13.3 Air Standard Brayton Cycle
To introduce greater realism into the Brayton cycle analysis

we can use compressor and turbine efficiencies. For the compres-
sor we will utilize the definition already given in (12.18). Refer-
ring to Figure 13.2 for states, the compressor efficiency becomes
TM
hor-hol
which is the ratio of isentropic specific work to actual specific

work. Similarly, the turbine efficiency is defined as the actual
work over the isentropic, i.e.,
l,-* 5 (13-11)
Both compressor and turbine efficiencies range from between 80

and 90 percent for larger power plants down to 70 to 80 for auxil-
iary power units.
If the cycle pressure ratio rp and the entering temperatures are
known, the isentropic compressor and turbine works are easily
computed. Knowing the temperature T0} of the entering air, the
actual compressor work is computed from
where the exponent a = (y - l)/y. Note that (13.12) yields a posi-

tive value; thus, Wc denotes here the magnitude of the compressor
work.
Similarly, if the turbine inlet temperature T03 is known, the
actual turbine work is given by
The heat transfer equivalent of the energy addition resulting

from combustion is given by
TM

QA=Cp(T03-T02.) (13.14)
where T02- is calculated from (13.10), i.e.,
(13.15)
Finally, the cycle thermal efficiency T] can be calculated by

substituting the above equations into the equation,
W -W
^ = ^-^- (13.16)
where the numerator has been expressed as a difference, since Wc

represents the magnitude of the compressor work.
The graphs of Figure 13.3 were determined by using the
methods outlined above. The variation of cycle thermal efficiency
with cycle pressure ratio at constant turbine inlet temperature is
shown for the air standard Brayton cycle with y = 1 .4. It is noted
that the optimum cycle pressure ratio is a function of turbine inlet
temperature. For T03 =1000°K the optimum rp is around 7 or 8,
but for T03 = 1300°K the optimum rp is much higher. Cycle effi-
ciency depends on turbine inlet temperature and cycle pressure
ratio; furthermore, there is an optimum pressure ratio for every
turbine inlet temperature.
13.4 Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
Efficiency as a function of cycle pressure ratio for a cold air-

standard Brayton cycle having T03 = 1300°K was considered in
TM
Cycle Pressure Ratio
Figure 13.3 Effect of turbine inlet temperature on efficiency
the previous section. Figure 13.4 depicts the variation of exhaust

temperatures over the same range of pressure ratios at a turbine
inlet temperature of 1300°K. It is noted that the temperatures of
the exhaust gases are quite high, which leads one to think that ef-
ficiency could be increased, if some way were found to utilize the
energy of the exhaust gases. Energy could be extracted from the
gas in a waste heat boiler, for example; another way would be to
use the exhaust to heat the air prior to combustion. The latter
method is commonly used and is called regeneration, i.e., extract-
ing energy from the exhaust gases by means of heat transfer in a
heat exchanger used to preheat the compressed air before it is
admitted to the combustor.
A Brayton-cycle gas turbine with regeneration is depicted
schematically in Figure 13.5. Air from the compressor enters the
regenerator at temperature T02- and is heated to temperature T05;
TM

1200
1000
Turbine inlet temperature = 1300 deg K
800
S
I
0>
c. 600
I
1
a 400
200
8 10 12 14 16 18
Cycle Pressure Ratio
Figure 13.4 Turbine exhaust temperatures
then it enters the combustor and leaves at T03. The energy added
in the combustor is thus reduced to
=c
QA (T<n ~TQS) (13.17)
which is clearly less than the heat transfer required to heat the air
fromr 02 .to T03.
Ideally the compressed air, upon passing through the regenera-
tor, could be heated to a temperature equal to the exhaust gas
temperature T04-. Realistically T05 is always less than T04-. How
much less depends on the effectiveness s of the heat exchanger.
Effectiveness is defined by the equation,
T - JT
J
s= (13.18)
TM
where the numerator is proportional to the energy received by the
cooler air, and the denominator is the ideal heat transfer to the
cooler air. Values of s. depend on the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger design and the air flow rate, but typical values of ef-
fectiveness lie in the range 0.6-0.8. Procedures for heat exchanger
design are presented by Incropera and DeWitt (1990).
Compressor and turbine work for the Brayton cycle with re-
generation are handled as with the basic cycle. Only the energy
addition in the combustor, as determined from (13.17), is differ-
ent, but this increases the thermal efficiency, since the denomina-
tor of (13.1) is decreased while the numerator remains fixed. The
denominator QA can be written alternatively as
(13.19)
M
where Mf IMa is the mass of fuel by the corresponding mass of

air, i.e., the fuel-air ratio F/A, introduced in Chapter 11. Since the
equivalent heat transfer QA, resulting from the burning of fuel in
the combustor, is directly proportional to the mass of fuel burned
Mp and since QA is reduced by the addition of the regenerator, the
amount of fuel required to produce a unit of net work is de-
creased, i.e., the specific fuel consumption is reduced. Paralleling
the definition introduced in Chapter 11 for internal combustion
engines, specific fuel consumption (sfc) is defined by
mf
-f (13.20)
where mj denotes the mass flow rate of fuel and P represents the
net power produced by the gas turbine. Usually the power is the
shaft power to the load, as indicated in Figure 13.5, and the sfc is
TM
Air In
Regenerator Turbine
•*— ——— ——— ^—— Exhaust
.. 04'
05
02' 03, ^
I———
Compressor Turbine
Figure 13.5 Gas turbine plant with regeneration
called the brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc), as defined in

(11.17).
In applications of gas turbines for road vehicles, railroad lo-
comotives and ship propulsion a power turbine may be used. This
requires two turbines on separate shafts, each running at a differ-
ent speed. Figure 13.6 shows a typical arrangement: a high-
pressure (H.P.) turbine driving the compressor and a low-pressure
(L.P.) turbine driving the load. As shown in the figure, the H.P.
turbine and compressor are on the same shaft. This unit is called a
gas generator, because it supplies gas to the power turbine but
drives no load itself. Since the gas generator drives no load, the
work of the H.P. turbine equals the work of the compressor.
When a power turbine is used to drive a generator, no gear box is
required, as with a single-shaft engine. Also for traction purposes
the torque-speed characteristics of the power turbine are more fa-
vorable than those of the dual-purpose turbine.
TM
Although addition of the regenerator increases thermal effi-
ciency and hence fuel economy, there is no increase in the net
power output of the gas turbine plant; however, an increase in
net power output can be realized by reheating the gas at an inter-
mediate pressure and then allowing the reheated gas to finish ex-
Figure 13.6 Gas turbine power plant with regeneration and

power turbine
panding in the turbine. This method of increasing turbine power

will be considered next.
13.5 Brayton Cycle with Reheat
Reheating the gas involves dividing the turbine into two parts, a
high-pressure turbine and a low-pressure turbine. After the gas
passes through the high-pressure turbine it is extracted from the
turbine and admitted to a second combustor. Reheated gas flows
into the low-pressure turbine, which may be on a separate shaft,
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Air In
+ 06
Figure 13.7 Gas turbine plant with reheat and power turbine
i.e., a power turbine as shown in Figure 13.7, or both turbines and

the compressor may be connected to a common shaft. In either
case the reheat process is thermodynamically the same; it appears
as process 04'-05 in Figure 13.8.
It is clear from (13.13) that turbine work is directly propor-
tional to the turbine inlet temperature. For the two turbines in se-
ries, as shown in Figure 13.7, there are two turbine inlet tempera-
tures, viz., T03 and T05. The reheat combustor raises the tempera-
ture Tos to a very high level, perhaps as high as T03. The result is
an increase in the specific work for the L.P. turbine.
By incorporating reheat and regeneration in the same gas-
turbine cycle one can increase power and efficiency at the same
time. A similar improvement can be made in the compressor
work. From (13.12) we observe that the compressor work is di-
rectly proportional to the inlet temperature T0]. By installing two
stages of compression with intercooling between the stages, we
TM
are able to reduce the compressor work and increase the net work
of the cycle. Intercooling will be discussed in the next section.
03 05
Figure 13.8 Brayton cycle with reheat
13.6 Brayton Cycle with Intercooling
When the compressor is divided into a low-pressure and a high-

pressure part, an intercooler can be installed between the two
stages. In accordance with (13.12) cooling the air entering a com-
pressor will result in a reduction of work required to compress the
air; thus, a reduction in the second stage work will result with the
addition of an intercooler. Since the turbine work is presumed
unchanged and the compressor work is decreased by intercooling,
the net work is increased and the thermal efficiency of the cycle
is increased.
The thermodynamic processes for compression with intercool-
ing are shown in Figure 13.9. The process 01-05' represents the
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actual compression in the first stage compressor. Process 05'-06
is the constant pressure cooling process which takes place in a
heat exchanger. Water or air would probably be used to receive
the energy from the compressed air, and typically the air would
be cooled to its original inlet temperature T01, i.e., T06 = T01.
Compression in the second stage compressor is carried out during
process 06-02'.
Figure 13.9 Interceding between two compressor stages
13.7 Cycle with Reheat, Regeneration, and Intercooling
The best performance in terms of power produced and economy

is obtained when all three improvements are made simultane-
ously to the basic gas-turbine cycle; thus, reheat, regeneration and
intercooling appear together in the same cycle. A combined cycle
of this sort is shown in Figure IS.lO.Process 01-05' is the
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06 01
Figure 13.10 Cycle with reheat, regeneration, and intercooling
first stage of compression, after which the air is cooled from T05>
to T06. After the second stage of compression the air is heated in a
regenerator from T02' to T07, where T07 depends on the regenera-
tor effectiveness e, viz.,
C
ph\*W -MJ2')
T =
-*07 (13.21)
where cpc and cph denote the mean specific heats of the cold- and
hot-side gases, respectively.
Following the combustion process the gas is admitted to the
first stage of the turbine where the gas is expanded in process 03-
08'. At this point the gas enters a reheat combustor where it is
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heated from T08-to T09, The final expansion of the gas occurs in
the low-pressure turbine stage during process 09-04'. The exhaust
gas at temperature T04< passes through the regenerator where it
loses energy via heat transfer to the pre-combustion air . The rate
of heat transfer can be computed from the temperature rise of the
incoming compressed air; it is
qreg=macpc(TQ1-Tn,) (13.22)
where ma is the mass flow rate of compressed air entering the re-
generator.
The rate at which energy is supplied by the combination of
the main combustor and the reheat combustor is
<!A = ma[Cpgl(Tm -T 07 ) + cprh(Tm - ro8,)] (13.23)
where cpm is the mean gas specific heat in the main combustor,
and cmrh is the mean gas specific heat in the reheat combustor.
The above expression (13.23) is used to calculate the rate at
which chemical energy is supplied to the gas turbine. The output
of the cycle is the turbine power Pt minus the compressor power
Pc. The turbine power is
P, =«„[<>,(r ra -Tw) + cpl2(T09 -ro4,)] (13.24)
where cpt denotes the mean specific heat in the turbine stage, and,
similarly, the compressor power can be expressed as
Pc=™alcpcl(Toy-TQl) + cpc2(T02,-TQ6)] (13.25)
In addition to combining reheat, regeneration, and intercool-

ing, one can combine gas and steam power plants.This kind of
combination will be dealt with in the next section.
TM
Air In
01
09
Figure 13.11 Combined gas turbine and steam plant
TM
13.8 Combined Brayton and Rankine Cycles
Figure 13.11 shows a schematic arrangement of a combined gas

turbine and steam power plant. The hot exhaust gases from the
gas turbine are used in process 04' -05 to boil water in process 06-
09' in the boiler of a Rankine-cycle plant. Steam expands in
process 06-07' in the steam turbine, and gas expands in process
03-04' in the gas turbine. The net power for the combined plant is
the sum of the powers from the two turbines less the power to the
compressor and to the pump. The net power output of the steam
and water cycle can be written in terms of total enthalpies as
P~* =rns[(h06-hor)-(h09, -/z08)] (13.26)
where ms is the mass flow rate of the steam. For the gas cycle the
net power output is
Pas = ma((h03 -hw)-(hm, -hol)] (13.27)
where ma is the mass flow rate of air entering the compressor.

The thermal efficiency of the combined system is the net power
divided by the rate at which chemical energy is supplied in the
combustor; thus,
P +P
£=——f2!_ (13.28)
13.9 Future Gas Turbines
Gas turbines with outputs of hundreds of megawatts are currently

used in power plants around the world. Their use in central sta-
tions for topping and in combination with steam cycles will con-
tinue. In September 1998 IPG International reported that the
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world's most efficient combined-cycle (CCGT) power plant was
developing 330 MW of power at a thermal efficiency of 58 per-
cent. IPG reported CCGT units under construction which will
produce 1300 MW of electrical power. At the other end of the
spectrum microturbines are being developed for a variety of ap-
plications, including small aircraft propulsion. Currently large
gas-turbine engines are being utilized to propel a wide range of
civilian and military aircraft. This application will be treated in
the next chapter.
References
Cohen, H., Rogers, G.F.C., and Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H. (1987).

Gas Turbine Theory, Essex: Longman Scientific.
Epstein, A.H. and Senturia, S.D. (1997). Macro Power from Mi-
cro Machinery. Science, vol. 276, p. 1211.
Harman, R.T.C. (1981). Gas Turbine Engineering: Applications,

Cycles and Characteristics. New York: John Wiley.
Horlock, J.H. (1992). Combined Power Plants. Oxford: Perga-

mon.
Incropera, P.P. and DeWitt, D.P. (1990). Introduction to Heat

transfer. New York: John Wiley.
International Power Generation. (1998). Vol. 21, No. 5, p. 64.
Logan, E. (1993). Turbomachinery:Basic Theory and Applica-

tions. New York: Marcel Dekker.

neering Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley.
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Problems
13.1 Write the expression for the net work of the ideal Brayton
cycle. Show by differentiation that the Wnet is maximum when
=
-*02 "V 01 03
13.2 Use the optimum temperature T02 found in Problem 13.1 to

determine the corresponding optimum cycle pressure ratio for the
ideal Brayton cycle.
13.3 Write the expression for the turbine work of the ideal Bray-
ton cycle in terms of T03 and rp. Use the result to conclude how
the turbine work can be increased by changing these quantities.
13.4 Write the expression for the compressor work of the ideal
Brayton cycle in terms of Tol and rp. Use the result to conclude
how the compressor work can be decreased by changing these
quantities.
13.5 An ideal Brayton cycle uses air as the working substance.

At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T0! = 294°K,, and at the
turbine inlet p03 =12 atm and T03 = 1222°K. The mass flow rate
of air is 11.33 kg/s. Assuming that y has a constant value of 1.4,
determine the cycle efficiency and the net power developed.
13.6 An ideal Brayton cycle uses air as the working substance.

At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T01 = 294°K, and at the
turbine inlet p03 =12 atm and T03 = 1222°K. The mass flow rate
of air is 11.33 kg/s. Assuming that y varies with average tempera-
ture in each process and using (11.5), determine the cycle effi-
ciency and the net power developed
13.7 A Brayton cycle uses air as the working substance. At the

compressor inlet p0i = 1 atm and T01 = 300°K, and at the turbine
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inlet p03 = 8 atm and T03 = 1000°K. The mass flow rate of air is
11 kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.85. Assum-
ing that y = 1.4, determine the cycle efficiency and the net power
developed.

compressor inlet p01 - 1 atm and T01 = 300°K, and at the turbine
inlet p03 = 8 atm and T03 - 1300°K. The mass flow rate of air is
11 kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.85. Assum-
ing that y = 1.4, determine the cycle efficiency and the net power
developed. Compare the results of Problems 13.7 and 13.8.

compressor inlet poj = 1 atm and T01 = 300°K, and at the turbine
inlet p03 = 12 atm and T03 = 1200°K. The mass flow rate of air is
5.8 kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.85. As-
suming that y varies with average temperature in each process and
using (11.5), determine the cycle efficiency and the net power
developed.

compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and TOJ = 300°K, and at the turbine
inlet p03 =10 atm and T03 = 1400°K. The mass flow rate of air is
developed.

compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T01 = 300°K, and at the turbine
inlet p03 =14 atm and T03 - 1400°K. The mass flow rate of air is
developed.
TM
13.12 A Brayton cycle with regeneration uses air as the working
substance. At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T0] = 300°K,
and at the turbine inlet p03 =14 atm and T03 = 1400°K. The mass
flow rate of air is 5.5 kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficien-
cies are 0.85. The plant utilizes a regenerator whose effectiveness
is 0.75. Assuming that y varies with average temperature in each
process and using (11.5), determine the cycle efficiency and the
net power developed. Compare the efficiency with that found for
Problem 13.11.
13.13 A Brayton cycle with regeneration uses air as the working

substance. At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T01 = 300°K,
and at the turbine inlet p03 = 4 atm and T03 = 1100°K. The mass
flow rate of air is 7.3 kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficien-
cies are 0.85. The regenerator effectiveness is 0.8. Assuming that
y varies with average temperature in each process and using
(11.5), determine the cycle efficiency and the net power devel-
oped. Compare the efficiency with that found for a Brayton cycle
with the same inlet and throttle conditions but without regenera-
tion.
13.14 A Brayton cycle with regeneration and a power turbine

(see Figure 13.6) uses air as the working substance. At the com-
pressor inlet POI = 1 atm and T0] - 300°K, and at the H.P. turbine
inlet p03 - 4 atm and T03 = 1200°K. The mass flow rate of air
through both turbines is 7.5 kg/s. Compressor and turbine effi-
ciencies are 0.85, and the regenerator effectiveness is 0.7. Assum-
ing that y varies with average temperature in each process and
developed. Hint: The work of the H.P. turbine equals the com-
pressor work.

pressor inlet p01 - 1 atm and Tol = 300°K, and at the H.P. turbine
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inlet p03 = 4 atm and T03 = 1200°K. The power output of the L.P.
turbine is 100 kW. Compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.8,
and the regenerator effectiveness is 0.75. Assuming that y varies
with average temperature in each process and using (11.5), de-
termine the cycle efficiency and the mass flow rate of air. Hint:
The work of the H.P. turbine equals the compressor work.

pressor inlet p0! = I atm and T01 = 300°K, and at the H.P. turbine
inlet p03 = 4 atm and T03 = 1200°K. The power output of the L.P.
turbine is 200 kW. Compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.8,
and the regenerator effectiveness is 0.75. Assuming that y varies
with average temperature in each process and using (11.5), de-
termine the cycle efficiency and the mass flow rate of air. Hint:
The work of the H.P. turbine equals the compressor work.
13.17 A regenerative gas turbine develops a net power output of

2930 kW. Air at 14.0 psia and 540°R enters the compressor and is
discharged at 70 psia and 940°R. The air then passes through a
regenerator from which it exits at a temperature of 1040°R. The
turbine inlet temperature is 1560°R, and the turbine exhaust tem-
perature is 1120°R. If the gas has the properties of air with a vari-
able y, find the mass flow rate of air, the compressor power, the
turbine power, the cycle thermal efficiency, the compressor effi-
ciency, and the regenerator effectiveness.

uses air as the working substance. At the compressor inlet p01 = I
atm and T01 = 288°K, and at the turbine inlet p03 - 4 atm and T03
= 1100°K. the air is reheated to 1100°K between the compressor
turbine and the power turbine. The mass flow rate of air is 7.3
kg/s, and compressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.85. The re-
generator effectiveness is 0.8. Assuming that y varies with aver-
age temperature in each process and using (11.5), determine the
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fuel-air ratio, the net power developed, and the specific fuel con-
sumption. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43,100 kJ/kg.
13.19 A Brayton cycle with gas generator and a power turbine

uses air as the working substance, the mass flow rate of air is 32
kg/s. At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 ami and T01 = 300°K, and at
the H.P. turbine inlet p03 = 21 atm and T03 = 1573°K. The power
output of the L.P. turbine is 10 MW. For the gas generator com-
pressor and turbine efficiencies are 0.8. The exhaust temperature
from the power turbine is 789°K. Assuming that y varies with
average temperature in each process and using (11.5), determine
the power turbine efficiency, the pressure and temperature at the
power turbine inlet, the cycle thermal efficiency. Hint: The work
of the H.P. turbine equals the compressor work.
13.20 A Brayton cycle with intercooling uses air as the working

substance. At the compressor inlet p01 = 1 atm and T01 = 300°K,
and at the turbine inlet p03 =10 atm and T03 = 1100°K. The first
compressor stage discharges air at a pressure of 3 atm, and the
intercooler cools the air down to 300°K. The mass flow rate of air
is 0.2 kg/s, and the two compressors and the turbine have effi-
ciencies of 0.85. Assuming that y varies with average temperature
in each process and using (11.5), determine the required com-
pressor power with and without intercooling. Also compute the
net power output with and without intercooling.
13.21 A regenerative gas turbine, which also utilizes reheating

and intercooling, develops a net power output of 3665 kW. Air at
14.7 psia and 530°R enters the compressor and is discharged from
the first stage at 60 psia and 840°R. The air enters the second
stage at 530°R and is discharged from the second stage at 176
psia and 760°R. The air then passes through a regenerator from
which it exits at a temperature of 1335°R. The turbine inlet tem-
perature is 2200°R, and the gas leaves the first turbine stage at 60
psia and 1745°R and is reheated to 2200°R. The turbine exhaust
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temperature is 1472°R. If the gas has the properties of air with a
variable y, find the mass flow rate of air, the compressor power,
the turbine power, the cycle thermal efficiency, the compressor
efficiency for each stage, the turbine efficiency for each stage,
and the regenerator effectiveness.
13.22 A regenerative gas turbine, which also utilizes reheating

and intercooling, handles a mass flow rate of 6 kg/s. Air at latm
and 300°K enters the compressor and is discharged from the first
stage at 3 atm and 435°K. The air enters the second stage at
300°K and is discharged from the second stage at 10 atm and
455°K. The air then passes through a regenerator from which it
exits at a temperature of 1010°R. The turbine inlet temperature is
1400°K, and the gas leaves the first turbine stage at 3 atm and
1115°K and is reheated to 1400°K. The turbine exhaust tempera-
ture is 1140°K. If the gas has the properties of air with a variable
y, find the compressor power, the turbine power, the cycle ther-
mal efficiency, the compressor efficiency for each stage, the
turbine efficiency for each stage, and the regenerator effective-
ness.
13.23 A combined gas turbine and steam power plant (see Figure
13.11) draws in air at 1 atm and 520°R at the mass flow rate of 50
Lb/s. The compressor discharge pressure is 12 atm and the en-
thalpy of the compressed air is 270 Btu/lb. In the combustor the
enthalpy of the air is raised to h03 = 675 Btu/lb. The expansion in
the gas turbine reduces the enthalpy to 383 Btu/lb, and, upon exit-
ing the boiler, the exhaust gas has an enthalpy hos — 202 Btu/lb.
The steam pressure at the throttle of the steam turbine is 1000
psia, and the pressure in the condenser is 1 psia. The enthalpy of
the steam at the turbine inlet is h06 = 1448 Btu/lb and at the exit is
h07' = 955 Btu/lb. The enthalpy of the water leaving the con-
denser is 70 Btu/lb, while that leaving the pump is 73 Btu/lb.
Determine the mass flow rate of steam, the net power output for
TM
the combine cycle, and the thermal efficiency of the combined
cycle.
13.24 A combined gas turbine and steam power plant (see Figure
13.11) draws in air at 1 atm and 300°K, and the compressor dis-
charges it at 12 atm and an enthalpy of 670 kJ/kg. In the combus-
tor the enthalpy of the air is raised to h03 = 1515 kJ/kg. The ex-
pansion in the gas turbine reduces the enthalpy to 858 kJ/kg, and,
upon exiting the boiler, the exhaust gas has an enthalpy h05 = 483
kJ/kg. The steam pressure at the throttle of the steam turbine is 80
bar, and the pressure in the condenser is 0.08 bar. The enthalpy of
the steam at the turbine inlet is h06 = 3138 kJ/kg and at the exit is
hor = 2105 kJ/kg. The enthalpy of the water leaving the con-
denser is 174 kJ/kg, while that leaving the pump is 184 kJ/kg. If
the combined plant produces 100 MW of power, determine the
mass flow rate of steam, the mass flow rate of air, and the ther-
mal efficiency of the combined cycle.
TM
Chapter 14
Propulsion
14.1 Introduction
The term propulsion refers to an engine which applies a forward

