Cultural Diversity and Ideologies of Multiculturalism

Introduction

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO, 2006) noted that culture is defined as the whole set of signs by
which the members of a given society recognize one another, while
distinguishing them from people not belonging to that society. It has also been
viewed as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
features of a society or social group encompassing in addition to art and
literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and
beliefs. It is also important to note that cultures are not static; they change over
time as new generations reject or reformulate some aspect of traditional ways of
living (Griffin, 2008).

According to Griffin (2008), culture is about the attitudes and values

underpinning patterns of tradition and custom which determine everyday aspects
of life, such as:
 How the role of men and women is seen in society,
 The way children are brought up,
 The language one speaks, what, when and how one eats,
 How one dresses, how one washes and cares for oneself,
 How one decorates and furnishes one’s home,
 The religious practices one pursues regularly and
 Drama, music, dance, literature and art, the manner of celebrating special
occasions such as weddings and festivals and attitudes to death and dying.

Culture is at the core of individual and social identity and is a major

component in the reconciliation of group identities within a framework of social
cohesion (UNESCO, 2006). Cultural identity and a pride in one’s culture gives
people a sense of social and historical rootedness. Culture is different from
nature, in that culture encompasses that which is passed on from one generation
to the next by learning, rather than through biological inheritance (Heywood,
2007).
Concepts

Culture is diverse as it is often linked to ethnicity.According to Max Weber

(1978, cited in Law, 2009, p. 63), ethnicity refers to diverse groups of people
that not only have a common descent, but also share similarities of physical
type, customs, traditions, and language. Cohen and Kennedy (2007, p. 162)
explain that the social construction of ethnicity is based on social markers, for
example, those of culture, nationality, language or religion.

According to the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Protection and

Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005), “Cultural diversity”
refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies find
expression. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the varied
ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and
transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse
modes of artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and
enjoyment, whatever the means and technologies used.

According to the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Protection and

Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005), “Cultural
expressions” are those expressions that result from the creativity of individuals,
groups and societies, and that have cultural content.

There is a tension between universalism and cultural pluralism. There is a

need to emphasize the universality of human rights, whilst maintaining cultural
difference which may challenge aspects of these rights (UN, 2006). UNESCO
(2009) holds firmly to the view that full and unqualified recognition of cultural
diversity strengthens the universality of human rights and ensures their effective
exercise. It is also important to understand cultural relativity as a practice of
evaluating any culture by its own standards, and trying not to project your value
system onto them. There are reasons that groups of people do what they do,
often reasons that make perfectly good sense to them (Leeder, 2003).
Threats to Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity is facing threats by the mono-cultural development and

Eurocentrism. Development:Conventionally development has been a
consumerism-based mono-cultural project, with modernization and
Westernization being synonymous (Pieterse, 2010). Cultural homogenisation has
led to threats to cultural diversity.

Eurocentrism:According to Amin (2008), Eurocentrism has created the

construct of the ‘other’ as ‘orientalism’ which is inferior to Eurocentrism. It is a
cultural prejudice that claims that western culture is superior to others and its
imitation by all peoples is the only way to progress, justifying colonization. Not
only that, it destroyed the peoples and civilizations who resisted its spread. The
ends of the global market economy are served through homogenization of
citizen responses and social tastes (Ahmad, 1998). According to Bhargava
(1999), people lose respect for their own cultures and hasten the progress of
homogenization, induced by dominant Eurocentric culture.

Cultural Conflicts

Conflicts between religions, races, castes and linguistic groups have increased
in the recent times. Multiculturalists do not perceive any link between cultural
diversity and conflict or instability, they hold that such diversity is compatible
with political cohesion and cultural recognition underpins political stability.
From this perspective, the denial of cultural recognition results in isolation and
powerlessness, providing a breeding ground for extremism and the politics of
hate (Bhargava, 1999). Prejudicing ideologies and religious fundamentalism
play a major role in creating cultural conflicts.

Prejudicing Ideologies

While culture is a source of identity, it can also lead to stereotypes about

cultures of ‘others’, resulting in tensions, social exclusion, conflicts and even
violence within and among societies (UNESCO, 2006). Culture-based
prejudicing ideologies comprise ethnocentrism, Eurocentrism, racism and
casteism.

Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is judging another culture by the standards of

one’s own culture, assuming one’s own culture to be superior (Leeder, 2005). It
often suggests that the way something is done in other ethnic groups is inferior
to the way it is done in one's own ethnic group (Marshall, 1994). It blocks
recognition of other cultures as good and necessary for others as their own for
themselves. Ethnocentrism leads to ethnic stereotypes, intolerance,
discrimination and violence against those with cultural background different
than one’s own.

