Mustafa 2021

Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102009
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Journal of Water Process Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwpe
Microalgae biosorption, bioaccumulation and biodegradation efficiency for

the remediation of wastewater and carbon dioxide mitigation: Prospects,
challenges and opportunities
Shazia Mustafa a, Haq Nawaz Bhatti a, **, Munazza Maqbool a, Munawar Iqbal b, *
a
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
b
Department of Chemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Environmental pollution is increasing day by day due to anthropogenic activities and different types of toxic
Microalgae contaminants such as heavy metals, chemicals, dyes, pesticides etc enter the environment from different sources
Bioremediation such as municipal, industries and agricultural. Among wastewater treatment techniques, bioremediation is one of
Biosorption
promising techniques, which utilize the inherent biological mechanism of plant and microorganism for the
Environmental remediation
Phycoremediation
remediation of diverse pollutants. Microalgae have been applied to mitigate the toxic and recalcitrant pollutants
Carbon dioxide mitigation in the effluents. Microalgae have the capacity to remove different types of contaminants through different
methods such as biosorption, bioaccumulation and biodegradation. It has been observed that microalgae can
remove the pollutants originated from the domestic effluents, agricultural runoffs, textile, leather, pharmaceu
tical and electroplating industries etc. Additionally, the microalgae have the ability to mitigate the carbon di
oxide in their growth process and utilize the micronutrients in the effluents. This review paper critically analysed
the application of microalgae for the remediation of diverse types of pollutants commonly present in the envi
ronment through different mechanisms.
1. Introduction The bioremediation has been emerged as an eco-friendly substitute

for the wastewater treatment process [19]. In bioremediation, micro
Industrialization, urbanization and technology development results organisms are used to remove or metabolize the toxic substances to
in the generation of the complex and toxic pollution [1]. Toxic pollut non-toxic moieties. It is considered as a cost-effective and efficient
ants like heavy metals, hydrocarbons and chemicals can enter the alternative to conventional approaches [20,21]. The use of fungi [22]
environment by their direct or indirect release from industry, municipal bacteria [23], and microalgae [24,25] reported to be efficient in the
waste and agriculture [2,3]. These contaminants result in the loss of bioremediation of wastewater. In this regard, the microalgae are
diversity in the ecosystem as well as an increase in the toxins in the believed to be a potential candidate for the removal of toxic substances
human food chain [4,5]. The disturbance in the environment degrades because they can efficiently remove toxic substances from the sur
the quality of life and cause numerous diseases [6,7]. Different ap rounding through their various ways of nutrition [26–32], i.e., hetero
proaches such as evaporation, precipitation, ion-exchange, advanced trophy, mixotrophy and phototrophy [33]. Microalgae convert these
aerobic degradation, biological oxidation, oxidation processes, ozona toxic elements into a considerable level by accumulation, adsorption
tion, coagulation, membrane filtration, solid-phase extraction, and metabolization. The unique ability of microalgae to photosynthesize
nano-filtration, photocatalytic degradation and electrochemical degra and to utilize carbon substrates as compared to other organisms is
dation have been developed for the elimination of such contaminants termed as phycoremediation [34]. Microalgae can decrease the amount
[8–13]. Though, these methods have some disadvantages like the gen of CO2 from the atmosphere due to their photosynthetic ability as well as
eration of toxic sludge or other waste products, incomplete removal of their ability to bio-fixing of CO2 [35]. Moreover, microalgae can
metals, high reagent, and energy requirements [14–18]. reproduce in wastewater by using micronutrients already present in
* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hnbhatti2005@yahoo.com (H.N. Bhatti), bosalvee@yahoo.com (M. Iqbal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102009
Received 16 November 2020; Received in revised form 3 March 2021; Accepted 3 March 2021
Available online 11 March 2021
2214-7144/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Mustafa et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102009
wastewater (Figs. 1–3).

Carbohydrates present in the cell wall of microalgae make them
capable of absorbing toxic chemicals like heavy metals, phosphorous
(P), nitrogen (N) and other compounds from wastewater. So, microalgae
are suitable for the removal of different types of compounds present in
wastewaters. The ability of microalgae to utilize numerous compounds
such as endocrine disruptors, hydrocarbons pesticides and cyanides
have also been documented [34,36].
2. Microalgae
Microalgae size ranged in few micro-metres to hundreds of micro-

metres and are unicellular or have a simple multicellular structure and
their simpler structure is the reason for their high growth rate [5,37].
Microalgae are prokaryotic/eukaryotic photosynthetic and can live in
diverse conditions [38]. The microalgae find application in different Fig. 2. Processes involved in the remediation process by microalgae.
fields that depends upon microalgae selection and suitable culture
conditions for their growth and biomass production [5]. 3. Processes involved in the remediation of pollutants
Microalgae are exceptional for remediation because a broad range of
toxic and other wastes can be remedied using algae. Pollutants can be Different mechanisms, i.e., biosorption, bioaccumulation and
used as nutrients and degraded enzymatically by algae [39]. So, using biodegradation are involved in the environmental remediation by using
microalgae improves the treatment methods of wastewater and de microalgae.
creases the burden of the organic pollutant from the medium [40,41].
Microalgae are able to scavenge a broad category of pollutants from
agricultural, domestic, and industrial sectors. Microalgae not only 3.1. Biosorption
remediate the phosphates, nitrates, ammonium, and other organic and
inorganic pollutants present in wastewater, but can also absorb and It is considered that biosorption is a passive process [47] and by
degrade the persisting molecules such as heavy metals, PPCPs, HCs, using this method, microalgae are able to remove organic pollutants like
EDCs and antibiotics [42,43]. Because of their ability to photosynthesize aromatic compounds and pesticides. Chelation/complexation, adsorp
[44], microalgae can easily capture CO2 gas and form important tion, electrostatic interaction, surface precipitation and ion exchange
by-products such as lipids, vitamins and carbohydrates [45]. Moreover, are reported to be involved in the process of biosorption using micro
oxygen produced by photosynthesis can reduce the BOD of the waste algae [48,49]. So, the binding moieties on the surface significantly affect
water [46]. Synechoccystis, C. Gloeocapsa, Scenedesmus, Anabaena, O. the efficiency to adsorb pollutants [50]. Sulphated polysaccharides,
Chroococcus, Lyngbya and Spirulina etc. are some microalgae, which are carbohydrates, intercellular spaces and a fibril matrix present on the cell
used commonly to treat wastewater [39]. wall that could assist in the adsorption of organic contaminants from
wastewater [34]. Furthermore, several binding sites like OH− , SO2− 4 ,
NH−2 and COO− functional groups are also present uniformly on the cell
wall of microalgae [51]. Because of microalgal surface properties and
Fig. 1. Flowchart showing potential use of microalgae in environmental remediation.
