ROOF TYPES

© 1996–2023 Owens orning

https://www.owenscorning.com/en-us/roofing/tools/roof-types

8
Common Roof Types and Styles

If you’re getting a new roof or building an addition on your home that requires extra
roof space, then you may want to familiarize yourself with some of the most common
roof designs and how they impact your choice of roofing materials.

Roof Designs, Shapes & Styles

Depending on a home’s architecture, a roof can potentially make up 40% of the

exterior, often playing a big role in its overall look and curb appeal. So, when the time
comes to install a new roof, you’ll want to pick roofing materials and shingle
colors that work well with the shape and slope of your roof, as well as complement
your home’s exterior design.

Understanding the potential performance and design impact of different roof shapes
and slopes can help you decide which shingles and roofing materials are best for your
home from both a performance and an aesthetic point of view.

Pro Tip: Owens Corning® roofing shingles work on nearly all types of roof designs,

provided the roof slope meets the minimum requirements outlined. From three-tab to
architectural shingles, Owens Corning® offers various types of roofing shingles in a
wide range of colors that complement any roof style and home exterior, and are
durable to help protect your home from the elements. You can “try on” different
roofing shingles and colors using our Design EyeQ® Visualizer to see which
products and colors you like best for your home and roof type.

Roof Slope

The slope of your roof has both a practical and aesthetic function. Water from rain or
snow, for example, tends to shed, or run off, quicker on a steep slope roof. The roof’s
slope is expressed in a ratio based on the roof’s proportions.

Roofing contractors may use the term 6 in 12 or use a contracted version such as 6:12
or 6/12. What this means is that the roof rises 6 inches vertically for every 12 inches
(or 1 foot) horizontally. This can easily be translated for any number. A roof with a 4
in 12 slope will rise four inches vertically and 12 inches horizontally.

From flat grades to steep inclines, your home’s roof slope can help create an
interesting silhouette.

As you’re choosing roofing materials, keep in mind that the steeper the slope, the
more visible your roof’s surface is from the ground, potentially creating an even
greater impact on the exterior design aesthetics of your home.

Most homeowners can leave these calculations to their roofing contractor. However,
it’s important to know that the International Residential Code has specific minimum
slope requirements for all roof coverings, including asphalt roofing shingles. Your
roofing contractor can help you select the right choice for your slope.

Although some roof styles are traditionally built with a certain slope, it’s not a hard
and fast rule.

8 Common Roof Types

Gable Roof

Think back to your first crayon drawing of a home. Chances are you drew a gable
roof. It’s basically a triangle with the base resting atop the house and the two sides
rising to meet the ridge. Slopes can vary drastically on the gable roof from steep
chalet-style designs to rooftops with a gentle grade.
Gable Roof Illustration

The gable is an extremely popular roof style, and it works well on a variety of home
designs. You can fancy it up with front gables over your entryways or go with a
crossed gable design that consists of two ridges set at right angles. 

Clipped Gable Roof

The clipped gable roof goes by several names, including bullnose. Clipped gable roofs
are designed with the basic shape of a gable, with two sides rising to meet a ridge, but
then borrow an element from hip roofs: the top peaks are “bent in,” creating small
hips at the ends of the roof ridge.
Clipped Gable Roof Illustration

These hips provide an interesting architectural detail to homes and help showcase
high-performance, designer shingles.

Dutch Gable Roof

The Dutch gable roof is another combination style roof that uses design elements of
both gable and hip roofs. A miniature gable roof, or “gablet”, is perched atop a
traditional hip roof.
Dutch Gabled Roof Illustration

The gable portion provides homeowners with increased attic space and can even be
fitted with windows for added sunlight.

Gambrel Roof

Picture a classic red barn with white trim, and you’ve just envisioned a gambrel roof.
Its two sides have two slopes each, one steep and one gentle. The design permits the
use of the upper floor either as an attic room or loft. Adding windows to the sides of
the gambrel roof can bring natural light in and increase the use of the upper story.
Gambrel Roof Illustration

The steep sections of gambrel roofs are very visible, so homeowners should carefully
consider the appearance of their roofing shingles.

Hip Roof

A traditional hip roof consists of four equal-length slopes that meet to form a simple
ridge. There are variations, though, such as a half-hip that features two shorter sides
with eaves.
Hip Roof Illustration

If you have a hip roof, then you may have already realized that most of the roof is
visible when looking at your house. The type and color of roofing shingles you get
installed on a hip roof will make up a big piece of your home’s overall exterior look
because it is so highly visible.

Mansard Roof

The Louvre Museum in Paris is an excellent example of the mansard roof, which
takes its classic shape from French architecture. This four-sided design with double
slopes has very steep lower slopes, which can be flat or curved.
Mansard Roof Illustration

Although the mansard roof originated in France, it quickly became popular in the

United States. The style lets homeowners make full use of the upper story with an
abundance of interior attic space and multiple windows, and it looks especially
appealing when dormers are added.

Pro Tip: Opting for architectural shingles in a slate-like shape, like Owens 

Corning® Berkshire® shingles, can enhance this roof design’s old-world aesthetic
even more.

Shed Roof

If you favor modern home designs, you’ll likely appreciate a shed roof. This “lean-to”
style resembles half of a traditional gable. While it’s long been used for porches and
additions, the shed roof now graces the entire structure on ultra-modern builds. Most
shed roofs tend to have lower slopes, with 4 in 12 and below most common, although
steeper slopes will speed up water runoff.
Shed Roof Illustration

Homes with shed roofs tend to be unique structures that reflect their owners’ style and
personality. Shed roofs allow for some interesting window placement opportunities,
from small rows of glass panes directly beneath the roof to large picture windows
across the front of the house.

Flat Roof (Low Slope Roof)

When most people think of flat roofs, strip malls and industrial complexes often come
to mind. However, during the period between 1945 and 1970, many mid-century
modern architects experimented with flat rooflines creating dream homes for movie
stars and wealthy businessmen. Flat roofs matched the look of the period, blending
with the environment and providing large open floor plans. Some homes feature a
limited flat surface area with the rest of the roof having a gable or hip design. 
Additionally, some home additions may use a flat roof to provide extra second floor
living space.
 Flat Roof Illustration

Keep in mind flat doesn’t really mean flat —there needs to be some incline to allow
for water drainage.

Pro Tip: Flat roofs (low-slope) are particularly vulnerable to leaks, so they must be
thoroughly waterproofed and topped with an appropriate material, such as a self-
adhered, multi-ply, SBS modified bitumen membrane system, a PVC, TPO or rubber
membrane.

How to Choose Roofing Shingles for Your Type of Roof Style?

We’ve given you a breakdown of common roof shapes, which also have a variety of
sub-types that can be joined together in combination styles. Making the right shingle
selection is up to you.

 Drive through neighborhoods, browse houses online, and look through magazines to
find a roof style and color that reflects your dream house.
 Consider your neighborhood. You’ll have the choice to blend into your surroundings
or stand out — it depends on your personality and exterior design goals.
 Additionally, there may be building codes or HOA restrictions that limit your options,
so be sure to do your research before starting any project.

Owens Corning® roofing shingles can be used on all roof types, with limited

exceptions to certain roof slopes. Use roof color and design tools from Owens
Corning to see what your roof could look like in a variety of shingle styles and colors
and help you coordinate the roof with your home’s exterior.
 Once you’ve found the look you want, talk to an experienced independent roofing
contractor in the Owens Corning Contractor Network near you. They can help you
with choosing the appropriate shingles for your roof design and provide you with
an estimate along with roof financing opportunities.

Why Is the Roof the Most Important Part of the Home Exterior?

By Admin August 18, 2021

https://www.abbywindows.com/blog/p.210818000/why-is-the-roof-the-most-
important-part-of-the-home-exterior/#:~:text=Thus%2C%20a%20well
%2Dmaintained%20roof,come%20together%20in%20your%20home.

Roofs, no matter what they look like, are immediately the most important part of
every home. Although they are often overlooked, this home feature is more than just a
layer or a covering. Here, one of the most reliable roof and door replacement
companies will list down the reasons why roofs are essential.

It keeps your home safe and dry. One of the main functions of a roof is to protect
your home against natural to extreme weather conditions and possible elements. And
without it, families won’t have adequate shelter. Thus, a well-maintained roof will
guarantee the occupants are comfortable and secure.
It provides structural protection. The roof is also designed as a structural support
that keeps the entire house together. Without a roof, your lighting, plumbing and
interior design would not be able to come together in your home.

It provides insulation. A well-designed roofing system should have at least one layer
of insulation. This will serve as a barrier that would maintain indoor temperatures at a
much consistent rate. It reduces the output needed from HVAC units, making sure
your energy bills stay low.

It easily raises your home’s property value. A well-maintained roof can be one of
the many factors that potential buyers would look into. Consider having your yearly
inspection and having your new entry doors installed along with your roof repair
when necessary.

While your roof performs a huge role both in your property and to your family, make
certain that you are able to take good care of it. Remember that whenever you see
issues and defects, immediately call for a professional to have them inspected and
fixed.
In need of a roof replacement or new patio doors? Schedule an appointment with the
installation contractors of Abby Windows. Choose from our top-of-the-line materials,
colors, and products to create the home you've always dreamed of. You may reach us
at (414) 209-3648 or fill out our contact form.
Roof work
https://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/roofwork.htm#:~:text=Always%20follow%20a
%20safe%20system,and%20close%20to%20the%20roof.

What you need to do

The law says you must organise and plan all roof work so it is carried out
safely.

Assessing all work at height

All work on roofs is highly dangerous, even if a job only takes a few minutes.
Proper precautions are needed to control the risk.

Those carrying out the work must be trained, competent and instructed in use
of the precautions required. A 'method statement' is the common way to help
manage work on roofs and communicate the precautions to those involved.

On business premises contractors should work closely with the client and
agree arrangements for managing the work.

Key issues are:

 Safe access to roofs(local link)

 Roof edges and openings(local link)
 Fragile surfaces(local link)

What you need to know

Everyone involved in managing or carrying out work on roofs should be aware
of the following facts:

 High risk: almost one in five deaths in construction work involve

roof work. Some are specialist roofers, but many are just repairing
and cleaning roofs.
 Main causes: the main causes of death and injury are falling
from roof edges or openings, through fragile roofs and through
fragile rooflights.
 Equipment and people: many accidents could be avoided if the
most suitable equipment was used and those doing the work
were given adequate information, instruction, training and
supervision.
Safe access
Safe access to a roof requires careful planning, particularly where work
progresses along the roof.

Typical methods to access roofs are:

 general access scaffolds;

 stair towers;
 fixed or mobile scaffold towers;
 mobile access equipment;
 ladders; and
 roof access hatches.

Roof edges and openings

Falls from roof edges occur on both commercial and domestic projects and on
new build and refurbishment jobs. Many deaths occur each year involving
smaller builders working on the roof of domestic dwellings

 Sloping roofs: sloping roofs require scaffolding to prevent people

or materials falling from the edge. You must also fit edge
protection to the eaves of any roof and on terraced properties to
the rear as well as the front. Where work is of short duration
(tasks measured in minutes), properly secured ladders to access
the roof and proper roof ladders may be used.
 Flat roofs: falls from flat roof edges can be prevented by simple
edge protection arrangements – a secure double guardrail and
toeboard around the edge.

