2

Vectors
COORDINATE SYSTEM
SCALARS
VECTORS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS

U nderstanding vector quantities and mastering basic vector mathematics are

essential skills in physics. After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

■ Identify a mathematical coordinate system that will provide a common frame of

reference to orient direction in physics problems.
■ Understand the differences and similarities among scalar and vector quantities.
■ Resolve vectors into components, and add vector quantities.

COORDINATE SYSTEM
Problems in physics often involve the motion of objects. Position, displacement,
velocity, and acceleration are key numerical quantities needed to describe the motion of
an object. Position involves a specific location, while velocity and acceleration act in
specific directions. Using the mathematical coordinate system is ideal to visualize
both position and direction. The coordinate system provides a common frame of
reference in which the quantities describing motion can be easily and consistently
compared with one another.
We can place an axis anywhere, and we can orient the axis in any direction of our
choosing. If a problem does not specify a starting location or direction, then position
the origin at the object’s starting location. In Figure 2.1, a problem involving the motion
of a car can be visualized as starting at the origin and moving horizontally along the
positive x-axis.

Figure 2.1. Horizontal motion

In more complex problems, some quantities cannot be oriented along a common axis. In
these problems, direction must be specified in degrees measured counterclockwise
(ccw) from the positive x-axis.
 Figure 2.2. Coordinate system

A coordinate system is a valuable tool that provides a frame of reference when position
and direction are critical factors.

SCALARS
A scalar is a quantity having only a numerical value. No direction is associated with a
scalar. The numerical value describing a scalar is known as its magnitude. Some
examples of commonly used scalars are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Commonly Used Scalars
Quantities Involving Examples of Common Scalars

Time Time—t, period—T, and frequency—f

Motion Distance—d and speed—v

Energy Kinetic energy—K or KE and potential energy—U or PE

Mass Mass—m and density—ρ

Gases Pressure—P, volume—V, and temperature—T

Electricity Charge—q or Q and potential (voltage)—V

Circuits Current—I, resistance—R, and capacitance—C

The symbols representing scalars are printed in italics. For example, a mass of 2.0
kilograms will be written as m = 2.0 kg. Scalars can have magnitudes that are positive,
negative, or zero. For example, time = 60 seconds, speed = 0 meters per second, and
temperature = −10° C.
VECTORS
Although scalars possess only magnitude, vectors possess both magnitude and a
specific direction. Examples of commonly encountered vectors are listed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Commonly Used Vectors

Formal vector variables are usually written in italics with a small arrow drawn over
the letter, as shown in the middle column in Table 2.2. The College Board converted to
this style in its Advanced Placement courses for the 2015 exam. Before that change, the
College Board indicated vector quantities using bold standard print. Why mention this?
The SAT Subject Exam in Physics is separate from the Advanced Placement Exams. As
a result, there may be some differences in the conventions that these two separate
College Board organizations use to express vector quantities.
IF YOU SEE a specific direction

Vector Quantity

Direction is important, and it influences vector mathematics.

You may encounter vector quantities, such as force, in any one of these forms: , F,
Fx, Fy, and F. The first, , is the most accepted and distinctly indicates a vector
quantity. It is the format used in this book and in the SAT Subject Test in Physics. The
second, F, is an alternate way to indicate a vector quantity. The next two, Fx and Fy,
signify vector components that lie along the specific axis indicated by their subscripts.
The last, F, appears to be the convention to indicate a scalar quantity. This is actually
used very frequently in textbooks and on formal exams. It is typically used when only
the magnitude of the vector is needed and the direction is understood.
Distinguishing between vectors and scalars by simply looking at an equation can be
confusing. How, then, do we tell scalars and vectors apart? Physics problems may
contain clues in the text of the problem to help distinguish vectors from scalars. The
mention of a specific direction definitely indicates a vector quantity. However, it is up
to the student to learn which quantities are vectors and when the use of vector
components is necessary. Counting on the use of a specific set of symbol conventions
may not be wise.
Vectors do follow certain mathematical conventions that are worth noting. Vector
magnitudes can be only positive or zero. However, vectors can have negative direction.
Consider the acceleration of gravity, a vector quantity acting in the negative y-direction.
The gravity vector includes both magnitude and direction ( = 10 m/s2, −y).
Substituting this exact expression, including the negative y-direction, into an equation is
not really workable. Instead the value −10 m/s2 may be substituted into equations. The
negative sign in front of the magnitude indicates the negative y-direction. This can be
done only if all the vector quantities used in an equation lie along the same axis and it is
understood that the signs on all vector quantities represent direction along that axis.
This essentially transforms the vector quantities into scalar quantities, allowing normal
mathematical operations. As a result, the variable may be shown as a scalar in italics
(g = −10 m/s2) rather than in bold print. When a negative sign is associated with a
vector quantity, it technically specifies the vector’s direction and assists with proper
vector addition.
Vectors are represented graphically as arrows. For displacement vectors, the tail of
the arrow is the initial position of the object, xi, and the tip of the arrow is the final
position of the object, xf . The length of the arrow represents the vector’s magnitude, and
its orientation on the coordinate axis indicates direction. This may give some insight
into the reason that some vector quantities are displayed in italics.
Figure 2.3 shows a car moving 200 meters and its associated vector.

