Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-1118-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The significance of morphometric analysis to understand

the hydrological and morphological characteristics in two different
morpho‑climatic settings
Avijit Mahala1 

Received: 26 June 2018 / Accepted: 10 December 2019 / Published online: 19 December 2019
© The Author(s) 2019

Abstract
Drainage morphometric parameters are important indicator to understand the hydrological and morphological characteristics
of any region. Present study aims to understand the hydrological and morphological characteristics in two different morpho-
climatic settings from drainage basin morphometric parameters. Remote sensing and GIS have been used as efficient tools
in delineating and understanding of any drainage basin morphometry. The Kosi River basin of northern India for the moun-
tain–plain tropical environment and Kangsabati River basin of eastern India for the plateau–plain sub-humid environment
has been selected for the present study. The geological, geomorphological, hydrological, fluvial characteristics have been
stressed out under linear, areal and relief aspects of morphometric parameters. The drainage morphometric parameters have
been determined and measured after using the Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer global
DEM (90 m) in ARC GIS 10.1. All the linear morphometric measures of mountain–plain humid Kosi River basin indicate
its high flood potentiality, whereas, linear morphometric measures of Kangsabati River basin indicate less flood potential-
ity and plateau landform characteristics of sub-humid environment. The mean bifurcation ratio also indicates Kosi River
has greater flood potentiality than Kangsabati River. Kosi River has drained large amount of water due to its near-circular
basin shape than Kangsabati River which has an elongated shape. All the relief characteristics indicate that tropical moun-
tain–plain environment dominated Kosi River basin is in rejuvenated or young stage of geomorphic development, whereas
sub-humid plateau–plain dominated Kangsabati River basin is in mature stage of geomorphic development. Most of the
morphometric characteristics indicate there are high geologic and geomorphological controls on river basin characteristics.
The remote sensing and GIS tool have been successfully implemented throughout the study to understand the morphometric
characteristics in two different morpho-climatic settings. Also, the results can be used for plan formation and sustainable
management of the study area.

Keywords  Morphometric parameters · Morpho-climatic settings · Remote sensing and GIS · Tropical environment · Sub-
humid environment · Geomorphic development

Introduction geomorphological formations and hydrological characteris-

tics of any basin (Morisawa 1985). The relationship between
Drainage morphometry is defined as a measurement of lin- drainage morphometric parameters to its underlain geology,
ear, areal and relief characteristics of any drainage basin geomorphology and hydrological characteristics is estab-
(Clarke 1966). Drainage morphometry was first initiated lished through the work of different geologist and geomor-
by Horton (1932). The drainage morphometric characteris- phologist (Strahler 1952; Chorley et al. 1985). It also plays
tics are important to understanding the underlain structure, an important role to characterise the soil erosion, flood con-
dition and geomorphological processes (Chavare and Potdar
2014). The evolutionary history of any basin can be best
* Avijit Mahala understood through the implication of different relief mor-
mahala.avijit@gmail.com phometric measures of drainage basin (Sharma and Sarma
1
Center for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal 2013). The different morphometric characteristics like lin-
Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India ear parameters (stream order, stream number, bifurcation

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Page 2 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

ratio, strength length, mean stream length), areal or basin 2014). The delineation of groundwater potential areas
parameters (circularity ratio, elongation ratio, drainage through different morphometric parameters of drainage by
density, drainage frequency) and relief parameters (dissec- the use of remote sensing and GIS is an established phenom-
tion index, ruggedness index, hypsometric characteristics) enon. The study of Waikar and Nilawar (2014) found there
are important for any river basin management. The hydro- is strong relationship among different morphometric param-
logical and morphological behaviour of any basin can be eters with its groundwater potentiality. The GIS is proved
best understood through the areal and relief morphometric to be a viable tool to understand the hydrological response
parameters, respectively. Different fluvial processes with its behaviour of any drainage basin (Rai et al. 2017).
morphometric characteristics are well established (Chor- The morphometric study of mountain–plain front rivers
ley et al. 1985; Vittala et al. 2004). The geomorphological of the world has found higher stream order, high bifurcation
stages of evolution with its erosional characteristics can also ratio, near-circular basin shape and relatively young geomor-
be best understood through the different drainage morpho- phic stages of development (Eckbld et al. 1997; Pareta and
metric parameters (Strahler 1952). It provides enormous Pareta 2011; Nongkynrih and Husain 2011). These studies
idea to identify the morphological, hydrological problems also give credits to remote sensing and GIS to explore the
and helps with related management procedures. This study morphometric characteristics in mountain–plain tropical
reveals to understand the hydrological and morphological environment. Most of the study found mature stage geomor-
characteristics from drainage morphometric parameters in phic development in plateau regions of the world through
two different morpho-climatic settings. the different drainage morphometric characteristics (Vittala
The remote sensing and GIS tool have been used for et al. 2004; Rudraiah et al. 2008). These studies also found
drainage morphometric characteristics from long past. The remote sensing and GIS as an efficient tool to understand
study of Vittala et al. (2004) has used remote sensing and the drainage morphometric characteristics in plateau–plain
GIS for morphometric analysis of sub-watershed in a south semi-humid environment. The plateau land river basin also
Indian plateau region. They found mature stage of geomor- has elongated characteristics (Singh and Singh 2011). This
phic development in plateau environment and also give study selects Kosi river basin as a representative of moun-
credits to remote sensing and GIS as an efficient tool for tain–plain tropical environment and Kangsabati river basin
drainage morphometric analysis. Sreedevi et al. (2005) have as a representative of plateau–plain sub-humid environment
used spatial technology to measure drainage morphometry of India.
in response to structural control and groundwater delinea- The Kosi river basin which is representative of the moun-
tion. They proved remote sensing and GIS could find out tain–plain tropical environment of the present study is major
the best groundwater resource as well as structural controls attention from long past, especially due to its frequent chan-
on drainage morphometry. Thomas et al. (2010) have suc- nel shifting and flood characteristics. Studies indicate the
cessfully applied remote sensing and GIS to understand the relation between channel shifting characteristics of Kosi
soil loss and hydrological makeup in a mountain environ- River to its morphometric characteristics (Singh et al. 2003).
ment through the drainage morphometric characteristics. The changes of Kosi river morphometry is also related to
Ansari et al. (2012) found remote sensing and GIS as an the area of wetland changes in this region (Ghosh 2009).
efficient tool to understand the morphometric behaviour Most studies indicate the linear and areal morphometric
of any plain topographical area. The anomalies in drain- characteristics of Kosi river basin to its irregular hydrologi-
age morphometric parameters are an important indicator of cal behaviour (Jain and Sinha 2008). Studies also indicate
active tectonics, frequently seen in mountain glacial–fluvial the relief morphometric characteristics behind the irregular
environment. Remote sensing and GIS have proved as effi- hydrological characteristics of the Kosi river basin (Jain and
cient tools to understand this phenomenon (Bali et al. 2011; Sinha 2008). Study of Sinha et al. (2008) identified the mega
Pareta and Pareta 2012). Parveen et al. (2012) have found avulsion formation of Kosi River due to its morphometric
remote sensing and GIS as a very helpful tool to understand characteristics. Most studies relate flood characteristics of
the topographical and drainage morphometric characteristics Kosi river basin to its basin shape and size characteristics
in plateau regions of the world. The results of morphometric (Shrestha et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2013). Studies also indicate
analysis from remote sensing and GIS techniques are use- the multicyclic or rejuvenated stages of geomorphic devel-
ful for hydrological implication of river basin and artificial opment from its relief morphometric characteristics (Chor-
recharging structure (Golekar et al. 2013). The remote sens- ley et al. 1985). So, the morphometric characteristics sup-
ing and GIS-induced morphometric parameters are proved port Kosi basin as a true representative of mountain–plain
to be immense utility in natural resource management, water tropical river basin. The Kangsabati River basin which is
conservation and river basin evaluation (Singh et al. 2013). representative of plateau–plain sub-humid river basin for
The drainage morphometric characteristics can be evaluated the present study has plateau land morphometric character-
through the GIS model also (Magesh and Chandrasekhar istics (Mahala 2017, 2018). Low bifurcation ratio, elongated