force to the fuselage of an aircraft or spacecraft. The general
principle by which propulsion is accomplished is Newton's Sec-
ond Law, i.e., air or other gas is set in motion by a propulsion
system, and the rate of increase of fluid momentum is propor-
tional to the force applied to it. Since the engine applies the force
to the fluid, the reaction force, i.e., the force of the fluid on the
engine, is what is called thrust; this is the output of a propulsion
system.
A propulsion system can be an air-breathing engine for low-
altitude flight or a rocket engine for high-altitude and space
flight. Hot gas generated in the combustor of an air-breathing
engine is accelerated in a tail nozzle, and the rearward rushing of
the gas from the nozzle provides a forward force, viz., the thrust.
The rocket, on the other hand, does not take in air and must pro-
vide its own oxidizer to mix with its fuel thus creating a high-
temperature, high-pressure gas. The hot gas then rushes through
the exit nozzle and creates forward thrust on the attached vehicle.
The air-breathing engine usually utilizes a gas-turbine engine.
In this application the gas-turbine engine serves as a gas genera-
tor to supply hot, pressurized gas to the tail nozzle for accelera-
tion and thrust; in this design the engine is called a turbojet. If
there is no turbomachine between the inlet and the tail nozzle,
i.e., there is only a combustor, then the engine is called a ramjet.
The ramjet is rarely used, since it is only functions well at high
speed and is not self starting. When the turbojet includes a large
fan ahead of the compressor, which is used to partially compress
the inlet air and to provide a large mass flow rate of unheated air
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to the tail nozzle, it is called a turbofan. When the turbojet is
modified to drive a propeller through a gearbox as well as to
suppy gas to the tail nozzle, the engine is called a turboprop. All
of the above air-breathing engines depend on the gas turbine cy-
cle, i.e., the Brayton cycle. In the next section this cycle will be
modified to include the tail nozzle, which constitutes an addi-
tional component.
14.2 Ideal Turbojet Cycle
Figure 14.1 shows the ideal cycle for a turbojet on the T-S
control volume
c B T
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 14.1 Ideal cycle for a turbojet engine
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plane. The sections of the ideal engine are shown above the cycle
diagram.
In Figure 14.1 the engine is moving to the left at flight veloc-
ity ua through a still atmosphere. Since the x-y coordinate system
and the large control volume in the atmosphere around the en-
gine, indicated by dashed lines, are also assumed to move with
the engine at the flight velocity, the air is entering the left face of
the control volume at velocity ua, and the hot gas leaves the right
face of the control volume at velocity u6. In the ideal cycle the
pressure at the left and right faces of the control volume is taken
to be atmospheric, i.e., gas exits from the nozzle with p6 = pa. In
the non-ideal cycle, however, the pressure at the nozzle exit plane
may be different from atmospheric pressure; typically p6 > pa.
Although the air never slows to zero velocity, it would achieve
the stagnation temperature T02 if it did stagnate, i.e., the first law
applied to a control volume enclosing an imaginary flow diffuser
would yield the energy equation,
Tu=Ta+»2a/(2c.) (14.1)
where Ta is the static temperature of the atmosphere. As the air

velocity is reduced during a flow diffusion process the tempera-
ture rises, and it ultimately reaches the stagnation or total tem-
perature when the air comes to rest, i.e., T0a = T01 - T02.
Although the velocity and static temperatures change as the air
passes into and through the inlet, the total temperature does not
change because there is no heat transfer, nor is there any work
done. This is a characteristic of adiabaticflow in any passage; the
principle also applies to the tail nozzle. When work or heat trans-
fer occurs, as in the compressor turbine, or combustor, the total
temperature changes accordingly. Both the flow compression in
the inlet and the flow expansion in the nozzle are assumed to oc-
TM
cur isentropically, i.e., with no friction and no loss of total pres-
sure; thus, in the inlet p0a -poi ~Po2> an(l in the nozzle p05 = pos-
Performing our analysis from left to right in Figure 14.1, we
consider the compressor first and find that a steady flow energy
analysis of a control volume enclosing the compressor yields the
following expression for the compressor work:
Wc=cp(T03~T02) (14.2)
where the relationship between T03 and T02 is isentropic, so that
(14.3)
A change of total temperature accompanies this process, because

work is done on the air.
We also observe a change in total temperature in the combus-
tor, where chemical energy is released and an equivalent heat
transfer QA is produced; this amounts to
QA=cp(TM-Tm} (14.4)
In (14.4) the turbine inlet temperature T04 depends on the amount

of fuel burned in the combustor; thus, the equivalent heat transfer
QA can be written alternatively as
QA=(FIA)QHV (14.5)
where F/A is the fuel-air ratio and QHV is the lower heating value
of the fuel (see Table 11.1) being used in the combustor. Compar-
ing (14.4) and (14.5) we see that when more fuel is added, F/A is
increased, and the total temperature T04 of the gas entering the
turbine is increased proportionately. Process 03-04 is assumed to
TM

be a constant pressure heating process; thus, there is no loss of
total pressure in the combustor, i.e.,/% = p04.
Expansion in the turbine occurs in process 04-05. The work
produced by the turbine, as determined by a control volume
analysis, is
Wt =c p (r o 4 -r o s ) (14.6)
where the temperatures in (14.6) are related isentropically; thus,

the total temperature of the turbine exhaust gas is
Id
P 5 I v
-T
'05 ~ I04\
( ° (14.7)
P04-
The temperature of the turbine exhaust T05, or alternatively the

pressure ratio Po</Pos across the turbine, is found by equating the
turbine work and the compressor work. In the turbojet engine the
turbine, compressor, and combustor form a unit which has the
sole function of producing and delivering hot, high-pressure gas
to the propulsion nozzle. Neglecting mechanical losses and as-
suming equal flow rates through both machines, we can equate
the work done by the turbine to that required by the compressor;
thus, we have
y-1
POS
-1 (14.8)
where the right-hand side is derived from (14.6) and the left-hand
side comes from (14.2).
After the turbine exhaust pressure p05 is determined from
(14.8), the nozzle exit velocity u6 can be determined from a
TM
steady-flow, first-law, control-volume analysis of the propulsion
nozzle. Assuming adiabatic flow through the nozzle, the energy
equation, based on constancy of total enthalpy, is
T05=T6+»26/(2cp) (14.9)
where the static temperature T6 of the gas at the nozzle exit is

determined from the isentropic pressure-temperature relation,
(14.10)
where T05 and p05 are obtained from (14.6) and (14.8), and the
nozzle exhaust pressure is assumed to be equal to that of the at-
moshere, i.Q.,p6=pa.
The analysis has proceeded, component by component, from
the inlet of the engine to the tail nozzle. The final result of the
analysis has been the tail nozzle exit velocity u6. Next we will see
how this information is utilized in the calculation of thrust.
14.3 Thrust Equation
To obtain the thrust equation we will consider the semi-infinite

control volume identified in Figure 14.1. Relative to a fixed co-
ordinate system this is a moving control volume; however, the x-
y coordinate system is moving at the same speed as the control
volume. Part of the air flowing through the left face of the con-
trol volume also flows through the engine, and the rest of it flows
around the engine. We can denote the mass flow rate into the en-
gine by ma and the mass flow out of the engine by m6, where
TM
and
m6 = p6A6u6 (14.12)
Some air that enters the left face of the control volume
passes outside the engine and exits through the right face. It is as-
sumed that the x-momentum of this external air is not changed,
so that the velocity ua is present at both the left and the right
faces. Thus changes in x-momentum of the air flowing around the
engine are neglected in this derivation. There is also a mass flow
rate ms out the sides of the control volume and this, too, carries
the x-momentum ua. The side mass flow rate is simply the differ-
ence in mass flow rates around the engine caused by the small
area difference, A6 - A0. Since the x-momentum is the same for
the side flow, the x-momentum, for fluid which by-passes the
engine, is the same out and into the conrol volume.
Since Newton's second law allows us to equate the sum of the
forces on the control volume to the change of momentum flow
rates, and since the pressure forces in the x-direction balance ex-
cept for the area A6 and its projection onto the left face of the
control volume, the only remaining x-wise force, which is the
thrust F, is given by the thrust equation, viz.,
F = m6u6-maua + A6(p6-pa) (14.13)
where the first term on the right-hand side is called the jet thrust,
the next term denotes the ram drag, and the last term is the pres-
sure thrust. Note that the pressure thrust can be positive or nega-
tive depending on whether p6 is above or below the atmospheric
pressure /?a.
TM
One simplification is to neglect the difference between the
mass flow rate at the tail nozzle exit and that at the inlet. The dif-
ference is simply the mass flow rate of fuel injected into the com-
bustor. The fuel flow rate is small by comparison with the air
flow rate; typically F/A « 0.02.
The fuel-air ratio F/A is easily obtained from (14.5), and the
fuel flow rate mj- is the product of the mass flow rate of air into
the engine and the fuel-air ratio. A new performance parameter,
known as the thrust specific fuel consumption tsfc is commonly
applied to air-breathing engines. It is defined as
mf
-- (14.14)
The thrust equation requires a knowledge of the flight velocity

oa and the nozzle exit velocity u6. At times these values are given
a Mach numbers instead of velocities. The Mach number M is
defined as the ratio of the velocity of a gas by the speed of sound
in that gas, i.e.,
M= .° r (14.15)
where the expression in the denominator has been shown by An-

derson (1990) to be the speed of sound in the gas.
14.4 Non-ideal Turbojet Engine
Bringing friction into the modelling of the cycle processes af-

fects the end states in every process. The effects of friction are
shown in the compression and expansion processes shown in
Figure 14.2. In this figure we have neglected the small loss of
total pressure in the combustor, but the presence of friction in the
TM
adiabatic processes is observed by the increase in entropy accom-
panying
c B T N
1 2 3 4 5 6
03;
Figure 14.2 Non-ideal cycle for a turbojet engine
the flow compression a-02, the compression in the compressor

02-03, the expansion in the turbine 04-05, and the expansion in
the nozzle 05-6. We will use efficiencies to calculate the end
states for these nonisentropic processes.
According to (13.10) the actual work of compression is equal
to the isentropic work divided by the compressor efficiency. Ap-
plying this definition to (14.2) and (14.3) the actual compressor
work is given by
TM
Y-l
P03
-1 (14.16)
Ti
which agrees with (13.12).

Using the definition of turbine efficiency given in (13.11), i.e.,
defining turbine efficiency as actual turbine work over isentropic
work, we find that the actual turbine work can be expressed by
1-1
W
t =
PL (14.17)
which is similar to (13.13).

Diffusion is the process of flow compression in which the air
is slowed and its pressure rises; this process occurs ahead of and
inside of the inlet (marked I in Figure 14.2). The diffusion effi-
ciency r\d is defined as
_
T02s -T1a
I
'id — (14.18)
1
02 ~ 1a
where T02 is the stagnation or total temperature of the flow enter-

ing the inlet, and T02s is the total temperature the flow would have
if the flow compression were isentropic and resulted in the same
final total pressure p02. Normally the diffusion efficiency is less
than unity, and T02s is less than T02; however, if the diffusion
were to occur isentropically, the diffusion efficiency would be
exactly unity. The total pressure leaving the inlet depends on the
diffusion efficiency, i.e., the presence of fluid friction tends to re-
duce the total pressure; in terms of the flight Mach number Ma,
the total pressure entering the compressor is
TM
P02 = Pa (14.19)
The total pressure/?^ calculated by (14.19) clearly decreases with

decreasing diffusion efficiency. Setting r\d = 1 produces the high-
est value of p02, which is just the total pressure of the free stream
of air entering the inlet of the engine, i.Q,,p02 = pga for the case of
r\d = 1 . This leads to the definition of the stagnation pressure ra-
tio 7id , which is an alternative way to state the diffusion effi-
ciency; it is the method preferred by Gates (1988) who defines it
as
(14.20)
Values for nd range from 0.98 to 0.99 for subsonic inlets, which
indicates an almost negligent loss; however, for supersonic flight
the shock waves which attach themselves to the inlet can cause
very large losses of total pressure. Stagnation or total pressure ra-
tio is also used to reflect frictional losses in the tailnozzle and the
combustor; these are denoted by nn and nb, respectively. Accord-
ing to Gates (1988) the value of 7ib lies between 0.93 and 0.98
and nn can be estimated in the range 0.98-0.99.
The sum of the losses of total pressure in the turbojet compo-
nents reduces the total pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle,
viz.,p06. This pressure is important to the performance of the tur-
bojet, because its value determines the jet velocity and the jet
thrust. By definition the relationship between the total and static
properties is an isentropic one. Applying this relationship to the
properties at the exit plane of the nozzle, we have
TM
7L ,_ , (H 21)
Recalling that T06 = Tos we note that (14.9) and (14.21) provide
the means for determining the exit velocity u6. Further, the above
equations show that a higher p06 indicates a higher exit velocity
u6; thus, reducing losses of total pressure increases the thrust
produced by the engine.
Another key parameter is the thrust specific fuel consumption
defined by (14.14). A low value of thrust specific fuel consump-
tion is the most efficient. Increasing thrust F, or decreasing the
fuel flow rate mf decreases the tsfc, and when fuel is not burned
as it passes through the combustor, it increases the mass flow of
fuel without increasing the thrust of the engine. This departure
from ideal behavior is indicated in the combustion efficiency T|b,
which is defined by
(14.22)
HV
This is a modification of the idealized equality expressed in

(14.5). When the mass flow rate of fuel is based on the fuel-air
ratio calculated from (14.22), it will include the unburned portion
and will more accurately reflect the actual fuel usage.
14.5 Turbofan Engine
As shown in Figure 14.3 the turbofan engine compresses the core

air inducted into the engine first with a fan and then with a com-
pressor. The fan also handles the air which is bypassed around the
compressor, combustor, and the turbine. The hotter core air
passes through a centrally located nozzle, whereas the unheated
bypass air passes to a special nozzle which expands it. Of course
TM

the primary and secondary gas streams can be mixed before they
pass through nozzles, but we will not consider that design in this
book. The reader is referred to the book by Gates (1988) for
analysis of mixed-flow turbofans.
/ _
•-—Tt r
I F c B T N
\1 2
""" T '•
Figure 14.3 Non-ideal cycle for a turbofan engine
Figure 14.3 shows that the secondary, or outer, air stream is

compressed to total pressure p02 in the fan and afterwards is ex-
panded in the secondary nozzle to atmospheric pressure. During
the nozzle expansion the stream attains the velocity Up and exits
with a jet thrust of ms\)9, where ms denotes the mass flow rate of
secondary, or bypass, air. The core flow goes through the same
TM
processes found in the turbojet and emerges with momentum
flow (mc + mj)\)6, where mc is the mass flow rate of core air in-
ducted and mfis the mass flow rate of fuel injected in the combus-
tor.
To account for the additional momentum flow, it is necessary
to modify the basic thrust equation to include the secondary air
stream; thus,
F = (mc +m / )u 6 +i«,o9 -(mc +m> a
where A6 and A9 are the nozzle cross-sectional areas of the gas

streams at the exit planes of the main and secondary nozzles, re-
spectively. The ratio of ms to mc is called the bypass ratio.
14.6 Turboprop Engine
The turboprop engine is like the turbojet engine, except that the
turbine power is greater than the compressor power, and the ex-
cess of turbine power is used to drive a propeller. Figure 14.4
shows the arrangement schematically. All of the turbojet compo-
nents are present in the engine; however, the turbine work not
longer equals the compressor work. Most of the thrust is pro-
duced by the propeller (indicated by the letter P in the figure), but
some is still produced by the tail nozzle.
The percentage of the power to the propeller that is converted
to useful work is called the propeller efficiency r\p and is defined
as
TM
jurner
N
1 2 3 4
03
Figure 14.4 Non-ideal cycle for a turboprop engine
where Fp is the thrust of the propeller.

If we denote the thrust produced by the nozzle by Fw the total
thrust produced by the turboprop engine is
F-F
i ip +
i iFn (14.25)
14.7 Rocket Motor
The rocket motor creates gas for the propulsion nozzle by bring-
ing together liquid or solid fuel and oxidizer which in turn creates
TM
an exothermic reaction with hot gaseous products. No air is taken
into the rocket; this means that the second term on the right hand
side of (14.13) can be eliminated, i.e., there is no ram drag. The
thrust equation for rockets becomes
F = mp»g+(pt-pa)Ae (14.26)
This is important, because it clearly limits the speed at which air-
craft can fly, since the ram drag term subtracts from the thrust
term.
Because rockets carry both fuel and oxidizer, they do not re-
quire an atmosphere; thus, they can operate in space outside of
the earth's atmosphere, as well as inside the atmosphere of any
planet. The choice of propellants is made on the basis of mission,
since each propellant pair has its own characteristic temperature
T0 and propellant molecular weight m. The rate of reaction in the
combustion chamber of the rocket motor determines the pressure
Po in the chamber. These quantities are used to calculate the
thrust.
Assuming an adiabatic flow in the nozzle (14.9) can be used to
calculate the rocket exhaust velocity, i.e.,
'<-(-f
V/V
(14.27)
where we have assumed that the expansion is isentropic.

In order to determine the mass flow rate of propellant we
make use of a principle derived by Anderson (1990), viz., super-
sonic nozzles operate in a choked condition, i.e., the Mach num-
ber of the flow at the throat, or minimum cross section, is unity.
Rocket nozzles are invariably supersonic, so we can always as-
sume thatM t =\, i.e.,
TM
RT (14.28)
The shape of a supersonic nozzle is illustrated in Figure 14.5.

If we substitute (14.28) for the velocity in (14.9), we find that
(14.29)
' y +1
and the pressure at the throat can be found from the isentropic
relation, i.e.,
Pi =PO\ (14.30)
supersonic nozzle
combustion p0
chamber T0
throat
Figure 14.5 Rocket motor
TM
The pressure and temperature at the throat can be used to cal-
culate the mass flow rate of propellant mp using the continuity
equation, i.e.,
(14.31)
where the area A, of the throat must be known to determine the

mass flow rate.
The specific impulse Is is an important measure of rocket per-
formance. It is defined as
/, = —— (14.32)
where g denotes the gravitational acceleration. It is evident that

the units of specific impulse are seconds. For chemical rockets
values for specific impulse vary from 200-400 seconds. Non-
chemical rockets which utilized ionized gases or nuclear reactions
may achieve higher values.
Example Problem 14.1. An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach num-

ber of 0.8 at an altitude where Ta = 223°K. Determine the total
temperature of the air entering the compressor.
Solution: Here we want to use (14.1) and (14.15) to determine

T02. First, use the Mach number to determine the flight speed.
u« = MaA/y RTa = 0.8j(1.4)(287)(223) = 239.5m/s
Find the total temperature.
TM
(239 5)
' (2cJ
p = 223 + ' = 251.5° K
2(1005)
Example Problem 14.2 An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach num-

ber of 0.8 at an altitude where Ta = 223°K. If the compressor
pressure ratio is 22, find the compressor work.
Solution: Use (14.2) and (14.3) to determine the compressor

work.
1-1
W
'c =c
r
^p2T
0 = 1.005(251.5) (22)3.5-1
Wc = 358.6 kJ / kg

pressure ratio is 22, the turbine inlet temperature is 1500°K, and
the lower heating value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg, find the fuel-
air ratio.
Solution: Use (14.4) and (14.5) to find the fuel-air ratio.
— —
T03 = To2\ — I = 251.5(22)" = 608.3° K
\P<aJ
QA = ~T03) = 1005(1500 - 608.3) = 896.2V / kg
TM
896.2
= QA/QHV = = 0.0204
44000

pressure ratio is 10, and the turbine inlet temperature is 1006°K ,
find the pressure ratio Po/Pos across the turbine.
Solution: Use the principle of equal works expressed by (14.8) to

solve for the pressure ratio across the turbine.
Wc == 1.005(251.5)
Wc=235.2kJ/kg = W,= -04
Noting that T04 is given as 1006°K and cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-°K, we

can solve for the pressure ratio. Finally, we have
P04 / POS =
Noting that;% ~Po4 an<^ that
TM
It is obvious that p05 is much higher than p02, even for the ideal
cycle, as is indicated qualitatively in Figure 14.1.
Example Problem 14.5. An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach num-

ber of 0.8 at an altitude where Ta = 411.8°R mdpa = 629.7 Lb/ft2.
The engine produces a thrust of 9,000 Lb using a nozzle which
expands the gases to atmospheric pressure. If the compressor
pressure ratio is 15, and the turbine inlet temperature is 2378°R,
and the lower heating value of the fuel is 18,900 Btu/lb, find
a) the static temperature of the gas leaving the nozzle
b) the total temperature of the gas in the nozzle
c) the nozzle exit velocity
d) the fuel-air ratio
e) the air mass flow rate
f) the mass flow rate of fuel.
Solution: Since p05 = p06 and p0} - p04, we can write the ratio of
total to static pressure at the nozzle exit as
P06 =
Noting that all of the above ratios can be replaced by tempera-

ture ratios to the power (y - l)/y and that p6 =pa, and T05 = T06, it
follows that
T6=(TM/Ta3)Ta
Solving for the temperature out of the compressor, we find
T ~- T
•* 2 = 411.8[l + (0.2)(0.8)21= 464.5° R
TM
rjLl
>03 1 T~
= 464.5(15) = W07°K
T6 = Ta(T04 /T03) = 41l = 972.5°R
To find the total temperature T06 in the nozzle, we will use the
equality of compressor and turbine work, i.e.,
C
P(T03 - TQ2) = cp(TM — T05)
Since this is the ideal turbojet, we assume the specific heats are
the same. Finally, solving for T05 and noting that T06 - T05, we
find that T06=IS35.5°R.
To find the nozzle exit velocity u6, we use (14.9) and find
c, = 3.5(1716) = 6006ft2 / s2 - R
utf = J2cp(T06-T6) = J2(6006)(1835.5-972.5) = 3219.7 fps
Using (14.15) to find the flight velocity, we have
ufl = ,/Y RTa = ^1.4(1716)(411.8) = 195.1 fps
An energy balance on the combustor yields
TM
macpT03 +mfQHV = (ma
which can be solved for the fuel-air ratio. The result is
„ ., 2378-1007 nn^nf
0.24
Solving the thrust equation (14.13) for the air mass flow rate, we
find
9000
" (l + F/A)»6-ua (1.01795)(3219.7) - 795.7
/»„a = 3.626sl/s = 1167lb/s
m, = (F/A)ma = 0.01795(1167) = 2.095lbs
References
Anderson, J.D. (1990). Modern Compressible Flow. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
Cohen, H., Rogers, G.F.C., and Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H. (1987).