Racism: Racism consists of attitudes and actions, often based on prejudices and
often deriving from stereotypes that discriminate against certain people because
they are seen as belonging to a particular race which is seen as inferior to
another. Racist attitudes include the view that people of some ethnic origins are
less important and valuable than those of other ethnic origins (Griffin, 2008).
Though Indians face racism in white race-dominated countries, Indians are
racist with reference to non-Whites in the same countries and with non-White
and non-Indian foreigners within India.

Casteism: Casteism is a prejudicing ideology that justifies hierarchy of castes

based on natural and social inferiority. It is a prejudice about superiority or
inferiority of other castes with reference to one’s own. It justifies intolerance,
discrimination and violence against those at the lower rungs of the hierarchy.
Indian people are known for their deep-rooted casteism.

Religious Fundamentalism
Secularisation: Secularism has brought about a distinction between politics and
religion. However, secularization has contributed to a decline of traditional
religion and a weakening of what is seen as the ‘moral’ fabric of society. In
many parts of the world, religious revivalism has assumed a political form .
Religious Fundamentalism:Fundamentalism refers to a commitment to ideas
and values that are seen as basic or foundational which has an enduring and
unchanging character. It is therefore seen as opposite of relativism. In the case
of religious fundamentalism, the ‘fundamentals’ have usually but not always
derived from the content of sacred texts. Fundamental tendencies are identified
in all the world’s major religions (Heywood, 2000). Religious fundamentalism
has arisen out of religious ignorance and prejudices and as a reaction to
politicisation, secularisation and homogenisation in the context of colonisation.

Religious Conflicts in India: Communal politics began in India as a result of

political mobilisation in the pre-independence period. It culminated in the
Partition of India in 1947, a massive religious conflict in her history. Today,
communalism has come to pervade in all aspects of life, particularly areas
which are the most sensitive, such as education, the media, the forces of law and
order and even culture. Communal politics in India has resorted to manipulation
or distortion of historical facts to incite religious sentiments and consciousness

(Thapar, 1998). The intensification of communal politics in the past couple of

decades led to incidents of mass communal violence like the anti-Sikh riots in
1984, bomb blasts in 1993 and terrorists attack in Mumbai in 2008, Gujarat
riots against Muslims in 2002, and so on (Punyani, 2012). This has caused loss
of life and property, gross violation of fundamental human rights,
marginalisation and disenfranchisement of certain sections of people. Such
violent religious communalism have their sources in religious ignorance and
prejudices and religious fundamentalism.

Religious Ignorance and Prejudices: The causes of religious conflict are

complex, deep- seated and multi-dimensional. Religious communalism assumes
that people belonging to one religion have similar interests and that these are
opposed to the interests of people belonging to ‘other’ religion (Punyani, 2012).
Such ignorance about the ‘other’ provides a fertile ground for breeding
sentiments of hatred and animosity. Ignorance also leads to stigmatisation and
negative representation of the ‘other’ (most often the minorities) in the cultural
history of the nation (Mahajan, 2006). In the context of religious differences and
ignorance, prejudices and ethnocentrism flourish which leads to the perception
that one’s own religion is the only true religion.

Colonisation: Religious fundamentalism arises in deeply troubled societies,

particularly societies afflicted by an actual or perceived crisis of identity. The
impact of colonialism helps to explain why, although fundamentalism can be
found across the globe, its most potent and influential manifestations have been
found in the developing world. Colonial rule generally devalued and often
suppressed indigenous cultures. As a result, the postcolonial societies inherited
a weakened sense of identity and their subordination to western powers
continued. In this context, religious fundamentalism offers a non-western
political identity on the basis of religion (Heywood, 2000).

Militancy: Fundamentalists are usually happy to see themselves as militants, in

the sense that militancy implies passionate and robust commitment. Religious
fundamentalism has been associated with the existence of a hostile and
threatening ‘other’. This demonised ‘other’ may take various guises from
secularism and permissiveness to rival religions, westernisation and Marxism.
The consequence of this militancy is a willingness to engage in extra-legal, anti-
constitutional political action and sometimes violence and terrorism (Heywood,
2000).

Protection and Promotion ofCultural Diversity

Objectives

The main objectives of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the
Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005) are:
a) To protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions;
b) To create the conditions for cultures to flourish and to freely interact in

a mutually beneficial manner;

c) To encourage dialogue among cultures with a view to ensuring wider

and balanced cultural exchanges in the world in favour of intercultural

respect and a culture of peace;
d) To foster interculturality in order to develop cultural interaction in the

spirit of building bridges among peoples;

e) To promote respect for the diversity of cultural expressions and raise

awareness of its value at the local, national and international levels;

f) To give recognition to the distinctive nature of cultural activities, goods

and services as vehicles of identity, values and meaning;

Guiding Principles

The main guiding principles of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion
of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005) are:
1. Principle of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms:

Cultural diversity can be protected and promoted only if human rights and
fundamental freedoms, such as freedom of expression, information and
communication, as well as the ability of individuals to choose cultural
expressions, are guaranteed.
2. Principle of equal dignity of and respect for all cultures: The protection

and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions presuppose the

recognition of equal dignity of and respect for all cultures, including the
cultures of persons belonging to minorities and indigenous peoples.
3. Principle of the complementarity of economic and cultural aspects of

development: Since culture is one of the mainsprings of development, the

cultural aspects of development are as important as its economic aspects,
which individuals and peoples have the fundamental right to participate in
and enjoy.