13
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 3 of 16  33

basin shape and mature stages of geomorphic development upper basin create potential source of river energy. It forms
are the general morphometric characteristics of any plateau large amount of sediment deposition in Himalayan foothills
river basin area (Vittala et al. 2004; Rudraiah et al. 2008). and plain areas in middle and lower reaches of basin. This
Studies of Nag and Lahiri (2012) identified regular hydro- phenomenon causes major avulsion, frequent course changes
logical behaviour from the linear and areal morphometric and delta formation in lower basin reaches (Castillo et al.
characteristics of Kangsabati river basin region. Changes 1988). Sudden changes of slope in Himalayan foothill areas
of river courses are also limited due to its low hydrologi- create large alluvial fan along the river courses. Out of total
cal pressure (Pan 2013). Studies of Dutta and Roy (2012) 720 km length of Kosi River, it flows as much as 320 km in
found the mature stages of geomorphological evolution after plain lands of northern Bihar after crossing Siwalik Hima-
analysing the different areal and relief morphometric char- laya. Construction of embankments and dense settlement in
acteristic of the basin. The morphometric changes with the floodplain areas increase flood potentiality of the basin. Kosi
changes of geology and geomorphology of Kangsabati river has changed its main course as much as 100 km eastward
basin is a well-established fact (Gayen et al. 2013). Kangsa- in August 2008 due to its embankments failure (Sinha et al.
bati basin is a true representative plateau–plain sub-humid 2008).
river basin, reflected through its morphometric characteris- The Kangsabati River basin in eastern Chotanagpur pla-
tics (Gayen et al. 2013). teau of India has been selected for plateau–plain sub-humid
In general, most of morphometric studies of river basin river basin (Fig. 1). The upper reaches of basin comes under
are conducted to measure the morphometric values. There Pre-Cambrian granite–gneiss geological formation domi-
are very few studies aims to unearth the hydrological and nated undulating dissected plateau region. Primary and
morphological characteristics from its morphometric param- secondary laterite formation dominates the middle reaches.
eters in different morpho-climatic settings (Raux et al. 2011; Alluvial deposition dominated plain landforms dominate
Sharma and Sarma 2013). In addition to this, most of studies lower reaches of basin. Lower regimes of water and seasonal
in the world are involved to understand the morphometric characteristics dominate the streamflow characteristics.
characteristics in either plateau, plain or mountain area (Vit- After originating from ‘Ajodhya hill’ of eastern Chotana-
tala et al. 2004; Pareta and Pareta 2011). There is a serious gpur plateau, it flows through the plateau fringe regions of
lack of studies in adjoining parts of plateau–plain or moun- West Bengal in an eastward direction (Nag and Lahiri 2012).
tain–plain areas which have a distinct hydrological and mor- Out of its total length of 465 km, the dissected Chotanagpur
phological behaviour. Also, there are few studies to compare plateau covers around 200 km in upper and middle reaches
the morphometric parameters in the above stated two dis- of basin. Studies indicate that the basin is in mature stages of
tinct morpho-climatic areas. The remote sensing techniques geomorphic development (Dutta and Roy 2012; Pan 2013).
along with the sufficient integration of GIS technology play
an important role in unearthing the hydro-morphological
characteristics from its morphometric parameters. So, in the Geohydrological framework
present study, an attempt has been made to access the mor-
phometric characteristics in two different morpho-climatic The origin and development of drainage system depend
settings. Two main objectives of the present study are: (1) to upon the underlain geology, endogenetic and exogenetic
understand the hydrological and morphological character- forces operating in the area (Reddy et al. 2004). The Kosi
istics from morphometric parameters (2) compare the mor- and Kangsabati basin have varied geohydrological charac-
phometric characteristics in two different morpho-climatic teristics upon which the morphometric characteristics differ
settings. these two rivers. Geologically, the quaternary and recent
alluvial deposits dominate in lower course of Kosi river
geohydrological framework (Fig. 2). The Tertiary (Siwalik
Study area system) and Mesozoic (Jurassic, Cretaceous, Triassic) rock
systems spread in upper course of Kosi river system. Struc-
The Kosi river basin in Himalayan foothills of India has been tures which are linear geomorphic features have given the
selected as a mountain–plain humid river basin (Fig. 1). important impression in developing the drainage network of
Major neo-tectonic Himalayan orogeny dominates the area. the region. The upper basin area of Kosi basin has experi-
The irregular hydrological behaviour with rapid avulsion enced linear structural features in the form lower, middle and
changes is the well-known identity of the basin (Sinha et al. upper Himalaya have role on morphometric and hydrological
2008). The tertiary Himalayan geological formation in upper characteristics. The Kosi basin has experienced structural
reaches with sedimentary deposition in middle and lower disturbances which leads to development of well-marked
reaches are the major geological characteristics of the basin. set of joints and fractures. The Kosi basin has two types
High elevation, high slop and mountain landform dominated

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Page 4 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