Gas Turbine Theory. Essex, England: Longman Scientific.
Gates, G.C. (1988). Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and

Rocket Propulsion. Washington, D.C.: AIAA.
Sutton, G.P. (1992). Rocket propulsion Elements. New York:

John Wiley.
TM
Problems
14.1 An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach number of 0.707 at an alti-

tude where Ta = 223°K. If the compressor pressure ratio is 24,
find the compressor work per unit mass of air handled.
14.2 An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach number of 0.707 at an alti-

tude where Ta = 483°R. If the lower heating value of the fuel is
19,000 Btu/lb, the compressor pressure ratio is 24, and the turbine
inlet temperature is 3200°R, find the fuel-air ratio.
14.3 An ideal turbojet flies at a Mach number of 0.8 at an altitude

where Ta = 411.8°R andpa = 629.7 Lb/ft2. The engine produces a
thrust of 10,000 Ib using a nozzle which expands the gases to at-
mospheric pressure. If the lower heating value of the fuel is
19,000 Btu/lb, the compressor pressure ratio is 15, and the turbine
inlet temperature is 2378°R, find
a) the static temperature of the gas leaving the nozzle
c) the total pressure at the turbine inlet
d) the velocity of the gas at the nozzle exit
e) the mass flow rate of air in the engine
f) the mass flow rate of fuel entering the engine
g) the thrust specific fuel consumption of the engine.
14.4 A turbojet flies at a Mach number of 2 at an altitude where

Ta = 220°K and pa = 25 kPa. The engine produces a thrust of
44,480 newtons, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmospheric
pressure. nd = 0.94; nn = 0.98; nb = 0.98; r\b = 0.99; y for the tur-
bine is 1.3 and for the compressor is 1.4; t]c - 0.88; % = 0.87. If
the lower heating value of the fuel is 45,000 kJ/kg, the compres-
sor pressure ratio is 15, and the turbine inlet temperature is
1540°K,fmd
a) the total pressure at the compressor inlet
TM
14.5 A turbojet flies at a Mach number of 2 at an altitude where

Ta = 233°K and pa = 25 kPa. The engine produces a thrust of
44,480 newtons, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmospheric
pressure. nd = 0.94; nn = 0.98; nb = 0.98; r\b = 0.99; y for the tur-
bine is 1.35 and for the compressor is 1.4; t|c = 0.88; % = 0.87. If
the lower heating value of the fuel is 45,000 kJ/kg, the compres-
sor pressure ratio is 10, and the turbine inlet temperature is
1794°K,fmd
14.6 A turbojet flies at a Mach number of 0.707 at an altitude

where Ta = 412°R and pa = 629 psf. The engine produces a thrust
of 10,000 Ib, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmospheric
pressure. nd = 0.98; nn = 0.99; nb = 0.96; t|b = 0.98; y for the tur-
bine is 1.35 ; for the compressor y = 1.4; for the compressor the
temperature ratio, T03/T02 = 1.74; for the turbine the ratio of tem-
peratures, T05/T04= 0.418 . If the lower heating value of the fuel
is 19,000 Btu/lb, the compressor pressure ratio is 4.1, and the
turbine inlet temperature is 1997°R, find
TM
g) the thrust specific fuel consumption.
14.7 A turbojet flies at a Mach number and altitude where T02 =

460°R. nb = 0.96; i\b = 0.98; y for the turbine is 1.3; for the com-
pressor y = 1.4; for the compressor the temperature ratio, T03/T02
= 2.8456, and the compressor efficiency is 0.89; the fuel-air ratio
is 0.02; the turbine efficiency is 0.914. If the turbine inlet tem-
perature is 2600°R, find the total temperature leaving the turbine.

where Ta = 412°R andpa = 629 psf. The engine produces a thrust
of 10,000 Lb, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmospheric
pressure. nd = 0.94; ntt = 0.98; nb = 0.97; r\b = 0.98; y for the tur-
exit temperature, T03 = 1400°R; for the turbine the ratio of tem-
peratures, T05/T04= 0.717 . If the lower heating value of the fuel
is 18,900 Btu/lb, the compressor pressure ratio is 11.14, and the
turbine inlet temperature is 2500°R, find
g) the thrust specific fuel consumption.

where Ta = 483°R and/?fl = 1455 psf. nd = 0.94; nn = 0.98; % =
0.97; rjj = 0.98; y for the turbine is 1.35 ; for the compressor y =
1.4, the compressor pressure ratio is 24 and the compressor tern-
TM
perature ratio, T03/T02 - 2.773. Detennine the compressor effi-
ciency and the compressor work.

where Ta = 411°R andpa = 628 psf. The turbine inlet temperature
is 2500°R 7irf = 0.94; 7tn - 0.98; nb = 0.97; i\b = 0.98; y for the
turbine is 1.35 ; for the compressor y = 1.4, and the compressor
pressure ratio is 10. Determine the fuel-air ratio.
14.11 The turbine of a certain turbojet has an efficiency of 0.90

and a total temperature ratio T05/T04 = 0.707. Find the total pres-
sure ratio across the turbine.

where Ta = 220°K and pa = 25 kPa. The engine produces a thrust
of 40,000 newtons, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmos-
pheric pressure. % - 0.94; nn = 0.98; nb = 0.98; r\b = 0.99; y for
the turbine is 1.3 and for the compressor is 1.4; rjc = 0.88; r\t =
0.87. If the lower heating value of the fuel is 45,000 kJ/kg, the
compressor pressure ratio is 17, and the turbine inlet temperature
isl616°K,fmd
14.13 An ideal turbofan engine is flying at a Mach number of 0.8

at an altitude where Ta = 223°K and pa = 25.4 kPa. The engine
has a bypass ratio of 6 and uses a nozzle which expands the gases
to atmospheric pressure. The mass flow rate of the core air is
73.73 kg/s. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43,100 kJ/kg,
TM
and the compressor discharge pressure p03 is 465 kPa and the fan
discharge pressure p02 is 38.75 kPa. The fuel-air ratio is 0.02817,
and the turbine inlet temperature is 1673°K. At the main nozzle
p06= 78.73 kPa and T06 = 1007°K. Determine the thrust produced
by the engine and the thrust specific fuel consumption.
14.14 A turboprop flies at a Mach number of 0.7 at an altitude

where Ta = 483°R andpa = 1455 psf. The engine inducts air at the
rate of 2.46 kg/s, and the nozzle expands the gases to atmospheric
pressure. nd = 0.98; nn = 0.99; nb = 0.96; t\b = 0.98; y for the tur-
temperature out T03 - 560°K; for the turbine the exhaust tempera-
ture T05 = 760°K. If the lower heating value of the fuel is 19,000
Btu/lb, the compressor pressure ratio is 10, and the turbine inlet
temperature is 1321°K, determine the power to the propeller.
14.15 If the propeller efficiency is 0.83, determine the propeller

thrust and the total thrust of the turboprop engine in Problem
14.14.
14.16 A rocket nozzle is designed to expand gas from p0 = 400

psia to pe = 6 psia. The molecular weight of the gas is 23, and y =
1.3. The area of the nozzle throat is 450 in2. Determine the Mach
number of the the flow at the nozzle exit and the thrust produced
by the rocket motor. Hint: Assume any value for T0.
14.17 Find the value of the rocket exhaust velocity, if the tem-
perature in the combustion chamber is 5000°R.
14.18 Find the specific impulse in seconds of a liquid propellant

rocket which utilizes oxygen and hydrogen. The gaseous products
have a molecular weight of 9 and a gas constant of 924 J/kg-K. y
= 1.228. The temperature T0 = 2957°K. The nozzle expands the
gas from p0 = 400 psia to pe = 14.7 psia. pa = 14.7 psia.
TM
Appendix Al
Saturated Steam Tables
Source: ALLPROPS program, Center for Applied Thermodynamic Studies,

University of Idaho. Published with permission of the University of Idaho.
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of Water
P T V H S
MPa C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg-K
Liquid .65707E-3 1.00000 .10001E-2 4.10388 .14994E-1
Vapor .65707E-3 1.00000 192.447 2501.65 9.12515
Liquid .70595E-3 2.00000 .10001E-2 8.25070 .30093E-1
Vapor .70595E-3 2.00000 179.771 2503.49 9.09874
Liquid .75802E-3 3.00000 .10001E-2 12.3992 .45142E-1
Vapor .75802E-3 3.00000 168.026 2505.32 9.07257
Liquid .81346E-3 4.00000 .10001E-2 16.5495 .60144E-1
Vapor .81346E-3 4.00000 157.136 2507.16 9.04665
Liquid .87246E-3 5.00000 .10001E-2 20.7013 .75097E-1
Vapor .87246E-3 5.00000 147.034 2508.99 9.02096
Liquid .93521E-3 6.00000 .10001E-2 24.8546 .90002E-1
Vapor .93521E-3 6.00000 137.657 2510.83 8.99550
Liquid . .10019E-2 7.00000 .10001E-2 29.0095 .104859
Vapor ". 10019E-2 7.00000 128.949 2512.66 8.97028
Liquid .10728E-2 8.00000 .10002E-2 33.1657 .119668
Vapor .10728E-2 8.00000 120.856 2514.49 8.94529
Liquid .11480E-2 9.00000 .10003E-2 37.3233 .134430
Vapor .11480E-2 9.00000 113.331 2516.32 8.92052
Liquid .12281E-2 10.0000 .10003E-2 41.3017 .148449
Vapor .12281E-2 10.0000 106.318 2518.15 8.89592
Liquid .13128E-2 11.0000 .10004E-2 45.4947 -.163231
Vapor .13128E-2 11.0000 99.8025 2519.98 8.87160
Liquid .14027E-2 12.0000 .10005E-2 49.6863 .177956
Vapor .14027E-2 12.0000 93.7345 2521.81 8.84750
Liquid .14979E-2 13.0000 .10007E-2 53.8765 .192625
Vapor .14979E-2 13.0000 88.0802 2523.63 8.82361
Liquid .15987E-2 14.0000 .10008E-2 58.0655 .207238
Vapor .15987E-2 14.0000 82.8088 2525.46 8.79994
Liquid .17055E-2 15.0000 .10009E-2 62.2534 .221797
Vapor .17055E-2 15.0000 77.8916 2527.29 8.77648
Liquid .18185E-2 16.0000 .10011E-2 66.4402 .236302
Vapor .18185E-2 16.0000 73.3025 2529.11 8.75323
Liquid .19380E-2 17.0000 .10013E-2 70.6262 .250753
Vapor .19380E-2 17.0000 69.0173 2530.93 8.73019
Liquid .20643E-2 18.0000 .10014E-2 74.8114 .265152
Vapor .20643E-2 18.0000 65.0139 2532.76 8.70735
Liquid .21978E-2 19.0000 .10016E-2 78.9959 .279499
Vapor .21978E-2 19.0000 61.2720 2534.58 8.68471
Liquid .23388E-2 20.0000 .10018E-2 83.1797 .293795
Vapor .23388E-2 20.0000 57.7726 2536.40 8.66227
Liquid .24877E-2 21.0000 .10021E-2 87.3629 .308040
Vapor .24877E-2 21.0000 54.4984 2538.22 8.64004
Liquid .26447E-2 22.0000 .10023E-2 91.5455 .322235
Vapor .26447E-2 22.0000 51.4335 2540.04 8.61799
Liquid .28104E-2 23.0000 .10025E-2 95.7277 .336380
Vapor .28104E-2 23.0000 48.5631 2541.86 8.59614
TM
P T V H S
Liquid .29850E-2 24 .0000 .10028E-2 99.9095 .350476
Vapor .29850E-2 24 .0000 45.8735 2543.67 8.57448
Liquid .31691E-2 25 .0000 .10030E-2 104.091 .364523
Vapor .31691E-2 25 .0000 43.3522 2545.49 8.55300
Liquid .33629E-2 26 .0000 .10033E-2 108.272 .378523
Vapor .33629E-2 26 .0000 40.9875 2547.30 8.53172
Liquid .35671E-2 27 .0000 .10035E-2 112.453 .392474
Vapor .35671E-2 27 .0000 38.7687 2549.11 8.51062
Liquid .37819E-2 28 .0000 .10038E-2 116.633 .406378
Vapor .37819E-2 28 .0000 36.6859 2550.92 8.48970
Liquid .40079E-2 29 .0000 .10041E-2 120.813 .420236
Vapor .40079E-2 29 .0000 34.7298 2552.73 8.46896
Liquid .42456E-2 30 .0000 .10044E-2 124.994 .434047
Vapor .42456E-2 30 .0000 32.8918 2554.54 8.44839
Liquid .44954E-2 31 .0000 .10047E-2 129.174 .447811
Vapor .44954E-2 31 .0000 31.1641 2556.35 8.42801
Liquid .47579E-2 32 .0000 .10050E-2 133.353 .461531
Vapor .47579E-2 32 .0000 29.5394 2558.16 8.40780
Liquid .50336E-2 33 .0000 .10054E-2 137.533 .475205
Vapor .50336E-2 33 .0000 28.0109 2559.96 8.38776
Liquid .53231E-2 34 .0000 .10057E-2 141.713 .488834
Vapor .53231E-2 34 .0000 26.5721 2561.76 8.36789
Liquid .56269E-2 35 .0000 .10060E-2 145.892 .502418
Vapor .56269E-2 35 .0000 25.2174 2563.57 8.34819
Liquid .59456E-2 36 .0000 .10064E-2 150.072 .515959
Vapor .59456E-2 36 .0000 23.9412 2565.37 8.32865
Liquid .62798E-2 37 .0000 .10068E-2 154.252 .529456
Vapor .62798E-2 37 .0000 22.7385 2567.16 8.30928
Liquid .66301E-2 38 .0000 .10071E-2 158.431 .542909
Vapor .66301E-2 38 .0000 21.6045 2568.96 8.29007
Liquid .69972E-2 39 .0000 .10075E-2 162.611 .556319
Vapor .69972E-2 39 .0000 20.5350 2570.76 8.27102
Liquid .73817E-2 40 .0000 .10079E-2 166.791 .569686
Vapor .73817E-2 40 .0000 19.5259 2572.55 8.25213
Liquid .77844E-2 41 .0000 .10083E-2 170.970 .583011
Vapor .77844E-2 41 .0000 18.5733 2574.34 8.23340
Liquid .82058E-2 42 .0000 .10087E-2 175.150 .596294
Vapor .82058E-2 42 .0000 17.6737 2576.13 8.21482
Liquid .86468E-2 43 .0000 .10091E-2 179.330 .609535
Vapor .86468E-2 43 .0000 16.8239 2577.92 8.19640
Liquid .91080E-2 44 .0000 .10095E-2 183.510 .622735
Vapor .91080E-2 44 .0000 16.0208 2579.70 8.17813
Liquid .95903E-2 45 .0000 .10099E-2 187.691 .635893
Vapor .95903E-2 45 .0000 15.2615 25_81.49 8.16001
Liquid .10094E-1 46 .0000 .10104E-2 191.871 .649011
Vapor .10094E-1 46 .0000 14.5434 2583.27 8.14203
TM
Liquid .10000E-1 45.8161 .101033-2 191.102 .646602
Vapor .10000E-1 45.8161 14.6725 2582.94 8.14533
Liquid .120003-1 49.4294 .101193-2 206.209 .69369:L
Vapor .12000E-1 49.4294 12.3604 2589.36 8.08150
Liquid .14000E-1 52.5584 .10134E-2 219.293 .73405:L
Vapor .14000E-1 52.5584 10.6932 2594.90 8.0277:2
Liquid .16000E-1 55.3255 .10147E-2 230.867 .769428
Vapor .16000E-1 55.3255 9.43244 2599.78 7.98128
Liquid .18000E-1 57.8114 .10160E-2 241.267 .80096:3
Vapor .18000E-1 57.8114 8.44478 2604.15 7.9404:L
Liquid .20000E-1 60.0719 .10172E-2 250.725 .82943!9
Vapor .20000E-l 60.0719 7.64954 2608.11 7.90395
Liquid .22060E-l 62.1475 .10183E-2 259.412 .85542:2
Vapor .22000E-1 62.1475 6.99507 2611.73 7.87102
Liquid .24000E-1 64.0684 .101933-2 267.453 .879330
Vapor .24000E-1 64.0684 6.44675 2615.07 7.8410:3
Liquid .26000E-1 65.8578 .10203E-2 274.946 ,901484
Vapor .26000E-1 65.8578 5.98051 2618.17 7.81348
Liquid .28000E-1 67.5341 .10213E-2 281.967 .922136
Vapor .28000E-1 67.5341 5.57904 2621.06 7.7880:L
Liquid .30000E-1 69.1119 -10222E-2 288.576- .941486
Vapor .30000E-1 69.1119 5.22962 2623.78 7.76434
Liquid .32000E-1 70.6031 .102313-2 294.824 .95969!5
Vapor .32000E-1 70.6031 4.92265 2626.34 7.7422:2
Liquid .34000E-1 72.0174 .1024OE-2 300.751 ,9768916
Vapor .34000E-1 72.0174 4.65078 2628.76 7.721416
Liquid .36000E-1 73.3632 .102483-2 306.392 .993202
Vapor .36000E-1 73.3632 4.40826 2631.06 7.70194
Liquid .38000E-1 74.6473 .10256E-2 311.776 1.00870
Vapor .38000E-1 74.6473 4.19053 2633.24 7.6834,B
Liquid .40000E-1 75.8757 .10264E-2 316.927 1.0234'6
Vapor .40000E-1 75.8757 3.99395 2635.33 7.66598
Liquid ,42000E-1 77.0534 ,102713-2 321.867 1.03761
Vapor .42000E-1 77.0534 3.81555 2637.32 7.64935
Liquid .44000E-1 78.1848 .10279E-2 326.614 1.05113
Vapor .44000E-1 78.1848 3.65289 2639.23 7.63352
Liquid .46000E-1 79.2737 .10286E-2 331.183 1.06411
Vapor .46000E-1 79.2737 3.50397 2641.07 7.61839
Liquid .48000E-1 80.3236 .102933-2 335.590 1.07659
Vapor ,48000E-1 80.3236 3.36709 2642.83 7.60393
Liquid ,50000E-1 81.3374 .10299E-2 339.845 1.08861
Vapor .50000E-1 81.3374 3.24083 2644.53 7.59007
Liquid .52000E-1 82.3177 .10306E-2 343.962 1.10020
Vapor .52000E-1 82.3177 3.12400 2646.17 7.57676
Liquid .54000E-1 83.2669 .10312E-2 347.948 1.11139
Vapor .54000E-1 83.2669 3.01557 2647.75 7.56396
Liquid .56000E-1 84.1871 -103193-2 351.813 1.12222
Vapor .56000E-1 84.1871 2.91465 2649.28 7.55163
Liquid .58000E-1 85.0802 .10325E-2 355.565 1.13270
Vapor .58000E-1 85.0802 2.82048 2650.76 7.53975
TM
P T V H S
s K: s= ss = as =s ss
Liquid .60000E-1 85.9479 .10331E-2 359.211 1.14286
Vapor 85.9479 .60000E-1 2.73240 2652.20 7.52827
Liquid 89.9548 .700QOE-1 .10359E-2 376.058 1.18948
Vapor 89.9548 .70000E-1 2.36538 2658.79 7.47618
Liquid 93.5096 .80000E-1 .10385E-2 391.018 1.23046
Vapor 93.5096 .80000E-1 2.08760 2664.57 7.43116
Liquid .90000E-1 96.7121 .10409E-2 404 .508 1.26706
Vapor .90000E-1 96.7121 1.86981 2669.72 7.39153
Liquid .10000 99.6316 .10432E-2 416.817 1.30018
Vapor .10000 99.6316 1.69432 2674.37 7.35614
Liquid .110000 102.319 .10453E-2 428.154 1.33046
Vapor .110000 102.319 1.54981 2678.60 7.32416
Liquid .120000 104.810 .10473E-2 438.678 1.35836
Vapor .120000 104.810 1.42867 2682.49 7.29501
Liquid .130000 107.137 .10492E-2 448.509 1.38427
Vapor .130000 107.137 1.32561 2686.09 7.26821
Liquid .140000 109.320 .10510E-2 457.743 1.40845
Vapor .140000 109.320 1.23682 2689.44 7.24342
Liquid .150000 111.378 .10527E-2 466.455 1.43114
Vapor .150000 111.378 1.15951 2692.57 7.22035
Liquid . .160000 113.326 .10544E-2 474.709 1.45252
Vapor .160000 113.326 1.09156 2695.50 7.19879
Liquid .170000 115.177 .10560E-2 482.555 1.47275
Vapor .170000 115.177 1.03136 2698.27 7.17854
Liquid .180000 116.941 .10576E-2 490.037 1.49195
Vapor .180000 116.941 .977638 2700.88 7.15946
Liquid .190000 118.626 .10591E-2 497.192 1.51022
Vapor .190000 118.626 .929392 2703.36 7.14141
Liquid .200000 120.240 .10605E-2 504.049 1.52766
Vapor .200000 120.240 .885816 2705.71 7.12429
Liquid .210000 121.790 .10619E-2 510.636 1.54435
Vapor .210000 121.790 .846259 2707.95 7.10801
Liquid .220000 123 .280 . 10633E-2 516.977 1.56034
Vapor .220000 123.280 .810182 2710.09 7.09249
Liquid .230000 124.716 .10646E-2 523.090 1.57571
Vapor .230000 124 .716 .777141 2712.13 7.07766
Liquid .240000 126.103 .10659E-2 528.995 1.59050
Vapor .240000 126.103 .746764 2714.09 7.06347
Liquid .250000 127.443 .10672E-2 534.707 1.60475
Vapor .250000 127.443 .718739 2715.97 7.04985
Liquid .260000 128.740 .10685E-2 540.239 1.61851
Vapor .260000 128.740 .692799 2717.78 7.03676
Liquid .270000 129.997 .10697E-2 545.604 1.63182
Vapor .270000 129.997 .668718 2719.51 7.02417
Liquid .280000 131.217 .10709E-2 550.813 1.64469
Vapor .280000 131.217 .646300 2721.19 7.01203
Liquid .290000 132.402 .10720E-2 555.877 1.65717
Vapor .290000 132.402 .625378 2722.80 7.00032
Liquid .300000 133.554 .10732E-2 560.804 1.66928
Vapor .300000 133 .554 .605804 2724 .36 6. 98900
TM
Liquid .400000 143.641 .108353-2 604.060 1 .7740'7
Vapor .400000 143.641 .462387 2737.51 6.8928:3
Liquid .500000 151.864 .109253-2 639.515 1.8580!5
Vapor .500000 151.864 .374790 2747.54 6.81796
Liquid .600000 158.860 .110063-2 669.826 1.9285:3
Vapor .600000 158.860 -315557 2755.55 6.75650
Liquid .700000 164.980 .110793-2 696.467 1.9895:L
Vapor .700000 164.980 .272744 2762.14 6.7042'7
Liquid ,800000 170.440 .111483-2 720.343 2.0434:2
Vapor .800000 170.440 .240306 2767.67 6.658716
Liquid .900000 175.384 .112123-2 742.052 2.09184
Vapor .900000 175.384 .214853 2772.38 6.6184.3
Liquid 1.00000 179.911 .112723-2 762.013 2.1358'7
Vapor 1.00000 179.911 .194328 2776.44 6.58212
Liquid 1.10000 184.095 ,113303-2 780.532 2.17631
Vapor 1.10000 184.095 .177415 2779.96 6.54909
Liquid 1.20000 187.990 .113853-2 797.838 2.21375
Vapor 1.20000 187.990 .163230 2783.04 6.51874
Liquid 1.30000 191.638 .114383-2 814.108 2.24864
Vapor 1.30000 191.638 .151156 2785.75 6.49066
Liquid 1.40000 195.072 .114893-2 829.482 2.28135
Vapor 1.40000 195.072 ,140749 2788.13 6.46451
Liquid 1.50000 198.320 .115393-2 844.072 2.31216
Vapor 1.50000 198.320 .131685 2790.23 6.44001
Liquid 1.60000 201.403 .115873-2 857.971 2.34130
Vapor 1.60000 201.403 .123715 2792.08 6.41695
Liquid 1.70000 204.340 .116333-2 871.255 2.36896
Vapor 1.70000 204.340 .116652 2793.72 6.39515
Liquid 1.80000 207.145 .116793-2 883.987 2.39531
Vapor 1.80000 207.145 .110347 2795.16 6.37448
Liquid 1.90000 209.831 .117243-2 896.221 2.42047
Vapor 1.90000 209.831 .lo4683 2796.43 6.35480
Liquid 2.00000 212.410 .117673-2 908.005 2.44456
Vapor 2.00000 212.410 .995673-1 2797.54 6.33601
Liquid 2.10000 214.891 .118103-2 919.378 2.46768
Vapor 2.10000 214.891 ,949213-1 2798.51 6.31804
Liquid 2.20000 217.282 .118523-2 930.374 2.48991
Vapor 2.20000 217.282 .906833-1 2799.35 6.30079
Liquid 2.30000 219.590 .118933-2 941.025 2.51134
Vapor 2.30000 219.590 .868013-1 2800.07 6.28420
Liquid 2.40000 221.822 .119343-2 951.356 2.53201
Vapor 2.40000 221.822 .832313-1 2800.68 6.26823
Liquid 2.50000 223.983 .119743-2 961.391 2.55200
Vapor 2.50000 223.983 .799373-1 2801.18 6.25281
Liquid 2.60000 226.079 .120133-2 971.152 2.57136
Vapor 2.60000 226.079 .768883-1 2801.60 6.23790
Liquid 2.70000 228.113 .120523-2 980.657 2.59012
Vapor 2.70000 228.113 .740563-1 2801.92 6.22347
TM
P T V H S
Liquid 2 .80000 230 .090 .12091E-2 989. 923 2 .60832
Vapor 2. 80000 230 .090 .71420E-1 2802 .16 6 .20947
Liquid 3. 00000 233 .887 .12166E-2 1007 .80 2 .64323
Vapor 3 .00000 233 .887 .66657E-1 2802 .42 6 .18267
Liquid 3. 20000 237 .493 .12240E-2 1024 .88 2 .67633
Vapor 3. 20000 237 .493 .62469E-1 2802 .41 6 .15728
Liquid 3.40000 240 .931 .12313E-2 1041 .27 2 .70782
Vapor 3. 40000 240 .931 .58756E-1 2802 .15 6 .13314
Liquid 3. 60000 244 .216 .12384E-2 1057 .02 2 .73789
Vapor 3. 60000 244 .216 .55442E-1 2801 .68 6 .11009
Liquid 3. 80000 247 .365 .12455E-2 1072 .21 2 .76668
Vapor 3. 80000 247 .365 .52464E-1 2801 .01 6 .08800
Liquid 4. 00000 250 .389 .12524E-2 1086 .88 2 .79430
Vapor 4. 00000 250 .389 .49774E-1 2800 .15 6 .06679
Liquid 4. 20000 253 .299 .12593E-2 1101 .08 2 .82088
Vapor 4. 20000 253 .299 .47331E-1 2799 .13 6 .04635
Liquid 4. 40000 256 .105 .12661E-2 1114 .86 2 .84651
Vapor 4. 40000 256 .105 .45101E-1 2797 .95 6 .02662
Liquid 4. 60000 258 .815 .12729E-2 1128 .25 2 .87126
Vapor 4. 60000 258 .815 .43059E-1 2796 .63 6 .00752
Liquid 4. 80000 261 .437 .12795E-2 1141 .27 2 .89520
Vapor 4. 80000 261 .437 .41180E-1 2795 .18 5 .98900
Liquid 5. 00000 263 .976 .12862E-2 1153 .96 2 .91841
Vapor 5. 00000 263 .976 .39446E-1 2793 .60 5 .97101
Liquid 5. 20000 266 .439 .12928E-2 1166 .35 2 .94093
Vapor 5. 20000 266 .439 .37840E-1 2791 .90 5 .95350
Liquid 5. 40000 268 .830 .12994E-2 1178 .44 2 .96281
Vapor 5. 40000 268 .830 ..36349E-1 2790 .09 5 .93644
Liquid 5. 60000 271 .155 .13059E-2 1190 .27 2 .98411
Vapor 5. 60000 271 .155 .34960E-1 2788 .17 5 .91978
Liquid 5. 80000 273 .417 .13125E-2 1201 .85 3 .00486
Vapor 5. 80000 273 .417 .33663E-1 2786 .14 5 .90349
Liquid 6. 00000 275 .620 .13190E-2 1213 .19 3 .02509
Vapor 6 .00000 275 .620 .3.2448E-1 2784 .02 5 .88755
Liquid 6. 20000 277 .768 .13255E-2 1224 .32 3 .04485
Vapor 6. 20000 277 .768 .31309E-1 2781 .81 5 .87193
Liquid 6. 40000 279 .864 .13320E-2 1235 .24 3 .06415
Vapor 6. 40000 279 .864 .30239E-1 2779 .51 5 .85661
Liquid 6. 60000 281 .910 .13385E-2 1245 .97 3 .08303
Vapor 6. 60000 281 .910 .29230E-1 2777 .11 5 .84156
Liquid 6. 80000 283 .909 .13450E-2 1256 .51 3 .10152
Vapor 6. 80000 283 .909 .28278E-1 2774 .64 5 .82676
Liquid 7. 00000 285 .864 .13515E-2 1266 .89 3 .11962
Vapor 7. 00000 285 .864 .27378E-1 2772 .08 5 .81220
Liquid 7. 20000 287 .776 .13580E-2 1277 .10 3 .13738
Vapor 7. 20000 287 .776 .26526E-1 2769 .43 5 .79786
Liquid 7. 40000 289 .648 .13646E-2 1287 .16 3 .15480
Vapor 7. 40000 289 .648 .25718E-1 2766 .72 5 .78373
Liquid 7. 50000 290 .570 .13678E-2 1292 .14 3 .16340
Vapor 7. 50000 290 .570 .25329E-1 2765 .33 5 .77673
TM
P T V H S
Liquid 8.00000 295.042 .13843E-2 1316.52 3.20525
Vapor 8.00000 295.042 .23524E-1 2758.10 5.74240
Liquid 8. 50000 299. 304 .14009E-2 1340 .13 3 .24543
Vapor 8. 50000 299. 304 .21921E-1 2750 .42 5 .70903
Liquid 9. 00000 303. 377 .14177E-2 1363 .07 3 .28414
Vapor 9. 00000 303. 377 .20487E-1 2742 .30 5 .67645
Liquid 9. 50000 307. 281 .14347E-2 1385 .42 3 .32155
Vapor 9. 50000 307. 281 .19196E-1 2733 .75 5 .64452
Liquid 10 .0000 311. 028 .14521E-2 1407 .27 3 .35782
Vapor 10 .0000 311. 028 .18026E-1 2724 .76 5 .61311
Liquid 10 .5000 314. 634 .14699E-2 1428 .66 3 .39309
Vapor 10 .5000 314. 634 .16960E-1 2715 .35 5 .58213
Liquid 11 .0000 318. 108 .14880E-2 1449 .67 3 .42747
Vapor 11 .0000 318. 108 .15985E-1 2705 .50 5 .55146
Liquid 11 .5000 321. 462 .15067E-2 1470 .35 3 .46108
Vapor 11 .5000 321. 462 .15088E-1 2695 .21 5 .52101
Liquid 12 .0000 324. 704 .15259E-2 1490 .74 3 .49400
Vapor 12 .0000 324. 704 .14259E-1 2684 .47 5 .49070
Liquid 12 .5000 327. 842 .15457E-2 1510 .89 3 .52635
Vapor 12 .5000 327. 842 .13491E-1 2673 .27 5 .46045
Liquid 13 .0000 330. 882- .15662E-2 1530 .86 3 .55820
Vapor 13 .0000 330. 882 .12776E-1 2661 .58 5 .43016
Liquid 13 .5000 333. 832 .15875E-2 1550 .69 3 .58965
Vapor 13 .5000 333. 832 .12107E-1 2649 .39 5 .39975
Liquid 14 .0000 336. 696 .16097E-2 1570 .42 3 .62076
Vapor 14 .0000 336. 696 .11481E-1 2636 .66 5 .36913
Liquid 14 .5000 339. 479 .16329E-2 1590 .11 3 .65165
Vapor 14 .5000 339. 479 .10892E-1 2623 .36 5 .33822
Liquid 15 .0000 342. 187 .16572E-2 1609 .80 3 .68238
Vapor 15 .0000 342. 187 .10335E-1 2609 .44 5 .30691
Liquid 15 .5000 344 .822 .16829E-2 1629 .56 3 .71306
Vapor 15 .5000 344. 822 .98084E-2 2594 .85 5 .27510
Liquid 16 .0000 347. 390 .17101E-2 1649 .43 3 .74378
Vapor 16 .0000 347. 390 .93075E-2 2579 .53 5 .24264
Liquid 16 .5000 349. 892 .17391E-2 1669 .50 3 .77466
Vapor 16 .5000 349. 892 .88295E-2 2563 .39 5 .20939
Liquid 17 .0000 352. 333 .17702E-2 1689 .84 3 .80585
Vapor 17 .0000 352. 333 .83716E-2 2546 .33 5 .17518
Liquid 17 .5000 354. 714 .18038E-2 1710 .56 3 .83748
Vapor 17 .5000 354. 714 .79308E-2 2528 .21 5 .13976
Liquid 18 .0000 357. 038 .18404E-2 1731 .78 3 .86977
Vapor 18 .0000 357. 038 .75044E-2 2508 .86 5 .10286
Liquid 18 .5000 359. 308 .18808E-2 1753 .67 3 .90297
Vapor 18 .5000 359. 308 .70893E-2 2488 .02 5 .06408
Liquid 19 .0000 361. 525 .19260E-2 1776 .46 3 .93744
Vapor 19 .0000 361. 525 .66820E-2 2465 .36 5 .02288
Liquid 19'.5000 363. 690 .19775E-2 1800 .48 3 .97368
Vapor 19'.5000 363. 690 .62781E-2 2440 .38 4 .97849
Liquid 20(.0000 365. 805 .20378E-2 1826 .24 4 .01250
Vapor 20'.0000 365. 805 .58717E-2 2412 .27 4 .92966
TM
Appendix A2
Superheated Steam Tables