Fragile surfaces
Always follow a safe system of work using a platform beneath the roof where
possible. Work on or near fragile roof surfaces requires a combination of
stagings, guard rails, fall restraint, fall arrest and safety nets slung beneath
and close to the roof.

 Fragile roofs: all roofs should be treated as fragile until a

competent person has confirmed they are not. Do not trust any
sheeted roof, whatever the material, to bear a the weight of a
person. This includes the roof ridge and purlins.
 Fragile rooflights are a particular hazard. Some are difficult to
see in certain light conditions and others may be hidden by paint.
You must provide protection in these areas, either by using
barriers or covers that are secured and labelled with a warning.
Health and safety in roof work
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg33.htm

2020

Working on roofs is a hazardous activity because it involves working at height.

Roof work accounts for a quarter of all deaths in the construction industry.
Falls through fragile materials, such as roof lights and asbestos cement
roofing sheets, account for more of these deaths than any other single cause.
Not all the people killed while working on roofs are trained roofers: many
people accessing roofs are maintenance workers. There are also many
serious injuries, often resulting in permanent disabilities.

This fifth edition contains guidance on how to plan and work safely on roofs. It
covers new buildings, repair, maintenance, cleaning work and demolition. It
also includes some guidance for people not directly carrying out work on a
roof, such as clients, designers and specifiers. Roof work is an issue not just
for construction companies. Other workers, such as building maintenance
staff and surveyors, can also fall from or through roofs. This guidance will be
useful to anyone planning, arranging or supervising roof work, including:

 directors and partners of companies who carry out roof work;

 clients of projects involving roof work;
 designers and specifiers of buildings and components;
 principal contractors for projects that include roof work;
 owners of buildings where roof work may take place;
 trade union safety representatives and employees' safety
representatives;
 anyone carrying out roof work, including employees and the self-
employed; and safety consultants

Roof Safety
https://safetyculture.com/topics/roof-safety/

Learn about the importance of roof safety, how to identify and

eliminate the common rooftop safety hazards, and the top 10 safety
precautions for the safe work of roofers.
Published 31 Jan 2023

What is Roof Safety?

Roof safety is a system of preventive and safety measures when performing work and repairs on
rooftops. Roof safety should be practiced while on the job to avoid personal injuries and structural
damage.

Performing roof work exposes workers to risks such as falls, which are the leading cause of death
in the construction industry. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) cites
that falls from roofs account for 34% of all fall deaths.

5 Common Rooftop Safety Hazards

 5 Common Roof Safety Hazards

To protect roofers, contractors, and subcontractors from serious injury and death it is important to

identify hazards when working on rooftops and to follow critical safety steps to control these
hazards. Below are the most common rooftop hazards that should be identified and controlled to
keep roofers safe:

Roof Safety Hazard #1: Fall Hazards

 Always watch out for fall hazards when working at heights. Basic questions to ask
yourself and your team should be: Is the structure strong enough to support the
weight? Are there holes to watch out for? Are guardrails available for workers? Are
ladders properly placed and not defective? Use an inspection checklist to ask the right
questions and assess fall hazards when working from heights.


Roof Safety Hazard #2: Power Tools

 Power tools are essential when working on rooftops. However, if improperly used at
heights, power tools can inflict serious damage to workers as well as cause slips and
falls. Ensure your team is properly trained to handle power tools and that they are not
defective.

 Roof Safety Hazard #3: Electricity
 The construction industry is most at risk from electrical hazards, accounting for 52%
of all electrical fatalities in the US workplace. Workers most at risk of electrical
hazards include those working on rooftops and near power lines. Improper handling
of electrical equipment can cause massive electrical shock, burns, fires, and death.
Conduct regular electrical safety checks to identify and control possible causes of
electrocution to prevent accidents.


Roof Safety Hazard #4: Hazardous substances

 Common hazardous substances when working on rooftops include exposure to
asbestos, paint fumes, and harmful chemicals. Check for substances that may harm
workers on-site and take appropriate action including proper storage and safe
handling of hazardous substances.


Roof Safety Hazard #5: Extreme temperatures

 Whether it’s the heat of torches used for roofing or extremes in weather, workers must
be protected from the dangers of extreme temperature by identifying the risks brought
by equipment or current weather conditions. Have your team perform a toolbox
talk before your shift to decide whether you should commence work for the day.

It is imperative that rooftop hazards be identified to minimize the risk of accidents. You can
use SafetyCulture’s free digital checklists to conduct your hazard identification assessments and
take immediate action before accidents happen.

Personal Protective Equipment for Working

on a Roof
Employers have a duty to protect workers from recognized hazards. Depending on the associated
hazards, some of the PPE that may be required for working on a roof can include, but are not
limited to:

 non-slip footwear
 hard hat
 gloves
 eye protection like safety glasses and visors
 hearing protection like earplugs and muffs
 fall protection like safety harnesses and lanyards
 respiratory protection
 wet weather gear
Roof Safety Signs and Their Meaning
According to OSHA, safety signs are generally categorized into three types—danger signs,
warning signs, and caution signs. When working on rooftops, roofers will usually encounter the
following examples of roof safety signs and what they should do:

Danger Sign

When there is a roof safety danger sign, there are immediate hazardous conditions that will lead to
serious injury and death if not avoided. Upon seeing this sign before any roofing work, avoid it at
all costs.

Warning Sign

When there is a roof safety warning sign, there are existing life-threatening hazards that can lead
to serious injury or death. Accessing roofs by permit means that only authorized personnel or
 trained employees can be on them. Warning signs represent a hazard level between danger and
caution, needing specific precautionary measures to be taken.

Caution Sign

When there is a roof safety caution sign, there are minor hazard situations where a non-immediate
or potential hazard or unsafe practice presents a lesser threat of employee injury. Roofers should
be mindful of caution signs and apply necessary control measures in any roofing work.

Top 10 Roofing Safety Tips

1. Always begin with your Pre-Start Talk
Make sure you always conduct a 5-10 minute pre-start talk with all workers before
commencing work on a rooftop. Discuss common hazards present (like the common
hazards above), assess the condition of the work area, confirm that proper permits
have been secured, and encourage the team to verbalize the safety tips to follow.
Using a pre-start toolbox talk template can help your team communicate and record
their daily safety conversations.
2. Work only during good weather conditions and avoid extreme heat/cold
Not only does extreme weather cause slips and falls, but it can also hinder the proper
execution of roofing work (roof shingles not sealing down). A wet roof is also a huge
risk for slips and falls. Better side with caution and always wait for ideal weather
before you begin roofing work.
3. Ladders should be stable and properly secured or tied off
Always make sure that there are enough ladders for the job and that they’re all safe to
use. Check your ladders for safety as some of them may need repair or replacement to
prevent fatal accidents or injuries.
4. Wear proper PPE
Wearing proper PPE such as helmets, shoes with traction, and fall protection
harnesses can help save you when slips and falls occur. Perform regular PPE
checks to ensure your team is properly equipped.
5. Carefully position ropes and extension cords so they’re not underfoot
When not properly handled, ropes and cords not only hinder workers’ movements,
they can also cause fatal accidents. Always follow proper use of ropes, cords,
and safety harnesses.
6. Sweep the roof before and after work and make sure it is clear of dirt and debris
One random nail can cause slips while snow or leaves can hide areas of the roof that
should be visible to workers. Always keep the roof clean and free of items that can
cause accidents or materials that can hinder the visibility of the roof.
7. Use guardrails whenever possible
Guardrails serve as a visual and physical barrier that protects workers from falls. It
reduces the risk of injury and death from working on roofs.
8. Skylights should be guarded appropriately
Skylights and other openings on roofs should be properly covered and labeled with
visible warning signs to prevent workers from leaning on or falling into them.
9. Be careful of slate and tile roofs
Slate and tile roofing is a major slip hazard. Always make sure that workers are
properly trained and have enough experience to work on slate and tile roofs.
10. Signage should be visible in your work area
People around the work area should always be made aware of roofing work in the
vicinity by using visible warning signs to prevent injury or accidents with staff
working on-site or from falling debris.

Roof Safety Topics for Meetings

As the topmost safety precaution for working on roofs, pre-start talks should be
performed. Listed below are sample roof safety topics for meetings prior to
commencing roofing work:

 Working with Skylights and Roof Openings

 Basic Roof Housekeeping Standards
 Demonstrating the Proper Operation of Roof Cutters and Power Brooms
 Safety Measures for Job-built Ladders
 Identifying Potential Heat Illnesses and How to Avoid Them
 Pre-use Checks for Specific Roofing Equipment
 Proactively Preventing Horseplay to Avoid Slips, Trips, and Falls

You should now be familiar with the common rooftop safety hazards and basic steps
to follow to improve safety in your workplace. Explore how using a digital inspection
app like SafetyCulture (formerly iAuditor) can help you keep improving rooftop
safety in your workplace.
 Reduce the Risk of Accidents When Working
at Heights with a Roof Inspection Software
A roof inspection software is a digital tool used by safety inspectors in the
construction industry during rooftop safety assessments. It’s primarily used to identify
safety hazards and non-compliance with safety protocols while working at heights so
measures can be taken to prevent accidents.

Rooftop inspections play a critical role in ensuring worker safety and productivity.
According to the data gathered by the NIOSH Fatality Assessment and Control
Evaluation program, 42% of construction industry fatalities from 1982 to 2015 were
from falls. Considering the dire consequences of subpar safety protocols, it is
important that construction firms invest in ensuring the safety of their workers.

With the SafetyCulture Roof Inspection Software, safety inspectors can take
advantage of intuitive digital templates to improve the efficiency of walkthrough
inspections and use automatic report generation to improve awareness and visibility
within the organization. Here are the upsides of using iAuditor as your roof inspection
software:

 Save time
Traditional pen-and-paper templates require manual data entry and compiling
inspection data to create a comprehensive report takes up even more time.
SafetyCulture’s roof inspection software lets you generate comprehensive
professional reports immediately after completing your inspection so you can spend
more time collecting data instead of compiling them.
 Save energy
Aside from automatic report generation, data from each inspection is automatically
saved to the cloud where authorized personnel can easily access them from a mobile
device or desktop. Apply filters such as department, employee, template name, time,
and date to get the information you need without sorting through a stack of papers.
Say goodbye to manual data sorting and long hours spent drafting a comprehensive
report. SafetyCulture has you covered.
 Save space
Roof inspections must be done regularly, which means inspection data and reports
easily pile up. This can contribute to desk clutter if left unattended, and cabinets full
of paper reports when organized. Either way, paper reports will take up a lot of useful
workspaces. SafetyCulture’s roof inspection software saves all of your inspection data
via unlimited cloud storage so authorized personnel can access them through their
mobile device or desktop without contributing to office clutter.
 Improve accountability
Easily track assigned inspections and corrective actions to ensure that tasks are being
done on time. Assigned personnel will receive push notifications and reminders for
scheduled inspections and upcoming due dates for corrective actions. Apply
 mandatory fields and require digital signatures in inspection templates to make sure
that workers adhere to set protocols.
 Promote visibility
The useful insights provided by web analytics promote visibility by showing
management where the team is doing well and which aspects of the operation need
improvement. Get a 360-degree view of your performance and create an action plan to
maximize your team’s potential with the help of web analytics.