Fig. 1  The location map of Kosi

and Kangsabati River basin

of aquifer-weathered aquifer in lower course and fractured alluvial plain and fractured aquifer in upper basin granite
aquifer in upper course of basin. gneiss geological formation.
The oldest rock system comprising of granite, granite
gneiss and mica schist from the basement rock system of
Kangsabati river basin (Fig. 2). The upper course of Kang- Materials and methods
sabati basin covers by unclassified crystalline mainly gneiss,
granite gneiss and mica schist. The laterite and meta-vol- The different indicators of drainage network (drainage mor-
canic rock encountered in middle basin and lower basin cov- phometry) give inference about the hydrological and rock
ers by alluvium and recent alluvial deposits. The Kangsabati formation characteristics of the basin (Singh et al. 2013).
basin has experienced structural disturbances in the forms The hydrological observations along with morphometric
of lineaments and joints. The main fractures/joints are in the characteristics give useful clues about geological forma-
direction of NE to SW. Like Kosi basin, Kangsabati basin tions of the basin. Since the basic objective of the paper is
has also experienced weathered aquifer in lower course of to access the hydrological and morphological characteristics

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Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 5 of 16  33

Fig. 2  Geological map of River basin a Kosi and b Kangsabati

of river basin from different morphometric parameters in mosaic tools of ERDAS-IMAGINE 14 have been used for
two different morpho-climatic settings, several morphomet- mosaicking and clipping of required area for two different
ric parameters (linear, areal, relief) need to calculate and basins. The consecutive topographical sheet of ‘Survey of
interpret (Table 1) (Fig. 2). Like, linear aspect (stream order, India’ (SOI) has been georeferenced and used to cross verify
bifurcation ratio, mean bifurcation ratio, stream length, mean the drainage system extracted from ASTER GDEM 30 m
stream length, stream length ratio), areal aspect (stream data. The different morphometric parameters of linear, relief
frequency, drainage density, texture ratio, form factor, cir- and areal aspects have been calculated through the use of
cularity ratio, elongation ratio) and relief aspect (relative ASTER GDEM 30 m data with ArcGIS 10.1.
relief, relief ratio, dissection index, ruggedness index). The
different morphometric parameters have been successfully Extraction of Kosi and Kangsabati River watershed
evaluated by remote sensing and GIS (Singh et al. 2013).
Georeferenced with precisely orthorectified Global Digital The river basin of Kosi and Kangsabati has been automati-
Elevation Model (GDEM) data of ‘Advanced Spaceborne cally extracted from the ASTER DEM (30 m) through the
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer’ (ASTER pour point identification with the various geoprocessing tool
30 m) has been used for present study. The data have been of Arc GIS 10.1. The pour point is the user-defined cell
downloaded from United State Geological Survey (USGS) of highest flow accumulation within DEM. The extracted
website. GDEM of ASTER has following parameters: drainage basin has been verified through SOI Topo sheet
(1: 50,000).
Datum name: WGS 84.
Spheroid name: WGS 84. Calculation of drainage morphometry
Projection type: Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM).
The different drainage morphometric parameters (linear,
Both the study area falls under UTM zone of 44. The areal, relief) have been extracted and calculated through a
whole area of two basins covers more than two scenes. The combination of geoprocessing tools available in Arc GIS

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33 

Table 1  Morphometric parameters of a river basin

Morphometric aspects Parameters Formulae Description References

Linear aspect Stream order (u) Hierarchical rank u has been calculated through the use of Strahler formula Strahler (1964)
Page 6 of 16

in Arc GIS 10.1

Stream no. (Nu) Nu = number of streams of a particular order ‘u’ N has been calculated for each order (u) through the use of Strahler (1964)
Strahler formula in ArcGIS 10.1

13
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Rb = (Nu/Nu + 1); where, Nu = number of streams of a Rb has been calculated as the ratio of total number of Schumm (1956)
particular order ‘u’, Nu + 1 = Number of streams of next streams in a given order to its next higher order
higher order ‘u + 1’
Mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm) Rbm = mean of bifurcation ratios of all orders Rbm has been calculated as the mean of Rb of all order Schumm (1956)
Stream length (Lu) Lu = total length of streams (km) of a particular order ‘u’ Lu has been calculated through the use of Horton formula Horton (1945)
in ArcGIS 10.1
Mean stream length (Lum) Lum = Lu/Nu; where, Lu = total length of streams (km) of a Lum has been calculated as the ratio of total length of Horton (1945)
particular order ‘u’, Nu = Total number of streams of a streams of each order (Lu) to its total number of streams
particular order ‘u’ (Nu)
Stream length ratio (Rl) Rl = Lum/Lum + 1; where, Lu = mean stream length of a Rl has been calculated as the ratio of Lum in a giver order to Horton (1945)
particular order ‘u’, Lu + 1 = mean stream length of next its next higher order
higher order ‘u + 1’
Areal aspect Form factor (Ff) Ff = A/L2; where, A = area of the basin (­ km2), L = basin Ff has been calculated as the ratio between the basin area Horton (1945)
length (km) to the square of basin length
Circularity ratio (Rc) Rc = 4πA/P2; where, A = area of the basin (­ km2), P = outerRc has been calculated as the area of the basin to the area Strahler (1964)
boundary of a drainage basin (km) of circle having the same circumference as the perimeter
of the basin
Elongation ratio (Re) Re = P/πL; P = outer boundary of a drainage basin (km), Re has been calculated as the ratio of diameter of a circle Strahler (1964)
L = basin length (km) which have same area as that of basin to the total length
of basin
Constant of channel mainte- CCM = 1/Dd; where, Dd = drainage density CCM has been calculated with the reciprocal of drainage Strahler (1964)
nance (CCM) density
Stream frequency (Fs) Fs = N/A; where, N = total number of streams of a given Fs has been calculated as the ratio of number of streams Horton (1945)
basin, A = total area of basin ­(km2) per unit area of basin
Drainage Density (Dd) Dd = L/A; where, L = length of streams (km), A = Basin Dd has been calculated as the length of stream channel per Horton (1945)
area ­(km2). unit area of basin
Texture ratio (Rt) Rt = Dd * Fs, where, Dd = drainage density (km/km2), Rt has been calculated as the product of drainage density Smith (1950)
Fs = stream frequency (numbers/km2) and stream frequency
Relief aspect Relative relief (H) H = R − r, where, R = highest relief, r = lowest relief H has been calculated after maximum vertical range Schumm (1956)
between highest and lowest point of any basin
Relief ratio (Rr) Rr = (H/L max); where, H = relative relief (m), L = length of Rr has been calculated after dividing the relative relief to Schumm (1956)
basin (m) the total length of basin
Dissection index (Di) Di = H/R; H = relative relief (m), R = absolute relief (m) Di has been calculated as the ratio between relative relief to Schumm (1956)
the absolute relief in per unit area of basin
Ruggedness index (Ri) Ri = Dd * H/1000; where, Dd = drainage density, H = rela- Ri has been calculated as the product of drainage density Schumm (1956)
tive relief and relative relief
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 7 of 16  33