TM
P T V H S
MPa c m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg-K
100000 100 .000 1.69613 2675 .13 7.35818
100000 140 .000 1.88907 2755 .83 7 .56370
100000 180 .000 2 .07835 2834 .90 7.74637
.100000 220 .000 2 .26596 2913 .86 7.91337
100000 260 .000 2 .45264 2993 .28 8 .06820
,100000 300 .000 2 .63875 3073 .38 8 .21307
100000 340 .000 2 .82449 3154 .32 8 .34956
100000 380 .000 3 .00997 3236 .15 8 .47885
150000 120 .000 1 .18807 2710 .70 7.26699
150000 160 .000 1.31752 2792 .15 7.46434
150000 200 .000 1 .44437 2872 .01 7.64070
150000 240 .000 1.56994 2951 .72 7.80243
150000 280 .000 1.69478 3031 .84 7 .95276
150000 320 .000 1.81916 3112 .61 8 .09374
150000 360 .000 1.94322 3194 .19 8 .22682
150000 400 .000 2 .06707 3276 .65 8 .35311
500000 180 .000 404589 2811 .57 6 .96389
500000 220 .000 444904 2897 .15 7.14493
500000 260 .000 484046 2980 .52 7 .30748
500000 300 .000 522537 3063 .26 7.45713
500000 340 .000 560621 3146 .07 7.59679
500000 380 .000 598434 3229 .30 7.72828
500000 420 .000 636055 3313 .17 7 .85291
500000 440 .000 654811 3355 .39 7 .91296
1 .00000 200 .000 205957 2827 .29 6 .69198
1 .00000 240 .000 227487 2919 .63 6 .87944
1.00000 280 .000 247933 3007 .19 7.04378
1 .00000 320 .000 267799 3092 .93 .7 .19345
1 .00000 360 .000 .287304 3178 .06 7 .33233
1 .00000 400 .000 306569 3263 .18 7.46269
1 .00000 440 .000 .325665 3348 .64 7.58602
1.00000 480 .000 344637 3434 .67 7.70339
4 .00000 260 .000 51757E- 1 2836 .00 6 .13465
4 .00000 300 .000 58837E- 1 2960 .15 6 .35951
4 .00000 340 .000 64981E- 1 3066 .30 6 .53863
4 .00000 380 .000 70667E- 1 3164 .93 6 .69451
4 .00000 420 .000 76080E- 1 3259 .83 6 .83554
4 .00000 460 .000 81313E- 1 3352 .76 6 .96590
4 .00000 500 .000 86421E- 1 3444 .72 7.08803
4 .00000 540 .000 91437E- 1 3536 .32 7.20354
7.00000 300 .000 29480E- 1 2838 .83 5 .93019
7 .00000 340 .000 34205E- 1 2983 .84 6 .17516
7.00000 380 .000 38127E- 1 3102 .43 6 .36264
7.00000 420 .000 41665E- 1 3209 .86 6 .52234
7.00000 460 .000 44976E- 1 3311 .51 6 .66495
7.00000 500 .000 48139E- 1 3409 .92 6 .79566
7'.00000 540 .000 .51197E- 1 3506 .49 6 .91744
7'.00000 580 .000 54179E- 1 3602 .06 7.03217
TM
8.00000 300.000 .242693-1 2785.51 5.79044
8.00000 340.000 .289723-1 2952.35 6.07246
8.00000 380.000 .326563-1 3079.76 6.27394
8.00000 420.000 .35904E-l 3192.22 6.44112
8.00000 460.000 .38906&-1 3297.18 6.58838
8.00000 500.000 .417503-1 3397.96 6.72224
8.00000 540.000 .444853-1 3496.31 6.84627
8.00000 580.000 .471423-1 3593.27 6.96267
10.0000 320.000 .192613-1 2781.75 5.70995
10.0000 360.000 .23308E-1 2960.97 6.00304
10.0000 400.000 .264153-1 3095.25 6.20888
10.0000 440.000 .29124E-l 3212.50 6.37816
10.0000 480.000 .316093-1 3321.14 6.52642
10.0000 520.000 .339513-1 3424.89 6.66066
10.0000 560.000 .361943-1 3525.74 6.78472
10.0000 600.000 .383643-1 3624.85 6.90092
12.0000 330.000 .150133-1 2727.01 5.56154
12.0000 370.000 ,189293-1 2937.55 5.90056
12.0000 410.000 .217393-1 3083.53 6.12100
12.0000 450.000 .241323-1 3207.62 6.29762
12.0000 490.000 .26297&-1 3320.95- 6.45021
12.0000 530.000 .283193-1 3428.21 6.58723
12.0000 570.000 ,302443-1 3531.82 6.71313
12.0000 610.000 .320973-1 3633.19 6 .a3060
14.0000 340.000 .11990&-1 2670.90 5.42514
14.0000 380.000 .158563-1 2916.70 5.81496
14.0000 420.000 .184443-1 3073.93 6.04890
14 cO000 460.000 .20601E-1 3204.44 6.23207
14.0000 500.000 .225323-1 3322.17 68.38847
14.0000 540.000 .24321E-l 3432.70 6;. 52789
14.0000 580.000 .260153-1 3538.89 6;. 65539
14.0000 620.000 .276403-1 .3642.38 6;. 77394
16.0000 350.000 .975983-2 2615.36 51.30027
16.0000 390.000 .136063-1 2898.96 51.74340
16.0000 430.000 ,160133-1 3066.61 5 ; . 98921
16.0000 470.000 .179863-1 3203.03 6;.17803
16.0000 510.000 .197343-1 3324.79 6.33767
16.0000 550.000 .213443-1 3438.35 6.47913
16.0000 590.000 .228623-1 3546.94 6.60797
16.0000 630.000 .243123-1 3652.41 6.72742
18.0000 360.000 .810563-2 2564.40 5 . 19080
18.0000 400.000 .11910E-1 2884.81 5.68412
18.0000 440.000 .14160E-1 3061.69 5.93976
18.0000 480.000 .159803-1 3203.39 6.13322
18.0000 520.000 .175813-1 3328.81 6.29554
18. oooo 560.000 . 1 9 0 4 a ~ - i3445.15 t; .43867
18.0000 600.000 .204253-1 3555.95 6.56860
18.0000 640.000 .217373-1 3663.26 6.68877
TM
Appendix A3
Compressed Liquid Water

TM

P T V H S
MPa c m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg-K
2 .00000 20.0000 .10009E-2 85.0580 .293378
2 .00000 40.0000 .10070E-2 168.556 .568912
2 .00000 60.0000 .10162E-2 252.087 .827485
2 .00000 80.0000 .10281E-2 335.786 1.07146
2 .00000 100.000 .10425E-2 419.798 1.30286
2 .00000 120.000 .10593E-2 504.296 1.52344
2 .00000 140.000 .10787E-2 589.481 1.73477
2 .00000 160.000 .11009E-2 675.588 1.93829
2 .00000 180.000 .11265E-2 762.909 2.13536
2 .00000 200.000 .11560E-2 851.819 2.32734
4 .00000 21.4394 .10003E-2 92.9383 .313384
4 .00000 40.0000 .10061E-2 170.325 .568135
4 .00000 60.0000 .10153E-2 253.766 .826425
4 .00000 80.0000 .10272E-2 337.378 1.07015
4 .00000 100.000 .10415E-2 421.302 1.30131
4 .00000 120.000 .10582E-2 505.705 1.52164
4 .00000 140.000 .10774E-2 590.782 1.73270
4 .00000 160.000 .10995E-2 676.762 1.93592
4 .00000 180.000 .11248E-2 763.925 2.13263
4 .00000 200.000 .11540E-2 852.635 2.32418
4 .00000 220.000 • .11880E-2 943.382 2.51202
4 .00000 240.000 .12283E-2 1036.88 2.69785
6 .00000 25.0894 .10003E-2 110.003 .364207
6 .00000 40.0000 .10052E-2 172.093 .567357
6 .00000 60.0000 .10144E-2 255.443 .825368
6 .00000 80.0000 .10262E-2 338.971 1.06885 '
6 .00000 100.000 .10405E-2 422.808 1.29976
6 .00000 120.000 .10571E-2 507.117 1.51985
6 .00000 140.000 .10762E-2 592.087 1.73065
6 .00000 160.000 .10981E-2 677.941 1.93357
6 .00000 180.000 .11232E-2 764.951 2.12994
6 .00000 200.000 .11520E-2 853.465 2.32106
6 .00000 220.000 .11855E-2 943.953 2.50836
6 .00000 240.000 .12251E-2 1037.09 2.69348
6 .00000 260.000 .12731E-2 1133.92 2.87855
8 .00000 28.2570 .10003E-2 125.017 .407610
8 .00000 40.0000 .10044E-2 173.859 .566579
8 .00000 60.0000 .10136E-2 257.120 .824314
8 .00000 80.0000 .10253E-2 340.563 1.06755
8 .00000 100.000 .10395E-2 424.315 1.29823
8 .00000 120.000 .10560E-2 508.531 1.51807
8 .00000 140.000 .10750E-2 593.396 1.72861
8 .00000 160.000 .10967E-2 679.127 1.93124
8 .00000 180.000 .11215E-2 765.986 2.12727
8 .00000 200.000 .11501E-2 854.309 2.31798
8 .00000 220.000 .11831E-2 944.546 2.50476
8 .00000 240.000 .12221E-2 1037.34 2.68919
8 .00000 260.000 .12691E-2 1133.65 2.87329
TM
P T V H s
10. 0000 31. 1067 .10003E-2 138. 675 446105
10. 0000 40. 0000 .10035E-2 175. 623 565800
10. 0000 60. 0000 .10127E-2 258. 796 .823263
10. 0000 80. 0000 .10244E-2 342. 156 1 .06625

10. 0000 100 .000 .10385E-2 425. 822 1.29670
10. 0000 120 .000 .10549E-2 509. 947 1.51630
10. 0000 140 .000 .10738E-2 594. 709 1.72659
10. 0000 160 .000 .10953E-2 680. 318 1 .92893
10. 0000 180 .000 .11199E-2 767. 030 2 .12462
10. 0000 200 .000 .11481E-2 855. 167 2 .31494
10. 0000 220 .000 .11808E-2 945. 160 2 .50121
10. 0000 240 .000 .12191E-2 1037 .62 2 .68497
10. 0000 260 .000 .12651E-2 1133 .44 2 .86814
12. 0000 33. 7269 .10003E-2 151. 351 481041
12. 0000 40. 0000 .10026E-2 177. 385 565021
12. 0000 60. 0000 .10118E-2 260. 471 822214
12. 0000 80. 0000 .10235E-2 343. 749 1.06496
12. 0000 100 .000 .10375E-2 427. 331 1 .29518
12. 0000 120 .000 .10538E-2 511. 365 1.51455
12. 0000 140 .000 .10726E-2 596. 026 1.72458
12. 0000 160 .000 .10939E-2 681. 516 1 .92664
12. 0000 180 .000 .11183E-2 768. 082 2 .12201
12. 0000 200 .000 .11462E-2 856. 037 2 .31193
12. 0000 220 .000 .11785E-2 945. 794 2 .49772
12. 0000 240 .000 .12162E-2 1037 .93 2 .68084
12. 0000 260 .000 .12613E-2 1133 .29 2 .86312
16. 0000 38.4762 .10003E-2 174. 592 .543257
16. 0000 40. 0000 .X0009E-2 180. 903 .563460
16. 0000 60. 0000 .10101E-2 263. 819 820124
16. 0000 80. 0000 .10217E-2 346. 934 1.06240
16. 0000 100 .000 .10356E-2 430. 351 1.29216
16. 0000 120 .000 .10517E-2 514. 208 1.51107
16 .0000 140 .000 .10702E-2 598. 669 1.72060
16. 0000 160 .000 .109J.2E-2 683. 926 1.92212
16. 0000 180 .000 .11152E-2 770. 212 2 .11685
16. 0000 200 .000 .11425E-2 857. 816 2 .30601
16. 0000 220 .000 .11740E-2 947. 119 2 .49086
16. 0000 240 .000 .12106E-2 1038 .64 2 .67277
16. 0000 260 .000 .12540E-2 1133 .14 2 .85340
20. 0000 42. 7597 .10003E-2 195. 822 .598167
20. 0000 60. 0000 .10084E-2 267. 163 818045
20. 0000 80. 0000 .10199E-2 350. 119 1.05986
20. 0000 100 .000 .10336E-2 433. 375 1 .28917
20. 0000 120 ,000 .10496E-2 517. 059 1 .50763
20. 0000 140 .000 .10679E-2 601. 326 1 .71669
20. 0000 160 .000 .10886E-2 686. 358 1 .91766
20. 0000 180 .000 .11122E-2 772. 373 2 .11179
20. 0000 200'.000 .11389E-2 859. 641 2 .30023
20. 0000 220i.OOO .11696E-2 948. 515 2 .48419
20. 0000 240.000 .12052E-2 1039.47 2 .66496
20. 0000 260 .000 .12471E-2 1133 .17 2 .84408
20. 0000 280.000 .12976E-2 1230.62 3 .02348
TM
Appendix Bl
Properties of Refrigerant R-22

TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R-22
P T V H S
MPa K dm3 /raol J/mol J/mol -K
Liquid .448882 270 .000 .66919E-1 16975. 6 85.3094
Vapor .448882 270 .000 4.50288 34921. 9 151.777
Liquid .479613 272 .000 .67269E-1 17177.4 86.0464
Vapor .479613 272 .000 4.22397 34987. 0 151.523
Liquid .511906 274 .000 .67626E-1 17380. 1 86.7809
Vapor .511906 274 .000 3 .96564 35050. 9 151.273
Liquid .545809 276 .000 .67990E-1 17583.7 87.5132
Vapor .545809 276 .000 3.72610 35113. 6 151.027
Liquid .581373 278 .000 .68363E-1 17788 .4 88 .2432
Vapor .581373 278 .000 3.50373 35175. 1 150.785
Liquid .618648 280 .000 .68743E-1 17994. 1 88.9712
Vapor .618648 280 .000 3.29708 35235. 3 150 .547
Liquid .657684 282 .000 .69131E-1 18200. 8 89.6973
Vapor .657684 282 .000 3.10482 35294. 1 150.312
Liquid .698535 284 .000 .69528E-1 18408. 6 90.4216
Vapor .698535 284 .000 2.92577 35351. 6 150.080
Liquid .741250 286 .000 .69934E-1 18617. 5 91.1441
Vapor .741250 286 .000 2.75885 35407. 7 149.851
Liquid .785884 288 .000 .70350E-1 18827. 5 91.8652
Vapor .785884 288 .000 2.60308 35462. 2 149.625
Liquid .832489 290 .000 .70775E-1 19038. 8 92.5848
Vapor .832489 290 .000 2.45756 35515. 3 149.400
Liquid .881118 292 .000 .71211E-1 19251. 3 93.3031
Vapor .881118 292 .000 2.32150 35566. 7 149.178
Liquid .931827 294 .000 .71658E-1 19465. 1 94.0203
Vapor .931827 294 .000 2.19415 35616.4 148.957
Liquid .984669 296 .000 .72116E-1 19680. 1 94.7365
Vapor .984669 296 .000 2.07484 35664.4 148.737
Liquid 1. 03970 298 .000 .72586E-1 19896. 6 95.4519
Vapor 1.03970 298 .000 1.96297 35710. 6 148.519
Liquid 1.09698 300 .000 .73070E-1 20114.4 96.1666
Vapor 1.09698 300 .000 1.85797 35754. 9 148.301
Liquid 1.15655 302 .000 .73566E-1 20333. 8 96.8808
Vapor 1.15655 302 .000 1.75934 35797. 2 148 .084
Liquid 1.21849 304 .000 .74077E-1 20554 .7 97.5946
Vapor 1.21849 304 .000 1.66659 35837. 4 147.867
Liquid 1.28285 306 .000 .74602E-1 20777 .1 98.3084
Vapor 1.28285 306 .000 1.57932 35875. 5 147.649
Liquid 1.34967 308 .000 .75144E-1 21001. 3 99.0222
Vapor 1.34967 308 .000 1.49711 35911. 3 147.431
Liquid 1.41904 310 .000 .75703E-1 21227. 1 99.7362
Vapor 1.41904 310 .000 1.41961 35944. 7 147.212
TM
P T V H S
MPa K dm3 /mol J/mol J/mol -K
Liquid .90687E-1 230 .000 .61067E-1 13096. 0 69.8628

Vapor .90687E-1 230 . 000 20.3886 33433. 8 158.288
Liquid . 99723E-1 232 .000 .61318E-1 13284.4 70.6761
Vapor .99723E-1 232 .000 18.6584 33514. 7 157.876
Liquid .109455 234 .000 .61573E-1 13473. 3 71 .4841
Vapor .109455 234 .000 17.1037 33595. 1 157.475
Liquid .119918 236 .000 .61831E-1 13662. 6 72.2871
Vapor .119918 236 .000 15.7041 33674. 9 157.085
Liquid .131151 238 .000 .62093E-1 13852. 5 73 .0851
Vapor .131151 238 . 000 14.4417 33754. 2 156. 706
Liquid .143192 240 . 000 .62359E-1 14042 .8 73 .8784
Vapor .143192 240 .000 13 .3010 33832 .8 156.337
Liquid .156079 242 . 000 .62629E-1 14233 .7 74.6671
Vapor .156079 242 .000 12.2684 33910 .9 155.978
Liquid .169852 244 .000 .62904E-1 14425 .2 75.4514
Vapor .169852 244 .000 11.3320 33988 .3 155.628
Liquid .184552 246 .000 .63182E-1 14617. 2 76 .2315
Vapor .184552 246 .000 10.4814 34065. 1 155.288
Liquid .200219 248 .000 .63465E-1 14809. 8 77. 0074
Vapor .200219 248 .000 9.70751 34141. 1 154.956
Liquid .216896 250 .000 .63753E-1 15003 .1 77.7793
Vapor .216896 250 .000 9.00228 34216. 4 154 .632
Liquid .234625 252 .000 .64045E-1 15197. 0 78 .5473
Vapor .234625 252 . 000 8.35860 34290 .9 154 .317
Liquid .253450 254 .000 .64342E-1 15391. 6 79.3117
Vapor .253450 254 .000 7.77023 34364. 7 154 .009
Liquid .273414 256 .000 .64644E-1 15586. 9 80.0725
Vapor .273414 256 .000 7.23161 34437. 6 153.708
Liquid .294562 258 .000 .64952E-1 15782. 9 80.8299
Vapor .294562 258 .000 6.73783 34509. 6 153 .414
Liquid .316939 260 .000 .65265E-1 15979. 7 81.5840
Vapor .316939 260 .000 6.28452 34580. 8 153.127
Liquid .340591 262 .000 .65584E-1 16177. 2 82.3349
Vapor .340591 262 .000 5.86780 34651. 0 152.846
Liquid .365564 264 .000 .65908E-1 16375. 6 83.0828
Vapor .365564 264 . 000 5.48421 34720. 3 152.570
Liquid .391905 266 . 000 .66239E-1 16574. 7 83 . 8278
Vapor .391905 266 . 000 5.13065 34788 .5 152 .301
Liquid .419662 268 .000 .66575E-1 16774 .7 84.5699
Vapor .419662 268 .000 4 . 80437 34855. 8 152.037
TM
P T V H S
MPa K dm3/mol J/mol J/mol -K
Liquid 1 .49100 312 .000 .76280E-1 21454..9 100 .,451
Vapor 1 .49100 312 .000 1.34649 35975..6 146 .,992
Liquid 1 .56562 314 .000 .76876E-1 21684..5 101. ,166
Vapor 1 .56562 314 .000 1.27744 36003 ..9 146. .769
Liquid 1.64296 316 .000 .. 77-493E-1 21916..1 101. ,883
Vapor 1 .64296 316 .000 1.21217 36029..3 146. ,545
Liquid 1.72309 318 .000 .78132E-1 22149.,9 102. .600
Vapor 1.72309 318 . 000 1.15043 36051..9 146. .317
Liquid 1 .80606 320 .000 .78795E-1 22385..9 103 .320
.
Vapor 1 .80606 320 .000 1.09196 36071..3 146. . 087
Liquid 1 .89195 322 .000 .79484E-1 22624 ,.3 104. .041
Vapor 1 .89195 322 .000 1.03656 36087..3 145. .852
Liquid 1 .98083 324 .000 .80201E-1 22865..2 104 .765
.
Vapor 1 .98083 324 .000 .984007 36099.. 9 145. .613
Liquid 2 .07276 326 .000 .80949E-1 23108..8 105. .492
Vapor 2 .07276 326 .000 . 934112 36108 ,.7 145. .369
Liquid 2 .16781 328 .000 .81730E-1 23355..3 106. .222
Vapor 2 .16781 328 .000 .886696 36113 ,.4 145 ,.119
Liquid 2 .26607 330 .000 .82547E-1 23604 . 9 106 .956
.
Vapor 2 .26607 330 .000 .841592 36113..8 144 .862
.
Liquid 2 .36760 332 .000 .83405E-1 23857,.8 107. .695
Vapor 2 .36760 332 .000 .798641 36109..6 144 .
.598
Liquid 2 .47248 334 .000 .84307E-1 24114 ..3 108. .439
Vapor 2 .47248 334 .000 .757698 36100 ..3 144. .325
Liquid 2 .58079 336 .000 .85259E-1 24374 ..7 109, ,189
Vapor 2 .58079 336 .000 .718624 36085,.5 144. .042
Liquid 2 .69262 338 .000 .86266E-1 24639..4 109. .945
Vapor 2 .69262 338 .000 .681287 36064 ,.6 143. .748
Liquid 2 .80806 340 .000 .87335E-1 24908..7 110. .710
Vapor 2 .80806 340 .000 .645564 36037..2 143 ..441
Liquid 2 . 92719 342 .000 .88475E-1 25183..2 Ill, .485
Vapor 2 .92719 342 .000 .611333 36002..6 143. .120
Liquid 3 .05011 344 .000 .89696E-1 25463.,5 112. .270
Vapor 3 .05011 344 .000 .578480 35959..8 142. .782
Liquid 3 .1-7692 346 .000 .91009E-1 25750..2 113. .068
Vapor 3 .17692 346 .000 .546889 35907..9 142. .425
Liquid 3 .30773 348 . 000 .92431E-1 26044.,2 113. .880
Vapor 3 .30773 348 .000 .516447 35845.,7 142. .046
Liquid 3 .44266 350 .000 .93981E-1 26346.,6 114 ..711
Vapor 3 .44266 350 .000 .487037 35771..6 141. .639
Liquid 3 .58182 352 .000 .95686E-1 26658..8 115 ..563
Vapor 3 .58182 352 .000 .458537 35683..8 141. .202
Liquid 3 .72535 354 .000 . 97580E-1 26982.,4 116. .440
Vapor 3 .72535 354 .000 .430811 35579.,7 140. ,726
Liquid 3 .87339 356 .000 .99711E-1 27320..1 117. .350
Vapor 3 .87339 356 .000 .403704 35455..8 140. .203
Liquid 4 .02611 358 .000 .102152 27675,.2 118. .302
Vapor 4 .02611 358 .000 .377025 35307..5 139. .621
Liquid 4 . 18370 360 .000 .105010 28052..9 119. .308
Vapor 4 . 18370 360 . 000 .350520 35127 .5 138 , 960
TM
p T V H S
.500000 275. 000 4 .09507 35138 .0 151. .765

.500000 277. 000 4 .13862 35265 .2 152..226
.500000 279. 000 4 .18176 35392 . 0 152..682
.500000 281. 000 4 .22453 35518 .4 153..134
.500000 283. 000 4 .26695 35644 .5 153..581
.500000 285. 000 4 .30905 35770 .4 154 ..024
. 500000 287. 000 4 .35084 35896 .0 154..463
.500000 289. 000 4 .39235 36021 .5 154 .899
.
.500000 291. 000 4 .43358 36146 .8 155..331
.500000 293 .000 4 .47455 36272 .0 155,.760
.500000 295. 000 4 .51527 36397 .2 156,.186
.500000 297. 000 4 .55577 36522 .2 156,.608
.500000 299. 000 4 .59604 36647 .3 157..028
.500000 301. 000 4 .63610 36772 .3 ' 157,.444
.500000 303 .000 4 .67597 36897 .3 157 .858
.500000 305. 000 4 .71564 37022 .4 158..270
.500000 307. 000 4 .75513 37147 .4 158..678
.500000 309. 000 4 .79444 37272 .6 159..085
.500000 311. 000 4 .83359 37397 .8 159..489
.500000 313. 000 4 .87258 37523 .1 159..890
.500000 315. 000 4,,.91141 37648 .5 160..290
.500000 317. 000 4 .95010 37774 .0 160..687
.500000 319. 000 4 .98864 37899 .6 161,.082
.500000 321. 000 5 .02705 38025 .4 161..475
.500000 323 .000 5 .06534 38151 .3 161..866
.500000 325. 000 5 .10349 38277 .3 162..255
.500000 327. 000 5 .14153 38403 .5 162. .642
.500000 329. 000 5 .17945 38529 .9 163. .027
.500000 331. 000 5 .21726 38656 .4 163. .411
.500000 333. 000 5 .25496 38783 .1 163..792
.500000 335. 000 5 .29256 38910 .1 164 .172
.
.500000 337. 000 5 .33006 39037 .2 164. .551
.500000 339. 000 5 .36746 39164 . 5 164 .. 927
.500000 341. 000 5 .40477 39292 .0 165. .302
.500000 343. 000 5 .44199 39419 .7 165,.676
.500000 345. 000 5 .47912 39547 .7 166..048
. 500000 347. 000 5 .51617 39675 .8 166. .418
.500000 349 .000 5 .55314 39804 .2 166. .787
. 500000 351. 000 5 .59003 39932 .9 167. .155
.500000 353. 000 5 . 62684 40061 .7 167. .521
.500000 355. 000 5 .66358 40190 .8 167. .885
.500000 357. 000 5 .70025 40320 .2 168. .249
.500000 359. 000 5 .73685 40449 .7 168..611
.500000 361. 000 5 .77339 40579 .6 168. ,971
.500000 363. 000 5 .80986 40709 .6 169. .331
.500000 365. 000 5 .84627 40840 .0 169. .689
.500000 367. 000 5 .88261 40970 .6 170,.046
.500000 369. 000 5 .91890 41101 .4 170. .401
.500000 371. 000 5 .95513 41232 .5 170. .755
.500000 373. 000 5 .99130 41363 .9 171. .109
.500000 375. 000 6 .02742 41495 . 5 171. .461
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R - 2 2
p T V H S
1..00000 300 . 000 2 .08723 35931 .4 149 .526

1,.00000 302 ,.000 2 .11271 36077 .3 150 .011
1. 00000 304 ..000 2 .13781 36222 .0 150 .489
1..00000 306. . 000 2 .16257 36365 .7 150 .960
1..00000 308 ..000 2 .18701 36508 .5 151 .425
1.,00000 310. .000 2 .21115 36650 .5 151 .884
1..00000 312. .000 2 .23501 36791 .8 152 .339
1..00000 314, .000 2 .25861 36932 .4 152 .788
1..00000 316, .000 2 .28197 37072 .4 153 .232
1..00000 318, .000 2 .30510 37211 .9 153 .673
1.,00000 320 .000 2 .32801 37350 .9 154 .108
1.. 00000 322, .000 2 .35072 37489 .6 154 .540
1., 00000 324 .000 2 .37324 37627 .8 154 .968
1..00000 326 .000 2 .39558 37765 .7 155 .393
1..00000 328, .000 2 .41775 37903 .4 155 .814
1.,00000 330, .000 2 .43975 38040 .8 156 .231
1., 00000 332, .000 2 .46160 38178 .0 156 .646
1., 00000 334, .000 2 .48329 38314 .9 157 .057
1.,00000 336. . 000 2 .50485 38451 .7 157 .465
1.,00000 338 ,. 000 2 .52627 38588 .4 157 .871
1.. 00000 340. .000 2 .54757 38725 .0 1-58 .274
1.. 00000 342, .000 2 .56874 38861 .4 158 .674
1.,00000 344, .000 2 .58979 38997 .8 159 .072
1..00000 346, .000 2 .61073 39134 .2 159 .467
1..00000 348, .000 2 .63157 39270 .5 159 .860
1..00000 350. .000 2 .65229 39406 .7 160 .250
1..00000 352. .000 2 .67292 39543 .0 160 .638
1..00000 354. .000 2 .69346 39679 .3 161 . 024
1..00000 356. .000 2 .71390 39815 .6 161 .408
1..00000 358, .000 2 .73425 39952 .0 161 .790
1..00000 360 ..000 2 .75452 40088 .4 162 . 170
1..00000 362, .000 2 .77471 40224 .8 162 . 548
1.,00000 364. .000 2 .79482 40361 .4 162 . 924
1..00000 366 ,. 000 2 .81485 40498 . 0 163 .299
1.,00000 368. .000 2 .83480 40634 .7 163 .671
1.,00000 370. . 000 2 .85469 40771 .5 164 .042
1.,00000 372. ,000 2 . 87451 40908 .4 164 .411
1.,00000 374. ,000 2 .89426 41045 .4 164 .778
1. 00000. 376. . 000 2 .91395 41182 .6 165 .144
1. 00000 378. ,000 2 .93358 41319 .9 165 .508
1.,00000 380. .000 2 .95314 41457 .3 165 .871
1.,00000 382. .000 2 .97265 41594 .8 166 .232
1 ,00000
. 384. .000 2 .99210 41732 .6 166 .591
1.,00000 386. .000 3 .01150 41870 .4 166 .950
1.,00000 388. .000 3 .03084 42008 .5 167 .306
1..00000 390. .000 3 .05014 42146 .7 167 .661
1..00000 392. .000 3 .06938 42285 .0 168 .015
1..00000 394. .000 3 .08858 42423 .6 168 .368
1..00000 396, .000 3 .10773 42562 .3 168 .719
1.. 00000 398 .000 3 .12683 42701 .2 169 .069
1,. 00000 400, . 000 3 .14589 42840 .3 169 .418
TM
p T V H S
MPa K dm3/mol J/mol J/mol-K
1. 50000 315 .000 1. 36604 36211..2 147 .704
1. 50000 317 .000 1. 38593 36376..4 148 .227
1. 50000 319 . 000 1. 40539 36539..3 148 .739
1. 50000 321 .000 1.42445 36700..1 149 .242
1. 50000 323 .000 1. 44316 36859..1 149 .736
1. 50000 325 .000 1.46153 37016,.5 150 .221
1. 50000 327 .000 1. 47960 37172..4 150 .700
1. 50000 329 .000 1. 49739 37327..1 151 .171
1. 50000 331 .000 1. 51492 37480..5 151 .636
1. 50000 333 .000 1. 53221 37632,.9 152 .095
1. 50000 335 .000 1. 54928 37784 .4 152 .549
1. 50000 337 .000 1. 56614 37935 .0 152 .997
1. 50000 339 .000 1. 58280 38084 .8 153 .440
1. 50000 341 .000 1. 59927 38233 .9 153 .879
1. 50000 343 .000 1. 61558 38382,.3 154 .313
1. 50000 345 .000 1. 63171 38530,.2 154 .743
1. 50000 347 .000 1. 64770 38677,.5 155 .168
1. 50000 349 .000 1. 66353 38824,.4 155 .590
1. 50000 351 .000 1 .67923 38970 .8 156 .009
1. 50000 353 .000 1. 69479 39116 .9 156 .424
1. 50000 355 .000 1 .71023 39262,.5 156 .835
1. 50000 357 .000 1. 72555 39407 .9 157 .244
1. 50000 359 .000 1. 74076 39553,.0 157 .649
1. 50000 361 .000 1. 75585 39697,.8 158 .051
1. 50000 363 .000 1. 77084 39842 ,.4 158 .451
1. 50000 365 .000 1. 78574 39986,.8 158 .847
1. 50000 367 .000 1. 80054 40131..0 159 .241
1. 50000 369 .000 1. 81524 40275..1 159,,.633
1. 50000 371 .000 1. 82986 40419.,0 160 .022
1. 50000 373 .000 1. 84440 40562..8 160 .408
1. 50000 375 .000 1. 85885 40706,.6 160 .793
1. 50000 377 .000 1. 87323 40850..2 161 .175
1. 50000 379 .000 1. 88753 40993 ..8 161 .555
1. 50000 381 .000 1. 90177 41137.,4 161 .932
1. 50000 383 .000 1. 91593 41280..9 162 .308
1. 50000 385 .000 1. 93002 41424 ..4 162 .682
1. 50000 387 .000 1. 94406 41567..9 163 .054
1 .50000 389 .000 1. 95803 41711.,4 163 .424
1 .50000 391 .000 1. 97194 41855..0 163 .792
1. 50000 393 .000 1 .98579 41998.,6 164 .158
1. 50000 395 .000 1. 99959 42142..2 164 .522
1. 50000 397 .000 2. 01333 42285..8 164 .885
1. 50000 399 .000 2. 02702 42429..6 165 .246
1. 50000 401 .000 2. 04067 42573.,3 165 .606
1. 50000 403 .000 2. 05426 42717..2 165 .964
1. 50000 405 .000 2. 06780 42861..2 166 .320
1. 50000 407 .000 2. 08130 43005..2 166 .675
1 .50000 409 .000 2. 09476 43149..4 167 .028
1. 50000 411 .000 2. 10817 43293 ..6 167 .380
1. 50000 413 .000 2. 12154 43438..0 167 .730
1. 50000 415 .000 2 .13487 43582..5 168 .079
TM
P T V H S
2 ..00000 325 .000 978578 36158 .3 145 .735
2,.00000 327 .000 996604 36349 .6 146 .322
2.. 00000 329 .000 1 .01401 36536 .1 146 .890
2..00000 331 .000 1 .03089 36718 .6 147 .443
2,.00000 333 .000 1 .04729 36897 .5 147 .982
2..00000 335 .000 1 .06327 37073 .4 148 .509
2 .00000 337 .000 1 .07887 37246 .6 149 .024
2 .00000 339 .000 1.09413 37417 .4 149 .530
2..00000 341 .000 1.10908 37586 .0 150 .026
2 .00000 343 .000 1 .12374 37752 .8 150 .513
2 . 00000 345 . 000 1 .13815 37917 .8 150 .993
2 . 00000 347 .000 1 .15231 38081 .3 151 .466
2 . 00000 349 . 000 1 .16624 38243 .4 151 .931
2..00000 351 .000 1 .17997 38404 .2 152 .391
2 . 00000 353 . 000 1 .19351 38563 .9 152 .844
2 . 00000 355 . 000 1 .20686 38722 .5 153 .293
2..00000 357 .000 1 .22005 38880 .1 153 .735
2..00000 359 .000 1 .23307 39036 .9 154 .173
2 . 00000 361 .000 1 .24595 39192 .9 154 .607
2 .00000 363 .000 1 .25869 39348 .2 155 .036
2 .00000 365 .000 1 .27129 39502 .8 .155 .460
2,.00000 367 .000 1 .28376 39656 .8 155 .881
2 .00000 369 .000 1 .29612 39810 .2 156 .298
2..00000 371 .000 1 .30836 39963 .2 156 .711
2,.00000 373 . 000 1 .32050 40115 .6 157 .121
2..00000 375 .000 1 .33253 40267 .7 157 .528
2..00000 377 .000 1 .34446 40419 .3 157. .931
2..00000 379 .000 1.35630 40570 .6 158. .331
2..00000 381 . 000 1 .36805 40721 .6 158 .729
2,.00000 383 .000 1.37972 40872 .3 159 .123
2.. 00000 385 .000 1.39130 41022 .8 159 .515
2..00000 387 .000 1 .40281 411-73 . 0 159, . 904
2.. 00000 389 . 000 1 .41424 41323 . 0 160 .291
2..00000 . 391 .000 1 .42559 41472 .8 160 .675
2..00000 393 .000 1 .43688 41622 .4 161. .057
2.. 00000 395 .000 1 .44811 41771 .9 161. .436
2..00000 397 . 000 1 .45927 41921 .3 161, .813
2 .00000
. 399 .000 1 .47036 42070 .5 162, .188
2..00000 401 .000 1 .48140 42219 .7 162. .561
2..00000 403 .000 1 .49238 42368 .8 162. .932
2..00000 405 .000 1 .50331 42517 .8 163. .301
2..00000 407 .000 1 .51418 42666 .8 163. .668
2..00000 409 .000 1 .52500 42815 .7 164, .033
2..00000 411 .000 1 .53577 42964 .6 164, .396
2 ,, 00000 413 .000 1.54650 43113 .6 164. .758
2,.00000 415 .000 1.55717 43262 .5 165. .117
2 .00000
. 417 .000 1 .56781 43411 .4 165. .475
2..00000 419 .000 1 .57840 43560 .3 165. .831
2..00000 421 .000 1 .58894 43709 .3 166 .186
2 ..00000 423 .000 1.59945 43858 .2 166. .539
2..00000 425 .000 1 .60991 44007 .3 166 .891
TM
P T V H S
2 .50000 335 .000 751792 36152 .0 144 .417
2 .50000 337..000 768971 36372 .7 145 .074
2 .50000 339 .000 785323 36585,.0 145 .702
2 .50000 341 .000 800982 36790 .4 146 .307
2..50000 343..000 816049 36990 .1 146 .890
2..50000 345..000 830601 37184 .8 147 .456
2 .50000 347..000 844702 37375 .3 148 .007
2 .50000 349 .000 858404 37562 .1 148 .544
2 .50000 351 . 000 871749 37745 .6 149 . 068
2 .50000 353 .000 884772 37926 .3 149 .581
2 .50000 355 .000 897503 38104 .3 150 . 084
2 .50000 357 .000 909969 38280 .1 150 .578
2 .50000 359 .000 922192 38453 .9 151 .063
2..50000 361 .000 ' 934191 38625 .7 151 .541
2 .50000 363 .000 945983 38795 .9 152 .011
2 .50000 365.. 000 957584 38964 .6 152 .474
2 .50000 367 .000 969006 39131 . 9 152 .932
2 .50000 369, .000 980262 39297..9 153 .383
2 .50000 371 .000 991362 39462 .8 153 .828
2 .50000 373 .000 1 .00232 39626 .6 154 .269
2-.50000 375 .000 1.01313 39789 .4 154 .704
2 .50000 377 .000 1 .02382 39951 .4 155 .135
2 .50000 379 .000 1 .03439 40112 .5 155 .561
2 .50000 381 . 000 1 .04484 40272 .9 155 . 983
2 . 50000 383 .000 1 .05518 40432 .5 156 .401
2 .50000 385. .000 1 .06542 40591 .6 156 .815
2 .50000 387 .000 1 .07556 40750 .0 157 .226
2 .50000 389 .000 1 .08561 40908 .0 157 .633
2 .50000 391..000 1.09557 41065 .4 158 .036
2 .50000 393..000 1 .10545 41222 .4 158 .437
2 .50000 395..000 1 .11524 41379 .0 158 .834
2 .50000 397 .000 1 . 12495 41535 .1 159 .229
2 .50000 399 .000 1 .13460 41691 .0 159 .620
2..50000 401 .000 1 .14417 41846..5 160 .009
2 .50000 403..000 1 .15367 42001 .7 160 .395
2 .50000 405,.000 1 .16311 42156 .7 160 .779
2 .50000 407..000 1 . 17248 42311 .4 161 .160
2 .50000 409,.000 1 .18180 42465,. 9 161 .538
2 .50000 411..000 1 .19106 42620 .2 161 .915
2 .50000 413,.000 1 .20026 42774 .3 162 .289
2 .50000 415,.000 1 .20941 42928,.3 162 .661
2..50000 417,.000 1 .21851 43082 .1 163 .031
2 .50000 419,.000 1 .22755 43235,.9 163 .398
2..50000 421,.000 1.23655 43389 .5 163 .764
2 .50000 423,.000 1.24550 43543 ,.0 164 .128
2 .50000 425, .000 1.25441 43696 .4 164 .490
2 .50000 427..000 1 .26328 43849 .8 164 .850
2 .50000 429,.000 1 .27210 44003 . 1 165 .208
2 .50000 431 . 000 1 .28088 44156 .3 165 .564
2..50000 433 .. 000 1 .28962 44309..6 165 . 919
2 .50000 435..000 1 .29833 44462 . 8 166 .272
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R - 2 2
P T V H S
3,.00000 345 .000 607658 36218..0 143, .618