The occupational hazards involved in working at heights can be fatal, and it’s the
safety inspectors’ job to ensure that these risks are minimized by enforcing strict
adherence to safety protocols. With the help of the SafetyCulture roof inspection
checklist, achieving and maintaining an effective safety program in your organization
just became easier.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF HUMAN HOUSES AND HOMES

https://aashiyana.tatasteel.com/in/en/blogs-articles/a-brief-history-of-human-houses-and-
homes.html#:~:text=Around%203100%20BC%2C%20the%20ancient,got%20made%20for%20the
%20elite.

Humans are intelligent and different from all the other mammals inhabiting the
earth. They have the unique ability to combine different types of knowledge and
information to gain a better and detailed understanding of different subjects. The
human race has come a long way, with many inventions and innovations to make
life better for themselves. Several revolutions have taken place, which is
changing the way humans live on earth. One such aspect of human life that has
undergone tremendous change is housing. The evolution of human shelter is
spectacular, and it is worth travelling back in time to know about this stupendous
journey.

What is Human Shelter & Why Humans Need It?

The shelter is one of the fundamental requirements for every human being along
with food and clothing. It protects human beings from wild animals, natural
disasters, and changing climatic conditions. So, humans need shelter to feel
protected and for a sense of well-being. It is a comfortable place for a person
where one can rest, rejuvenate and revive.

In different phases of human life, there were varied forms of shelter. The history
of human life gets traced to the primitive era. During the Palaeolithic age also
referred to as the stone age, for survival and in search of food, human beings
lived under the trees and in natural caves. This era was around 25000 years ago.
It was followed by the Neolithic age, about 10000 years ago after the
Palaeolithic age. During this period, humans started using grass and wood to
make their shelter in the form of a tent or hut. After this was the Megalithic age,
where formation of places of worship took place using stone. There have been
many changes and transitions. Let’s learn more about it through the different
ages and civilisations to appreciate what humans have achieved today.

The Stone Age

In the prehistoric era, man relied on nature for shelter and protection. The
earliest form of housing was in the way of trees where people got minimal
protection from the sun, rain and cold weather. However, it did protect against
the animals that could not climb the tree. Another natural form of shelter was the
caves. These provide protection against weather but not from the wild animals.
The first manmade shelter got made with stones and tree branches. The stones
got placed on the surface building the base of the structure for holding the
branches in place. With time, materials like stone slabs, bones and animal hide
got used to building a stable, comfortable and secure shelter. Later, the man
started to make clay blocks and used it as the building block.

Ancient Civilizations
Around 3100 BC, the ancient Egyptians started using sun-dried blocks to make
flat-topped houses. Most domestic dwellings got built using perishable materials
like wood and clay bricks. However, peasants continued to live in simple homes
and palaces with more elaborate structures got made for the elite. The Assyrians
further improved the concept of sun-dried bricks after 600 years. They
discovered that baking bricks in the fire could make them harder and enhance
their durability. They also started glazing the bricks to strengthen them and for
improving their resistance to water.

The ancient Greeks also lived in well-made stone houses with slanted roofs.
Most of the structures were made using sun-dried bricks or wooden framework
with some fibrous material like straw or seaweed. The Romans further improved
the technique used by Greeks. They introduced the concept of central heating
that provided them with protection from the cold weather. They started to lay
down earthenware pipes under the floors and roof and ran hot water or air on
them to heat.

Chinese Architecture
Like most civilisations, the Chinese architecture was getting made with sun-dried
clay bricks. With these bricks, wood frames got used, and it formed the
foundation of the structure. The roofs got constructed without nails via layering
the different pieces in interlocking bracket sets. In the Chinese architecture, the
three main components were the foundation platform, timber frame and
decorative roof. From the era of the Tang dynasty, i.e. 618-907 AD, wood got
replaced with stone and bricks. This further made the buildings more durable and
protected against fire, rotting and weathering.

Middle Ages
The collapse of the Roman Empire around 400 AD marks the beginning of the
Middle Ages. Initially, the Germans and the Scandinavians took over, and they
supported the structure with the framework of heavy timber or wood and filled
the spaces between the wood with clay. There was also the use of water-filled
moats, drawbridges and thick stonewalls to fortify some of these structures build
by the Germans and Scandinavians. In the 15th century, Europeans started
constructing half-timbered houses with bricks and stone foundations. Tree trunks
got placed in the corners of the house, and sturdy wooden beams got used for
supporting the house.

Early Modern Period

This period includes the early industrial age and late Renaissance period. The
house construction during this period witnessed many technological
advancements. There was extensive use of glass and focus was on the design and
architecture of the building. Then, with the advent of the early industrial period,
there were innovations underway. Mass production, use of the steam engine and
large-scale availability of iron became common. Iron beams started getting used
for supporting the entire structure of the house. Bricks started getting
manufactured in factories with the use of kilns, and their cost came down
significantly. The advent of steam and water-powered sawmills led to the
manufacturing of wood in a standard size. Cheap nails were also becoming
readily available. All this reduced the house construction cost and balloon
framing became common.

The Contemporary Era

In today’s world, much has changed, and houses are elaborate structures with
buildings becoming common. For construction purpose, there is increasing use of
steel, concrete and glass. Even the building designs are getting complex, and a
combination of materials are getting used in the construction process. Reinforced
concrete is one such combination material where steel rods get combined with
concrete for providing a stable and solid structure. In this era, the focus is not
only on durability and robustness, instead houses should also offer comfort and
luxurious feel to the inhabitants.

House design and construction has reached a new level in today’s time.

Automation, classy and contemporary are the buzz words. With the variety
available these days, choosing the design, material and products for the house
can get overwhelming. If you are planning to construct your dream abode, then
seek help from the Tata Steel Aashiyana service provider to make the process of
house construction easy for you. The experts can explain to you about various
house styles and designs and connect you with prominent construction material
suppliers in your city. Along with home designs, they can also guide you
about roof designs and gate designs. Getting your house constructed will be
comfortable with such a team of specialists by your side. If house construction is
on your mind, then trust the experts at Tata Steel Aashiyana and design a tasteful
abode.

Human Adaptation Overview & History

https://study.com/learn/lesson/human-adaptation-overview-history.html

How Do People Adapt to Their Environment?

Humans have adapted in many ways throughout history to become the highly
successful and widespread species seen today. The human species, or Homo sapiens,
has encountered many challenges over many years of evolution, and the ability of
early hominids to overcome these challenges led to solutions still used today. The
process of biologically and developmentally overcoming challenges and using
solutions to aid in species success is known as the process of adaptation. From famine
to climates changing to continental drift, Earth has provided an abundance of changes
and challenges that humans have needed to overcome to survive. Humans have done
this in a variety of ways over the past several million years, which has led to the
successful species we see today.

When it comes to human beings, there are two fundamental definitions when referring
to the process of human adaptation. One is the process of biological adaptation, and
the other is non-biological adaptation, which refers to how humans have altered their
environment to aid in survival. This lesson discusses the different ways in which
humans have adapted to their environment, as well as the history of these adaptations
and the present-day applications still in use.

Even today, humans continue to adapt by altering their environment, such as building this
rooftop garden.
How Did Early Humans Adapt to Their
Environment?
Early hominids, or ancient humans, consisted of several species that first evolved in
Africa. Scientists and paleontologists still do not know the exact start of human
evolution, since much of the fossil record is yet to be uncovered. Additionally,
because of contamination, the exact dating of early hominid fossils is difficult.
However, scientists use the Paleolithic period (between 2.6 million years ago and
11,700 years ago) to describe the beginnings of humankind. Over the course of the
existence of these species, there were several waves of migration out of Africa and
into much of the old world. Species such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo
neanderthalensis (also known as the Neanderthals) were mostly nomadic
hunter/gatherer groups that lived in much of Africa, Europe, and Asia. These species
of early hominids had many differences, but over time and with varying levels of
success, early hominids adapted in many ways to make life easier, which led to
greater levels of species success.

Hominid migration
Much is still unknown about the lives and cultures of early hominids, but scientists
and paleontologists do know about some key similarities that, when used by certain
species, improved their overall success. First, as early as 2.6 million years ago, early
hominids adapted and learned to use stones as tools to aid in many tasks, such as
hunting, butchery, food processing and preparation, and protection. Then,
approximately 800,000 years ago, early hominids learned to use fire to cook with,
which allowed for more nutrients to be available in the foods consumed. These
adaptations illustrate non-biological adaptations where humans were able to alter their
environment, which led to species success, as these behaviors were learned and
passed on to future generations.

The Neolithic Era

Early hominids, due to a variety of known and unknown reasons, all died out, except
for one species that is currently in existence today. The human species Homo sapiens,
of which all modern humans are members, evolved first approximately 300,000 years
ago, but the Neolithic era is thought to be the start of human civilization.
The Neolithic era is classified as the period in which Homo sapiens learned to farm,
which occurred first in ancient Mesopotamia between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago.
During this period, human culture adapted from one of hunter/gatherers to a culture of
agriculture. Settlements were developed next to agricultural land, and humans
switched from a nomadic lifestyle to a stationary one. Agriculture is the process of
growing one's own food and has several benefits. One benefit is food security; by
growing their plants and animals as crops and livestock, early Homo sapiens could
depend on a semi-stable food source. With a stable food supply, populations could
boom, cultures developed, and eventually, societies were formed.
Before this, the closest people came to adapting to their
environments
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Human Adaptation: Altering the

Environment
There are many types of human adaptations to environments around the world. As
humans grew and spread across the continents, they encountered many environmental
challenges that required innovative ways of adapting. Humans began to clear forests to
build homes and to carve dwellings into stone to protect them from the elements and to
store their food. They also started building more and more complex tools, such as simple
machines, to do work for them. One incredibly important way that humans have altered
their environment is how humans have developed systems of irrigation, which is the
process of diverting water from a water source to a location without water.