10.1. First of all, the drainage network has been extracted forms where two 1st-order streams join. A 3rd-order stream
through the Strahler’s formula where segments with no forms when two 2nd-order streams join and so on. The main
tributaries identified as a first-order stream. When the two channel through which most of water discharged marked
1st-order stream joins form a 2nd-order stream and so on. as highest order stream of any particular drainage basin.
The different aspects of drainage morphometry like bifurca- This stream order depends on basin shape, size and relief
tion ratio (Rb), mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm), mean stream characteristics of such basin (Haghipour and Burg 2014).
length (Lum), stream length ratio (Rl), form factor (Ff), cir- Most studies indicate the increasing order of streams in the
cularity ratio (Rc), stream frequency (Fs), drainage density mountain–plain humid environment than plateau–plain sub-
(Dd), dissection index (Di), ruggedness index (Ri) have been humid environment (Wakode et al. 2013). The total number
calculated through the standard formula given in Table 1. of streams of Kosi basin are 10,591 of which 5315 (50.2%),
The slope characteristics also derived through the spatial 2449 (23.1%), 1338 (12.6%), 768 (7.8%), 551 (5.2%), 71
analysis tool available in Arc GIS 10.1. (0.7%) and 99 (0.9%) streams belongs to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
5th, 6th, and 7th order, respectively (Table 2) (Fig. 3). Lower
order streams are in higher number due to its upper mountain
Results and discussion course. Also, higher number of streams in upper reaches
indicates the occurrence of young topography adjacent to the
Drainage morphometric parameters are essential to under- stream concerned. The sudden decrease in 3rd and 4th order
stand the hydrological and morphological characteristics of streams indicates its major morphological change. Higher
of any basin (Thomas et al. 2010; Castillo et al. 1988). It number of streams throughout the different orders indicates
is also useful to understand the structural controls of any its high erosion characteristics. It is proved from high sedi-
basin (Sharma and Sarma 2013). The hydro-sedimentary ment load of Kosi river basin. The high number of lower
flow regimes are also determined by basin characteristics order streams (1st, 2nd and 3rd order) increase the amount
(Raux et al. 2011). The present study was conducted with the of water received which ultimately creates huge water flux in
aim of hydrological and morphological understanding from lower reaches of basin, whereas Kangsabati basin has total
different morphometric parameters in two different morpho- 1216 number of streams of which 609 (50.1%), 279 (22.9%),
climatic settings. The Kosi basin which is representative of 152 (12.5%), 68 (5.6%), 25 (2.1%) and 83 (6.8%) number
the mountain–plain humid environment has tertiary Hima- of streams belongs to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th order,
layan geology in upper reaches, and recent sediment depos- respectively (Table 2) (Fig. 3). The consistent decrease in
ited Gangetic plain areas in lower reaches of basin. Kosi is number of streams in relation to stream order (Nu) (except
highly notorious due to its high sediment load and migra- 5th order) throughout the basin indicates the dominance of
tory trends with antecedent river characteristics. Failure of erosional landform throughout the basin. The lower number
Kosi embankment and changes in avulsion characteristics of streams in 1st, 2nd and 3rd order indicates its mature
are major concerns of recent past. This phenomenon can be topography adjacent to the stream concerned. Higher order
interpreted through the local geological adjustment, plate streams (4th, 5th, 6th order) are less in number due to its
motions, geotectonic, etc., (Arogyaswamy 1971; Agarwal alluvial deposited plain course. The lower number of streams
and Bho 1992) whereas Kangsabati river basin which is in upper reaches and consistent number of streams (except
representative of plateau–plain sub-humid environment falls 5th order) throughout the basin indicates its lower water
under Archaean Gneiss and Schist geological formations in regimes and water stress condition.
upper reaches. The middle and lower reaches are dominated Bifurcation ratio (Rb) expresses the ratio of number of
by laterite and alluvial deposition, respectively. As Kangsa- streams of a given order (u) to its next higher order (u + 1)
bati flows through the eastern Chotanagpur plateau which (Horton 1945). Strahler (1952) indicates that without strong
is sub-humid characteristics, it remains dry in most of the controls of geological formation, the Rb shows only small
times (Raux et al. 2011). The different hydrological and variation in different regions. It is considered an important
morphological characteristics about the different morpho- parameter, denoting the water carrying capacity and related
metric parameters have discussed below- flood potentiality of any basin. The value normally ranges
from 2 to 5 (Joji et al. 2013). Studies identified high Rb val-
Linear aspects of River basin morphometry ues in mountain–plain areas than plateau–plain fringe areas
of tropical environment due to its young morphological
Stream order (Nµ) treated as the first step of drainage analysis adjustment and high water pressure (Kim and Jung 2015).
based on the hierarchical ranking of streams. Strahler (1964) The bifurcation ratio for different order of streams in Kosi
invented ordering method has been selected for the present basin is 2.17 for 1st to 2nd, 1.83 for 2nd to 3rd, 1.74 for 3rd
study. According to Strahler (1964), the smallest fingerprint to 4th, 1.39 for 4th to 6th, 7.76 for 5th to 6th, 0.71 for 6th to
tributaries numbered as 1st order. The 2nd order of stream 7th, respectively (Table 2). The values of Rb in Kosi basin

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Page 8 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

are indicative of inconsistency in morphological adjustment

99 (0.9)
(as the Rb values are not consistent throughout the differ-

0.71

2.18
1.04
216
VII
ent order). The irregularities are due to strong geological
and lithological controls of the basin. Also, high bifurca-

71 (0.7)
tion ratio in higher order streams indicates large amount of

7.76

2.28
1.06
162
VI
water received in upper basin area. But low Rb and related
lower number streams in lower reaches increase water pres-

551 (5.2)
sure. The frequent flood characteristics of Kosi river support

1327
1.39

2.41
0.95
this phenomenon, whereas the Rb values of Kangsabati river
V

basin are 2.18 for 1st to 2nd, 1.83 for 2nd to 3rd, 2.23 for
768 (7.3)

3rd to 4th, 1.30 for 4th to 5th and 0.30 for 5th to 6th order
1756
1.74

2.29
1.13
streams (Table 2). The consistency of Rb values throughout
IV

the basin and low average bifurcation ratio is indicative of

mature geomorphological adjustment. Low mean Rb is also
1338 (12.6)

indicative of water stress condition for river basin. A con-

3463

stant decrease of Rb throughout the different stream order as

1.83

2.59
1.04
III

well as low mean Rb (1.56) indicates low flood potentiality

for the basin.
2449 (23.1)

Stream length (L u) is calculated according to law pro-

6595

posed by Horton (1945). It indicates the successive stage

2.17

2.69
0.86
II

of stream segment development (Castillo et al. 1988). A

direct geomorphic and hydrological sequence can approxi-
5315 (50.2)
Kosi Basin

mate from different order stream lengths. Generally, the total

12,396

length of streams is maximum in 1st order, and Lu decreases

2.33
–

as stream order increases. The irregularities in this trend are

I

indicative of discrepancies in lithology. Studies suggest high

83 (6.8)

stream length in mountain–plain front than plateau–plain

0.30

2.33
1.06
194
VI

front river basin (Vittala et al. 2004; Sreedevi et al. 2005).