2
Fig. 3. Biosorption of metal ions by algal cells.
retention capacities, its biomass can be used as a biosorbent to treat the significant metabolites, trans-naphthalene dihydrodiol, cis-naphthalene
effluents [48,52]. Adsorption phenomena were used by Synechocystis sp. dihydrodiol, 4-hydrox-4-tetralone and 1-naphthol by both eukaryotic
and Scenedesmus sp. to remove diclofenac from water. It was observed microalgae and blue-green algae. These metabolites were produced at a
that the biomass of Scenedesmus sp. is able to remove 28 mg/g and the non-toxic concentration [63]. Aldaby and Mawad reported that the
biomass of Synechocystis sp. can remove the 20 mg/g of diclofenac [53]. degradation capacity of Oscillatoria sp. for PY that was significantly
Also, Al-Homaidan et al. [54] documented that C. glomerata, surpassed than that of the Chlorella sp. under the same incubation con
E. intestinalis and M. amoena have good bioadsorption capacity to dition and at 50 and 100 mg/L concentration of PY. It was observed that
remove the Cr+6 from aqueous solution. C. glomerata shows maximum the Oscillatoria sp. have ability to 95 % PY, whereas Chlorella sp. has the
adsorption capacity and removes 66.6 % of Cr+6 using 1.0 g dried algal ability to degrade 78.71 % of PY at 50 mg/L concentration of PY and 30
cells/100 mL at 45 ◦ C and pH 2.0 [54]. days of incubation time. It was also observed that PY at 10 and 30 mg/L
is completely degraded by both strains [64].
3.2. Bioaccumulation
4. Environmental applications
Bioaccumulation is considered as an active process [47] and living
biomass is used in this process to detoxify the wastes [51]. In this pro 4.1. CO2 mitigation by microalgae
cess, the biomass uptake the substances through the surfaces and uptake
of nutrients [55]. Compounds are then accumulated or metabolized Climate change is caused by greenhouse gases and CO2 is the major
according to the type of biomass [47]. It can also be defined as the greenhouse gas that causes global warming and 68 % of total emissions
process in which organic and inorganic pollutants, i.e., heavy metals and account for CO2. According to the Kyoto Protocol, the release of
pesticides, nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates are transferred inside the greenhouse gas should be reduced by 5.2 % relative to the emissions in
cells of the living organism and are removed from aqueous solutions 1990 [65]. The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is not only the
[56]. Bioaccumulation process is characterized using bioconcentration cause of global warming, but also results in a 30 % increase in the acidity
factor that is the ratio of the concentration of a pollutant adsorbent and of the ocean, which in turn adversely affects biodiversity [66,67]. Since
in the media [55]. Bioaccumulation of Zn, Al, Fe, Cd and Cu by using GHG affects human life as well as the global environment, there is a need
O. bornettia, C. vulgaris, E. acus and P. curvicauda was reported. The to provide solutions to fix this problem. In the recent era, many research
highest metal concentration factor seen for Oscillatoria is 0.306 for Zn, and development projects have been executed to reduce CO2. In this
0.302 for Fe, 0.091 for Cu and 0.276 for Cd. Whereas the highest value regard, CO2 is converted into HCs and organic carbon-like lipids by a
for bioconcentration of Al was shown by P. curvicauda and E. acus that process known as the “CO2 fixation process” [34]. Physical, chemical,
was 0.439 [57]. and biological methods were some of the reported methods. The bio
logical method is trustworthy among all the methods. In a biological
approach, microalgae are mostly used in CO2 biofixation due to their
3.3. Biodegradation high biomass productivity, photosynthetic performance, high lipid
accumulation and valuable non-fuel co-products [68]. The ability of
Biodegradation is considered as an essential process to remove the microalgae to accumulate polyunsaturated fatty acid and lipid increases
contaminants from effluents with the help of microbes [58]. Microalgae with the increase in the concentration of CO2 in media, which results in
have the ability to degrade organic matter present in the water into an increase in the yield of biodiesel by microalgae [69,70]. Moreover,
small molecules, which in turn used by them as nutrients for their biodiesel produced by microalgae is exceptionally eco-friendly and does
growth [59]. It has been observed the algae are capable to degrade the not contain toxic materials or sulfur [71].
pollutants and transform them to intermediates or by enhancing the CO2 is accumulated in algal biomass and then converted into prod
degradation potential of the microbial community present around. The ucts such as renewable biofuels, vitamins and proteins [72], animal and
ability of microalgae to degrade harmful organic pollutants is docu aquaculture feed products food, and other beneficial products such as
mented. For example, microalgae had increased the biodegradation rate nutraceuticals, cosmetics, bio-fertilizers and pharmaceuticals [73]. It is
of caffeine up to 99 % [60]. It was also reported that the N. muscorum, S. believed that microalgae are 10–50 times more efficient than terrestrial
platensis, and A. oryzae can biodegrade malathion and efficiencies were plants because of their rapid growth, simpler structure and ability to use
91 %, 54 % and 65 %, respectively [61]. carbon as a nutrient [5,73,74]. Microalgae can be cultivated by using
It was also observed that the microalgae can biodegrade or bio CO2 of flue gas from power plants or by using atmospheric CO2 in the
transform organic pollutants via metabolic action by accumulating the raceway pond [5,72,75]. Different microalgae species show a different
pollutant and resultantly, degrade it, via transformation and minerali level of tolerance to the CO2 concentration of flue gas [34]. Microalgae
zation [62]. It was exhibited that naphthalene can be degraded into four
3
are divided into three categories according to their capacity of CO2 Table 1
tolerance (i) CO2 sensitive species inhibited by mere < 2–5 % CO2, (ii) Microalgal species reported for the biomitigation of CO2.