Figure 2.3. Horizontal displacement

The magnitude of the displacement vector, Δx, is the absolute value of the difference
between the final position, xf , and the initial position, xi. Direction can be seen in the
diagram.

Δx = xf − xi = 200 − 0 = 200 m, to the right (+x)

For other vectors, such as velocity and force, the quantity described by the vector
occurs at the tail of the arrow. The tail of the arrow shows the actual location of the
object being acting upon by the vector quantity. The tip of the arrow points in the
direction the vector is acting. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
vector quantity. The magnitude and direction described by these types of vectors may
be instantaneous values capable of changing as the object moves. In addition, the object
may not reach the location specified by the tip of the arrow.
These types of vectors are readily seen in projectile motion. In Figure 2.4, a
projectile is launched with a speed of 50 meters per second at an angle of 37° above
the horizontal.

Figure 2.4. Projectile motion

Although only three key velocity vectors are shown in the diagram, they clearly
demonstrate how the magnitude and direction of velocity change throughout the flight.
During the motion depicted in the diagram, no two instantaneous velocity vectors are
completely alike.
You will encounter a variety of vector quantities in the chapters ahead. Knowing how
to recognize vectors quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force will
improve your problem-solving skills. The importance of vector direction cannot be
overstated. Including the correct sign representing a vector’s direction is often the key
to arriving at the correct solution. The next sections will demonstrate the importance of
vector direction as we review basic vector mathematics.
IF YOU SEE a diagonal vector, with direction given in degrees
 Find the x- and y- component vectors.

x- and y- vectors act independently

VECTOR MATHEMATICS
Components
Vectors aligned to the x- and y-axes are mathematically advantageous. However, some
problems involve diagonal vector quantities. Diagonal vectors act simultaneously in
both the x- and y-directions, and they are difficult to manipulate mathematically.
Fortunately, diagonal vectors can be resolved into x- and y-component vectors. The x-
and y-component vectors form the adjacent and opposite sides of a right triangle where
the diagonal vector is its hypotenuse. Aligning the component vectors along the x- and
y-axes simplifies vector addition.
The magnitudes of component vectors are determined using right triangle
trigonometry. In Figure 2.5, vector A is a diagonal vector. It has a magnitude of A and a
direction of θ.

Figure 2.5. Magnitudes of vectors

Vector Ax is the x-component of and is adjacent to angle θ. Vector Ay is the y-

component of and is opposite angle θ. Normally, the magnitude of the components of
vector would be determined using the following right triangle trigonometry.

Ax = A cos θ, +x-direction
Ay = A sin θ, +y-direction

The SAT Subject Test in Physics does not allow the use of a calculator. If component
vectors are needed to solve a problem, there has to be an easy way to avoid using
trigonometry. This can be accomplished if questions involve only three well-known,
memorized, right triangles.
Important Right Triangles
On exams excluding calculator use, determining component vectors will be restricted to
the key right triangles shown in Table 2.3:
Table 2.3 Important Right Triangles

EXAMPLE 2.1
Determining Component Vectors

A projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 50 meters per second at an angle of 37° above the horizontal.
Determine the x- and y-component vectors of the velocity.

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

Draw the component vectors, and identify the adjacent and opposite sides.

The 37° angle indicates a 3-4-5 triangle. Determining the magnitudes of each component requires multiplying the
 hypotenuse by the correct fraction. The direction of each component can be determined by looking at the diagram.

vx = 4/5 hyp = 4/5 (50) = 40 m/s, +x-direction

vx = 3/5 hyp = 3/5 (50) = 30 m/s, +y-direction

In some problems, the component vectors are known or given and you must determine
the vector they describe. Pythagorean theorem and inverse tangent are used to calculate
the magnitude and direction of the diagonal vector described by the component vectors.