The stream length for different orders of the Kosi basin in 1st
25 (2.1)

(12,396 km), 2nd (6595 km), 3rd (3463 km), 4th (1756 km),

1.30

2.48
0.91
62
V

5th (1327  km), 6th (162  km), and 7th order (216  km)
(Table 2). The irregularities of stream length between 6th
68 (5.6)

and 7th order indicates geological and morphological control

2.23

2.26
1.01
154
IV

on river basin. Irregularities are also indicative of lithologi-

cal inconsistency of drainage basin whereas the Lu values
152 (12.5)

of plateau–plain front Kangsabati basin in 1st (1559 km),

1.83

2.30
1.23
350

2nd (790 km), 3rd (350 km), 4th (154 km), 5th (62 km) and

III

6th (194 km) (Table 2). The low length of streams in upper

279 (22.9)

reaches and consistency of stream length throughout the

Table 2  Linear morphometric aspects of river basins

basin is indicative of mature to old geological formation and

2.18

2.83
0.90
Kangsabati Basin

790
2.6

sufficient morphological adjustment throughout the basin.

II

Mean stream length (Lsm) is the characteristics prop-

609 (50.1)

erty of drainage network and associated surface according

1559

to Strahler (Strahler 1964). It is an important dimension-

1.56

2.55
–

less morphometric characteristic calculated by dividing

I

the total length of streams of a given order (u) to the total

Mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm)
Morphometric parameters

Mean stream length (Lum)

number of streams (Nu) of such order. In general, the ratio

Stream length (Lu) in km

Stream length ratio (Rl)

of Lsm increases with increasing order of streams (Shrestha

Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Stream no (Nu) (%)

et al. 2010). Most of the studies indicate low Lsm value in

Stream order (u)

mountain environment than plateau or plain morphology

(Rai et al. 2017). The mean Lsm ratio of Kosi basin in 1st
(2.33 km), 2nd (2.69 km), 3rd (2.59 km), 4th (2.29 km),
5th (2.41 km), 6th (2.28 km) and for 7th order (2.18 km)

13
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 9 of 16  33

Fig. 3  Flow diagram of method-

ology for River basin morpho- DEM Processing
metric analysis
Fill sinks
Flow direction
Flow accumulation
Pour point identification
Watershed extraction

Kosi Basin Kangsabati Basin

Linear Aspect Areal Aspect Relief Aspect

Stream Order (u) Form Factor (Ff) Relative Relief (H)

Stream No. (Nu) Circularity Ratio (Rc) Relief Ratio (Rr)
Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) Elongation Ratio (Re) Dissection Index (Di)
Mean Bifurcation Ratio Constant of channel Ruggedness Index (Ri)
(Rbm) maintenance (CCM)
Stream Length (Lu) Stream Frequency (Fs)
Mean Stream Length Drainage Density (Dd)
(Lum) Texture ratio (Rt)
Stream Length Ratio
(Rl)

(Table 2). Low Lsm values in the upper reaches of the Kosi Stream length ratio (R l) is the ratio between mean
basin indicate young morphological development and high stream lengths of one order to the next higher order.
erosion potentiality. The mean stream length for higher Generally, it tends to be similar throughout the different
order, e.g. 2nd order and above (except 4th and 6th order), orders. Mean stream length segment of each successive
is greater for Kosi basin is due to the fact that higher order order of basin tends to direct geometric series with stream
streams completed their channel lengthening, whereas length increasing towards higher order according to Hor-
1st order streams need times for extending its length. The ton (Horton 1945). Studies suggest mountain–plain front
fact indicates young stage of geomorphic development of river basin have irregular tendency of stream-length ratio
Kosi basin. The anomalies in Lsm throughout the different than regular plateau fringe river basin (Magesh and Chan-
orders suggesting slope changes and changes in the geo- drasekhar 2014). The stream length ratio of Kosi basin
logical set up which in turn denotes abrupt changes in flow starts with 0.86 for 1st to 2nd order, 1.04 for 2nd to 3rd
characteristics. This has also brought discrepancies of sur- order, 1.13 for 3rd to 4th order, 0.95 for 4th to 5th order,
face flow discharge and sedimentation. The mean stream 1.06 for 5th to 6th order and 1.04 for 6th to 7th order
length for Kangsabati basin in 1st (2.55 km), 2nd (2.88 km), (Table 2). The changes in stream length ratio denote that
3rd (2.26 km), 4th (2.48 km), 5th (2.33 km), respectively the area is in early stage of geomorphic development, and
(Table 2). The low value of Lsm for higher order streams, the area has the high potentiality of frequent changes in
i.e. 2.26 km for 3rd order or 2.33 km for 5th order, is due to near future. This is also indicative of irregular hydrologi-
the fact that the streams fall within these order has stopped cal behaviour, whereas the Ri values Kangsabati basin is
their channel lengthening much before than the lower order 0.90 for 1st to 2nd, 1.23 for 2nd to 3rd, 1.01 for 3rd to
streams. Relatively higher Lsm values (1st and 2nd order) in 4th, 0.91 for 4th to 5th and 1.06 for 5th to 6th order of
upper reaches of Kangsabati are indicative of low erosion streams, respectively. The Rl value for each order of Kang-
potentiality which in turn denotes old erosional landform sabati basin is higher than Kosi basin. This is indicative
development. The consistency of Lsm values throughout the of younger stage of geomorphic development for Kosi
basin and higher average Lsm values is indicative of mature basin than Kangsabati basin. The Rl of Kangsabati basin
geomorphological adjustment and low flood regimes. is indicative of late young stage of geomorphic develop-
ment as well as low water regimes. The low difference