Agriculture requires a water source, and getting water to the crop fields was one of the
main challenges early humans needed to overcome to successfully farm. Civilizations
that grew next to freshwater sources, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, had a relatively
easy time irrigating fields by digging trenches to divert the water from its source toward a
field. This caused a civilization trend to emerge, where large-scale settlements grew up
around areas that had an abundance of water, such as the Fertile Crescent, a region
known for its agricultural success located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

The Fertile Crescent is one of the locations of the start of agricultural

practices.
Concrete Work
 https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Concrete+Work
The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970-1979). © 2010 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

operations carried out in the erection of monolithic concrete and reinforced concrete structures and 
installations made of cement concrete. Concrete work includes the following basic processes: prep
aration of the concrete mix; delivery of the mix to the construction site; feeding, distribution, and co
mpaction of the mix in the formwork (molds); the curing of the concrete while it is hardening; and q
uality control of the concrete work.
Concrete works in construction –
Materials, Types and Uses.
  April 26, 2019

https://basiccivilengineering.com/2019/04/concrete-works-in-construction-materials-
types-and-uses.html
Basic civil engineering

WHAT IS CONCRETE?
Concrete is a compound material made up of cement, coarse aggregate and water –
these are the main compound materials of concrete. When the compounds of concrete
mixed with each other a fluid mass form of concrete is obtained and which can pour
into moulds to get a specific desired shape. This fluid mass concrete hardens with
respective to time. Actually the cement reacts with other compounds chemically to
bind them together to form a hard thing – concrete.

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
Cement

Water

Coarse aggregates / fine aggregates

Admixtures

The proportion of the materials should maintain in a correct way, as the materials
affect the final concrete product.  Mainly the water cement ratio should be considered
carefully. When the water cement ratio increases, the strength of the final product will
decreased. Concrete is prepared with the consideration of time and placement area. . If
good -quality concrete is to be produced, then not only must the constituents of the
mix be up to standard, but also the equipment used in mixing, transporting, placing
and compacting must be suitable for the task. The general properties of concrete
mostly coincide with the properties of rock. Concrete is the main component of
construction material as it resists compression, flexible to get multiple shapes and
reinforced concrete is resistant to the tensile stress too.

USES OF CONCRETE
Worth enough on investing for a concrete building as the strength of concrete
increases with time and ability to withstand all weather conditions satisfy an investor.
As the concrete is non combustible building material, it provides enough safe for the
users. Before the concrete get hardens it can be mould into shapes as per owner’s
wish. Concrete is good enough in compression. Concrete is a durable and sustainable
building material that exists from the past.

TYPES OF CONCRETE
1. PLAIN OR ORDINARY CONCRETE
Main constituent materials of this type concrete are cement, aggregate and water. As
the reinforcement is missing in this type of concrete, it is suitable for the structures in
which high tensile strength is not necessary.

2. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is introduced to rectify the issue in plain concrete that is
introduction of reinforcement to the plain concrete. Reinforcement is provided by
steel rods, wire mesh or steel rods. The combination of rebar and plain concrete
withstand the tensile, compressive force and behave as a single material. Nowadays
most of the building structures use this type of concrete.

3. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete is a type of concrete which contains an expanding agent. That
expanding agent is the lightweight aggregate of lightweight concrete. That agent
increases the volume of the concrete mixture and reduces the dead weight of the
mixture. Lightweight concrete is prepared using light weight aggregates such as
pumice, scoria, shales and clays. Lightweight concrete is a good fire resistive material
but lightweight concrete is sensitive to water, takes much time for the preparation and
can be breakable like a glass material (brittleness).

4. HIGH DENSITY CONCRETE

High density concrete is prepared using crushed rocks to provide heavy weight
concrete mixture. This type of concrete is commonly used in structures where
radiations are needed to be controlled.

5. PRECAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete means concrete is prepared then cast on reusable moulds and cured
on a factory. Normally structural components are prepared using precast concrete.

6. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is used to prepare structural elements such as floor beams,
railway sleepers, piles and etc. Prestressed concrete element is prepared by applying
the determined stress in advance to prevent the stress that will be applied on the same
element by loading. The prestressed concrete withstands the load by the induced
stress in the whole prestressed concrete element.

7. GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE

Glass reinforced concrete is prepared from a concrete matrix which containing
strengthened alkali resistant glass fibres. The composite material performs well to
withhold the weight of load. This type of concrete is used in exterior cladding works.

8.  AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE

Air-entrained concrete is prepared by applying air entraining admixtures to the
concrete mixture when it is prepared. A certain percentage of tiny air bubbles are
introduced to the plain concrete as to create chambers for water to expand into when it
freezes. Purposes of air entrained concrete are increasing the durability of the
hardened concrete during climatic conditions such as freeze thaw and to increase the
workability of concrete in plastic state.

9. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Self compacting concrete needs a mechanical support to spread the concrete mixture
as the Self compacting concrete is a non-segregating or non flowing concrete mixture.
Now-a- days complex structural frames uses this type of concrete.

10. SMART CONCRETE

Smart concrete is introduced as the stress or strain can be identified before the
concrete structure fails or they help to heal the cracks as the cracks can be identified at
the initial stage.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/door
door, barrier of wood, stone, metal, glass, paper, leaves, hides, or a
combination of materials, installed to swing, fold, slide, or roll
in order to close an opening to a room or building. Early doors, used
throughout Mesopotamia and the ancient world, were merely hides
or textiles.
https://www.wonkeedonkeexljoinery.co.uk/doors-general-information/door-
frames/

Door frames

A door frame is the structure the door leaf or panel is fitted to and provides a solid structure within
a rough opening. For hinged doors, the hinges attach to the frame; for sliding doors, the track is
fitted to a frame for rollers to slide across; and folding doors have hinges and tracks in their
frames. They come in different sizes to fit the size of the opening and the depth of the wall.

The strength and durability of a door frame will affect the longevity of the door itself. A weak or
poorly fitted door frame can pose a security risk and is likely to wear out much quicker. You will
also find that the quality of the door frame will influence the insulation provided; gaps in a frame
can let cold air in and warm air out.

 
Whatever the shape, a door frame's primary job is to provide a seal around the door. Interior 
and exterior  door frames will usually have different properties, as frames used outside will have
to face the elements.

When you buy a door you will usually have the option to have it pre-hung, as a door sets. This
means the door will come with hinges and frame already attached. This should make installation
quicker, as the door will already be firmly in place in its frame. This option is also useful for new
builds, or if you need to replace the frame, as well as the door. While internal doors sets are
usually bought in separate parts with a door slab and door frame (lining) external door sets are a
popular choice for the modern home, as they are complete and ready to install into a rough
opening.

Doors sold without being fitted to a frame are usually called slab doors. These doors will be
cheaper than a pre-hung door, so if you're just replacing the door itself, and you can find the right
size, this might be the best option. To replace a frame and door with separate parts is more
difficult, as getting the exact dimensions is so important. If you are replacing an external door
frame, you need to ensure you follow Building Regulations.

Here at Wonkee Donkee XL Joinery we stock XL Joinery frames for external doors and linings
for internal doors. We also have an excellent range of frames for folding room dividers or internal
French door sets, to suit various rooms in your home, including bathrooms, kitchens, living rooms
and patios. 
Internal door frames

Internal door frames, usually called door linings, are usually constructed to span the thickness of the wall,
so they're not significantly recessed into the gap. They tend to be more forgiving than external
door frames when making adjustments to ensure the frame is square because any gaps between the
frame the wall will usually be covered with architrave.

Internal door frames are often open frames, or they may have particularly low sills, or ones which recess into
the flooring to sit flush. They will not be as sturdy as external frames, as they don't need to be as strong or durable,
and they will be easier for a DIYer to assemble themselves if they choose to.

What are the parts of an internal door frame?

Head

The head of a door frame can sometimes be called the upper jamb or lintel. This horizontal piece
sets the width of the frame where the door will be fitted. The head will usually have grooves for
jambs to fit into, and often have two sets of these grooves for different widths of frame. Any
material which extends past the jambs can be cut off if the frame is not to be built into an opening.

Jambs
The jambs are the side pieces of the frame, running vertically. They're sometimes called the legs.
One of the jambs is where the hinges will be attached, to hang the door. This is sometimes called the hinge jamb.
The other side is where a strike plate or lock keep will be fitted, and is sometimes called the latch jamb.
The width of the jambs usually matches the width of the wall.
Stops

The stops are thin strips which are fitted to the jambs, or occasionally moulded into the jambs
themselves, sometimes called rebated jambs. They catch the door when it's closed, so it can only
be opened one way. This is necessary to stop the door going too far and breaking the hinges. Stops
are not fitted on swing doors, which can be opened from either side of the frame.
Sill
The sill, or threshold, of a door frame, is the bottom, horizontal section. The door will rest against this piece
when it's closed, which will close the gap between the bottom of the door and the floor. Internal frames usually
don't have sills. If they do, they will normally be low profile sills for easy access and are generally used to separate
rooms with different types of flooring, or there will just be a simple floor profile in the place where a sill would be.
Architrave

The architrave borders a frame, and its role is decorative rather than structural. It can also be
called door trim, moulding, or casting. Architrave covers most of the frame and hides the gap
where it joins to the wall. Architrave can be plain or moulded into various designs, and will
often be finished to match skirting boards or dado rails. 
External door frames

External door frames are usually recessed within a wall due to the increased thickness of external
walls. Because of this, they need to be more accurately fitted into a rough opening because any
gaps between the frame and the wall will often just be sealed with silicone and not trimmed with
architrave. If external doors have any architrave it's usually called moulding. External doors
usually have stops built into the jambs, rather than fitted separately.

External door frames are usually sold as closed frames, as the sill is an important seal to prevent
leaks. If you buy an open frame you need to ensure you also use a suitable sill. Flush sills on
external doors need to incorporate a channel for collecting and draining rain water. External
frames often come ready assembled, with all components in place, and frame kits usually have the
weather strips already in place.

You can save time by choosing a pre-finished external door frame, or choose your own finish and
prepare an unfinished frame for installation on site.
Head

The head of the frame is the horizontal piece across the top. It will usually have a stop moulded or
rebated into it, where the door touches the frame when it’s closed. There will also be a groove for
a weather strip, or the weather strip may already be installed.  
Jambs

The jambs are the vertical side pieces of the frame. They also have stops moulded or rebated into
them and they will also have weather strips. The weather strips on the frame create an effective
seal when the door is closed to prevent draughts and leaks.
Sill

The door sill, or threshold, is particularly important on external doors as a barrier to the elements
and has a weather strip or seal like the other frame pieces. The sill will often be slanted, so any
water will drain away from the door. Some frame kits also include a weather bar or door sweep,
which fits on the bottom of the door slab and creates a tight seal with the sill when the door is
closed.

What are the different types of door frame?

Door frames can be purchased as one piece, fully constructed and ready to be fitted into an
entrance opening; or they can come as individual pieces for you to assemble yourself. The ready-
made frames might come separately to the door leaf or the door might be pre-hung - already
attached to the frame.

Ready-assembled frames and pre-hung doors will be more expensive than ones you need to
assemble yourself, but they will have been constructed by professionals and should meet the high
standards needed to keep the door working correctly. External doors are often sold with ready-
assembled parts, but internal doors are more regularly sold as separate pieces. 