3.,00000 347 .000 624207 36467..9 144, .341
3..00000 349 .000 639737 36705,.2 145, .023
3,.00000 351 .000 654443 36932,.5 145, .672
3,.00000 353 .000 668464 37151,.4 146, .294
3,.00000 355 .000 681905 37363,.5 146, .893
3 ..00000 357 .000 694847 37569,.8 147, .472
3 .00000
. 359 .000 707354 37771,.0 148 .034
3 ,.00000 361 .000 719478 37967,.9 148 .581
3 ,. 00000 363 .000 731261 38160,.9 149 .115
3 ,.00000 365 .000 742737 38350,.6 149 .636
3 .00000 367 . 000 753938 38537 .4 150 .146
3 .00000 369 . 000 764887 38721 .4 150 .646
3 .00000 371 . 000 775606 38903 .1 151 .137
3 .00000 373 . 000 786116 39082 .6 151 .620
3 .00000 375 . 000 796431 39260,.1 152 .094
3 .00000 377 . 000 806567 39435..9 152 .562
3,. 00000 379 .000 816536 39610,. 0 153 .022
3,.00000 381 .000 826350 39782 ,.7 153 .477
3..00000 383 .000 836019 39954,.0 153 .925
3,.00000 385 .000 845552 40124,.1 154 .368
3..00000 387 .000 854958 40293,.0 154 .806
3 .00000 389 .000 864244 40460,.9 155 .239
3 .00000 391 .000 873418 40627 .9 155 .667
3 .00000 393 .000 882484 40793 .9 156 .090
3 .00000
. 395 .000 891450 40959 .2 156 .510
3 .00000
. 397 .000 900320 41123 .7 156 .925
3 .00000 399 .000 909100 41287,.5 157 .337
3 .00000 401 . 000 917793 41450,.6 157 .745
3 .00000
. 403 .000 .926404 41613,.2 158 .149
3 .00000 405 .000 934938 41775,.2 158 .550
3 .00000 407 . 000 943396 41936,.7 158 .948
3 .00000 409 . 000 951783 42097 .7 159 .343
3..00000 411 .000 960102 42258,.3 159 .734
3..00000 413 . 000 968356 42418,.5 • 160 .123
3 .00000 415 . 000 976547 42578,.4 160 .509
3..00000 417 .000 984679 42737,.9 160 .893
3..00000 419 .000 992752 42897,.1 161 .273
3..00000 421 .000 1 .00077 43056,.0 161 .652
3,. 00000 423 .000 1 .00874 43214 ,. 7 162 . 028
3 .00000 425 .000 1 .01665 43373 ,. 1 162 .401
3..00000 427 .000 1 .02452 43531,.3 162 .773
3..00000 429 .000 1.03233 43689,.3 163 .142
3..00000 431 .000 1 .04010 43847,.1 163 .509
3..00000 433 .000 1.04783 44004,.8 163 .874
3 .00000 435 .000 1.05552 44162 .3 164 .237
3 .00000 437 .000 1.06316 44319 .7 164 .598
3 . 00000 439 .000 1 .07076 44477 .0 164 .957
3 . 00000 441 .000 1 .07833 44634 .2 165 .314
3 . 00000 443 .000 1 .08586 44791 .3 165 .670
3 . 00000 445 .000 1 .09335 44948 .3 166 . 023
TM
P T V H S
MPa K dm3/mol J/mol J/mol-R
3 ,. 50000 355. .000 .512903 36386,. 1 143. .302

3 ,.50000 357. ,000 .528510 36659,.2 144 .069
,
3 .50000
. 359. ,000 .543025 36916 .1 144, .786
3 . 50000 361. ,000 .556676 37160 .4 145, .465
3 ,.50000 363 .,000 .569620 37394 .5 146, .112
3 .50000
. 365. .000 .581973 37620 .2 146 ., 732
3 .50000
. 367. ,000 . 593822 37838 . 9 147, .329
3 .50000
. 369. .000 .605237 38051 .6 147 . 907
3 .50000
. 371. ,000 .616271 38259 .1 148, .468
3..50000 373. .000 .626967 38462 .1 149, .014
3..50000 375. .000 .637364 38661 .1 149 .546
3 .50000 377, .000 .647490 38856 .7 150 .066
3..50000 379. .000 .657372 39049 .1 150 .575
3 .50000 381. .000 .667031 39238 .7 151 .074
3 .50000 383 ..000 .676487 39425 .8 151 .564
3,.50000 385. ,000 .685755 39610 .6 152 .045
3 .50000 387. .000 .694851 39793 .4 152 .519
3 .50000 389. .000 .703787 39974 .3 152 .985
3 .50000 391. .000 .712575 40153 .4 153 .444
3,.50000 393. .000 .721224 40331 .0 153, .897
3 .50000 395. .000 .729743 40507 .2 154 .345
3 .50000 397. .000 .73,8141 40682 .0 154 .786
3 .50000 399, .000 .746425 40855 . 7 155 .222
3 .50000 401,.000 .754602 41028 .2 155 .654
3 .50000 403 ,.000 .762678 41199 .7 156 .080
3 .50000 405..000 .770659 41370 .2 156 .502
3 .50000 407..000 .778548 41539 .8 156 .920
3 .50000 409,,000 .786352 41708 .6 157 .334
3 .50000 411,.000 .79'4075 41876 .7 157 .744
3 .50000 413 ,.000 .801720 42044 .1 158 .150
3 .50000 415,.000 .809291 42210 .8 158, .553
3 .50000 417,.000 .816792 42376 .9 158 .952
3 . 50000 419 ..000 .824225 42542 .5 159 .348
3 . 50000 421 ,. 000 .831595 42707 .5 159 . 741
3 .50000 423 .. 000 .838903 42872 .1 160 .131
3 .50000 425..000 .846152 43036 .2 160, .518
3 .50000 427..000 .853345 43199 . 9 160 .902
3 .50000 429,.000 .860484 43363 .2 161 .284
3,.50000 431.,000 .867571 43526 .2 161, .663
3,.50000 433.,000 . 874608 43688 .8 162, .039
3 .50000 435..000 .881597 43851 .2 162, .413
3..50000 437.,000 .888539 44013 .2 162, .785
3 .50000 439.,000 .895438 44175 .1 163, .155
3 ,.50000 441..000 .902293 44336 .6 163, .522
3 .50000 443 ,000
. .909106 44498 .0 163 .887
3 .50000 445..000 .915880 44659 .2 164 .250
3 .50000 447..000 .922615 44820 .2 164 .611
3 .50000 449, .000 .929313 44981 .0 164 .970
3 .50000 451, .000 .935974 45141 .7 165 .327
3 .50000 453 ,.000 . 942601 45302 .2 165 .682
3 .50000 455. .000 . 949194 45462 .7 166 .036
TM

P T V H S
4 .00000
. 360 . 000 .407813 35843 ,.3 141 .142
4 .00000
, 362 .000 .426283 36204..5 142 .143
4 .00000
. 364 . 000 .442562 36526,.4 143 .030
4 .00000
. 366 .000 .457325 36821..4 143 .838
4 .00000
. 368 .000 .470959 37096..8 144 .588
4 .. 00000 370 .000 .483712 37357.,0 145 .294
4 .00000 372 .000 .495755 37605,.3 145 .963
4 .00000 374 .000 .507208 37843..7 146 .602
4,.00000 376 .000 .518163 38073 .9 147 .216
4 .00000 378 .000 .528689 38297..2 147 . 808
4 .00000 380 .000 .538843 38514,.6 148 .382
4 .00000 382 .000 .548667 38726 .8 148 .939
4 .00000 384 .000 .558200 38934 .5 149 .481
4 .00000 386 .000 .567471 39138,.1 150 .010
4 .00000 388 .000 .576506 39338,.3 150 .527
4 .00000 390 .000 .585326 39535 .2 151 .033
4 .00000 392 .000 .593950 39729,.3 151 .530
4 .00000 394 .000 .602395 39920 .9 152 .017
4 .00000 396 .000 .610675 40110,.1 152 .496
4 .00000 398 .000 .618801 40297,.1 152 .968
4 .00000 400 .000 . .626786 40482 .3 153 .432
4 .00000 402 .000 .634638 40665,.6 153 .889
4 .00000 404 .000 .642367 40847 .4 154 .340
4..00000 406 .000 .649981 41027..7 154 .785
4 .00000 408 .000 .657486 41206..5 155 .224
4..00000 410 .000 .664890 41384,.2 155 .659
4,.00000 412 .000 .672197 41560,.6 156 .088
4..00000 414 .000 .679414 41736..0 156 .513
4 .00000
, 416 .000 .686544 41910..3 156 .933
4..00000 418 .000 .693594 42083..8 157 .349
4..00000 420 .000 .700566 42256,.3 157 .761
4..00000 422 .000 .707466 42428,.1 158 .169
4 .00000 424 .000 .714295 42599 .1 158 .573
4 .00000 426 .000 .721058 42769,.5 158 .974
4 .00000
, 428 .000 .727757 42939..2 159 .371
4..00000 430 .000 .734396 43108,.3 159 .765
4 .00000 432 .000 .740977 43276..8 160 .156
4 .00000
, 434 .000 .747502 43444..8 160 .544
4 .00000
, 436 .000 .753974 43612..4 160 . 929
4 .00000 438 .000 .760395 43779,.5 161 .312
4 .00000 440 .000 .766767 43946..2 161 . 692
4 .00000
. 442 .000 .773092 44112..5 162 .069
4,.00000 444 .000 .779371 44278 ..4 162 .443
4..00000 446 .000 .785607 44444..0 162 .815
4 .00000 448 .000 .791801 44609,.3 163 .185
4 .00000 450 .000 .797955 44774,.3 163 .553
4 .00000 452 .000 .804069 44939 .1 163 .918
4 .00000 454 .000 .810146 45103 .6 164 .281
4 .00000 456 .000 .816186 45267 .8 164 .642
4 .00000
. 458 .000 .822191 45431.. 9 165 .001
4 .00000
, 460 .000 .828162 45595..8 165 .358
TM
Appendix B2
Properties of Refrigerant R-134a

TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R-134a
P T V H S
MPa K dm3/mol J/molL J/mol-K
Liquid .43287E-1 230 .000 .71512E-1 14712 .8 79.4413
Vapor .43287E-1 230 .000 43.1251 37956 .3 180.500
Liquid .48192E-1 232 .000 .71802E-1 14968 .2 80.5457
Vapor .48192E-1 232 .000 38.9989 38085 .8 180.191
Liquid .53535E-1 234 .000 .72095E-1 15224 .4 81.6435
Vapor .53535E-1 234 .000 35.3384 38215 .2 179.895
Liquid .59345E-1 236 .000 .72392E-1 15481 .3 82.7350
Vapor .59345E-1 236 .000 32.0837 38344 .5 179.613
Liquid .65651E-1 238 .000 .72694E-1 15739 .0 83.8202
Vapor .65651E-1 238 .000 29.1834 38473 .5 179.344
Liquid .72481E-1 240 .000 .72999E-1 15997 .4 84.8993
Vapor .72481E-1 240 .000 26.5934 38602 .3 179.087
Liquid .79867E-1 242 .000 .73309E-1 16256 .5 85.9725
Vapor .79867E-1 242 .000 24.2758 38730 .9 178.842
Liquid .87840E-1 244 .000 .73623E-1 16516 .5 87.0399
Vapor .87840E-1 244 .000 22 .1977 38859 .1 178.608
Liquid . 96433E-1 246 .000 .73941E-1 16777 .3 88. 1017
Vapor . 96433E-1 246 .000 20.3308 38987 .0 178.385
Liquid .105679 248 .000 .74265E-1 17038 .9 89.1581
Vapor .105679 248 .000 18.6504 39114 .5 178.173
Liquid .115612 250 .000 .74593E-1 17301 .3 90.2091
Vapor .115612 250 .000 17.1351 39241 .6 177.970
Liquid .126267 252 .000 .74926E-1 17564 .6 91.2549
Vapor .126267 252 .000 15.7662 39368 .3 177.777
Liquid .137680 254 .000 .75264E-1 17828 .8 92.2956
Vapor .137680 254 .000 14.5275 39494 .5 177.594
Liquid .149888 256 .000 .75607E-1 18093 .8 93.3314
Vapor .149888 256 .000 13.4045 39620 .1 177.418
Liquid .162928 258 .000 .75956E-1 18359 .8 94.3625
Vapor .162928 258 .000 12.3849 39745 .2 177.252
Liquid .176837 260 .000 .76311E-1 18626 .7 95.3889
Vapor .176837 260 . 000 11.4576 39869 .7 177.093
Liquid .191656 262 .000 .76672E-1 18894 .6 96..4109
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Liquid .301928 274 .000 .78974E-1 20523 .0 102.456
Vapor .301928 274 .000 6.86539 40720 .8 176.170
TM
P T V H S
Liquid .324260 276..000 .79384E-1 20798 .2 103 .450
Vapor .324260 276..000 6.40779 40839 .1 176 .062
Liquid .347839 278..000 .79801E-1 21074 .6 104 .441
Vapor .347839 278..000 5.98629 40956 .3 175 .958
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Vapor .398915 282 ,.000 5.23861 41187 . 7 175 .763
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Vapor .426505 284 .. 000 4 . 90678 41301 .7 175 .672
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Vapor .455526 286..000 4.59964 41414 .6 175 .584
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Vapor .486026 288.. 000 4.31505 41526 .2 175 .500
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Vapor . 518051 290 . 000 4 .05105 41636 . 5 175 .418
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Vapor .551653 292 . 000 3 .80589 41745 .4 175 .339
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Vapor .586880 294 .000
. 3 . 57797 41853 . 0 175 .263
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Vapor .662413 298. .000 3.16828 42063 .5 175 .115
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Vapor .702821 300. .000 2 . 98402 42166 .3 175 .044
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Vapor .745059 302. , 000 2 .81202 42267 .4 174 .973
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Vapor 1.09655 316..000 1.87966 42918 .7 174 .478
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Vapor 1.15542 318. .000 1.77708 43002 .3 174 .402
Liquid 1.21662 320. .000 . 91364E-1 27218 . 7 124 .748
Vapor 1.21662 320.. 000 1.68052 43083 .0 174 .324
TM
P T V H S
Liquid 1 .28022 322. .000 92117E-1 27532 .6 125 .708
Vapor 1 .28022 322. .000 1.58954 43160 .8 174 .242
Liquid 1 .34629 324. .000 92898E-1 27849 .1 126 .668
Vapor 1 .34629 324, .000 1.50375 43235 .4 174, .157
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Vapor 1 .41488 326. .000 1 .42277 43306 .7 174 .068
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Vapor 1 .48607 328. .000 1 .34626 43374 .3 173 .973
Liquid 1 .55992 330. .000 95439E-1 28815 .7 129 .563
Vapor 1 .55992 330, .000 1 .27391 43438 .0 173 .873
Liquid 1 .63649 332, .000 96360E-1 29144 .2 130 .533
Vapor 1 .63649 332, .000 1 .20542 43497 .6 173 .766
Liquid 1 .71587 334, .000 97325E-1 29476 .2 131 .507
Vapor 1 .71587 334, .000 • 1 .14053 43552 .7 173 .652
Liquid 1 .79811 336. .000 98336E-1 29811 .9 132 .485
Vapor 1 .79811 336. .000 1.07898 43603 .0 173 .530
Liquid 1 .88331 338. .000 99399E-1 30151 .5 133 .468
Vapor 1 .88331 338, .000 1.02054 43647 .9 173 .398
Liquid 1 .97154 340, . 000 100520 30495 .4 134 .456
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Liquid 2 .15740 344 ,.000 102959 31197 .4 136 .454
Vapor 2 .15740 344 ,. 000 861725 43746 .2 172 .933
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Vapor 2 .56930 352. .000 681466 43764 .2 172 .077
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Vapor 2 .68124 354. .000 640874 43741 .3 171 .803
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Liquid 3 .04049 360. .000 117263 34288 .8 144 .957
Vapor 3 .04049 360. .000 527069 43575 .8 170 .754
Liquid 3 .16855 362. ,000 120014 34728 .0 146 .131
Vapor 3 .16855 362 ,,000 491115 43476 .7 170 .299
Liquid 3 .30106 364. .000 123195 35188 .2 147 .355
Vapor 3 .30106 364. .000 455709 43346 .1 169 .766
Liquid 3 .43824 366. .000 126974 35676 .5 148 .645
Vapor 3 .43824 366, .000 420445 43173 .8 169 .130
Liquid 3 .58036 368 ,.000 131646 36204 .7 150 .035
Vapor 3 .58036 368, .000 384675 42942 .3 168 .343
Liquid 3 .72781 370. .000 137822 36797 .0 151 .586
Vapor 3 .72781 370. .000 347167 42616 .8 167 .315
TM
p T V H S
.500000 290 .000 4 .22266 41686.,0 175 .846
.500000 292 .000 4 .27015 41883.,8 176 .526
.500000 294 .000 4 .31695 42080..5 177 .198
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. 500000 370 .000 5 .86419 49540.4 199 .747
.500000 372 .000 5 .90177 49743. 5 200 .294
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.500000 388 .000 6 .19937 51386. 4 204 . 618
.500000 390 .000 6 .23622 51594. 1 205 .152
TM
p T V H S
1 .00000 315. .000 2 .10956 43051 .6 175 . 509
1 .00000 317 .000 2 .13854 43278 .9 176 .228
1 .00000 319. .000 2 .16688 43503 .7 176 .935
1 .00000 321. .000 2 .19464 43726 .5 177 .631
1.00000 323, .000 2 .22189 43947 .5 178 .317
1 .00000 325. .000 2 .24866 44167 .0 178 .995
1 .00000 327 .000 2 .27501 44385 .3 179 .664
1 .00000 329 .000 2 .30095 44602 .4 180 .326
1 .00000 331 . 000 2 .32654 44818 .6 180 .982
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1 . 00000 335 . 000 2 .37671 45248 .7 182 .273
1 .00000 337 .000 2 .40135 45462 .9 182 .911
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1 .00000 341, .000 2 .44981 45889 .7 184 .170
1 .00000 343. .000 2 .47367 46102 .6 184 . 792
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1 . 00000 351. .000 2 .56694 46951 .8 187, .240
1 .00000 353 ,.000 2 .58978 47163 .8 187, .842
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1 .00000 357. .000 2 .63492 47587 .7 189, .036
1 .00000 359, .000 2 .65725 47799 .6 189, .628
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1 .00000 373. .000 2,.80962 49286,.4 193, .691
1 .00000 375, .000 2 .83089 49499,.5 194, .260
1 .00000 377. .000 2,.85206 49712..8 194 .828
.
1 .00000 379. .000 2..87311 49926,.4 195, .393
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1 .00000 411 .,000 3 .19830
. 53387,.1 204. .157
1 . 00000 413 .,000 3 .21803 53606,.6 204, .690
1 .00000 415.,000 3 ,.23769 53826,.5 205. ,221
TM
p T V H S
1 .50000 330 .000 1..35202 43601..3 174 .606
1 .50000 332.. 000 1,.37582 43861..3 175 .392
1 .50000 334,.000 1..39883 44116 .4 176 .158
1.50000 336..000 1 .42113 44367 .2 176 .906
1 .50000 338..000 1..44282 44614,.5 177 .640
1 .50000 340..000 1..46396 44858,.8 178 .361
1 .50000 342..000 1 .48460 45100..3 179 .069
1 .50000 344,.000 1 .50480 45339 .6 179 .767
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1 .50000 348,.000 1 .54402 45812 .4 181 .133
1 .50000 350,.000 1 .56310 46046 .5 181 .804
1 .50000 352 .000 1 .58187 46279 .1 182 .467
1 .50000 354 .000 1 .60035 46510 .6 183 .122
1 .50000 356,.000 1 .61856 46741 .0 183 .772
1 .50000 358..000 1 .63651 46970 .5 184 .414
1 .50000 360,.000 1 .65423 47199 .2 185 .051
1 .50000 362 .000 1..67173 47427 .2 185 .683
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1 .50000 366,.000 1..70612 47881,.4 186 . 931
1 . 50000 368,. 000 1..72303 48107,.8 187 .548
1 .50000 370,.000 .1..73976 48333 .7 188 .160
1 .50000 372 .000 1 .75633 48559 .3 188 .768
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1 .50000 378 .000 1 .80511 49234 .6 190 .569
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1.50000 384 .000 1..85267 49908 .4 192 .337
1 .50000 386,.000 1..86827 50132 .8 192 .920
1 .50000 388,.000 1..88377 50357,.3 193 .500
1 .50000 390,.000 1..89915 50581 .7 194 .077
1.50000 392 ,. 000 1..91443 50806,.2 194 .651
1 .50000 394,.000 1.. 92961 51030,.8 195 .223
1 .50000 396..000 1..94469 51255,.4 195 .791
1 .50000 398..000 1..95968 51480 .1 196 .357
1 .50000 400..000 1..97458 51705,.0 196 .921
1 .50000 402..000 1..98939 51930,.0 197 .482
1 .50000 404 .000
. 2..00412 52155,.1 198 .041
1 .50000 406..000 2 .01877
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1.50000 408..000 2..03335 52606..0 199 .151
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1 .50000 412..000 2,.06227 53057..8 200 .253
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1 .50000 416..000 2..09092 53510,.5 201 .347
1 .50000 418..000 2,.10515 53737,.2 201 .890
1 .50000 420.. 000 2..11931 53964 ,.2 202 .432
1. 50000 422..000 2..13341 54191,.5 202 .972
1 .50000 424 .000 2..14745 54419,.1 203 .510
1 .50000 426..000 2,.16144 54647..0 204 .046
1 . 50000 428 .. 000 2..17537 54875 .2 204 .581
1 .50000 430,.000 2.. 18924 55103,.8 205 . 114
TM
P T V H S
2 ..00000 342 .000 963893 43910..2 173 .829
2 .00000 344 .000 985965 44210..0 174 .703
2 .00000
. 346 .000 1.00694 44500..3 175 .545
2 ,.00000 348 .000 1 .02701 44782.. 9 176 .359
2 .00000 350 .000 1 .04629 45059..1 177 .150
2 .00000 352 .000 1 .06489 45329,.8 177 .922
2..00000 354 .000 1 .08290 45595 .9 178 .675
2..00000 356 .000 1 .10039 45858,.0 179 .414
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2 .00000 360 .000 1 .13402 46372 .4 180 .851
2 .00000 362 .000 1 .15024 46625 .4 181 .552
2 .00000 364 .000 1 .16612 46876 .2 182 .243
2 .00000 366 .000 1 .18168 47124 .9 182 .924
2 .00000 368 .000 1 .19695 47371 .8 183 .597
2..00000 370 .000 1 .21195 47617,.2 184 .262
2 .00000 372 .000 1 .22670 47861 .0 184 .919
2..00000 374 .000 1 .24121 48103 .6 185 .569
2 .00000 376 .000 1.25551 48345 . 1 186 .213
2 ..00000 378 .000 1 .26961 48585 .6 186 .851
2 ,.00000 380 .000 1 .28352 48825 .1 187 .483
2 .00000 382 .000 1 .29724 49063 .8 • 188 .110
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2 .00000 388 . 000 1 .33745 49776 .0 189 .960
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2 .00000 406 .000 1 .45099 51891..1 195 .289
2 .00000 408 .000 1 .46308 52125 .2 195 .864
2 .00000 410 .000 1 .47508 52359 .2 196 .436
2 .00000 412 .000 1 .48698 52593 .. 1 197 .005
2 .00000 414 .000 1 .49881 52827..0 197 .571
2..00000 416 .000 1 .51056 53061.. 0 198 .135
2..00000 418 .000 1 .52222 53295.. 0 198 .696
2..00000 420 .000 1 .53382 53529..0 199 .255
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2..00000 424 .000 1 .55680 53997..4 200 .365
2 ..00000 426 .000 1 .56819 54231,. 7 200 .916
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2,.00000 430 .000 1 .59077 54700..9 202 .012
2 .00000 432 .000 1 .60197 54935..7 202 .557
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2 .00000 438 .000 1 .63524 55641 .3 204 .179
2..00000 440 .000 1 .64622 55877..0 204 .716
2..00000 442 .000 1 .65715 56112..9 205 .251
TM