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Page 10 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

of Rl values in 1st to 2nd order for Kosi and Kangsabati The capability of any basin to drain is depended upon
basin is due to their geomorphic controls. In other words, the drainage density of such area. Drainage density itself
like Kosi basin, Kangsabati basin faces more or less same depends upon underlain geology, relief, geomorphology, cli-
geomorphic constraints in channel lengthening in its upper mate, vegetation, etc. of that basin. The amount and types
order (1st and 2nd order). of precipitation determined Dd value directly. Studies sug-
gest high drainage density in mountain environment due to
Areal aspects of River basin morphometry impermeable surface materials, sparse vegetation and high
relief, whereas plateau environment bears low Dd due to
Stream frequency (Sf) is the total number of stream segments high infiltration and low relief (Magesh and Chandrasekhar
irrespective of the order in per unit area (Horton 1945). It 2014; Parveen et al. 2012). The overall drainage density of
may also define as the ratio between the total number of Kosi river basin is 0.67 (km/km2) (Table 3). It shows a direct
stream segment cumulative of all orders and the basin relationship between drainage frequency and drainage den-
area. It may be possible to have different stream frequency, sity. High drainage density in upper reaches of Kosi basin
through the basin has same drainage density. Stream fre- indicates less permeable rock in bed surface, high slope and
quency is related to permeability, infiltration capacity and high water flow regimes (Fig. 4). Very low Dd is observed
relief of the basin. It provides drainage basin response to in lower reaches plain areas of the basin due to low relief
runoff processes. Stream frequency depends on the rainfall, and high permeability. Thus, higher runoff with greater flow
relief, initial resistivity of rocks as well as drainage density velocity results in potentiality of downstream flooding in the
of the basin. The lower value of Sf indicates poor drainage basin, whereas for Kangsabati basin, the overall Dd is 0.43,
network (Thomas et al. 2010). High slope and greater rainfall which is very low (Fig. 4) (Table 3). Low Dd is indicative
increase stream frequency (Sf) in mountain areas, whereas of low relief, low slope, high infiltration capacity and low
low permeability and less available surface flow decrease the water regimes throughout the basin.
Sf value in plateau environment (Bali et al. 2011). Stream Texture ratio (Rt) is the product of stream frequency and
frequency of mountain–plain front Kosi river basin is 0.27 drainage density (Horton 1945). Rt can also be defined as the
(number/km2), which can categorise as a moderate stream ratio between total numbers of stream segments to the perim-
frequency (Table 3). The higher Sf values in upper reaches eter of the basin. Infiltration capacity is the single important
indicate high slope and lower permeability. But the plain factor influencing texture ratio recognised by Horton. It is
course of lower basin area shows low Sf due to less avail- also an important fluvial parameter which denotes the rela-
able relief, the plateau–plain front Kangsabati basin shows tive spacing of drainage network of any basin. Rt depends
very low Sf as it is 0.17 (number/km2). The low Sf value of upon numbers of natural factors like the amount of rainfall,
Kangsabati river basin is indicative of lower permeability of density of vegetation, soil types, infiltration capacity, stages
rock, less relief and low slope in plateau environment. Also of geomorphic development and relief (Smith 1950). Col-
semi-humid environment, low relative relief helps for lower lectively drainage density and drainage frequency can be
Sf in Kangsabati basin. called drainage texture. The Rt values of < 2 indicate very
Drainage density (Dd) is the expression of the closeness coarse, 2–4 coarse, 4–6 moderate, 6–8 fine, > 8 very fine
of spacing of channel within a basin as per Horton (1945). drainage texture (Smith 1950). The texture ratio of moun-
As it provides a numerical measurement of runoff potenti- tain–plain environment Kosi basin is 7.60, which indicates
ality and landscape dissection, Dd is the important indica- coarse drainage texture (Table 3). The values indicate low
tor of landform element. Dd measures as the ratio of the infiltration capacity, less permeability of rock and high relief
total length of streams irrespective of stream order to the and sparse vegetation. The Rt values of Kosi basin are also
per unit area of the basin. It ranges from 0.55 to 2.09 km/ indicative of high water regimes, whereas the Rt of Kangsa-
km2 in humid region (Joji et al. 2013). Dd considers as an bati basin is very low as 1.65 (Table 3). The value indicates
important parameter determining the travel time of water. low rainfall, high infiltration, low relief in Kangsabati basin.
Form factor (Ff) is the ratio of the area of the basin to
the square of basin length (Horton 1932). The value of Ff is
Table 3  Areal morphometric aspects of river basins always less than 0.7854 (for a perfectly circular basin) (Bali
Relief aspect Kosi Basin Kangsabati Basin et al. 2011). Smaller the value of Ff, more elongated is the
basin. The value ‘0’ indicates elongated characteristics of
Absolute relief (R) 3597 659
basin and ‘1’ indicates near-circular characteristics of basin
Relative relief (H) 3588 657
with high peak flow. It indicates the flow characteristics of a
Relief ratio (Rr) 0.012 0.0028
basin (Castillo et al. 1988). Higher the value of Ff, more cir-
Dissection index (Di) 0.990 0.996
cular is the basin which indicates high peak flow in shorter
Ruggedness index (Ri) 2.40 0.282
duration, whereas lower the value of Ff, more elongated is

13
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 11 of 16  33

Fig. 4  Linear aspects of River basin morphometry a Kosi and b Kangsabati

the basin which indicates low peak flow with longer duration plateau–plain front river basin of sub-humid environment
(Bali et al. 2011). Flood flows of elongated basin can be eas- (Chen et al. 2013). It also helps to give the idea about
ily managed than that of circular basin. Mountain–plain front hydrological character of a drainage basin. The elongated
river basin tends to form circular basin than plateau–plain basin has a low peak discharge. The Re value of the Kosi
front river basin. The Ff value of Kosi basin is 0.45, which basin is 1.52, which denotes perfect circular characteris-
indicates the basin is near-circular (Table 3). It also indicates tics of the basin (Table 3) (Fig. 1). The Re values of Kosi
higher peak flow in limited times. This phenomenon has indicate its high flood characteristics and high peak flow.
been proved by its recent embankment failure and frequent The Re value of Kangsabati basin is 1.00, which indicates
flood characteristics (Sinha et al. 2008). Large basin area its elongated characteristics (Table 3, Fig. 1). This value
with near-circular shape helps Kosi to become an impor- is indicative of lower flood regimes and mature geomor-
tant flood-prone basin in India (Sinha 2009), whereas the Ff phological adjustment for Kangsabati basin.
value of plateau–plain front Kangsabati basin is 0.12. It indi- Circularity ratio (Rc) is defined as the ratio between the
cates its elongated shape with less peak flow. Comparatively area of the basin to the area of a circle having the same
small basin area and elongated shape of Kangsabati basin perimeter (Strahler 1964). Value of Rc varies from ‘0’ (mini-
indicate lower water regimes of Kangsabati river basin. This mum circularity) to ‘1’ (Maximum circularity). Cr values
phenomenon has been supported as the basin comes under depend upon stream frequency, drainage density, climate,
semi-humid areas of tropical India. geological structure, slope, relief, etc. of any basin. The
Elongation ratio (Re) is the ratio of the diameter of a higher circular basin will affect by peak discharge in high
circle having the same area as of basin to the maximum rainfall season. It is an indicative value determined the geo-
basin length (Schumm 1956). It is also a significant index morphological stages of development of any basin. The high,
of basin shape (Gayen et al. 2013). The value of R e var- medium and low value of Rc is indicative of old, mature
ies from ‘0’ (maximum elongated) to near ‘1’ (maximum and young stages of geomorphological adjustment of any
circularity). The Re values of near ‘1’ indicate that there basin. Generally, the mountain–plain front river basin of
are less geomorphological controls on river basin (Strahler world tends to form circular basin due to its young morpho-
1964). The mountain–plateau front humid environment logical adjustment, whereas plateau–plain front river basin
river basin tends to form less elongated river basin than forms elongated basin in response to mature morphological