Inward opening door frames and outward opening door frames

An important thing to consider when choosing an external door set frame for hinged doors is the
orientation you want it to open into, as most hinged doors will only open in one direction. This is
important so that the stop is fitted in the correct position within the frame and prevents the door
being opened in the wrong direction. External frames are usually chosen to be inwards opening,
but there are exceptions. 
Open door frame

The most simply constructed door frame consists of a head supported by two vertical stiles,
without a sill across the bottom. These are called open door frames and are used for interior doors,
where a raised threshold at the bottom of the door could hinder access.
Closed door frames

Exterior door frames will need to have a sill or threshold; these are called closed door frames. This
horizontal piece at the bottom of the frame completes the seal around the door. The door sits on
the sill when it's closed. Internal frames can also have sills, but they are usually much lower
profile than external ones. 
Frames with glazing panels 

For extra light or added decorative features, you might want a door frame which includes glazing
panels. There are many different options for adding glazing panels; they can be added to the side
or top of frames and are made in a variety of shapes.
FANLIGHTS

When the glazing panel is placed above the door it's called a fanlight or an over panel. When the
jambs of a frame with an over panel reach the height of the room it will usually be called a storey
frame because it reaches the next storey of the building. The horizontal part of the frame which
joins the main door frame to the fanlight is usually called a transom bar.
SIDELIGHTS

When a glazing panel is placed at the side of the frame it's called a sidelight. This is because glass
panels set in doors are usually referred to as lights or lites. Sidelights can be either side of the door
and can extend out to varying sizes, depending on the look you wish to achieve and the size of the
door opening. External sidelight frame packs are available in Hardwood  or Oak .

https://www.everest.co.uk/windows/types-of-windows/
What Are the Different Types of Window?

Hopper, Egress, Transom, Casement, Flush, Awning; there are so many different types
of windows. Knowing your Bay from your Bow can be confusing and how do you choose
which is the best window style for you?

Firstly, there are eight types of windows in the UK:

Type of Window Description

Casement The oldest and most versatile style

side hung to open like a door, but c
from the top or bottom.

Tilt and Turn Side hung to swing fully open and b

to tilt inwards for ventilation.

Sash Two panels that slide up and down,

panel and one sliding panel.

Sliding The frame slides to the side like a m

Bay Projects out from the wall and exten

floor with extended brickwork.

Bow Projects out from the wall without an

extension.

Skylight Either flush with the roof line or prot

roof (dormer).

Transom The window above a doorway, also

fanlight.
Within those main types, there are variations on how the window can open or how many
different openers the window has. This makes a total of 17 different variations of window.

Every window style has its own uses and benefits. Some types of window are only suitable
for specific applications, such as an egress window for fire safety, or a transom window for
above a door. Others are more versatile, such as the casement.

When choosing a window, it’s important that the type of frame is in keeping with the age and
style of the house. A traditional stone cottage wouldn’t look its best with uPVC tilt and turn
windows. And a sleek contemporary new build wouldn’t feature sash windows.

As a guide, below are the 8 different types of window styles, including the 17 variations and
what they are best suited for.
Choose the right window type for your home

We have 1000s of options to make your windows unique to your home

WINDOWS

Casement Window

The casement window is the oldest and most versatile style of frame in the UK.

Casement windows have a variety of options for configuration to suit most properties that can
include single, double, triple (or more) panels. Depending on the size of the aperture.
 Openers can be added to one side, both sides, top or full frame to offer different degrees of
ventilation and the openers will shut with a tight seal for superior insulation and energy
efficiency.

Casement windows suit most types of properties.

There Are Several Types of Casement

Windows

 Side hung
Hinged at the side is the most common type of casement window and the opener will swing
outwards.

 Single casement
The most basic window style has one frame and is usually side-hung.

 Double frame or french casement

Two side-hung casement frames with handles in the middle that opens outwards to each side
and create a large aperture (with central mullion).

 Top hung or awning window

Hinged at the top of the frame the window swings outwards from the bottom. This style is perfect
for wet climates as they stop rain from entering the room.

 Bottom hung or hopper window

Hinged at the bottom of the frame the window drops open from the top of the frame. This allows
plenty of ventilation and is a safer option for upper floor windows.

 Flush casement
The window opener closes flush into the frame to create a sleek appearance. Whereas a
standard casement window opener sits proud from the frame when closed. The flush
casement window is becoming increasingly popular as it offers a contemporary finish,
especially in combination with a slim aluminium frame.
Tilt and Turn Window

The tilt and turn window became widely popular for uPVC double glazing when they were
introduced in the eighties.

The major benefit of the tilt and turn is their ability to open in several directions and be
securely left open on a tilt for ventilation.

Unlike the casement that opens outwards, a tilt and turn opens inwards and can be opened
fully to allow for cleaning the external glass from inside a property. Perfect for windows on
upper floors.
Tilt and turn windows have an incredibly snug seal when closed, making them one of the
most energy-efficient options of frame.

Tilt and turn have a thick frame and are less suitable for period properties where they can
look out of keeping with the aesthetic of the property. House builds from the 1960s onwards
and apartment buildings work best with tilt and turn.

Sash Window

Often considered to be the most aesthetically pleasing window that can add significant value
to a house.
Usually fitted in period properties, with a concentration in London. Many listed buildings and
properties in conservation areas are required to have sash windows that must be replaced on
a like-for-like basis.

The standard sash window has two framed panels that slide up and down crossing over
(although, some have one fixed panel, see below). Upper floors must have restrictors fitted
as a safety measure.

The original design allows for a vented opening at the top and bottom of the window that can
create a draw of air for superior ventilation. A clever design, long before we had air
conditioning or extractor fans.

Unfortunately, old sash windows require significant maintenance and usually end up being
painted shut in older houses. As the frames age, they create gaps that rattle in the wind and
allow blasts of cold air. Cords become frayed and the sashes have to be propped open. Or,
they become warped and stiff in the frames and can’t be pushed open.

Modern sash windows are constructed with spiral balances that allow easy opening and
closing. Brushes that ensure a good seal when closed and can be double glazed for energy
efficiency.

Well-fitted contemporary sash windows look stunning on a period property. Although they are
an investment, they can make a property more desirable for sale.

Beware of removing sash windows from period properties as it can have a negative impact
on the property value.
 There Are a Few Different Types of Sash
Windows

 Single hung
One sash pane slides whilst the other remains fixed.

 Double hung
Both sash panes will slide open to allow venting at the top and bottom of the window.

 Dummy Sash
The window is styled to look like a normal sash window but the sashes are fixed and don’t open.
Used to create symmetry and or equal sightlines on a property.

Sliding Window or Slider Window

Instead of a traditional sash window opening vertically, a sliding window opens to the side,
sliding horizontally. Imagine a mini patio door.

Sliding windows are usually made with a slimmer frame from aluminium which allows
maximum glass area for a large bright window.

Perfect for the kitchen behind a sink where they can be easily reached to slide open. Also
used for a kitchen window that opens onto a patio or terrace to allow for serving.

Sliding windows suit contemporary builds; especially for architecturally designed sleek
homes. The use of large sliding windows and doors can open up spaces to the outside. For
other traditional properties, one window might be installed in the rear kitchen but not used as
a full set on the property.
Bay Window

A bay window projects out from the exterior wall line and extends to the floor.

Many Victorian and Edwardian houses feature bay windows as a focal point for the living
room at the front of the house. Houses at the coast also benefit from the extra panoramic
views from the projecting window.

They were designed as an ornamental feature, but also practically, to allow more ventilation
from open windows on the sides that could capture more airflow into a room.

Bay windows can flood extra light into a room and are perfect as reading spaces to benefit
from the light behind.
 Because of the projection from the wall, a bay window is considered an extension. A
replacement bay window or built at the back of a property is allowed under permitted
development, but for a new window at the front of a property, it will require planning
permission.

Types of Bay Windows

A bay window can have different configurations in the way it’s built. The most common are:

 Single end bay - two windows with one edge and varying degrees of depth

 Splay bay - like half a hexagon, three windows with angled edges

 Circular bay - has five windows (or more) to create a circular effect

 Square bay - has three windows with square edges

Bow Window

A bay window and a bow window are similar and often confused. The clear difference
between them is that for a bay window, the base wall brickwork is also extended. A bow
window unit projects from the room and ‘floats’ without the wall underneath.

Sometimes called a garden window, these bright spaces can have a shelf to grow plants or
just create an illusion of space.

Bow windows can be made up of several windows to create a curved effect and flood light
into a room. At the front of the property, they can take advantage of panoramic views or allow
more visibility on a street.
Bow windows don’t require any building work to the base of the window or need planning
permission.

Rooflight/Skylight Window

There are two types of window you can have in a roof:

A dormer is a box protruding from the main roof, with its own roof. This creates more space
in the room and the dormer creates more headroom for standing at the window.

Any type of small window can be fitted in the dormer window space.
A Skylight is flush into the angled roof and doesn’t protrude from the angle of the roof.
Used in extensions such as kitchens, or dining rooms, the skylight can flood a room with light
from an angled ceiling.

A skylight is a specific type of window that will fit into the roof and opens on a cantilever.

Sometimes known by the common brand name of Velux.

A series of skylights in an extension can offer maximum light into the room whilst retaining
some insulation that a fully glazed roof would lack.

Skylights are more often used in contemporary builds or conversions whilst dormer windows
look more traditional.
Transom or Fanlight Window

A transom is a beam across the top of a door that separates it from the glass above. Hence,
the transom window, also known as a fanlight.

Traditionally, transom windows were used above internal doors as a form of air conditioning
in the home. The transom window opened above the door to create draw from a fireplace to
move warmth to rooms upstairs. In summer, the front and back transom windows were
opened to create air circulation to keep the house cool.

Fanlight windows were usually decorative featuring coloured glass and most often featured a
sunburst pattern.

What Is an Egress Window?

An egress window is not a style of window, but a safety measure. To ‘egress’ means to exit a
building, so the egress window is a means of fire escape in an emergency.

For new builds or extensions, all rooms above, or below ground floor must provide at least
one egress window (or door) that allows escape, or fireman’s access, in case of emergency.

Any style of window can be an egress window as long as it meets the building regulations: be
more than 450mm wide or tall and have an openable area of at least a third of a meter
square. The bottom of the window must be within 1.1 m of the floor in the room.

Types of Window Frame

Apart from the style of frame, there are three main types of window frame material that you
can choose from:

uPVC Frames

Unplasticised Poly Vinyl Chloride, otherwise known as uPVC, has been the most popular
choice for window frames since it was introduced in the late seventies, early eighties.

uPVC is low maintenance, energy-efficient and secure. It’s a durable material but low-quality
white uPVC can stain if it's not cleaned properly.

uPVC windows are available in a wide range of colours and can have a textured wood-
effect finish.

Aluminium Frames

Aluminium allows for a much slimmer frame offering sleek styling. The slim style allows for a
much larger glazed area with the appearance of a bigger window.
Often fitted on modern style builds because of their contemporary sleeker styling. The metal
frame is not as energy efficient as uPVC but an aluminium window is very durable for a
long-term investment.

Timber Frames

Timber is a premium cost compared to other options but what you get is the unrivalled
aesthetic of a beautiful wooden frame. For period properties, timber windows are often the
only choice you should consider to be in keeping with the style of the property and to add
value.

Timber is the most high-maintenance material, but quality hardwood that is looked after will
have one of the longest lifespans of all materials.

Some properties in conservation areas and listed buildings will stipulate that you can only
have timber frames. Always check before you replace windows.