Taking an exam without using a calculator will limit your ability to perform these
calculations. Problems will be limited to those easily solved by the Pythagorean
theorem, or they will involve the three key right triangles described.
IF YOU SEE components and need the resultant

Pythagorean theorem or the memorized key right triangles

Adding Vectors
One important aspect of working with vectors is the ability to add two or more vectors
together. Only vectors with the same units for magnitude can be added to each other.
The result of adding vectors together is known as the vector sum, or resultant.
You can use two visual methods to add vectors. The first is the tip-to-tail method,
and the second is the parallelogram method. In some problems, the resultant is known
or given and you must determine the magnitude and direction of one of the vectors
contributing to the vector sum. The sections below detail examples of each of these
scenarios.

TIP-TO-TAIL METHOD
Adding vectors tip to tail is advantageous when a vector diagram is not given. Begin
by sketching a coordinate axis. Vectors can be added in any order. However, drawing
x-direction vectors first, followed by y-direction vectors, is advantageous. Choose the
first vector, and draw it starting from the origin and pointing in the correct direction.
Start drawing the tail of the next vector at the tip of the previous vector. Keep the
orientation of the second vector the same as it was given in the question. Continue this
process, adding any remaining vectors to the tip of each subsequent vector. Finally,
draw the resultant vector from the origin (tail of the first vector) pointing to the tip of
the last vector. Vector addition on the SAT Subject Test in Physics will most likely be
limited to the following simple cases:

■ Vectors pointing in the same direction

■ Vectors pointing in opposite directions
■ Vectors that are 90° apart
The following examples demonstrate tip-to-tail vector addition for these three common
scenarios.

EXAMPLE 2.2
Adding Vectors Pointing in the Same Direction
A person walks 40 meters in the positive x-direction, pauses, and then walks an additional 30 meters in the positive
x-direction. Determine the magnitude and direction of the person’s displacement.

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

When vectors point in the same direction, simply add them together. Sketch or visualize the vectors tip to tail. The
resultant is equal to the total length of both vectors added together.

EXAMPLE 2.3
Adding Vectors Pointing in the Opposite Direction
A person walks 40 meters in the positive x-direction, pauses, and then walks an additional 30 meters in the
negative x-direction. Determine the magnitude and direction of the person’s displacement.

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

When a vector points in the opposite (negative) direction, you can insert a minus sign in front of the magnitude.
Technically, vectors cannot have negative magnitudes. The minus sign actually indicates the vector’s direction, and
it represents a vector turned around 180°. Again, sketching or visualizing the vectors tip to tail will help you arrive
at the correct resultant. The resultant is drawn from the origin to the tip of the last vector added.
 EXAMPLE 2.4
Adding Vectors That are 90° Apart
An object moves 100 meters in the positive x-direction and then moves 100 meters in the positive y-direction.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the object’s displacement.

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

Start at the origin and draw the x-direction vector first. Then add the tail of the y-direction vector to the tip of the
first vector. Finally, draw the resultant from the origin pointing toward the tip of the final vector added.

The components and resultant form a 45°-45°-90° triangle. The magnitude of the hypotenuse can be obtained by
multiplying a side by the square root of two.

hypotenuse = ( )(side) = ( )(100), θ = 45°

Without a calculator, 100 is the mathematically simplified answer.

PARALLELOGRAM METHOD
In some exam questions, a vector diagram may be provided that shows the vectors in a
tail-to-tail configuration. You can add these vectors by constructing a parallelogram, as
shown in the example below.

EXAMPLE 2.5
Adding Vectors Using the Parallelogram Method

A mass, m, is acted upon by two force vectors, 1 = 16.0 N in the +x-direction and 2 = 12.0 N in the +y-
direction, as shown in the diagram above. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on
mass m.

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

 Construct a parallelogram. The diagram below on the left, shows a dashed line drawn from the tip of 1 parallel
to 2 and a second dashed line drawn from the tip of 2 parallel to 1. In the diagram below on the right, the
resultant is drawn with its tail starting at the origin and the tip extending to the intersection of the dashed lines. The
resultant is the sum of the force vectors (Σ ).

The dashed lines have the same length as the given vectors. Adding the resultant to the diagram creates two right
triangles. Look carefully at the ratio of the sides. Two 3-4-5 triangles have been formed.