species that can tolerate 5–20 % CO2, CO2 tolerant species (iii) species Microalgae CO2 CO2 removal efficiency References
that can tolerate 20–100 % CO2, extreme CO2 tolerant species [34]. concentration
There are only limited species of microalgae that have shown C. vulgaris 5% 140.91 mg/L or 0.001 % [83]
remarkable tolerance to a high concentration of CO2 e.g. Arthrospira C. vulgaris 8% 0.14 % [84]
spp., Chlorella spp., S. dimorphus, N. oculate and B. braunii. However, it N. gaditana 8% 0.17 % [84]
was reported that Scenedesmus spp. exhibited more tolerance than S. obliquus 5% 129.82 mg/L or 0.0012 [83]
%
Chlorella spp. in high concentrations of CO2, i.e., 10–80 %. Whereas, S. obliquus 10 % 0.002 % [69]
both species have the ability to grow in low concentration of CO2, i.e., Scenedesmus sp. 10.6 % 66 % [85]
10–30 %. Furthermore, it was also observed that the growth of Scene Chlorella fusca _ 42.8 % [79]
desmus spp. was inhibited in a 100 % concentration of CO2. But, this Spirulina sp. LEB 18 _ 0.019 % [79]
Spirulina sp. LEB 18 12% 0.019 % [86]
inhibition effect can be reversed by returning the CO2 concentration to
S. obliquus PF3 15 % 87 % [87]
20 % [76]. A mutant of Chlorella spp. (strain KR-1) was also reported, C. pyrenoidosa 10 % 0.002 % [69]
which has the ability to grow under as high as 70 % CO2 concentration Chlorella PY-ZU1 15 % 2− 85.6% [88]
[77]. Anabaena sp. 5− 15% 47.1− 93.8% [89]
The CO2 fixation rate by microalgae decreases with a low concen
tration of CO2 and a high flow rate. It was reported that when Chlorella
accumulate and remove the excess nutrients from wastewater. A wide
sp. was grown in different CO2 concentrations, i.e., 1.75 % and 9.45 % as
range of microalgae like Spirulina, Scenedesmus, Chlamydomonas, Chlor
well as the different flow rate of CO2, the maximum growth rate was
ella, and Botryococcus is used for bioremediation of the domestic
shown by the Chlorella sp. i.e., 1.75 % at 50 mL/min flow rate of CO2.
wastewater [63].
This concentration of CO2 also resulted in maximum biomass produc
tion. High CO2 concentration decreases the pH to less than 5.5, which in
4.2.1. Removal of inorganic nutrients
turn could prevent algae from growing. A decrease in CO2 supplemen
Detergents are the reason for approximately 50 % of the total P in the
tation decreased the concentration of biomass noticeably. So, the results
domestic effluent, whereas metabolic interconversion release of N. The
indicated that the CO2 fixation efficiency of microalgae might decrease
N and P are present in the form of ammonia, nitrate, nitrite and ortho
at low concentration and high flow rate of CO2 [78].
phosphate in wastewater. The elimination process of these nutrients is
Moreover, it was observed that some species of microalgae could be
recognized as nutrient desorbing [5]. Nitrites, nitrates and ammonium
cultivated by using 10–15 % CO2 [69]. But, high levels of flue gas
are important nutrient sources for the microalgae [91]. Microalgae
components like metals, NOx and SOx and may cause cell growth to be
assimilate these nutrients into their cells for growth and play a role in
inhibited in some microalgal species [79]. Recently, the effect of the
the remediation of wastewater [5]. Whereas phosphates are used as
irregular wastes, i.e., CO2, SO2, NO, and ash present in the flue gas of a
intermediates in the metabolic activity of carbohydrate [91]. Microalgae
coal power plant on the CO2 biofixation, growth parameters and
remove N by assimilation and the phenomena to remove P are not un
biomass characterization of C. fusca LEB 111 was evaluated. The addi
derstood yet, two metabolic processes are under debate to describe the
tion of NO and SO2 up to 400 ppm did not affect the biofixation of CO2
mechanism for P removal, (1) assimilation of P by algae for their growth
by microalga significantly. The best efficiency to fix CO2 by microalgae
and (2) uptake and storage of P as polyphosphates in the algal biomass
was shown at 200 ppm SO2 and NO, 40 ppm ash and 10 % CO2.
[92]. Microalgae can produce 100 t of biomass by using approximately 1
Similarly, 111 biomass composition of the C. fusca LEB remained the
t of P and 5 t of N [93].
same in all trials [80]. S. dimorphus has the ability to tolerate high
In recent studies, it is reported that the pure and mixed cultures of
concentrations of NO and CO2; it was reported that intermittent sparging
microalgae can remove inorganic nutrients, including N and P in the
with flue gas and pH control plays an important role in overcoming the
range of 80–100 [94,95]. Biomass production potential of 9 native
inhibition of microalgae by flue gas. The maximum biomass concen
microalgae consortia was evaluated in livestock wastewater having high
tration, i.e., 3.63 g/L and highest CO2 biofixation of 75.61 % was
strength as well as rural sector wastewater having low strength. It was
observed by intermittent sparging of flue gases [81]. In a symbiotic
observed that all native consortia have the ability to reduce 80–100 %
relationship, the microalgae showed higher tolerance. A symbiotic
nutrients from wastewater after 12 days of batch culture under
C. Desmodesmus sp. 3Dp86E-1 from a White Sea benthic hydroid
controlled conditions [94]. Moreover, the immobilized algae removed
D. pumila showed tolerance to up to 20 % CO2. This high level of CO2 did
inorganic nutrients from effluents is alternative to harvesting microalgal
not affect the functioning and ultrastructure of the microalgae. More
biomass from suspended culture and considered as a cost-effective
over, the rate of growth of the culture had also increased by two folds.
method. The co-culture with activated sludge to alginate-immobilized
However, the amount of photosynthetic carbon to be assimilated along
microalgae (C. vulgaris) inoculum ratios (R) was examined for the
with the effective delivery of the photosynthates to biosynthesize the
removal performances for N and P and organic pollutants. The highest
structural cell components is decisive for the efficient growth of
performance was shown by the reactor having R = 0.5, indicating 66 %
microalgae at a higher concentration of CO2. These abilities of the
and 95 % removal of N after 24 h and 84 h, respectively. The P was
symbiotic microalgae make them appropriate to be used in the advanced
removed completely in the co-culture system after 24 h. Whereas, P was
technologies to mitigate CO2 [82]. Many other microalgae species have
removed completely after 36 h in the pure C. vulgaris culture [96].
equally been reported for biomitigation of CO2 (Table 1).