What Is the Cheapest Style of Window?

The cheapest and most economical type of window is a standard side hung casement
window in white uPVC.

Although, costs for windows are relative to the number of windows, the size of the windows
and the installation. So, only compare quotes for windows on a bespoke like-for-like basis.
 Which Type of Window Is Best for My Home?

When deciding which type of window is best for your home, it’s important to consider the
style of your house and its surroundings to avoid creating confusion of style.

If you live in a period stone cottage, uPVC may ruin the traditional appeal. Whereas, a timber
sash or casement window would be in keeping with the house.

A modernist new build might have large expanses of glass and slimline aluminium frames to
enhance the clean lines of the architecture and flood the property with light.

Period properties that feature timber sash frames can be devalued if they are replaced with
uPVC frames.

Think about:

 What style of window was fitted in the original house?

 What colour of frame best suits the colour of brick or stone?

 What material is best suited to this type of house?

When replacing windows we would advise against choosing styles and colours based on
current ‘trends’. There could be a fashion for certain colours of uPVC, but in 10 years, will this
still look stylish or will it be dated?

Always try to choose what is most sympathetic and in keeping with the style of the original
house from when the house was built.
https://www.thompsoncreek.com/blog/what-are-the-different-window-
frame-types/#:~:text=There%20are%20four%20types%20of,an%20impact%20on
%20your%20decision.

What Are the Different Window Frame

Types?

Part of the decision of choosing replacement windows involves choosing

what window frame types you want. There are several to pick from, and
each comes with its own set of pros and cons. Knowing what your options
are and the potential benefits and drawbacks for each will help ensure you
choose the best window frames for your home and your needs.

There are four types of window frames to choose from, including vinyl,
wood, aluminum, and fiberglass. In this guide, you’ll learn more about the
important differences that can have an impact on your decision.

Vinyl Window Frames

Vinyl frames are made from polyvinyl chloride, or PVC. This type of
window frame is one of the most popular in use today because they are
both affordable and have good insulative properties. Because vinyl frames
are made by a process called extrusion, they can easily be customized for
almost any type of window style.

Vinyl windows are preferred by many homeowners for a number of key

reasons, including their affordable price, durability, and easy upkeep.
Available in an array of standard and custom colors to complement every
taste and style of home, vinyl retains its color well over time, as it’s
designed to brave the daily elements, including fade from sunlight. One
important consideration to make is that while painting vinyl windows is an
option, it is best for the manufacturer to paint the windows.
Vinyl window frames will not crack or peel, or bend or warp, and they can
be painted by the window manufacturer.

Wood Window Frames

Wood frames are popular, but they require a lot of maintenance.

Maintenance is essential when you have wood frames because if the wood
is not resealed or repainted in a timely manner, the wood will be at risk of
expansion and contraction due to moisture changes. Wood is not suitable
for all climates, as it can be susceptible to rot and weathering in areas
where there is very wet weather.  Wood windows can become difficult to
open and close when they warp, or swell due to weather conditions.

Commonly seen in slightly older homes, wooden frames are an

attractive option for many house styles, particularly historical homes.
However, while beautiful, wood’s downsides are found in its inherent
flaws as a natural material; namely, it is very susceptible to water and
heat damage. 

When cared for properly, however, they can last for decades. In fact, there
are homes that are hundreds of years old, and they still have their original
wooden window frames in place. As you might expect, wooden windows
are also among the most expensive you can buy.

Aluminum Window Frames

Aluminum window frames are strong, long-lasting, and require very little
maintenance. Aluminum frame windows are popularly chosen for their
reasonable cost and relative ease of upkeep. However, as a metal,
they are a natural conductor of heat, losing it easily. They can stand
up to the elements, and unlike other materials, aluminum won’t rot or mold.
The biggest problem facing aluminum windows is the fact that they aren’t
as energy efficient as other window frame materials. Coupled with them
being among the more expensive options (though not as expensive as
wood), their limitations on energy efficiency can make aluminum windows
ideal only for homes located in certain climates.  

While they can be a cost-effective consideration for warm climates,

they are not designed for Mid-Atlantic winters. This makes aluminum
frames among the least energy-efficient options on the market for
areas with cool and cold climates.

Fiberglass Window Frames

Fiberglass windows are very durable, easy to maintain, and can resist
weather and temperature changes better than any other material. Because
fiberglass and the glass panes used to make up windows are so close in
composition, the materials expand and contract at about the same rate
during temperature changes.

However, there are a few important fiberglass considerations to

make. One of the primary limitations of fiberglass frames is their
complicated manufacturing process. This can raise the price of the
frames, while also limiting the number of available sizes. If a
homeowner opts for fiberglass windows and requires a size that isn’t
available, the project may necessitate the use of shims, additional
insulation, or other modifications that can ultimately reduce the
energy-efficiency of the windows. Among the other drawbacks
associated with fiberglass is the fact that these windows can be as
expensive as windows made from wood. Plus, the finish on the windows
can look dull and often needs to be painted to help improve its
appearance. It can be hard for someone to tell a fiberglass window frame
apart from a vinyl one, and it is the price difference that makes vinyl such a
more popular choice than fiberglass.

Wood-Clad Window Frames: 

To answer for both durability and desired style, some homeowners opt for
combination window frames, a popular type of which is wood-clad frames.
This wooden frame type is clad, or covered, in a more durable material on
its exterior – often vinyl or aluminum. On its interior, the natural wood can
be enjoyed without worry. The downside to this “best of both worlds”
solution is its cost, which is likely to be even higher than wood alone.

Choosing the Best Window Frames for Your

Home

If you’re not sure which type of window frame material will work best for
your home, let the experts help. Just contact the window experts at
Thompson Creek today and we can help you make the right decision for
your home, your needs, and your budget. We custom design, build, and
install our windows, so no matter which frame material you choose, you’re
guaranteed beautiful windows that were made just for your home. Contact
Thompson Creek today and get a free estimate for your new window
installation.
https://www.americanwindowcompany.com/what-role-do-windows-play-in-a-
home/#:~:text=Windows%20not%20only%20add%20light,interior%20design%2C
%20mood%20and%20appearance.

WHAT ROLE DO WINDOWS PLAY IN A HOME?

Windows play a key role in making a house a home. Windows not only add light and
ventilation to a home, but allow homeowners to enjoy beautiful scenic views of their
property and beyond. Windows can set the stage for a home’s interior design, mood
and appearance. When considering window replacement in West Covina,
homeowners should take the following factors into account.

Natural Light

Natural light can stimulate an environment and bring it to life. Like plants, people are
happier and more productive living in an environment open to natural light. By
choosing windows that filter in more natural light, homeowners can set the tone for a
healthier, brighter interior design. An increase in natural light will greatly improve the
living standard in every room.

Outside Views

The right window designs will allow homeowners to capture views of their property
in all its beauty and charm. Scenic views help bring the beauty of nature into the
interior of a home. When replacing home windows, homeowners should consider
what types of window glass, size and design will enhance their views of surrounding
landscape. Beautiful views can be one of the greatest joys of owning a home.

Privacy

The right window can also enhance the privacy of a home, giving homeowners
moments of solitude when they desire and protecting their interests. Windows with
opaque or translucent glass can provide the privacy homeowners seek. Translucent
glass makes a good choice for bathroom windows as it promotes privacy without
hindering the entrance of natural light.

Insulation

Windows can improve the insulation of a home and help regulate inside temperatures
so homeowners enjoy a more pleasant home climate. By choosing window glass and
design to suit the climate where they live, homeowners can get the most from their
investment. The right windows will also provide greater insulation against outside
noise so homeowners benefit from greater peace and quiet.
SELECTED FOR YOU:  What You Need to Know About Moving Glass Wall
Systems

Visual Appeal

Windows come in all styles, shapes and sizes, giving homeowners ample variety to
choose from. By working with a professional contractor or architect, homeowners can
glean ideas on interesting window arrangements that can enhance visual appeal
without compromising function. By going with quality window upgrades,
homeowners can greatly improve the curb appeal of their home and add value to their
property.

Through window replacement in West Covina, homeowners can transform an

ordinary home setting into an exceptionally attractive and pleasing place to live.

https://www.thespruce.com/diy-window-frame-6544762

How to Build a Window Frame

 By 
KAMRON SANDERS
 
Updated on 09/19/22
 Reviewed by 
DEANE BIERMEIER

Getty Images / Catherine Falls Commercial

PROJECT OVERVIEW
 WORKING TIME: 1 - 3 hrs
 TOTAL TIME: 2 wks
 YIELD: One window frame
 SKILL LEVEL: Intermediate
 ESTIMATED COST: $40 to 80

Whether you need a custom replacement window for your

home, an inexpensive window option to shed light in a
workshop, or are looking to put a decorative touch on a
playhouse—building your own window frame may be the
solution to your window woes. Basic power tools like a table
saw, miter saw, and a router is nearly all you need to craft a
custom window utilizing inexpensive wood from the

hardware store.

Before You Begin

Building your own window frame is a great option for DIYers
looking to save money. However, single-pane windows are much
less energy-efficient than modern windows. Short-term savings
should be weighed against long-term cost if the window will be
installed in a climate-controlled space. For spaces without HVAC,
such as a shed, workshop, barn, or playhouse, a single-paned
window is a great option to fill the area with light while keeping
pests out.
 Note that the materials list below is merely a guide and may need
to be adjusted to fit your specific space and needs.

What You'll Need

Equipment / Tools

 Miter saw
 Table saw
 Straight router bit
 Router and router table
 Caulking gun
 Stiff putty knife
 Hammer or brad nailer with nails
 Long clamps
 Painting supplies
 Drill
 Drill bits
 Tape measure
 Gloves
 Eye protection

Materials

Window Frame

 2x6 x 10' pine board

 Window and door caulk
 Window glazing putty
 Raw wood primer
 Exterior paint
 Glass or plexiglass sheet
 2" finish nails
 Painter's tape
 120- and 220-grit sanding blocks
 Wood glue

Faux Muntins

 3/4" x 1/4" flat molding

 Double-sided mounting tape
Instructions
How to Build a Window Frame
Follow along to learn how to build a window frame. This
frame can be used to hold a sash or the frame can hold the
glass itself. These steps will outline how to fit the frame
itself with glass.

Measure the Rough Opening

To determine the dimensions of your window frame,

you must first measure the width and height of the
rough opening.

.
.

Cut Frame Boards to Length

Cut the two vertical and two horizontal frame boards to

the dimensions of the rough opening minus 3/4 inch.
This ensures the frame fits in the rough opening with
enough room for adjustment.

.
.

Cut Frame Boards to Width

Use a table saw to rip the boards to match the depth of

the rough opening. This will be the distance between
the outermost edge of the interior and exterior walls.

.
.
Cut a Rabbet for Glass

On one edge of each board, cut a 1/2-inch-deep by

3/4-inch-wide rabbet. To do this, set your router table
up with a straight cut bit set to 1/2-inch depth. Make
multiple passes, adjusting your fence as you go, until
the rabbet reaches a width of 3/4 inch.