13
33 
Page 12 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

adjustment (Vittala et al. 2004; Thomas et al. 2010). The Rc Table 4  Relief morphometric aspects of River basins
value of the Kosi basin is 0.25, which indicates its near-cir- Areal aspect Kosi Basin Kangsa-
cular characteristics (Table 3). It also indicates neo-tectonic bati Basin
upliftment and high peak flood runoff in monsoon season.
Basin perimeter (P) (km) 1392 736
The Rc value for plateau–plain front Kangsabati basin is
Basin area (A) ­(km2) 38,689 7073
0.16, which indicates elongated characteristics. It also refers
Form factor (Ff) 0.45 0.12
to mature geomorphological adjustment and less peak flow
Circularity ratio (Rc) 0.26 0.16
characteristics.
Elongation ratio (Re) 1.52 1.00
Constant of channel maintenance (CCM) is defined as the
Compactness constant (Cc) 2.00 2.46
reciprocal of drainage density as property to define overland
Constant of channel maintenance 1.49 2.27
flow (Schumm 1956). Indirectly, it can be expressed as a
(CCM)
required minimum area for the maintenance and develop-
Stream frequency (Sf) 0.27 0.17
ment of a channel (Dutta and Roy 2012). CCM is expressed
Drainage density (Dd) 0.67 0.43
in ­km2/km. The lower value of CCM indicates higher flood
Texture ratio (Rt) 7.60 1.65
potentiality and young geomorphological adjustment. Moun-
tain environment generally has low CCM values due to
lower infiltration of bare soil and high overland flow. On the
other hand, plateau–plain environment tends to high CCM Relief ratio (Rr) denotes the ratio between total reliefs to
value due to low drainage density and high infiltration in the length of the principal drainage line (Lindsay and Seibert
comparison to plateau–plain environment. The CCM value 2013). The Rr value depends upon different factors of areal
of the Kosi basin is 1.49 (Table 3). It indicates less channel and relief characteristics of basin. The high basin relief, cir-
availability to drain out the excess amount of water and low cular basin shape, small basin area increase the Rr value of
infiltration capacity of soil. All these ultimately indicates any basin. It indicates the overall steepness of the drainage
high flood potentiality. The CCM value for Kangsabati basin basin and related degradation processes (Schumm 1956).
is 2.27, which indicates high infiltration capacity, low drain- The Rr values generally higher in mountain environment
age density and mature geomorphological adjustment. than plateau river basin (Thomas et al. 2010). The Rr value
of Kosi basin is 0.012, which falls under moderate category
Relief aspects of River basin morphometry (Table 4). Though Kosi River has originated from Himala-
yan Mountain, most of basin area falls under lower relief
Basin relief (R, H) includes absolute relief (R) and relative plain area causes low Rr value. This value also indicative of
relief (H). The maximum relief of any basin and the maxi- high overland flow. The Rr value for Kangsabati basin is as
mum altitudinal difference is termed as absolute and relative low as 0.0028. This very low Rr value of Kangsabati basin is
relief, respectively. These are general morphometric param- indicative of elongated basin shape, low basin relief as well
eters used to understand the morphological characteristics as maximum denudation stages of geomorphic evolution.
of basin (Raux et al. 2011). Basin relief depends upon the Dissection index (Di) is defined as the ratio between rela-
underlain geology, geomorphology and drainage character- tive reliefs to its absolute relief. It indicates the vertical ero-
istics of the region. It is the best indicator of erosional stages sion and dissected characteristics of a basin (Haghipour and
of any river basin. Normally, the mountain–plain front river Burg 2014). The value of Di ranges between ‘0’ (absence of
basin has higher basin relief than plateau–plain front river vertical dissection) to ‘1’ (Vertical areas). Di values near to
basin (Thomas et al. 2010). The highest relief of Kosi basin ‘0’ indicate maximum denudation stages of evolution and
is 3597 m., which found near upper reaches of Himalayan near ‘1’ indicates minimum denudation stages of geomor-
peak (Table 4). The relative relief is 3588 m., which seems phic evolution. Mountain basins have relatively higher Di
very high for erosional activity. Basin relief characteristics values in comparison to plateau–plain river basin (Waikar
of Kosi basin are indicative of young stages of geomorphic and Nilawar 2014). The Di value of Kosi basin is 0.99, which
development and huge potentiality for further erosion. The indicate its young or rejuvenated stage of geomorphic devel-
abrupt changes of basin relief in mountain–plain conjunction opment and minimum denudation stage (Table 4). It is also
of Kosi river basin are indicative of prone to geomorpho- indicative of its further potentiality of erosion. Though the
logical hazards. On the other hand, the R and H value for Di value of Kangsabati basin shows near ‘0.9’, Kangsabati
Kangsabati is as low as 659 and 657, respectively. The basin has mature denudation stages of evolution.
relief characteristics of Kangsabati basin are indicative of Ruggedness index (Ri) is defined as the product of drain-
dissected erosional landform and mature stages of geomor- age density and relative relief. The high value of Ri occurs
phological evolution (Parveen et al. 2012; Rai et al. 2017). when both drainage density and relative relief are high
(Ansari et al. 2012). The ruggedness index depends upon

13
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 13 of 16  33

underlain geology, geomorphology, slope, steepness, vegeta- consequent embankments failure, whereas Kangsabati River
tion cover, climate, etc. of that region. The higher Ri value which flows through the eroded eastern Chotanagpur plateau
of any area indicates that the area is in primary stage of indicates constant channel gradient decline throughout its
geomorphic development or denudation activity. Studies main course.
suggest mountain environment basin have higher Ri than Slope (Ɵ) is an important morphometric parameter con-
plateau river basin (Parveen et al. 2012). The high value of trolled by morpho-climatic processes of any area underlain
Ri (2.40) for Kosi basin indicates its youthful or rejuvenated by varying resistance of rock surface. As slope determines
stage of geomorphic development (Table 4). The Ri value of the infiltration vs runoff relation, it is important to under-
Kangsabati is as low as 0.282. Very low Ri value of Kangsa- stand the nature of slope in any region. Infiltration capacity
bati river basin is indicative of mature and maximum denu- is inversely related to the slope. The very high slope (> 40°)
dation stages of erosion. This phenomenon is supported by dominated upper reaches of Kosi basin is the indication of
its granite–gneiss and schist geology, rolling plateau fringe low infiltration related high drainage density and frequency
landform characteristics. (Figs. 5, 6) (Table 4). It also indicates primary stages of geo-
Channel gradient ratio can be defined as changes in morphic evolution. But slope dramatically decreases as Kosi
vertical inclination in per unit area changes of horizontal enters in foothill plain areas. This typical slope characteristic
distance. It is an indication of the stages of geomorphic developed intense flood characteristics as well as specific
evolution as well as its potentiality for further erosion. The geomorphic landforms like alluvial fan, etc., whereas slope
high channel gradient is seen in the mountainous course of Kangsabati river basin is low (< 10°) throughout the
of river and least in plain course of river (Sreedevi et al. basin, indicates high infiltration and low drainage density
2005). The Kosi River is almost vertical from source region characteristics (Figs. 5, 6) (Table 4). This is also indicative
up to Himalayan foothill areas in its upper reaches (Fig. 1), of its mature topographical development.
whereas, it is near horizontal from Himalayan foothills up
to river mouth in its plain course. Such types of gradient
characteristics have the potentiality of frequent flooding and