Recently, a prototype-scale Twin-Layer photobioreactor was designed
using immobilized green alga H. rubescens in vertical sheet-like surfaces
4.2. Bioremediation of domestic effluents
and employed for the treatment of municipal wastewater. The results
showed 70–99 % of P and N was removed efficiently from 22 effluents
Inorganic chemicals such as nitrates and phosphate and organic
depending on the type of wastewater and elements present in it [97].
compounds are the main pollutants in the domestic effluents. So, C, P,
Moreover, the ability of microalgae to remove the P and N from the
and N are the three main pollutants present in urban wastewaters [33].
domestic wastewater was improved by adding microalgae to a
These pollutants cause eutrophication, which in turn resulted in the
sequencing batch biofilm reactor to form a unique algal-bacterial sym
depletion of oxygen in water [90]. This is a global problem that can be
biotic system. Results depicted that the algae-assisted sequencing batch
resolved by using microalgae as the microalgae have the ability to use
biofilm reactor increased removal efficiencies for the total P and N from
wastewater as feed for their growth. Microalgae during growth
4
31.9% to 89.3%, and from 38.5% to 65.8%, respectively [98]. Table 2

Microalgal species reported for the bioremediation of domestic wastewater.
4.2.2. Removal of organic pollutant Microalgae COD/ “N” “P” Removal References
There is a high level of organic pollutants in domestic wastewater, BOD removal removal time
which are biodegradable [99]. These organic pollutants when dis removal efficiency efficiency
% % %
charged result in the increase of the pollution load like COD, BOD and
TSS. Both chemical and biological methods are used to oxidize carbon co-culture of COD 67 66 100 24h
atoms present in organic pollutants into CO2. BOD uses the capability of immobilized
C. vulgaris
microorganisms to change organic pollutant into CO2 and H2O in the and [96]
presence of the oxidizing agent, i.e., O2. The dissolved O2 of water can be COD 68 95 _ 85h
suspended
depleted due to surplus BOD leading to anaerobiosis and fish kills [40]. activated
Thus, organic pollutants result in the degradation of the water quality by sludge
C. pyrenoidosa _ 99 96 _ [105]
depleting O2 which damage to the aquatic environment [99]. Micro
S. abundans _ 98 95 _ [105]
algae have the ability to decrease the organic load besides mineral COD
pollutants [33]. Moreover, algae enhanced its efficiency for the removal Chlorella 67 88 11d [101]
32.14
of BOD from domestic wastewater by making a symbiotic relationship COD
with bacteria by providing O2 [100]. 27− 45
C. sorokiniana 53–96 59–92 1d [106]
BOD
It was reported that the Chlorella has the ability to reduce 75 % of the 57− 80
organic substances from kitchen wastewater. The efficiency of micro Scenedesmus DOC
97 21d [107]
algae to remove COD from kitchen wastewater was also evaluated. In the
>90
sp. ZTY1 72.1
first four days, COD decreased slowly in KWW and then COD concen S. platensis _ 92.58 94.13 _ [108]
M. reisseri _ 80 94 _ [109]
tration was retained at the constant level and changed in a small range.
COD
This happened because microalgae were unable to use some organic O. tenuis
92.6 %
96.1 82.9 7d [110]
sources present in KWW. The ultimate removal efficiency of microalgae COD 66
C. vulgaris 71 67 21d [111]
for COD was 32.14 % in KWW [101]. BOD 70
The effectiveness of Botryococcus sp. to clean GW in phytor C. vulgaris _ 94.18 97.69 12d [112]
C. vulgaris COD 78 63 [113]
emediation treatment was also investigated. The results indicated that
COD =
Botryococcus sp. is effective in reducing 88 % COD and 82 % BOD. C. pyrenoidosa 95 90 _ [114]
90
Furthermore, Botryococcussp. removed 83 % COD, 82 % TIC, 68 % BOD COD
at 50 % concentration of GW [102]. In another study, it was concluded S. quadricauda
70.97 %
70.32 81.34 15d [115]
BOD
that the Chlamydomonas sp., Scenedesmus sp., and Chlorella sp. are able to
70.91
remove 10.34–11.46 g BOD/m2/day and 14.3–15.33 g COD/m2/day by COD
using 300 mm using deep high rate algal pond [103]. It was also 82.86
S. maxima 77 69.05 _ [116]
observed that the COD removal was constant using Spirogyra sp. This BOD
might be due to the already low initial concentrations of COD in the 81.05
wastewater or due to the sterile conditions in the reactors. It was pre

dicted that unsterilized wastewater causes higher COD removal [104]. A industry, the desired quality and color of the fabric is obtained by using
number of microalgae species have been studied for wastewater treat dyes and auxiliary chemicals [128]. The use of synthetic dyes has been
ment and a promising efficiency has been reported (Table 2). increased in the dyeing and textile industries because of their high sta
bility to light, resistant to microbial attack and temperature, ease in use,
5. Bioremediation of industrial effluent cost-effectiveness in synthesis, and diversity in color imparted by them
in comparison to natural dyes [129]. These dyes lost in the environment
The one of main pollution sources of the environmental pollution are and cause problems as they have a fixation efficiency of 60–90 % [124].
industries. The type and level of pollutants released into the environ The water discharged from the dying process contain dyes, heavy
ment depend on the industry. Industrial wastewater includes process metals, salts, pigments, inorganic and organic pollutants [130,131]. This
wastes from the manufacturing process, sanitary waste, washing during wastewater is the reason for pollution, eutrophication, change in
cooling and heating operations [117]. The composition of wastewater is transparency, gas solubility and pH of water, decrease in the dissolved
highly diverse as it depends on the sources and sites of the effluents oxygen (DO), photosynthetic activity, and increase in the COD. The
[118]. These industrial discharge include pesticides, dioxins, heavy synthetic dyes are reluctant to biodegradation because of their aromatic
metals, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls structure and xenobiotic nature. They reduce the light penetration in
(PCBs), phenolic compounds, petrochemicals and microorganisms [117, water and restrict the phenomena of photosynthesis thus affecting the
119–121]. Pollutants from industries release into water sheds and cause flora and fauna [127,132]. So, it is necessary to treat these industrial
an increase in COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, toxic metals such as Pb, Cr, Cd, and effluents before discharging them into the environment [124].