If you plan to install a sash within the window frame,

skip this step.

Tip

If you don't have a router or router table, you can skip

this step and instead nail down strips of wood around
the interior of the frame for the glass to butt up
against.

.
.

Cut Miters

Set your miter saw to a 45-degree angle and carefully

cut each frame board to a 45-degree outside angle,
making sure to not remove any of the board's overall
length. Once cut, each board will resemble an isosceles
trapezoid.

.
.

Sand to Smooth

.
Lightly sand each board just enough to remove
splinters and saw marks, but not enough to drastically
alter the shape of the wood. This will improve the
fitment of the joints.

.
.

Mockup and Tape

Lay the boards on alternating sides with the rabbets

facing down and fit each corner together. Tape the
boards together at each joint using a strip of painter's
tape, then flip the boards over. Ensure the joints fit
together tightly in the shape of the window frame and
the tape is correctly placed. Adjust if needed.

.
.

Glue and Clamp

Once you're satisfied with the fitment of the joints,

loosen the tape and apply an even layer of wood glue
to each side of the joints and fold the boards back
together. Firmly reapply the strip of tape on the joint,
then clamp the frame tightly together to seat the joints
as the glue dries. Wipe away any excess glue.

.
.

Nail Joints (Optional)

While the glue is still wet, you can nail each joint to
add additional strength. The best way to do this is with
a 16-gauge nail gun, however, it can also be done with
a hammer and finish nails.
 .

To do so, pre-drill each nail hole with a bit slightly

smaller than the finish nail, then carefully drive the nail
into the wood. Drive the nails through each board into
the adjacent board, with one nail at the end of each
board.

.
.

Remove Clamps and Sand

Once the glue is totally dry, remove the clamps and

tape. Sand the entire surface until it's smooth and any
residual glue is removed.

.
.

Buy Glass

A glass company or hardware store will be able to cut a

piece of glass to the dimensions of your frame. Be sure
to provide dimensions that are 1/4-inch shorter than
the true interior dimensions of your window frame. If
you cut a rabbet, be sure to measure from the widest
points.

Tip

Looking for something shatterproof for a playhouse or

shed? Ask for acrylic or plexiglass instead of glass.

.
.

Install Glass
 .

With the frame laying flat on a work surface, use a stiff

putty knife to install an even layer of window glazing
against the 1/2-inch wall of the rabbet. Aim for the
glazing layer to be around 1/8-inch thick. Place the
pane of glass into the rabbet and carefully press it into
the glazing until the glazing begins to squeeze out
around the edges.

.
.

Install Remaining Glazing

To hold the glass in place, install a thick layer of

glazing on the opposite side of the glass. To do this,
use a putty knife to press the glazing against the glass
at an angle. Once the glazing is in place, begin shaping
a clean angle around the entire perimeter. This will
help the window shed water and improve its
appearance. Wait at least two weeks for the glaze to
harden before painting the window frame.

WARNING

Applying pressure to the glass can break it. Always wear work
gloves and eye protection while installing glass.

.
.

Paint Window Frame

Seal all joints with window and door caulk and let dry.
Paint all surfaces, including the glazing with a high-
 quality primer for raw wood, then follow with exterior
paint.

How to Install Faux Muntins

You likely know what muntins are, even if you aren't familiar
with the term. Muntins are the dividers between the panes
that give certain windows that classic style reminiscent of a
French door. To give your single-paned window the look of
muntins, simply cut 3/4-inch by 1/4-inch flat molding to the
height of the window and secure it vertically in the middle of
the glass using double-sided mounting tape. Once attached,
add horizontal muntins on each side of the vertical muntin.

How to Maintain Your Window Frame

To ensure your window frame lasts for years to come,
regularly wax the surface or re-coat it with exterior paint.
When necessary, reapply caulk to seal the joints and
remove and reinstall glazing as needed

https://www.barrybros.com/2022/07/the-importance-of-

architectural-ironmongery-in-building-design/

#:~:text=Architectural%20ironmongery%20is%20the

%20name,to%20name%20just%20a%20few.
 The Importance of Architectural
Ironmongery in Building Design
By Sam Moxey | 10th July 2022

From multi-storey commercial buildings, to small residential properties,

there are few properties that cannot be improved with architectural
ironmongery.

From multi-storey commercial buildings, to small residential properties, there are few
properties that cannot be improved with architectural ironmongery. Here we take a look at the
meaning of architectural ironmongery, and how an architectural ironmonger can help improve
the design and regulatory compliance of a building.

What is architectural ironmongery?

Architectural ironmongery is the name given to products manufactured for architectural needs
within a building. These include the likes of door furniture and bolts, locks and latches,
hinges, escape hardware and signage, window fittings, electric hardware, access control
systems and mailboxes, to name just a few.

There is a considerable amount of skill involved in choosing ironmongery products for a

building in order to finish it to fire, safety and insurance standards, and for it to work
aesthetically too. Architects, interior designers and building contractors all have their own
areas of expertise. Combining this with the knowledge of an architectural ironmonger helps to
bring everything together.

How do architectural ironmongers

help building developers?
Architectural ironmongers help building designers in a variety of ways. These include:

Assessing and improving security

Door hinges, window fittings and locks all form part of the detail of a building that’s essential
to its security. Ironmongery quality is vital, because it reduces the risk of failure. Products,
and the way in which they are made, must adhere to stringent industry standards, guidelines
and testing, and an architectural ironmonger will ensure that is the case.

Ensuring design consistency

Architects and interior designers will often focus on the high impact elements of a building.
But detail matters too. Architectural ironmongery is all about choosing the right accessories
and materials in order to strengthen consistency in design, and to fit in with the defined style
of the property. It is quite often one of the most far reaching ways to add an element of class
to a building, without compromising on the essential regulatory requirements.

Supporting safety regulations

Architectural ironmongery also plays a crucial role in ensuring safety regulations are
followed. The expertise of an architectural ironmonger in making sure the likes of fire and
structural safety regulations are followed cannot be over-emphasised. Integrating these
elements into the building design plan at an early stage will help ensure regulatory
compliance is factored in from the ground up, rather than added as an afterthought.

Are architectural ironmongers

accredited?
The architectural ironmongery industry is regulated by the Guild of Architectural
Ironmongers (GAI). This is an organisation that promotes good practice in the sector,
supporting it in many ways and providing training across all aspects of ironmongery.

Most reputable architectural ironmongers are members of the GAI, which is the only trade
body to represent the best interests of the entire industry in the UK.
Using a GAI member for architectural ironmongery services means you have full peace of
mind that you’ll be receiving the highest levels of professional advice and industry standards.
This is particularly important, because needs will vary greatly, from the basic requirements of
a residential property through to highly demanding needs of large public buildings with
complex access control and escape requirements.

Architectural ironmongery expertise

from Barry Bros Security
At Barry Bros Security, we have made the internationally renowned and respected Guild of
Architectural Ironmongers education and training programme part of our own training
schedule for engineers and showroom personnel.

We offer a comprehensive range of architectural ironmongery services for residential and

commercial customers, as well as serving the construction industry with a variety of Special
Application ironmongery.

As we are GAI members, you’ll have total reassurance that the advice you receive is of the
highest calibre, and that all work carried out is fully compliant with current standards.

https://www.sashed.com/window-door-options/ironmongery-options/

We have a range of ironmongery to suit

your individual tastes, with a choice
of colour finishes, fasteners and
handles to suit various aesthetic and
security needs.
If you can’t find what you’re looking for in our standard range of ironmongery we are able to
source specialist architectural ironmongery to match your requirements. Architects sometimes
specify ironmongery to suit a specific design concept and wherever possible we will work with
them to source the required ironmongery.
Sliding sash window ironmongery

You can choose from a range of finishes in satin chrome, polished chrome, polished brass or white. Our
standard ironmongery range includes a choice of three different fasteners, sash lifts and pole rings or ‘D’
handles. Other finishes are available when using specialist architectural ironmongery.

You can choose from three different sash fasteners from our standard range. Each of our sash windows
comes with dual fasteners for increased security.

Traditional Fitch Fasteners

The most popular customer choice, our Fitch fastener comes with an in-built Allen key operated lock.
Modern Cam Fasteners

The ultimate in security, our Cam fastener comes with an in-built lock with a set of keys and
is SBD certified (Secured by Design, an official police security initiative).
Traditional Hook Fasteners

More suited to period properties, our Hook fastener comes with an in-built Allen key operated lock.

Pole rings & ‘D’ handles

You can choose to have pole rings which are fitted to the inside of the top sash. Pulling the top sliding
sash downwards or upwards by the pole rings moves the top sliding sash.

Alternatively (and if required in addition), you can also choose to have ‘D’ handles fitted to the outside of
the top sliding sash. ‘D’ handles are available in both the modern and traditional ranges. Pulling
downwards or pushing upwards using the ‘D’ handles moves the top sliding sash.
 Push Ventlock

Ventlock restrictors

For added security you can choose from either ‘push’ or ‘angel’ ventlock restrictors, both of which
restrict how much sliding sashes can open and help deter unwanted intruders without compromising an
emergency exit.

Both types of ventlock restrictors do not detract from the overall function of the window, are fully
integrated into the window, do not require a key to operate, and are SBD certified (Secured by Design,
an official police security initiative).
 Angel Ventlock

Both ventlock restrictors are available in brass, polished chrome and satin chrome.

 Pole ring

 Sash lift
  ‘D’ handle

 Sash pulley

 Cam fastener

 Fitch fastener
  Pole ring

 Sash lift

 ‘D’ handle

 Sash pulley
  Cam fastener

 Fitch fastener

 Pole ring

 Sash lift
PreviousNext

Casement window ironmongery

We offer a choice of traditional and modern casement ironmongery as standard. We also use friction
hinges, multi-point locking and shoot bolts as standard.

Casement window handles

Black monkey tail casement handle

Our standard casement window handle finishes are brass, polished chrome, satin chrome, black and
white. Other finished are available by request, we can also source specialist handles when required.

Choose from these designs: Hampstead® Bulb End Hampstead® Open Curl Hampstead® Reeded
Hampstead® Victorian Flat Mighton® Black Monkey Tail Alto® Square Bar Jedo® Round Bar Yale®
Cranked Handle
 Hampstead® Reeded

 Hampstead® Victorian Flat

Mighton® Black Monkey Tail

Yale® Cranked Handle

 Hampstead® Bulb End

Hampstead® Open Curl

 Hampstead® Reeded

 Hampstead® Victorian Flat

Mighton® Black Monkey Tail

Yale® Cranked Handle

 Hampstead® Bulb End

Hampstead® Open Curl

 Hampstead® Reeded

 Hampstead® Victorian Flat

PreviousNext

Multi-point locking system built-in

Multi-point locking is fitted as standard on all our casement windows. Multi-point locks provide a high-
security solution to the traditional timber window.