4. Principle of equitable access: Equitable access to a rich and diversified

range of cultural expressions from all over the world and access of cultures
to the means of expressions and dissemination constitute important
elements for enhancing cultural diversity and encouraging mutual
 understanding.
5. Principle of openness and balance: When States adopt measures to support

the diversity of cultural expressions, they should seek to promote, in an

appropriate manner, openness to other cultures of the world and to ensure
that these measures are geared to the objectives pursued under the present
Convention.

Muticulturalism

Historical Context: Multiculturalism entered public discourses in the West in

the late 1960s and early 1970s, when both Australia and Canada had begun to
allow Asian immigrants. It usually refers to policies by central states and local
authorities that have been put in place to manage and govern the new multi-
ethnicity created by non-white immigrant populations (Rattansi, 2011).
However, India has always been multicultural with reference to several ethnic
groups and languages and various religions.

Concept: Multiculturalism as a descriptive term has been taken to refer to

cultural diversity that arises from racial, ethnic and language differences.As a
normative term, multiculturalism implies:
 A positive endorsement, even celebration of communal diversity, based on
either the right of different cultural groups to recognition and respect, or to
the alleged benefits to the larger society.
 Distinctive cultures deserve to be protected and strengthened, particularly
when they belong to minority or vulnerable groups (Heywood, 2007).

Multiculturalism opposes cultural imperialism and homogenisation and opposes

states whose only objectives are the survival and well-being of the dominant
cultural group. A demand to renounce cultural identity as a condition for free
and equal citizenship no longer appears to be viable (Bhargava, 1999).

Rattansi (2011) recommends the need to move beyond multiculturalism, which

is mere celebration of diversity and different cultures, to interculturalism, which
is positive encouragement of encounters between cultural groups.
Interculturality

According to the UN Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the

Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005), “Interculturality” refers to the
existence and equitable interaction of diverse cultures and the possibility of
generating shared cultural expressions through dialogue and mutual respect.
Interculturality presupposes multiculturalism and results from ‘intercultural’
exchange and dialogue on the local, regional, national or international level. A
multicultural existence may imply learning about other cultures to produce an
acceptance or at least tolerance of different cultures in a society. On the other
hand, an intercultural approach aims to go beyond passive coexistence, to
achieve a developing and sustainable way of living together in multicultural
societies through the creation of understanding of, respect for and dialogue
between the different cultural groups (UNESCO, 2006).

Multiculturalism can best flourish when there is an accompanying spirit of

interculturality. For example, multiculturalism may suggest official recognition
for different languages or religions in a given state but interculturality requires
that the majority be encouraged to learn about the minorities and with it the
literature and culture of a minority, and vice versa, that is, the minority be
encouraged to learn about other minorities as well as the majority (Mahajan,
2006).
Minority Cultural Rights

The term “minority culture” generally refers to the culture of “marginalized or

vulnerable groups who live in the shadow of majority populations with a
different and dominant cultural ideology”, the “majority culture”. The non-
dominant position of minority groups does not always derive from numerical
weakness; it often has a qualitative dimension linked to the specific cultural and
socio-economic characteristics of the community. Such characteristics can
produce value systems and life styles that are very different from or even
incompatible with those of more dominant groups in society (UNESCO,
2006). Multicultural rights are sometimes called minority rights. These rights
are distinct from the liberal conception of rights, in that they belong to groups
rather than to individuals. These rights are specific to the groups to which they
belong, each cultural group having different needs for recognition based on the
specific character of its religion, traditions and way of life (Heywood, 2007, pp.
318- 319).

Summary

This module examines the concepts of culture and cultural diversity, and threats
to cultural diversity due to cultural homogenisation based in Eurocentric
development. It reviews the spread of cultural conflicts rooted in prejudicing
ideologies and religious fundamentalism, arisen out of religious ignorance and
prejudices and as a reaction to politicisation, secularisation and homogenisation
in the context of colonisation. It discusses the main objectives and guiding
principles of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity
of Cultural Expressions (2005). Finally, analyses the ideologies of
multiculturalism, interculturality and minority cultural rights to protect and
promote cultural diversity.