Ni. Thus, make the water inappropriate for irrigation, drinking as well as Enzymatic and microbial degradation has gained considerable
aquatic life [117]. These industrial effluents are the reason for long term importance for the removal of dyes as it is a sludge free, inexpensive, and
consequences on the functioning of the ecosystem which involve environmentally friendly process [133]. Micro-algae is considered best
changes in the availability of food and self-regulating capacity of the to remediate the textile effluent by removing P, C, and N which in turn
biosphere [118,122,123]. reduces the eutrophication [134]. Microalgae cultivated in textile
wastewater uses nutrients and dyes present in it for its growth. Bio
5.1. Effluents from the textile industry accumulation and biosorption are the two processes for the bioremedi
ation of the wastewater [127,135,136]. In the bioconversion process,
Effluents from the textile industry are considered as the main source dyes are consumed by microalgae as a source of carbon and converted
of water pollution because of the worldwide increase in the textile in into metabolites. However, in biosorbent process dyes get adsorbed on
dustries and presence of diverse type of dyes in wastewaters [124–126]. the surface of microalgae. Moreover, these phenomena can also occur
Variable pH, higher salinity, COD, high temperature and color are some simultaneously for wastewater treatment of the textile industry [135].
of the characteristics of the textile wastewater [118,127]. In the textile
5
Additionally, both dead and living microalgae can be used in these bioremediation applications. A polysulfone nanofibrous web (micro
phenomena. However, removal of dyes by the adsorption process can algae/PSU-NFW) was used for microalgae immobilized and same was
occur exclusively by using dead microalgae [127,131]. applied for the removal of RB221 and RB5 dyes. The
The ability of algae to degrade dyes depends on the specie of algae microalgae/PSU-NFW decolorize about 72.97 ± 0.3 % of RB5, whereas
being used and the structure of dyes. Sasikala and Sudha (2014) studied pristine PSU-NFW decolorizes 12.36 ± 0.3 % of RB5. For the RB221
the decolorization ability of different algal species separated from solution, the decolorization rates of pristine PSU-NFW and
numerous sources. The best ability to decolorize twelve different reac microalgae/PSU-NFW were 5.51 ± 0.4 % and 30.2 ± 0.23, respectively
tive and azo dyes were shown by Gloeocapsa sp., Phormidium sp., and [139] (Table 3).
Aphanotheca sp. Aphanotheca sp. was found to remove 83 % of Blue
MEZRL and 90 % of Orange M2R after 20 days. Moreover, 69 % of navy 5.2. Effluents from tanneries
blue M3R and 59 % of red acid crude after 10 days of incubation was
removed. Only Oscillatoria sp. was able to remove orange ME2RL which In tannery the transformation of leather takes place. It is one of the
also did not show significant removal in the early incubation period oldest industries in the world. The raw materials and inputs used in this
[128]. Also, Aragaw et al. (2018) used microalgae in a photobioreactor process are vulnerable to the environment [156]. There are two methods
to treat the textile wastewater and microalgal bioreactor has the ca which are used in for tanning (i) vegetable tanning (ii) chrome tanning
pacity to remove BOD, COD and TDS by 91.90 %, 91.50 %, and 89.10 %, [157]. Effluents having several chemical compounds are generated in
respectively [128]. leather processing during the wet finishing process. These effluents
Biosorption of TWW by microalgae was also carried out similar to contain chemical compounds such as fatliquoring oils, neutralization
bioconversion [131]. It was observed that the powdered biomass of salts, retanning agents, dyes, surfactant polymers, solvents, resins, pig
C. vulgaris is an effective adsorbent for the removal of Orange-G dye. It ments, and other chemicals [4]. Generally, wastewater of tanneries is
was observed that maximum biosorption capacity was 38 % of C. vulgaris brown, has basic pH and a high concentration of organic substances that
[137]. A consortium performed better than the single system for the differ based on chemicals being used [158].
simultaneous removal of nutrients and dyes. A 98.09 % decolorization of Dyes added in the last steps to give interior and surface coloration to
the Dispersed Red 3B rate was obtained by using consortium at opti leather are responsible for the generation of wastewater with a high
mized conditions. The TP, COD and ammonical N were removed up to concentration of dyes [159]. Moreover, ammonium salts, sulphates and
83.9 %, 93.9 %, and 87.6 %, respectively [138]. The immobilized algae chlorides are used during dehairing and deliming process that are
also showed better efficiencies than suspended cultures in responsible for pollution of water sheds [158]. Besides, water from
Table 3
Microalgal species for the bioremediation of textile industry effluent.
Microalgae Target Colour removal (%) COD/BOD removal (%) Metal ions removal (%) References
Chlorella sp. G23 TWW 50 COD = 75 ± 3 _ [140]

COD = 60
Anabaena flosaquae 50.81 46− 82
BOD=73.96
COD = 97.63
Chlorella vulgaris 96.16 88.33− 98.40
BOD=92.24
COD = 98
Nostoc elepsosporum TWW 100 95− 99.19 [141]
BOD = 98.92
COD = 75
Nostoc linkia 79.03 67.31− 89.43
BOD = 85.63
COD = 80
Anabaena variabilis 88.71 66− 97.57
BOD= 82
Chlorella vulgaris UMACC 001 TWW 36.30 COD = 38.3− 62.3 _ [142]
Blue dye 63.89
Chlorella vulgaris _ _
Green dye 45.71
[143]
Blue dye 63.87
Sphaerocystis schroeteri _ _
Green dye 60.00
Spirulina platensis TWW 94.4–99.0 _ _ [144]
Anabaena fertilissima 47.31 COD= 79.40 19− 54
Wollea sp. 63.08 COD= 85.24 57.00− 92.16
TWW [145]
Nostoc muscorum 69.62 COD = 90.04 59.84− 98.04
Phormidium fragile 60 COD= 79.60 30.77− 62.75
Blue dye 78.29
Spirogyra sp. _ _
Red dye 64.21
[132]
Blue dye 76.48
Oscillatoria sp. _ _
Red dye 62.63
Sargassum sp. Reactive Magenta dye 92.7 _ _ [146]
Chlorella pyrenoidosa methylene blue 100 BOD = 81 [147]
Icochrysis galbana 55 _ _
TWW [148]
Chlorella vulgaris 43 _ _
Chlorella vulgaris aniline blue 60 _ _ [149,148,147]
Reactive black 5 80
Chlorella vulgaris Direct blue 71 78 _ _ [150]
Disperse red 1 84
U. lactuca methylene blue 91.92 _ _ [151]
Spirulina platensis indigo blue 91 _ _ [152]
Spirulina platensis TWW _ COD = 85.6 TDS = 11.3 to 30 [153]
COD = 82.73 TDS = 56.44
Chlorella pyrenoidosa TWW 96 Phosphate = 19.88 [154]
BOD 56.44
Sulphate = 54.54
Remazol
Staphylococcus sp. 100 — _ [155]
25 Brilliant Blue R
6
tanneries not only has a considerable amount of degradable organic day whereas the free algal cells and without microalgal beads removed
waste, like organic N and fats and proteins, but also a major quantity of only 65.83 % and 43.71 % respectively. Finally, 98.54 % of ammonia
inorganic contaminants and toxic heavy metals, particularly Cr+6, sul was removed by immobilized cells on the 4th day of incubation when
phides, chlorides with high BOD and COD [156,158,160]. A 90 % of the compared to free algal cells and algae-free beads in 62.04 % and 24.94,
water used in tanneries is released as effluent [161]. These effluents are respectively [163].