P T V H S
2 .50000 352, .000 .723433 44010..9 172. .916
2 .50000 354. .000 .745746 44366..0 173. .922
2 .50000 356. .000 .766405 44702,.3 174. .870
2 .50000 358, .000 .785767 45024,.3 175. .772
2 .50000 360 .000 .804079 45334,. 9 176. .637
2 .50000 362, .000 .821520 45636,.2 177. .471
2 .50000 364 .000 .838224 45929,.8 178 .280
2 .50000 366 .000 .854293 46217,.0 179 .067
2 .50000 368. .000 .869810 46498 .7 179 .835
2 .50000 370. .000 .884839 46775,.8 180 .586
2 .50000 372. .000 .899434 47048,.7 181. .321
2 .50000 374 .000 .913641 47318,.1 182 .044
2 .50000 376. .000 .927496 47584,.3 182 .754
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2 .50000 380 .000 .954277 48108,.8 184 .141
2 .50000 382. .000 . 967253 48367,.7 184 .821
2 .50000 384 .000 . 979982 48624,.6 185 .491
2 .50000 386 . 000 . 992483 48879 .7 186 .154
2 .50000 388. .000 1.00477 49133,.3 186 .809
2 .50000 390, .000 1.01686 49385,.5 187 .458
2 .50000 392, .000 1.02876 49636,.4 188 .099
2 .50000 394 .000 1.04050 49886,.2 188 .735
2 .50000 396, .000 1.05206 50135 .0 189 .365
2 .50000 398, .000 1.06348 50382,.8 189 .989
2 .50000 400 .000 1.07475 50629 .8 190 .608
2 .50000 402, .000 1.08588 50876 .1 191 .222
2 .50000 404 ,.000 1. 09688 51121,.6 191 .832
2 .50000 406 .000 1.10776 51366 .6 192 .436
2 .50000 408, .000 1.11852 51611,.1 193 .037
2 .50000 410. .000 1.12917 51855,.1 193 .634
2 .50000 412. .000 1.13972 52098..7 194 .226
2 .50000 414 .000
. 1.15016 52341..9 194. .815
2 .50000 416. .000 1.16051 52584 .7 195 .400
2 .50000 418. .000 1.17076 52827..3 195 ..982
2 . 50000 420 .000 1: 18093 53069..7 196 .561
2 .50000 422. .000 1. 19101 53311 .8 197 .136
2 .50000 424, .000 1 .20101 53553 .8 197 .708
2 .50000 426, .000 1.21093 53795 .7 198 .277
2 .50000 428. .000 1.22078 54037..5 198 .843
2 .50000 430. . 000 1.23055 54279..1 199, .406
2 .50000 432. .000 1.24026 54520..8 199, .967
2 .50000 434. .000 1.24990 54762,.4 200, .525
2 .50000 436. .000 1.25947 55004..0 201, .081
2 .50000 438. .000 1.26898 55245..7 201 .634
2 .50000 440 .000 1.27844 55487 .4 202 .184
2 .50000 442. .000 1.28783 55729..2 202 .732
2 .50000 444 .000 1.29717 55971..0 203 .278
2 .50000 446 .000 1.30646 56213 .0 203 .822
2 .50000 448 .000 1.31569 56455 . 1 204 .364
2 .50000 450, .000 1.32487 56697..3 204 .903
2 .50000 452 .000 1 .33401 56939 .7 205 .441
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R-l34a
P T V H S
3 .00000 360. 000 548111 43764 .6 171 .339
3 .00000 362. 000 573684 44222 .5 172 .607
3 .00000 364. 000 596061 44634 .5 173 .742
3 .00000 366. 000 616260 45015 .8 174 .787
3 .00000 368. 000 634855 45375 .0 175 .766
3 .00000 370. 000 652206 45717 .3 176 .693
3 .00000 372. 000 668558 46046 .3 177 .580
3 . 00000 374. 000 684087 46364 .7 178 .434
3 .00000 376 .000 698922 46674 .2 179 .259
3 .00000 378 .000 713162 46976 .3 180 .061
3 . 00000 380. 000 726884 47272 .0 180 .841
3 . 00000 382. 000 740152 47562 .4 181 .603
3 .00000 384 .000 753016 47848 .1 182 .349
3 .00000 386. 000 765519 48129 .7 183 .080
3 .00000 388. 000 777695 48407 .6 183 .799
3 .00000 390. 000 789576 48682 .4 184 .505
3 .00000 392. 000 801187 48954 .4 185 .201
3 .00000 394. 000 812550 49223 .8 185 .886
3 .00000 396. 000 823685 49490 .9 186 .562
3 .00000 398. 000 834609 49756 .0 187 .230
3 .00000 400. 000 845337 50019 .3 - 187 .890
3 .00000 402. 000 855883 50280 .9 188 .542
3 .00000 404. 000 866258 50541 .1 189 .188
3 .00000 406. 000 876473 50799 .8 189 .827
3 .00000 408. 000 886539 51057 .4 190 .460
3 . 00000 410 .000 896463 51313 .9 191 .087
3 .00000 412. 000 906255 51569 .3 191 .708
3 . 00000 414. 000 915920 51823 .9 192 .325
3 . 00000 416. 000 925467 52077 .6 192 .936
3 ,.00000 418. 000 .934901 52330 .6 193 .543
3 .00000 420. 000 .944227 52582 .9 194 .145
3 .00000 422. 000 .953452 52834 .6 194 .743
3 .00000 424. 000 962580 53085 .8 195 .337
3 .00000 426. 000 971615 53336 .5 195 . 927
3 . 00000 428. 000 980562 53586 .8 196 .513
3 .00000 430 .000 989424 53836 .7 197 .095
3 ,.00000 432. 000 998205 54086 .2 197 .674
3,.00000 434. 000 1 .00691 54335 .5 198 .250
3..00000 436. 000 1 .01554 54584 .5 198 .822
3..00000 438. 000 1.02410 54833 .2 199 .391
3..00000 440. 000 1 .03259 55081 .8 199 .958
3..00000 442. 000 1 .04101 55330 .3 200 .521
3..00000 444. 000 1.04937 55578 .6 201 .082
3..00000 446. 000 1 .05767 55826 .8 201 .639
3..00000 448. 000 1 .06592 56075 .0 202 . 195
3 .00000
. 450. 000 1 .07410 56323 .1 202 .747
3 .00000 452. 000 1 .08223 56571 .2 203 .297
3,.00000 454. 000 1.09031 56819 .3 203 .845
3,.00000 456. 000 1.09834 57067 .4 204 .390
3..00000 458. 000 1 .10631 57315 .6 204 .934
3..00000 460. 000 1 .11424 57563 .9 205 .474
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of R-l34a
P T V H S
3 .50000
. 368 .000 .426717 43514 .2 169,.986
3,.50000 370 .000 .456729 44123 . 0 171..636
3 .50000
. 372 .000 .480963 44628 .5 172..999
3..50000 374 .000 .501898 45076 .5 174..200
3,.50000 376 .000 .520640 45487 .1 175..295
3..50000 378 .000 .537790 45871 .0 176..313
3,.50000 380 .000 .553721 46235 .1 177..274
3..50000 382 .000 .568681 46583 .6 178 .188
3 .50000 384 . 000 .582844 46919 .5 179 .066
3..50000 386 .000 .596339 47245 .2 179 . 912
3 .50000 388 .000 . 609264 47562 .4 180 .731
3 .50000 390 .000 .621696 47872 .2 181 .528
3 .50000 392 .000 .633693 48175 .8 182..304
3 .50000 394 .000 .645308 48474 .1 183 .063
3 . 50000 396 . 000 .656580 48767 .5 183..806
3..50000 398 .000 .667543 49056 . 9 184 .535
3..50000 400 .000 .678226 49342 .5 185..251
3,.50000 402 .000 .688655 49624 .9 185 .955
3..50000 404 .000 .698851 49904 .4 186 .649
3,.50000 406 .000 .708832 50181 .3 187 .332
3 .50000 408 .000 .718615 50455 .8 188 .007
3 .50000 410 .000 .728213 50728 .2 188 .673
3 .50000 412 .000 .737641 50998 .7 189 .331
3 .50000 414 .000 .746908 51267 .4 189 .982
3 .50000 416 . 000 .756026 51534 .6 190 .625
3 .50000 418 .000 .765004 51800 .4 191 .263
3..50000 420 .000 .773850 52064 .8 191 .894
3 .50000 422 .000 .782572 52328 .1 192 .519
3 .50000 424 .000 .791176 52590 .2 193 .139
3 .50000 426 .000 .799669 52851 .4 193 .754
3 .50000 428 .000 .808057 53111 .8 194 .363
3 .50000 430 .000 .816345 53371 .3 194 .968
3 .50000 432 .000 .824538 53630 . 0 195 .568
3 ,.50000 434 . 000 .832641 53888 .1 196 .165
3 .50000 436 .000 .840657 54145 .7 196 .757
3..50000 438 .000 .848591 54402 .6 197 .345
3 .50000 440 .000 .856446 54659 .1 197 .929
3..50000 442 .000 .864227 54915 .1 198..509
3..50000 444 .000 .871935 55170 .8 199 .086
3 .50000 446 .000 .879574 55426 . 1 199 .660
3,.50000 448 .000 .887147 55681 .1 200..231
3..50000 450 .000 .894657 55935 . 8 200 .798
3..50000 452 .000 .902105 56190 .3 201..362
3 .50000 454 .000 .909494 56444 .6 201 .924
3 .50000 456 .000 . 916827 56698 .7 202 .482
3 .50000 458 .000 .924106 56952 .7 203 .038
3 .50000 460 .000 .931332 57206 .6 203 .591
3 .50000 462 .000 . 938507 57460 .4 204 .142
3 .50000 464 .000 .945633 57714 .2 204 .690
3 .50000 466 .000 .952712 57967 .9 205 .235
3 . 50000 468 .000 .959746 58221 .6 205 .779
TM
Appendix B3
Properties of Refrigerant R-12

TM
P T V H S
psia F ft3/lbm BtU/lbm Btu/lbm-R
Liquid 9.31943 -40. 000 .10566E-1 70.5602 .205145
Vapor 9.31943 -40.000 3 .88937 143 .704 .379432
Liquid 12.0078 -30.000 .10678E-1 72.6555 .210066
Vapor 12.0078 -30.000 3.07336 144.847 .378082
Liquid 15.2702 -20.000 .10794E-1 74.7660 .214907
Vapor 15.2702 -20.000 2.45744 145.985 .376890
Liquid 19. 1856 -10 .000 .10915E-1 76.8931 .219673
Vapor 19.1856 -10 .000 1. 98626 147.116 .375837
Liquid 23 .8373 0.00000 . 11040E-1 79.0382 .224370
Vapor 23.8373 0.00000 1.62129 148.236 .374909
Liquid 29.3126 10.0000 .11171E-1 81.2030 .229005
Vapor 29.3126 10.0000 1.33531 149.345 .374089
Liquid 35.7023 20.0000 .11306E-1 83.3889 .233582
Vapor 35.7023 20.0000 1.10881 150.439 .373365
Liquid 43.1008 30.0000 .11449E-1 85.5975 .238107
Vapor 43.1008 30.0000 .927615 151.515 .372723
Liquid 51.6052 40.0000 .11597E-1 87.8305 .242584
Vapor 51.6052 40.0000 .781311 152.572 .372154
Liquid 61.3159 50.0000 .11754E-1 90.0897 .247019
Vapor 61.3159 50.0000 .662145 153.607 .371644
Liquid 72.3356 60.0000 .11919E-1 92.3771 .251417
Vapor 72.3356 60.0000 .564287 154.617 .371184
Liquid 84.7700 70.0000 .12093E-1 94.6948 .255782
Vapor 84.7700 70. 0000 .483308 155.597 .370763
Liquid 98 .7270 80.0000 .12277E-1 97.0450 .260118
Vapor 98 .7270 80.0000 .415807 156.546 .370372
Liquid 114 .317 90.0000 .12474E-1 99.4305 .264433
Vapor 114.317 90.0000 .359154 157.458 .370000
Liquid 131.654 100.000 .12684E-1 101.854 .268730
Vapor 131.654 100.000 .311292 158.328 .369635
Liquid 150.854 110.000 .12910E-1 104 .320 .273015
Vapor 150.854 110.000 .270600 159. 152 .369268
Liquid 172.038 120.000 .13154E-1 106 .832 .277297
Vapor 172.038 120 .000 .235793 159.923 .368886
Liquid 195.328 130 .000 .13420E-1 109.394 .281582
Vapor 195.328 130 . 000 .205840 160.632 .368474
Liquid 220.855 140 .000 -13712E-1 112.015 .285881
Vapor 220.855 140.000 .179908 161.269 .368017
Liquid 248.753 150. 000 .14036E-1 114.700 .290204
Vapor 248.753 150.000 .157319 161.823 .367496
Liquid 279.167 160.000 .14398E-1 117.461 .294565
Vapor 279.167 160.000 .137514 162.276 .366885
Liquid 312.251 170.000 .14810E-1 120.312 .298985
Vapor 312 .251 170 .^000 .120023 162.605 .366152
Liquid 348 .177 180 . 000 .15286E-1 123.271 .303490
Vapor 348.177 180.000 .104445 162.778 .365252
TM
p T V H S
psia F ft3/lbm Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-R
50 .0000 40.0000 .809203 152 .659 .372799
50 .0000 42.0000 . 813588 152 .965 .373411
50 .0000 44 . 0000 .817953 153 .270 .374019
50 .0000 46.0000 .822299 153 .576 .374624
50 .0000 48.0000 .826628 153 .881 .375226
50 .0000 50.0000 .830940 154 .186 .375825
50 .0000 52.0000 .835236 154 .491 .376422
50 .0000 54.0000 .839517 154 .795 .377017
50 .0000 56.0000 .843783 155 .100 .377609
50 .0000 58 .0000 .848035 155 .405 .378198
50 . 0000 60 . 0000 .852275 155 .709 .378786
50 . 0000 62 . 0000 .856501 156 .014 .379371
50 .0000 64 . 0000 .860715 156 .319 .379954
50 .0000 66.0000 .864917 156 .624" .380535
50 .0000 68.0000 .869108 156 .929 .381114
50 .0000 70.0000 .873288 157 .234 .381691
50 .0000 72.0000 .877458 157 .539 .382266
50 .0000 74 .0000 .881617 157 .844 .382839
50 .0000 76.0000 .885767 158 .150 .383411
50 .0000 78.0000 .889907 158 .455 .383980
50 .0000 80.0000 ..894038 158 .761 .384548
50 .0000 82.0000 .898160 159 .067 .385114
50 .0000 84.0000 .902273 159 .374 .385679
50 .0000 86.0000 .906378 159 .680 .386241
50 .0000 88.0000 .910474 159 .987 .386802
50 .0000 90.0000 .914563 160 .294 .387362
50 .0000 92.0000 .918644 160 .601 .387920
50 .0000 94.0000 .922717 160 .909 .388476
50 .0000 96.0000 .926784 161 .216 .389031
50 .0000 98 . 0000 .930843 161 .524 .389585
50 .0000 100. 000 .934895 161 .833 .390136
50 .0000 102.000 . 938940 162 .141 .390687
50 .0000 104 .000 .942979 162 .450 .391236
50 . 0000 106 . 000 . 947011 162 .759 .391783
50 .0000 108.000 .951037 163 .069 .392329
50 .0000 110.000 .955056 163 .379 .392874
50 . 0000 112.000 .959070 163 .689 .393417
50 . 0000 114.000 .963078 163 .999 .393959
50 .0000 116.000 .967080 164 .310 .394500
50 .0000 118.000 .971076 164 .620 .395039
50 .0000 120.000 .975067 164 .932 .395577
50 .0000 122.000 .979052 165 .243 .396113
50 .0000 124.000 .983032 165 .555 .396649
50 .0000 126.000 .987007 165 .867 .397183
50 .0000 128.000 .990977 166 .180 .397715
50 .0000 130.000 .994941 166 .493 .398247
TM

p T V H S
75. 0000 65.0000 .549125 155, .285 .371938
75..0000 67.0000 .552260 155. .607 .372551
75..0000 69.0000 .555377 155. .929 .373161
75.,0000 71.0000 .558477 156, .250 .373768
75..0000 73 .0000 .561561 156 .571 .374371
75..0000 75.0000 .564630 156. .892 .374972
75..0000 77.0000 .567683 157 .212 .375569
75 .,0000 79.0000 .570723 157 .531 .376164
75., 0000 81 .0000 .573750 157 .851 .376756
75..0000 83. 0000 .576763 158 .170 .377345
75..0000 85.0000 .579765 158 .489 .377932
75.. 0000 87.0000 .582754 158 .808 .378517
75., 0000 89 .0000 .585733 159 .127 .379099
75..0000 91.0000 . 588700 159 .446 .379678
75., 0000 93 .0000 .591657 159 .764 .380256
75 .,0000 95 . 0000 .594603 160. .083 .380831
75.,0000 97.0000 .597540 160 .401 .381405
75 .,0000 99 . 0000 . 600468 160 .720 .381976
75 ..0000 101. 000 .603386 161 .038 .382545
75..0000 103 . 000 .606295 161 .357 .383112
75..0000 105. 000 .609196 161 .676 .•383677
75..0000 107. 000 .612089 161 .994 .384241
75.. 0000 109. 000 .614973 162 .313 .384802
75., 0000 111.000 .617850 162 .632 .385362
75..0000 113 .000 .620719 162 .951 .385920
75.. 0000 115.000 .623581 163 .270 .386476
75.,0000 117.000 .626436 163 .589 .387031
75..0000 119.000 .629283 163, . 909 .387584
75..0000 121.000 . 632124 164 .228 .388135
75..0000 123 . 000 .634959 164 .548 .388684
75., 0000 125. 000 .637786 164 .867 .389232
75..0000 127. 000 .640608 165 .187 .389778
75.. 0000 129 . 000 .643423 165 .508 .390323
75., 0000 131. 000 .646233 165 .828 .390866
75.,0000 133 .000 .649036 166 .148 .391408
75.,0000 135.000 .651834 166 .469 .391948
75.,0000 137.000 .654627 166 .790 .392487
75.,0000 139.000 .657413 167, .111 .393024
75..0000 141.000 .660195 167, .432 .393560
75.,0000 143.000 .662971 167, .754 .394094
75.,0000 145.000 .665742 168. .076 .394627
75.,0000 147.000 .668509 168 .398 .395159
75.,0000 149.000 .671270 168, .720 .395689
75.,0000 151.000 .674026 169 .042 .396218
75..0000 153.000 .676778 169 .365 .396745
TM
p T V H S
100..000 85. 0000 .415794 157. 326 .371631
100 .000
. 87.0000 .418298 157. 663 .372249
100..000 89.0000 .420785 158 .000 .372863
100 ,. 000 91 .0000 .423255 158. 335 .373473
100 ..000 93 .0000 .425710 158. 669 .374079
100..000 95.0000 .428150 159. 003 .374682
100..000 97.0000 .430576 159. 337 .375282
100..000 99.0000 .432989 159. 669 .375879
100 .000 101.000 .435389 160. 002 .376473
100 .000 103 . 000 .437776 160. 334 .377064
100 .000 105.000 .440152 160. 665 .377652
100,.000 107. 000 .442516 160 .996 .378237
100 .000 109.000 .444869 161. 327 .378820
100 .000 111.000 .447212 161. 658 .379400
100 .000 113 .000 .449545 161. 988 .379978
100..000 115.000 .451868 162 .318 .380554
100..000 117.000 .454181 162. 648 .381127
100..000 119.000 .456486 162. 978 .381698
100..000 121. 000 .458781 163. 308 .382266
100.. 000 123 . 000 .461069 163. 637 .382833
100--..000 125.000 .463348 163. 967 .383398
100..000 127.000 .465619 164 .296 .383960
100,.000 129.000 .467882 164. 625 .384520
100..000 131.000 .470138 164. 955 .385079
100..000 133 .000 .472387 165. 284 .385635
100..000 135.000 .474628 165. 613 .386190
100 .000 137.000 .476863 165 .943 .386743
100..000 139.000 .479091 166. 272 .3.87294
100..000 141.000 .481313 166. 601 .387843
100..000 143.000 .483528 166. 931 .388391
100..000 145.000 .485737 167. 260 .388936
100..000 147. 000 .487941 167. 590 .389480
100..000 149. 000 .490138 167. 919 .390023
100..000 151.000 .492330 168 .249 .390564
100,.000 153 . 000 .494516 168 .579 .391103
100,.000 155. 000 .496696 168 .909 .391640
100..000 157. 000 .498872 169. 239 .392176
100..000 159. 000 .501042 169. 569 .392711
100,.000 161.000 .503207 169. 899 .393244
100,.000 163 .000 .505367 170. 229 .393775
100..000 165. 000 .507522 170 .560 .394305
100..000 167. 000 .509673 170 .890 .394833
100..000 169. 000 .511819 171. 221 .395360
100..000 171. 000 .513960 171, 552 .395886
100..000 173 .000 .516097 171. 883 .396410
100..000 175.000 .518230 172. 214 .396933
TM
p T V H S
120. , 000 100. .000 .349330 158 .913 .371952
120. , 000 102 .000 .351507 159 .260 .372571
120 ..000 104 .000 .353667 159 .606 .373186
120. .000 106 .000 .355811 159 .951 .373797
120. . 000 108 .000 .357940 160 .296 .374405
120. .000 110 .000 .360055 160 .639 .375009
120. .000 112 .000 .362157 160 .982 .375609
120. .000 114 .000 .364246 161 .324 .376206
120. .000 116 . 000 .366322 161 . 665 .376800
120. . 000 118 .000 .368387 162 .006 .377391
120. .000 120 .000 .370440 162 .346 .377979
120 .000 122 .000 .372482 162 .686 .378565
120. .000 124 .000 .374514 163 .025 .379147
120, .000 126 .000 .376536 163 .364 .379727
120, .000 128 .000 .378548 163 .703 .380304
120. .000 130 .000 .380551 164 .041 .380879
120. .000 132 .000 .382545 164 .380 .381451
120. .000 134 .000 .384530 164 .717 .382021
120. .000 136 .000 .386506 165 .055 .382589
120. .000 138 .000 .388475 165 .392 .383154
120. .000 140 .000 .390435 165 .730 . .383718
120, .000 142 .000 .392388 166 .067 .384279
120, .000 144 .000 .394334 166 .403 .384838
120, .000 146 .000 .396272 166 .740 .385395
120 ,.000 148 .000 .398204 167 . 077 .385950
120, .000 150, .000 .400128 167 .413 .386503
120, .000 152 .000 .402047 167 .750 .387054
120. .QOO 154 .000 .403958 168 .086 .387603
120. .000 156 .000 .405864 168 .423 .388150
120. .000 158 .000 .407763 168 .759 .388696
120, .000 160, .000 .409657 169 .096 .389239
120, .000 162 .000 .411544 16,9 .432 .389781
120, .000. 164 .000 .413427 169 .768 .390322
120 .000 166 . 000 .415303 170 .105 .390860
120. .000 168, .000 .417175 170 .441 .391397
120 .. 000 170 . 000 .419041 170 .778 .391932
120 ..000 172, .000 .420902 171 . 114 .392466
120. .000 174 .000 .422758 171 .451 .392998
120. .000 176, .000 .424610 171 .787 .393528
120. .000 178, .000 .426456 172 .124 .394057
120. .000 180 .000 .428298 172 .461 .394584
120. .000 182, .000 .430136 172 .798 .395110
120 ..000 184, .000 .431969 173 .135 .395634
120 ..000 186, .000 .433798 173 .472 .396157
120, .000 188 .000 .435622 173 .809 .396678
120 .000 190 .000 .437442 174 .146 .397198
TM
p T V H S
140. ,000 110 .000 .297845 159. .704 .371238