Fig. 5  Drainage density characteristics of River basins a Kosi and b Kangsabati

13
33 
Page 14 of 16 Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33

Fig. 6  Slope characteristics of River basins a Kosi and b Kangsabati

Conclusion susceptible to flooding. The constant decline of Rb values

with increasing stream order is characteristics of sub-humid
The different morphometric parameters of a basin are the region of tropical environment. The low mean value of Rb is
best representative of underlain geology, geomorphology, also indicative of low flood susceptible water stress region.
relief, slope, climate as well as hydrological dynamics. The Medium mean stream length and regular changes of stream
parameter also indicates stages of geomorphic evolution of length ratio are also indicative of mature stages of geomor-
any area. Morphometry plays an important role in basin- phic development in Kosi river basin. The areal morpho-
level construction and flood control planning. The present metric characteristics of Kosi basin indicate large amount of
study tries to unearth the morphological and hydrological water discharge and peak flow in less available time. These
characteristics from different morphometric parameters as are also indicative of younger stages of geomorphic develop-
well as changes of morphometric parameters in different ment in the mountain–plain environment, whereas the areal
morpho-climatic settings. The Kosi basin which is repre- morphometric characteristics of plateau fringe Kangsabati
sentative of the mountain–plain humid tropical environment basin indicates low overland flow and low flood regimes.
has highest number stream order (up to VIIth order) related This is also evidence of its mature geomorphic development.
with large amount of water discharge and low-velocity flow. Old geomorphic development, highly dissected topography
It indicates the basin is highly susceptible to flooding. Rapid and pre-Cambrian geological formation is also get justified
decline of bifurcation ratio with increasing order as well as by its areal morphometric characteristics. The relief charac-
irregular nature of Rb values bear the indication of geological teristics of Kosi basin supports young stages of geomorphic
unconformity and high susceptibility to flooding. The irregu- development and rejuvenated morphological characteristics
lar changes of stream length of Kosi River basin throughout in mountain–plain front. The geomorphic and hydrological
the different order indicate the younger or rejuvenated stage instability is more common in high relief areas, whereas
of river basin development, whereas Kangsabati basin which relief morphometric characteristics of Kangsabati river basin
is representative of the plateau–plain sub-humid tropical indicate late mature stages of geomorphic development and
environment has lower number of stream order indicates low maximum denuded landform cover.

13
Applied Water Science (2020) 10:33 Page 15 of 16  33

After crosschecking the results from field verification and Chen NS, Hu GS, Deng W, Khanal N, Zhu YH, Han D (2013) On the
related literature, the study concludes that drainage morpho- water hazards in the trans-boundary Kosi River basin. Nat Hazards
Earth Syst Sci 13:795–808
metric parameters have the huge potentiality to unveil the Chorley RJ, Schumm SA, Sugden DE (1985) Geomorphology.
hydro-morphological characteristics of any river basin. The Methuen and Co., Ltd., London
study concludes that morphometric characteristics of any Clarke JJ (1966) Morphometry from map. Essays in geomorphology.
region can successfully reveal the hydrological and morpho- Elsevier, New York, pp 235–274
Dutta S, Roy S (2012) Determination of erosion surfaces and stages of
logical characteristics. There is sufficient difference among evolution of Sangra drainage basin in Giridih district, Jharkhand,
different morphometric parameters in different morpho-cli- India. Int J Geomat Geosci 3(1):63–73
matic regions. In other words, drainage morphometry has Eckbld JW, Peterson NL, Ostile K (1997) The morphometry, benthos
the sufficient ability to differentiate morpho-climatic areas and sedimentation rates of a floodplain lake in pool of the Upper
Mississippi River. Am Midl Nat 97(2):433–443
of the world through its different values. Remote sensing and Gayen S, Bhunia GS, Shit PK (2013) Morphometric analysis of Kang-
GIS can successfully use for accessing the drainage morpho- sabati–Dwarakeshwar interfluves area in West Bengal, India using
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hydrological and morphological planning for such areas. Ghosh AK (2009) Changing geomorphology of the Kosi River system
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Acknowledgements  The author is currently working under the PhD Golekar RB, Baride MV, Patil SN (2013) Morphometric analysis and
programme of Jawaharlal Nehru University. The work has been con- hydrogeological implication: Anjani and Jhiri river basin Maha-
ducted under NET-JRF program of University Grants Commission rashtra, India. Arch Appl Sci Res 5(2):33–41
(UGC). The author is also thankful to his supervisor Dr. Padmini Haghipour N, Burg JP (2014) Geomorphological analysis of the
Pani (Associate Professor, CSRD, JNU) for continuous guidance and drainage system on the growing Makran accretionary wedge.
support. Geomorphology 209:111–132
Horton RE (1932) Drainage basin characteristics, 2nd edn. ransac-
Compliance with ethical standards  tions, American Geophysical Union, New York
Horton RE (1945) Erosional development of streams and their drain-
Conflict of interest  The corresponding author states that there is no age basins: hydro physical approach to quantitative morphology.
conflict of interest. Bull Geol Soc Am 56:275–370
Jain V, Sinha R (2008) Geomorphological manifestations of the
flood hazard: a remote sensing based approach. Geocarto Int
Open Access  This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- 18(4):1752–1762
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- Joji VS, Nair AS, Baiju KV (2013) Drainage basin delineation and
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long quantitative analysis of Panamaram Watershed of Kabani River
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Basin, Kerala using remote sensing and GIS. J Geol Soc Ind
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were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Kim JC, Jung K (2015) Fractal tree analysis of drainage patterns.
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Water Resour Manag 29:1217–1230
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in Lindsay JB, Seibert J (2013) Measuring the significance of a divide
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permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will Mahala A (2017) Processes and status of land degradation in a pla-
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a teau fringe region of tropical environment. Environ Process
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. 4(3):663–682
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