highly toxic and need to be treated by advanced methods before being The phycoremediation integrated with the ozone process can be
discharged into the water sources [160]. considered as a practicable treatment method for tannery effluent along
Several studies have been reported the efficiency to utilize the with enhanced biomass production. In this process, a partially treated
microalgae to bioremediate the effluents from the tanneries. A micro tannery effluent by ozonation was coupled with phycoremediation. It
algal consortium was evaluated for the treatment of wastewater from a was observed that this combination results in the maximum reduction in
tannery. Three types of effluents, i.e., effluent after primary treatment the concentration of pollutant with 84 % reduction in COD, 100 % in
(50PE50W), raw effluent (50RE50W) and effluent after primary and odor, 60 % in color, 82 % n NH+ 4 -N, 97 % in chromium, 90 % in inor
secondary biological treatment (50BE50W) were employed for micro ganic carbon, 100 % in PO4–P, and 10 % in TDS [164] (Table 4).
algae growth. The highest biomass concentration of 1.77 g/L was pre
sented by the 50PE50W after 16 days of cultivation. It was observed that
this microalgal consortium is able to remove 99.90 %, 51.02 %, 91.75 % 5.3. Effluents from pharmaceuticals industries
and 82.88 % for N-NH3, COD, P-PO−4 , and TKN, respectively from all
types of effluents [160]. Also, the effect of photoperiod on the efficiency Wastes generated by the pharmaceutical industry during the process
of microalgae was studies including raw wastewater (R) and wastewater of drug production are known as pharmaceutical effluents. The presence
after secondary biological treatment were employed for microalgal of persistent substances resulted in the inadequate treatment of effluents
growth in 24 h of photoperiod and 12 h of light, constant aeration and 25 from the pharmaceutical industries [175–177]. Some of the character
◦
C of temperature. The maximum biomass concentration of 1.40 g/L for istic pharmaceuticals in the wastewater of pharmaceutical include lipid
75R25B effluent, P removal of 97.94 % for the 50R50B, ammonia regulators, antibiotics, antiepileptic, psychiatric drugs,
removal of 100 % for both effluent and N removal of 71.53 % for the anti-inflammatories, diuretics, analgesics and β blockers each of which is
50R50B was obtained in the 24 h condition. It was also observed that the present in the different composition in the effluent [175,178,179].
metabolism of P and N present in wastewater and metabolic activities is These pharmaceutical active substances, used in low doses, produce
directly linked to the production of biomass [162]. specific biological effects on living organisms. These pharmaceuticals
It was also observed that the immobilized algal cells have more ca prove to be toxic for the living organisms due to their ability to interact
pacity to remove effluents from tannery wastewater than free cells. with living organisms after absorption [178,180].
Jaysudha et al. [163] reported that 99.39 % of phosphate was removed The industry is distinguished by the plant sizes, a range of production
by immobilized cells on the 8th day whereas algae-free beads and free processes as well as quality and quantity of wastewater. In fact, diversity
algal cells absorbed only 37.41 % and 81.94 % respectively. Likewise, of processes and operation in the pharmaceutical industry due to di
98.71 % of phosphate was also removed by immobilized cells on the 8th versity in products makes it almost impossible to define the "charac
teristic" pharmaceutical effluent. However, it contains a high amount of
Table 4
Microalgal remediation of the effluents from the tanneries.
Microalgae Target Chromium removal Sulphate removal BOD/COD/TDS Other nutrients removal References
(%) (%) removal (%) (%)
Retan chrome Cl = 63− 75

S. fusiformis 93− 99 42− 49 TDS = 18− 22.5 [165]
liquor Phenols = 66− 78
Tannery Nitrate = 22.9
C. marina 25.2 36 _
wastewater Silicate = 1.50
[166]
Nitrate = 36.7
Tetraselmis sp. TWW 34 40 _
Silicate = 1.50
TDS = 41 Nitrate= >44.3
Scenedesmus sp. TWW 81.2− 96 _ COD = 37.1 [167]
Phosphate= >95
BOD = 35
BOD= ≥90 TN = 91.16
Chlorella sp. and Phormidium sp.
TWW 90.17− 94.45 _ COD = 80 [168]
consortium TP = 88
TDS= >50
Nitrate= >90
Scenedesmus sp. TWW >98 >92.68 BOD= >88 [169]
Phosphate= >99
Scenedesmus sp. TWW 98.63 _ _ Cl = 54.18 [170]
TWW
25 % COD = 80 Ammonium ion = 74
C. Sorokiniana _ _
40 % = 74 = 56
60 % = 52 = 48
[171]
TWW
25 % COD = 84 Ammonium ion = 68
C. Variabilis _ _
40 % = 80 = 62
605 = 64 = 43
C. vulgaris and Pseudochlorella NH3-N = 65
TWW >80 _ COD= > 63 [164]
pringsheimii PO4-P = 100
COD = 94.74 Phosphate = 99
C. vulgaris TWW 67.4 [172]
BOD = 95.93 Nitrate = 100
Cu = 90.4
C. vulgaris TWW 73.1 _ _ Pb = 92.1 [173]
Zn = 81.2
O. acuminate Heavy metals = 90
TWW _ _ _ [174]
P. irrigum Heavy metals = 80
7
BOD, COD, and nitrate which put a hazard to both aquatic environment Cr, and Cd, etc. are the characteristics of the acidic effluent, whereas the
and humans, when released to the environment without any treatment alkaline effluent is produced during the coating of paint to wheels and
[175]. Pharmaceutical compounds are considered emerging environ contains heavy metals and calcium chloride [204]. Thus, the effluents
mental pollutants and are difficult to be removed by using conventional from electroplating and other metal processing industries have consid
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and transferred to groundwater erable amounts of toxic metal ions, chromates, cyanides, alkalis, and
and surface waters [181]. Bioadsorption, photolysis bioaccumulation, acids [118,202]. Such toxicity can pollute the nearby biotic and abiotic
and biodegradation have been suggested as the main processes involved environment. So, these wastes need to be treated before their discharge
in the removal of micropollutants and these emerging organic phar into water sheds and their concentration does not exceed the maximum
maceutical contaminants by microalgae [182,183]. permissible, which cause highly toxic effects to the living organisms
The use of microalgae is a sunlight-driven, sustainable, and ecolog beyond the permissible limits [200,205,206].