140. ,000 112 .000 .299816 160, .063 .371867
140. . 000 114 .000 .301768 160, .420 .372491
140. ,000 116 .000 .303704 160, .777 .373111
140. . 000 118 .000 .305624 161, .132 .373727
140 .,000 120 .000 .307529 161. .486 .374339
140. . 000 122 . 000 .309420 161 .839 .374947
140. . 000 124 . 000 .311297 162, .191 .375551
140. .000 126 .000 .313162 162 .542 .376151
140. ,000 128 .000 .315014 162 .892 .376748
140, .000 130 .000 .316854 163 .242 .377342
140. .000 132 .000 .318682 163 .590 .377933
140 .000
. 134 .000 .320500 163 .939 .378521
140. .000 136 .000 • .322308 164 .286 .379105
140. .000 138 .000 .324105 164 .634 .379687
140. .000 140 .000 .325893 164 .980 .380266
140. ,000 142 .000 .327671 165 .327 .380843
140 ..000 144 .000 .329441 165 .672 .381417
140. , 000 146 . 000 .331201 166 .018 .381988
140. .000 148 .000 .332954 166 .363 .382557
140. .000 150 . 000 .334698 166 .708 .383123
140 .000
. 152 .000 .336435 167 .052 .383687
140. .000 154 .000 .338164 167 .397 . 384249
140. .000 156 .000 .339885 167 .740 .384809
140, .000 158 .000 .341600 168 .084 .385366
140. .000 160 .000 .343307 168 .428 .385922
140, .000 162 .000 .345008 168 .771 .386475
140. ,000 164 .000 .346703 169 .114 .387026
140. .000 166 .000 .348391 169 .458 .387575
140. .000 168 .000 .350073 169, .801 .388123
140. ,000 170 .000 .351749 170 .143 .388668
140. .000 172 .000 .353419 170, .486 .389212
140 ,,000 174 . 000 .355083 170 .829 .389753
140. .000 176 . 000 .356742 171 .171 .390293
140. .000 178 . 000 .358396 171 . 514 .390831
140. . 000 180 .000 .360044 171 .857 .391367
140. .000 182 . 000 .361688 172 . 199 .391902
140. ,000 184 .000 .363326 172, .541 .392435
140. ,000 186 .000 .364960 172, .884 .392966
140 .,000 188 .000 .366588 173, .226 .393496
140. .000 190 .000 .368212 173, .569 .394024
140, .000 192 .000 .369832 173. .911 .394550
140. .000 194 .000 .371447 174 .254
, .395075
140 .000
, 196 .000 .373058 174 .596 .395598
140. .000 198 .000 .374664 174 .939 .396120
140, .000 200 .000 .376267 175 .282 .396640
TM
p T V H S
160 . 000 120. . 000 . 259645 160 .542 .370906

160. . 000 122. . 000 .261457 160 . 912 .371544
160. .000 124. .000 .263251 161 .281 .372176
160. .000 126. .000 .265027 161 .648 .372804
160 .000 128 . 000 .266786 162 . 013 .373427
160 . 000 130. .000 .268531 162 .377 .374045
160. . 000 132 .. 000 .270260 162 . 740 .374659
160 ..000 134 ..000 .271975 163 .102 .375269
160. .000 136. .000 .273677 163 .462 .375875
160. .000 138. .000 .275366 163 .822 .376478
160 .000 140. .000 .277043 164 .180 . 377077
160 .000 142. .000 .278708 164 .538 .377672
160 .000 144 ..000 .280362 164 .895 .378264
160 .000 146, . 000 .282006 165 .251 .378853
160 .000 148 .000 .283639 165 .606 .379438
160 . 000 150, . 000 .285262 165 . 961 .380021
160 . 000 152 . 000 .286876 166 .315 .380601
160. . 000 154 .000 .288480 166 .668 .381178
160 . 000 156 ,. 000 .290076 167 . 021 .381752
160. .000 158 .000 .291664 167 .374 .382324
160 .000 160, . 000 .•293243 167 .726 .382893
160 .000 162 .000 .294814 168 . 077 .383459
160 .000 164, .000 .296377 168 .428 .384023
160. .000 166 ,. 000 .297933 168 .779 .384585
160 .000 168 . 000 .299482 169 .130 .385144
160. .000 170, .000 .301024 169 .480 . 385702
160. .000 172, . 000 .302560 169 .830 .386256
160 .000 174. .000 .304088 170 .180 .386809
160 .000 176. .000 .305611 170 .529 .387360
160 .000 178. .000 .307127 170 . 879 .387908
160 .000 180. .000 .308637 171 .228 .388455
160. .000 182. .000 .310141 171 .576 .388999
160. .000 184. .000 .311640 171 . 925 .389542
160 .000 186. .000 .313133 172 .274 .390083
160 .000 188, .000 .314621 172 .622 . 390622
160. .000 190, .000 .316104 172 .970 .391159
160 .000 192. .000 .317581 173 .319 .391694
160. .000 194 ..000 .319054 173 .667 .392227
160 .. 000 196 .. 000 . 320521 174 .015 .392759
160 ,. 000 198 .. 000 .321984 174 .363 .393289
160. .000 200 ,.000 .323442 174 .711 .393817
160. .000 202. .000 .324896 175 . 059 .394343
160, .000 204. .000 .326346 175 .406 .394868
160. .000 206, .000 .327791 175 .754 .395391
160 .000 208 . 000 .329231 176 .102 .395913
160 . 000 210 . 000 .330668 176 .450 .396433
TM
p T V H S
180 .000 130 .000 .230325 161 .431 .370877
180 .000 132 .000 .232009 161 .812 .371522
180 .000 134 .000 .233674 162 .191 .372162
180 .000 136 .000 .235321 162 .568 .372796
180 .000 138 .000 .236952 162 .943 .373425
180 .000 140 .000 .238566 163 .316 .374048
180 .000 142 .000 .240166 163 .688 .374668
180 .000 144 . 000 .241751 164 . 059 .375283
180 . 000 146 .000 .243322 164 .428 .375893
180 .000 148 .000 .244881 164 .796 .376500
180 . 000 150 . 000 .246427 165 .163 .377103
180 . 000 152 .000 .247961 165 .529 .377702
180 . 000 154 .000 .249484 165 .894 .378297
180 .000 156 .000 .250996 166 .258 .378889
180 . 000 158 .000 .252498 166 .621 .379478
180 . 000 160 .000 .253990 166 .983 .380063
180 .000 162 .000 .255472 167 .344 .380645
180 .000 164 .000 .256945 167 .705 .381225
180 .000 166 .000 .258410 168 .065 .381801
180 .000 168 .000 .259865 168 .425 .382375
180 .000 170 .000 .261313 168 .783 .382946
180 .000 172 .000 .262752 169 .142 .383514
180 .000 174 . 000 .264184 169 .500 .384080
180 . 000 176 .000 .265609 169 .857 .384643
180 .000 178 .000 .267026 170 .214 .385204
180 .000 180 .000 .268436 170 .571 .385762
180 .000 182 .000 .269840 170 .927 .386318
180 .000 184 .000 .271237 171 .283 .386871
180 .000 186 .000 .272628 171 .638 .387423
180 .000 188 .000 .274012 171 .993 .387972
180 .000 190 .000 .275391 172 .348 .388519
180 .000 192 .000 .276764 172 .703 .389065
180 .000 194 .000 .278131 173 .057 .389608
180 .000 196 .000 .279492 173 .412 .390149
180 -.000 198 .000 .280849 173 .766 .390688
180 .000 200 .000 .282200 174 .119 .391225
180 .000 202 .000 .283546 174 .473 .391760
180 .000 204 .000 .284887 174 .827 .392294
180 .000 206 .000 .286223 175 .180 .392825
180 .000 208 .000 .287555 175 .533 .393355
180 .000 210 .000 .288882 175 .886 .393883
180 .000 212 .000 .290205 176 .239 .394409
180 .000 214 .000 .291523 176 .592 .394934
180 .000 216 .0-00 .292837 176 .945 .395457
180 .000 218 .000 .294147 177 .298 .395978
180 . 000 220 .000 .295452 177 .650 .396498
TM
Appendix C
Source: ALLPROPS program, Center for Applied Thermodynamic

Studies, University of Idaho. Published with permission of the
University of Idaho.
TM
Thermodynamic Properties of Nitrogen
p T Z
psia F
100 .000 -200.00 .953882

100 .000 -100.00 .985156
100 .000 0.00000 .995251
100 .000 100.000 .999380
100 .000 200.000 1. 00128
100 .000 300.000 1. 00220
100 .000 400.000 1. 00265
100 .000 500.000 1. 00284
100 .000 600.000 1. 00291
100 .000 700.000 1. 00290
100 .000 800.000 1. 00284
100 .000 900.000 1. 00277
100 .000 1000.00 1. 00268
100 .000 1100". 00 1. 00259
100 .000 1200.00 1. 00250
100 .000 1300.00 1. 00240
100 .000 1400.00 1. 00231
100 .000 1500.00 1. 00223
100 .000 1600.00 1. 00215
100 .000 1700.00 1. 00207
100 .000 1800.00 1. 00199
100 .000 1900.00 1. 00192
100 .000 2000.00 1. 00186
100 .000 2100.00 1. 00179
100 .000 2200.00 1. 00173
100 .000 2300.00 1. 00168
100 .000 2400.00 1. 00162
100 .000 2500.00 1. 00157
100 .000 2600.00 1. 00152
100 .000 2700.00 1. 00148
100 .000 2800.00 1. 00143
100 .000 2900.00 1. 00139
100 .000 3000.00 1. 00135
TM
p T Z
psia p
500 .000 -200.00 .740109
500 .000 -100.00 .929673
500 .000 0.00000 .979616
500 .000 100. 000 .999084
500 .000 200. 000 1. 00782
500 .000 300. 000 1. 01196
500 .000 400. 000 1. 01389
500 .000 500. 000 1. 01470
500 .000 600. 000 1. 01489
500 .000 700. 000 1. 01475
500 .000 800. 000 1. 01442
500 .000 900. 000 1. 01400
500 .000 1000 .00 1. 01353
500 .000 1100 .00 1. 01305
500 .000 1200 .00 I. 01256
500 .000 1300 .00 1. 01209
500 .000 1400 .00 I. 01163
500 .000 1500 .00 1. 01119
500 .000 1600 .00 1. 01077
500 .000 1700 .00 1. 01037
500 .000 1800 .00 1. 00999
500 .000 1900 .00 1. 00964
500 .000 2000 .00 1. 00930
500 .000 2100 .00 1. 00898
500 .000 2200 .00 1. 00868
500 .000 2300 .00 1. 00840
500 .000 2400 .00 1. 00813
500 .000 2500 .00 1. 00787
500 .000 2600 .00 1. 00763
500 .000 2700 .00 1. 00740
500 .000 2800 .00 1. 00718
500 .000 2900 .00 1. 00698
500 .000 3000 .00 1. 00678
TM
S53KS33
P T Z
psia F
10000. 0 -200.00 2. 14579

10000. 0 -100.00 1. 82613
10000. 0 0.00000 1. 66823
10000. 0 100.000 1. 57675
10000. 0 200.000 1. 51535
10000. 0 300.000 1. 46918
10000.0 400.000 1.43196
10000. 0 500.000 1. 40071
10000. 0 600.000 1. 37384
10000. 0 700.000 1. 35035
10000. 0 800.000 1. 32957
10000. 0 900.000 1. 31104
10000. 0 1000.00 1. 29438
10000. 0 1100.00 1. 27931
10000. 0 1200.00 1. 26561
10000. 0 1300.00 1. 25311
10000. 0 1400.00 1. 24164
10000. 0 1500.00 1. 23109
10000. 0 1600.00 1. 22135
10000. 0 1700.00 1. 21233
10000. 0 1800.00 1. 20396
10000. 0 1900.00 1. 19617
10000. 0 2000.00 1. 18891
10000. 0 2100.00 1. 18211
10000.0 2200.00 1. 17575
10000. 0 2300.00 1. 16978
10000. 0 2400.00 1. 16416
10000. 0 2500.00 1. 15887
10000. 0 2600.00 1. 15388
10000. 0 2700.00 1. 14917
10000. 0 2800.00 1. 14471
10000. 0 2900.00 1. 14049
10000. 0 3000.00 1. 13648
TM
Appendix D
Enthalpy of Air at Low Pressures

TM
Thermodynamic Properties of Air
p T H S Cv Z
MPa c kJ/kg kJ/kg-K kJ/kg-K
.100000 -100.00 172 .634 6.31711 .716686 .996086
.100000 -90.000 182 .720 6.37373 .716509 .996755
.100000 -80.000 192 .797 6.42731 .716391 .997300
.100000 -70.000 202 .869 6.47815 .716323 .997748
.100000 -60.000 212 .936 6.52652 .716299 .998120
.100000 -50.000 222 .999 6.57266 .716318 .998431
.100000 -40.000 233 .060 6.61676 .716382 .998693
.100000 -30.000 243 .119 6.65901 .716492 .998914
.100000 -20.000 253 .177 6.69955 .716650 .999103
.100000 -10.000 263 .235 6.73851 .716860 .999265
.100000 0.00000 273 .294 6.77603 .717125 .999404
.100000 10.0000 283 .354 6.81220 .717450 .999525
.100000 20.0000 293 .416 6.84712 .717837 .999629
.100000 30.0000 303 .482 6.88089 .718290 .999720
.100000 40.0000 313 .551 6.91357 .718812 .999799
.100000 50.0000 323 .625 6.94523 .719407 .999868
.100000 60.0000 333 .704 6.97595 .720075 .999929
.100000 70.0000 343 .790 7.00578 .720820 .999982
.100000 80.0000 353 .883 7.03477 .721643 1.00003
.100000 90.0000 363 .984 7.06298 .722546 1.00007
.100000 100.000 374 .094 7.09044 .723528 1.00011
.100000 110.000 384 .213 7.11720 .724591 1.00014
.100000 120.000 394 .343 7.14330 .725734 1.00017
.100000 130.000 404 .485 7.16877 .726957 1.00019
.100000 140.000 414 .638 7.19365 .728258 1.00022
.100000 150.000 424 .805 7.21797 .729637 1.00024
.100000 160.000 434 .986 7.24175 .731092 1.00025
.100000 170.000 445 .181 7.26501 .732621 1.00027
.100000 180.000 455 .391 7.28780 .734222 1.00028
.100000 190.000 465 .618 7.31012 .735892 1.00030
.100000 200.000 475 .861 7.33200 .737628 1.00031
.100000 210.000 486 .122 7.35346 .739428 1.00032
.100000 220.000 496 .401 7.37452 .741289 1.00033
.100000 230.000 506 .699 7.39519 .743208 1.00033
.100000 240.000 517 .016 7.41550 .745180 1.00034
.100000 250.000 527 .352 7.43545 .747204 1.00035
.100000 260.000 537 .709 7.45506 .749276 1.00035
.100000 270.000 548 .087 7.47434 .751392 1.00035
.100000 280.000 558 .486 7.49331 .753549 1.00036
.100000 290.000 568 .907 7.51198 .755744 1.00036
.100000 300.000 579 .350 7.53036 .757973 1.00036
.100000 310.000 589 .815 7.54847 .760233 1.00037
.100000 320.000 600 .302 7.56630 .762522 1.00037
.100000 330.000 610 .813 7.58387 .764835 1.00037
.100000 340.000 621 .346 7.60119 .767170 1.00037
.100000 350.000 631 .903 7.61827 .769524 1.00037
.100000 360.000 642 .484 7.63511 .771894 1.00037
.100000 370.000 653 .088 7.65173 .774277 1.00037
.100000 380.000 663 .716 7.66813 .776671 1.00037
.100000 390.000 674 .368 7.68431 .779074 1.00037
.100000 400.000 685 .044 7.70029 .781482 1.00037
TM
Appendix E
Enthalpy of Air at High Pressures

TM
Thermodynamic Properties of Air
p T H S Cv Z
MPa c kJ/kg kJ/kg-K kJ/kg-K
10.0000 -100.00 96.5917 4.66622 .841075 .658565
10.0000 -90.000 118.261 4.78798 .817680 .728185
10.0000 -80.000 136.977 4.88754 .799789 .783036
10.0000 -70.000 153.737 4.97217 .786423 .826212
10.0000 -60.000 169.173 5.04636 .776237 .860653
10.0000 -50.000 183.668 5.11284 .768289 .888518
10.0000 -40.000 197.468 5.17334 .761966 .911342
10.0000 -30.000 210.735 5.22907 .756862 .930235
10.0000 -20.000 223.585 5.28086 .752700 .946013
10.0000 -10.000 236.098 5.32934 .749285 .959289
10.0000 0.00000 248.338 5.37500 .746474 .970533
10.0000 10.0000 260.350 5.41819 .744164 . 980109
10.0000 20.0000 272.172 5.45922 .742276 .988304
10.0000 30.0000 283 .833 5.49834 .740749 " .995346
10.0000 40.0000 295.356 5.53574 .739536 1.00142
10.0000 50.0000 306.761 5.57159 .738602 1.00667
10.0000 60.0000 318.065 5.60604 .737916 1.01123
10.0000 70.0000 329.280 5.63921 .737454 1.01519
10.0000 80.0000 340.419 5.67121 .737197 1.01864
10.0000 90.0000 351.492 5.70213 .737128 1.02165
10.0000 100.000 362.507 5.73205 .737234 1.02428
10.0000 110.000 373.472 5.76105 .737504 1.02657
10.0000 120.000 384.394 5.78919 .737925 1.02857
10.0000 130.000 395.278 5.81652 .738490 1.03032
10.0000 140.000 406.130 5.84311 .739190 1.03185
10.0000 150.000 416.954 5.86900 .740017 1.03318
10.0000 160.000 427.755 5.89423 .740965 1.03434
10.0000 170.000 438.537 5.91884 .742026 1.03535
10.0000 180.000 449.303 5.94286 .743194 1.03623
10.0000 190.000 460.055 5.96633 .744463 1.03698
10.0000 200.000 470.798 5.98928 .745828 1.03763
10.0000 210.000 481.534 6.01174 .747282 1.03818
10.0000 220.000 492.265 6.03372 .748821 1.03865
10.0000 230.000 502.993 6.05526 .750438 1.03904
10.0000 240.000 513.721 6.07637 .752130 1.03936
10.0000 250.000 524.450 6.09707 .753890 1.03963
10.0000 260.000 535.182 6.11739 .755714 1.03984
10.0000 270.000 545.918 6.13735 .757598 1.04001
10.0000 280.000 556.661 6.15694 .759536 1.04013
10.0000 290.000 567.411 6.17620 .761525 1.04021
10.0000 300.000 578.169 6.19514 .763559 1.04026
10.0000 310.000 588.937 6.21377 .765636 1.04027
10.0000 320.000 599.716 6.23209 .767750 1.04026
10.0000 330.000 610.506 6.25013 .769899 1.04022
10.0000 340.000 621.309 6.26790 .772078 1.04016
10.0000 350.000 632.125 6.28540 .774284 1.04008
10.0000 360.000 642.956 6.30264 .776513 1.03999
10.0000 370.000 653.801 6.31963 .778763 1.03987
10.0000 380 .000 664.661 6.33639 .781029 1.03974
10.0000 390.000 675.537 6.35291 .783310 1.03960
10.0000 400.000 686.429 6.36922 .785603 1.03945
TM
APPENDIX F
Maxwell Relations
The four Maxwell relations are derived through the use of

(6.12), (2.33) in differential form, and the Helmholtz and Gibbs
functions in differential form. The latter two functions are denoted
by a and b, respectively, and are defined by
a = u-Ts (1)
and
b = h-Ts (2)
It is clear that both a and b are thermodynamic properties, since

each is expressed explicitly in terms of three thermodynamic
properties. We can write differentials of the four properties, u, h,
a, and b, using (6.12), (6.12) and (2.33), (1) and (2); thus, we write
du = -pdv + Ids (3)
dh = vdp + Tds (4)
da = -pdv - sdT (5)
(6)
Since each differential in the above set of equations is the

differential of a thermodynamic property, then each of the above
is an exact differential; thus, each of the two coefficients on the
TM

right of each of the above equations is a first derivative of the
dependent variable, e.g., in (3) we see that
(7)
Vtf vy s
and
('A ,A
(8)
Since the mixed second derivatives are independent of the order of

differentiation, the mixed derivatives of (7) and (8) may be
equated; thus, we have the result,
which is the first Maxwell relation. Clearly it relates entropy to the

measureable properties, p, v, and T.
When the same technique is applied to (4), (5), and (6), the
remaining three Maxwell relations are found; thus, we find
TM
s\ nn\ { *\ \
dp), (dp),
TM

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Part II: Applications

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1.1 The Nature of Thermodynamics

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Figure 1.1 Power plant cycle with H2O as working substance.

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where m is the mass per molecule, n is the number of molecules

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is increased proportionately, and the pressure exerted on any sur-

-mo2 =-kT (1.3)

Boltzmann constant is 1.38x10" J/degK; the units of the right

The stored energy U is the total internal energy of the system.

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Similarly a change in another property, say pressure, would be

All changes in properties are denoted in this manner; this is

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Most of the thermodynamics problems encountered in this book

The interpretation of (1.14) is that pressure, which is arbitrarily

Any of the three equations written above could be properly

where it is assumed, in all cases, that the dependent variable and

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Besides the equation of state the system may be constrained to

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2.1 Nature of a Cycle

where [/is the total internal energy of a system of N molecules, k