Multi-point locking, sometimes referred to as ‘shoot bolts’ force four bolts into the frame of a timber
window, the result is a highly secure window. Our shoot bolts come from market leading Wink
Haus® and are SBD certified (Secured by Design, an official police security initiative). They are a
discreet solution, completely undetectable when the window is closed. The multi-point lock system has
the added benefit of allowing the opening casement to be ‘locked’ open in a vent position.

Multi-point locks offer a discreet design without compromising the traditional appearance, where needed
we can also use more traditional casement stays and latches.

Friction stay casement hinges built-in

Friction stay hinges are fitted as standard on our casement windows, which give extra strength and
prevents the window from blowing open and smashing if caught by the wind.

Friction stay hinges offer a discreet design and are built into the window, where required we can also
use traditional butt hinges.

Entrance door ironmongery

Our entrance doors can accommodate either night-latches & deadlocks or multi-point locking systems
with handles. Choose from a range of finishes in; white, black, polished chrome, satin chrome, and
polished brass.

Front and back door locking

 Banham® night-latch on a Front door

We offer a choice of Yale® or Banham® night-latches.

If you opt for Banham® we use an L/2000 Night-latch teamed with a M2002TO Mortice lock. Banham®
offers the highest prestige and quality, their locks have been awarded many accreditations and as you’d
expect they are SBD certified (Secured by Design, an official police security initiative).
 Yale® night-latch on a Front door

If you opt for Yale, we use Yale® BS1 (British Standard) Max Security Night-latch teamed with a Union®
3G114E BS3 (British Standard) Heavy Pattern Deadlock.

As an alternative to the traditional night-latch or for use on a ‘back door’ you can choose to use the
same multipoint locking systems and handle as used with our French doors (see French door section
below for more details).

French door ironmongery

Our standard French doors come with dual handles, Euro cylinder locks, multi-point shoot and hook
bolts. We also fit ‘parliament hinges’ as standard allowing you to open your door flat against the wall.

Our French door multi-point locking system forces two bolts into the frame and a further two bolts are
hooked into the other door set, the result is a highly secure set of French doors. Our shoot bolts and
hook locks come from market leading ERA® and are SBD certified (Secured by Design, an official
police security initiative). They are a discreet solution, completely undetectable when the doors are
closed.

Although multi-point locking systems offer a discreet design without compromising the traditional
appearance, we know that some people prefer more traditional ironmongery so when required we can
use flush bolts and latches.

Our standard handles are from Yale®, choose from a range of finishes; polished chrome, satin chrome,
polished brass, black and white. If you can’t find what you are looking for in our standard range of
handles we are happy to source alternatives.
Parliament hinge
Hooking bolt
 French door shoot bolt

Bi-folding door ironmongery

Sashed bi-folding doors use the very latest in sliding door tracking technology from industry
leader Brio® and work in combination with a Euro cylinder lock, multi-point shoot and hook bolts locking
system to provide effortless sliding, high security and maximum durability.
Our bi-folding doors are top hung within a substantial Brio® tracking system discreetly embedded in the
timber frame, they are also bottom guided within a smaller track embedded into the threshold. This
tracking system provides a smooth easy operation, even with very large door leaves and multiple panels
in the configuration.

Each door in the configuration utilises Brio® stainless steel hinges, the last folding door in the
configuration uses the Brio® carrier bolt system at the top and bottom of the door.

Our Bi-folding door multi-point locking system forces two bolts into the side of the frame and a further
two bolts are hooked into the top of the frame. Our bi-folding door shoot bolts and hook locks come from
market leading ERA® and are SBD (Secured by Design, an official police security initiative) certified.

The master opening door is finished with a high quality Yale® handle used to open and close just the
first door in the system and operate the multi-point locking system.

Sashed offers a choice of four premium ironmongery finishes; brushed chrome, polished chrome, brass,
and black.

 Black
 Brushed Chrome

 Polished Chrome

 Brass

 Black
 Brushed Chrome

 Polished Chrome

 Brass

 Black
 Brushed Chrome

 Polished Chrome

 Brass

 Black
 Brushed Chrome

 Polished Chrome

 Brass

 Black
  Brushed Chrome
PreviousNext

Sliding patio door ironmongery

Sashed sliding patio doors are supplied as standard with a multi-point locking system from leading
German manufacturer Gretsch-Unitas. Choose from four different styles; Rondo, Rondo – extra long,
Dirigent, Belcanto. Each style is available in a range of finishes; silver, matt stainless steel, white, brass.
 Belcanto
 Rondo
 Rondo extra long
 Dirigent
 Belcanto
 Rondo
 Rondo – extra long
 Dirigent
 Belcanto
 Rondo
 Rondo extra long
 Dirigent
 Belcanto
 Rondo
 Rondo – extra long
 Dirigent
 Belcanto
  Rondo
PreviousNext
https://www.britannica.com/technology/ceiling

ceiling, the overhead surface or surfaces covering a room, and the

underside of a floor or a roof. Ceilings are often used to hide floor and
roof construction. They have been favourite places for decoration
from the earliest times: either by painting the flat surface,
by emphasizing the structural members of roof or floor, or by treating
it as a field for an overall pattern of relief

Ceiling Materials
Options
by Don Vandervort, HomeTips © 1997 to 2023

October 17, 2020

https://www.hometips.com/how-it-works/ceiling-types-materials.html#:~:text=By
%20far%20the%20most%20common,with%20drywall%20screws%20or%20nails.

A variety of materials is used for constructing ceilings in a home. By

far the most common today is the same as that used for walls—
drywall (also known as gypsum wallboard or by the trade name
Sheetrock). Drywall is attached to a structure of ceiling joists with
drywall screws or nails. Joints between the drywall panels are taped
and finished with drywall compound using the same techniques as
those used for walls and detailed in How to Attach & Fasten
Drywall (Sheetrock).
Ceilings can also be made of lath and plaster, using the same
construction methods detailed in Plaster Walls.
Several different materials may be fastened to existing drywall or
plaster ceilings or directly to ceiling joists. These include wood planks
and paneling and classic pressed-metal panels.

A suspended or “dropped” ceiling, as discussed in How to Install a

Suspended Ceiling, consists of a metal grid suspended from joists
or the old ceiling and attached at the walls, supporting lightweight

ceiling panels.

These panels may be made of mineral fiber or fiberglass acoustical

board in plain or decorative patterns, or they may be any of several
types of translucent plastic panels for above-the-ceiling lighting.

Although the conventional ceiling is flat and 8 feet high, a norm that
corresponds to standard construction practices and material sizes,
many ceilings depart from these norms for either structural, spatial, or
decorative reasons.

Perhaps the most familiar departure is the cathedral ceiling, which

angles upward from walls to peak, following the roof’s pitch. Such a
ceiling adds drama and a sense of spaciousness to a room. On the
downside, a room with cathedral or higher-than-normal ceilings is
more expensive to heat because warm air rises.

Other types of ceilings include the coved ceiling, which is rounded at

the corners; the tray ceiling, which has a vertical or angled soffit
 around the perimeter; and the vaulted ceiling, which rolls up into a
half-barrel shape.

https://mccoymart.com/post/types-of-ceiling-materials/

What are The Types of Ceiling Materials?

By: Team McCoy Mart | March 23 , 2023

There are various ceiling materials available in the market to give you a roof over your head and a
sound one. Some of these materials have been used since time immemorial and some are newer and
many are a combination of the old and the new to give a rich feel to your house.

We start with wood

Wooden boards can be used to make a strong, durable, and appealing ceiling or maybe strategically
placed to add interest to another otherwise plain ceiling. Many types of decoration molding can be used
and is made from wood. You can have a sloping roof made of logs of wood and covered with brick tiles
which prevent rain and snow from coming.

Suggested Read: 12+ PVC Wall Panel Designs for Drawing Room & Bedroom

Plaster and Plaster Board

Plaster has been used over the centuries for making a plaster ceiling several layers of plaster paste are
put over strips of wood. This can then be decorated with paint or more plaster giving a smooth, hard,
attractive surface. Plaster Board is made of similar material but is cheaper and easier to install because
you don’t have to wait for several plaster coats to dry. Plasterboard is normally pre-fabricated into
sheets that attach to the ceiling with screws and then are sealed.

Suggested Read : Curtain Wall Systems

Metal

This is another important ceiling material used for structure and décor. A false, drop, or suspended
ceiling hangs below a pre-existing ceiling. This hides pipes or controls sound in a noisy neighborhood
or around an office. These ceilings are made of wires and a metal grid that holds tiles. It also has a
decorative tile. Also has a decorative ceiling found in embossed tiles or sheets.

Tiles
Ceiling tiles are lightweight and made from a wide variety of materials such as plastic, metal,
fiberglass, fiber, wood-fiber, vinyl-coated gypsum, and even cork. This is done mostly by designing fall
ceilings, and also sticking to a ceiling. Also, control noise levels in a room.

Fall Ceilings

It is provided below the roof slab on suspended supports. FC is usually provided for temperature
control, light installation, electrical stuff, and other networking cables and too high ceilings.

Suggested Read: Kitchen Cabinets Measurements One Must Follow

Types of fall ceilings

1. Gypsum ceilings
2. Plaster Ceiling
3. Fiber Ceiling
4. Wooden Ceiling
 5. Glass Ceiling
6. Metal Ceiling
7. Synthetic leather or cloth ceiling

1. Gypsum Ceiling:

Is a hydrated sulfate of calcium and is lightweight. The insulation is good, fire resistance, soft, and
thermally insulated. These are square boards that one can hang with the help of an iron framework. The
finishing work on these boards like paints and laminated wallpaper comes to good use.

2. POP(Plaster of Paris):

Gypsum heated to a certain degree has attractive value and no maintenance and has a long life span.
These ceilings hide ugly members of the structure, ventilation ducts, and conduits but also give a
smooth finish to the ceiling.

Suggested Read : Traditional Indian Kitchen Design & Ideas

3. Fiberglass Ceiling:

It is in high demand. The construction of false ceilings due to low cost and least installation. Fiber
ceiling panels are man-made synthetic fibers and some natural minerals. They come in many shapes and
sizes.

4. Wooden False Ceiling:

False ceiling is used for its natural texture and pattern. It is pleasant to the eyes- popular. Since it comes
out expensive it is not used in hospitals and malls. Given various finishes, painted to get the right look.

5. Glass false ceiling:

Non-crystalline material- brittle and transparent. It can be made nonbrittle and nontransparent using
admixtures. As glass is a good insulator of heat. It can be used as a false ceiling. Improves aesthetics of
the building.

Suggested Read : Kitchen Renovation Ideas – Tips to Remodel Your Kitchen Under Budget

6. Metal Ceiling:

Metal is hard, durable, and used extensively in false ceilings. When the material surface is polished. It
gives a strong surface which is a treat for the eyes. Metals used- Galvanised iron and aluminum. The
ceiling is not so costly and easy to install and access. Construction cost is low because maintenance is
low.

7. Synthetic leather or cost ceiling:

Man-made material can be given any shape-design which improves the aesthetic view of the interior of
the building. As they collect dust and have low light transfer properties, used in temporary tense or
other temporary buildings.

So, here was an overview of some ceiling materials. I hope it will be useful to you.