ical retrieval strategy for the removal of pollutants pharmaceutical in The ability of heavy metal ions to bioaccumulate and biosorbed in
dustry [183]. Recent studies had shown that C. sorokiniana can remove aquatic food chains can pass these metal ions to humans causing major
the salicylic acid and paracetamol from an artificial medium [184] as health problems [207–209]. These are toxic to humans even at low
well as numerous other micro-pollutants from anaerobically digested concentrations. For example, the high toxicity of lead results in damage
black water and urine [185]. However, further use of algal biomass is to the kidneys, nervous system, and disturbance in the metabolism of
limited because of the accumulation of contaminants in the algal vitamin D, especially in children. Nickel compounds are considered as
biomass [183]. Some other algal strains used for the bioremediation of carcinogenic [200] and long-term contact with Cd can cause bone
pharmaceutical effluents are listed in Table 5. mineral loss, kidney damage, reduced lung function, and increased risk
of bone fractures [118]. Cyanide is also a toxic specie that is commonly
5.4. Effluents from electroplating and mining industries present in the industrial effluents produced by metallurgical operations.
It has a strong ability to bind with metals making it suitable for metal
Electroplating is an electrochemical process used for the surface finishing and as a lixiviant for leaching metals, especially gold [210,
treatment of metal. Metals commonly used for coatings are Ag, Cd, Ni, 211]. However, exposure to cyanide induces negative health effects on
Cu, Au and similar metals [200,201]. The solution of the metal which is humans and wildlife [211].
usually in the form of chromic acid, copper cyanide, or cadmium oxide is The conventional methods of industrial wastewater treatment such
placed in the plating baths [202,203]. The effluents from electroplating as ion exchange precipitation and electrochemical methods [212] are
industries are both alkaline and acidic. High TDS, heavy metals like Ni, not cost-effective for the removal of metal ions on a large scale.
Table 5
Microalgal remediation of the effluents from the pharmaceutical industries.
Microalgae Target Removal efficiency Inorganic nutrients removal References
(%) (%)
S. obliquus Tramadol and other 91 _ [181]

pharmaceuticals
TN = 67.8
Dictyosphaerium Pharmaceutical effluent <9-<90 [182]
TP = 55.6
Chlorella sp. Cha-01, Chlamydomonas sp.Tai-03 cephalosporin antibiotics
75 _ [186]
and Mychonastes sp. YL-02 7-amino cephalosporanic acid
C. vulgaris cytotoxic drugs 98.5 _ [187]
Bisphenol A 72− 86.4 TN = 39− 79
periphyton photobioreactors hydrochlorothiazide and ibuprofen 26.2− 48.7 [188]
TP = 42− 68
carbamazepine and gemfibrozil 6.45− 20.6
Cymbella sp. Naproxen 97.1 _ [189]
S. quadricauda Naproxen 58.8 _ [189]
Paracetamol 42− 69
C. sorokiniana [190]
salicylic acid 93− 98
paracetamol (PAC) 67 Nitrates = 70
C. sorokiniana [184]
salicylic acid 73 Phosphates = 89
S. obliquus Climbazole >88 _ [191]
C. vulgaris levofloxacin (LEV) >80 _ [192]
sulfamethazine (SMZ) 31.4− 62.3
S. obliquus _ [193]
sulfamethoxazole (SMX) 27.7− 46.8
C. pyrenoidosa Cefradine 76.02 _ [194]
Synechocystis sp. Paracetamol 10 _ [195]
56.63− 73.8 mg/g
sulfamethoxazole
Lessonia nigrescens Bory (L13) and Macrocystis integrifolia Bory L13 > S12
[196]
(S12) 177.94− 163.67 mg/g
sulfacetamide (SAM)
S12 > L13
Nonylphenol 100
acetyl salicylic acid 98.25
P. capillacea clofibric acid 97.72
Bisphenol 97.12
chloramphenicol 89.34
_ [197]
Nonylphenol 95.10
acetyl salicylic acid 98.39
U. lactuca. clofibric acid 97.05
Bisphenol 96.90
chloramphenicol 90.80
C. mexicana Ciprofloxacin 13− 56 _ [198]
triclosan (TCS) 100
Nannochloris sp. Trimethoprim (TMP) 0 _ [199]
sulfamethoxazole 24
8
Nowadays, algae (both micro and macro algae) biomass is used as a non- treatment [223].
conventional means for the remediation of heavy metal ions [118]. The efficiency of the algal biomass can also be enhanced by immo
Bioaccumulation of heavy metal ions by microorganisms normally oc bilization. The adsorption capacity of freely suspended and Ca-alginate
curs in two steps [213]. The first step involves the inactive biosorption immobilized C. vulgaris cells was compared for the biosorption of Fe(II),
which occurs on the cell surface and is entirely independent of cellular Zn(II), and Mn(II) ions from the aqueous solution. It was observed that
metabolism. The second step depends on cell metabolism and involves the 43.43 mg/g Fe(II), 40.98 mg/g Mn(II) and 37.43 mg/g of Zn(II) were
active sorption of heavy metal ions into the cytoplasm of algal cells [213, absorbed by algal cells immobilized with Ca-alginate at optimum algal
214]. cells dose of 0.6 g/L pH of 6.0 and contact time of 450 min at room
The sorption capability of the surface of an algae cell to a certain ion temperature. The biosorption effectiveness of freely suspended and
also depends on different factors such as the coordination number of the immobilized C. vulgaris cells to remove heavy metals from the industrial
metal ion to be sorbed, the number of functional groups on the surface of wastewater was authenticated. It was concluded that the biosorption
algae cells, the availability of binding groups to metal ions, the chemical activity of the algal cells is enhanced by immobilizing the algal cells in
state of these sites and the complex formation constants of these func alginate beads [224].