Σ = 20.0 N at 37°

Finding a Missing Vector

In some problems, the resultant is known and the problem requires you to find the
magnitude and direction of a missing vector. This frequently occurs when clues in the
problem lead you to the conclusion that the resultant vector has a magnitude equal to
zero. In order for two vectors to add up to zero, the vectors must have equal magnitudes
and point in opposite directions.

EXAMPLE 2.6
Deducing the Existence of a Missing Vector

A mass, m, is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A 10-newton force acting in the positive x-direction is applied
to mass m. The mass remains at rest. Why?

WHAT’S THE TRICK?

A force is either a push or a pull. When an object remains stationary, all the pushing forces acting on the object
must cancel out each other. Therefore, the sum of all the force vectors is zero. You must conclude that a second
force is acting on the mass to cancel the force given in the problem. The only force capable of canceling the given
force is a 10-newton force acting in the opposite direction.
 SUMMARY
1. DIRECTION IS AN IMPORTANT AND SIGNIFICANT ASPECT OF MANY QUANTITIES IN
PHYSICS. At the start of a problem dealing with vector quantities, visualize the subject of the problem (object
or mass) at the origin of a coordinate axis system.
Draw vector quantities acting on the object as pointing outward from the object.
This allows the coordinate axis system to act as a frame of reference to display, compare, and mathematically
manipulate vector quantities.
2. QUANTITIES IN PHYSICS ARE EITHER SCALARS OR VECTORS. Scalars and vectors share one
common characteristic; they both have a numerical size or strength known as a magnitude. Vector quantities
have an additional characteristic; they point in a specific direction. Vectors are represented in diagrams as
arrows where the length of the arrow is proportional to the vector’s magnitude and the direction of the arrow is
consistent with the direction of the vector. The magnitude of vectors can be only positive or zero. A negative
sign associated with a vector quantity indicates that the vector points in a negative (opposite) direction.
3. VECTOR MATHEMATICS INCLUDES RESOLVING VECTORS INTO COMPONENTS AND
ADDING THE VECTORS. Working with vectors that do not lie along a principal axis is difficult. Fortunately,
vectors can be mathematically broken down into component vectors that lie along the x- and y-axes. A vector
and its component vectors form a right triangle. You can add vectors and vector components together using
either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram method of vector addition. Only vectors measuring the same
quantities, with the same units, can be added together. Knowing the side relationships for the 30°-60°-90°, 3-4-5,
and 45°-45°-90° right triangles is essential when solving vector components and when adding perpendicular
vectors.

If You See Try Keep in Mind

A specific direction associated Remember that you are Vector direction is very important and can
with a given quantity working with a vector influence vector mathematics.
quantity.

A diagonal vector quantity with Find the x- and y-component Without a calculator, this involves memorizing the
a direction specified in degrees vectors. side relationships for three key right triangles:
30°-60°-90°
3-4-5
45°-45°-90°

Component vectors and you Use the Pythagorean theorem

need the resultant vector

and/or the memorized sides of

the three key right triangles.

PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Which of the following statements does NOT describe a vector quantity?
(A) An object has a speed of 20 m/s in the positive x-direction.
(B) A 30-newton force acts at an angle of 30° above the horizontal.
 (C) A car travels a distance of 2.0 kilometers.
(D) The acceleration of gravity, g, is directed downward.
(E) A mass is displaced 5.0 meters horizontally.
2. A projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 50 meters per second at an
angle of 30° above the horizontal. Determine the y-component of the projectile’s
initial velocity, vy.
(A) 25 m/s
(B) 30 m/s
(C) 25 m/s
(D) 40 m/s
(E) 25 m/s
3. Two forces act on a 5-kilogram mass. A 16-newton force pushes the mass in the
positive x-direction, and a 12-newton force pushes in the negative x-direction.
Determine the resultant net force acting on the mass.
(A) 4 N, −x direction
(B) 4 N, +x direction
(C) 14 N, +x direction
(D) 28 N, −x direction
(E) 28 N, +x direction

4. A mass is displaced upward along a 30° incline as shown in the diagram above.
When it reaches the top of the incline, the mass has a vertical height, h, of 2.4
meters. What is the displacement, Δd, of the mass as measured along the incline?
(A) 1.2 m
(B) 1.2 m
(C) 3.0 m
(D) 2.4 m
(E) 4.8 m
5. Three forces act on a mass as shown above. Determine the magnitude of force
so that the resultant force acting on the mass is zero.
(A) 3 N
(B) 4 N
(C) 4 N
(D) 5 N
(E) 5 N