tional groups with a metal ion [118]. The presence of different types of Efforts have been made to integrate the CO2 mitigation, wastewater
binding groups on the algal cell surface i.e. hydroxyl, carboxyl, phos treatment, and bioenergy production processes in photobioreactors
phoryl, amine, sulphuryl, imidazole, sulfate, phosphate, carbohydrate, based on microalgae [102]. In such a study, the influence of CO2 and
thiol, ether, etc. enhance the adsorption of metal ions [215,216]. These organic matter (OM) addition on the bioremediation potential of two
binding groups are present at the cell surface as well as in the cytoplasm microalgae (S. almeriensis and C. vulgaris) was evaluated. It was
and particularly vacuoles [118]. Microalgae have the ability to form concluded that the addition of CO2 and OM decrease the biosorption
complexes of heavy metals and cellular proteins without altering their capacity of both microalgal species and it also inhibited the growth of
activity [216]. These organometallic complexes are further moved in C. vulgaris [225]. Some other algal strains used for the bioremediation of
sides vacuoles to regulate the concentration of heavy metal ions in the effluents from electroplating and mining industries in different forms
cytoplasm, which results in the subsequent mitigation of their toxic ef have been listed in the Table 6.
fects [217]. It was reported that the presence of sulfonic and carboxylic
functional groups on the surface of the macro-algae P. canaliculata is the 6. Effluents from agricultural runoff
reason for the remediation of Zn and Cu ions from the aqueous solutions
[218]. Similarly, carboxyl, hydroxyl, amino and carbonyl groups present The continuous increase in the world population has increased the
on the surface of freshwater algae Anabaenaphaerica proved to have a demand for food, which in turn has overburdened the agricultural sys
major role in biosorption of Pb and Cd ions [219]. However, cyanide is tem. The desire to cultivate more food has resulted in the higher use of
degraded by several algal strains due to their ability to use it as a source fertilizers and pesticides. Random use of agrochemicals has not only
of carbon and N for their growth [220]. increased the production, but also proved to be very dangerous to the
It was observed that a particular algal strain may show selective environment as it has polluted the natural resources [235]. Mainly
interaction with a particular heavy metal ion. Moreover, the removal of pesticides remain in the ecosystem because of their persistent nature of
heavy metal ions largely depends on the biomass concentration and high solubility and cause harmful effects due to its toxicity. They can
initial concentration of metal ions [118]. For example, it was reported cause acute harm to micro fauna and flora, so disturbing the working of
that the marine algae U. fasciata and U. lactuca have the ability to adsorb ecosystems [41,236]. It was considered that the main cause of pollution
the Cd at different culture conditions. It was observed that the bio in rural areas is agrochemicals from agricultural fields. Inorganic fer
sorption capacity of both microalgae increases by increasing pH from 3 tilizers which contain high quantities of N, K, P, and organic carbon are
to 8 and changing the temperature between 20–30 ◦ C. The results applied regularly in fields in the harvesting season as well as in the
demonstrated that the biosorption efficiency for Cd increased with pre-harvest period together with herbicides and pesticides. As a result,
increasing concentration of U. fasciata (biosorbent), and afterwards it these compounds which are highly soluble move easily into the soil thus
decreased. Moreover, the biosorption was decreased by increasing the agricultural runoff has a wide range of contaminants such as pesticides,
concentration of Cd in the case of U. fasciata. In the case of U. lactuca, herbicides, nutrients (N/P), and heavy metals [237]. Pesticides residues
biosorption efficiency was increased by increasing the concentration of also affects the beneficial organisms like spiders, earth worms, plants
Cd from 20 to 30 mg/L. The results indicated that the maximum bees, and cause natural decay besides polluting the environment,
adsorption capacity shown by U. fasciata is 8.353 mg/g for Cd, whereas including the soil [238].
maximum adsorption capacity is shown by U. lactuca 8.804 mg/g for Cd Organochlorine pesticides are considered as the most problematic
at optimum conditions [221]. among the various pesticides used [239]. In human pesticides cause
The dead biomass is considered preferable over the living biomass as symptoms like inflammation of the throat and nose, itchy skin, head
there is no need for culture growth media in case of dead biomass. These ache, blisters on the skin, rash, vomiting, tingling of the skin and eyes,
growth media in turn increase the BOD and COD of the industrial dizziness, nausea, diarrhoea, a blurred vision even blindness, and
wastewater. Moreover, the dead biomass biosorbent is generally not sometimes deaths (normally in 24 h) [41]. Algae may be utilized as
influenced by the toxicity of heavy metals [222]. The performance of the biofertilizers or soil conditioners [240]. The biodegradation of pesti
dead algal biomass can be enhanced by modifying it via activation cides, as well as treatment of other effluents from agricultural runoff by
methods. Bulgariu and its co-worker activated the algal waste attained algae and cyanobacteria have been reported. For example, García-Galán
after extraction of oil by alkaline treatment and utilized it for the evaluated the growth of the microalgae Pediastrum sp., Scenedesmus sp.,
removal of Cd in column and batch systems. It was concluded that Chlorella sp., and Gloeothece sp. (cyanobacteria) by using agricultural
alkaline modification of the waste biomass of algae can be used to runoff as feedstock in semi-closed (hybrid) tubular horizontal photo
enhance the removal efficiency of the biosorbent as well as to remove bioreactor (HTH-PBR). In this study, a 22 % increase in biomass, as well
the traces of organic solvents easily from the composition of biomass. as complete removal of all nutrients, were observed in 4 and 2 days,
Furthermore, it was observed that Cd removal by AT-AWB has higher respectively during the batch study [237]. Similarly, the efficiency of
biosorption potential, i.e., 41.88 mg/g in a 10 min as compared to the PBRs which is a microalgae-based technology was evaluated to remove
untreated algal waste biomass, which shows biosorption potential of nutrients from agricultural runoffs. It was observed that the microalgae
33.71 mg/g in a contact time of 30 min. It was concluded that the activity has a strong dependency on seasonal changes in solar radiation
enhancement of the biosorption of waste algal biomass is associated and temperature. These seasonal changes led to an increase in pH values
with the increase in the accessibility of functional groups after alkaline in the mixed liquor detected in summer and great changes in the
9
Table 6
Microalgal species for the remediation of effluents from the electroplating and mining industries where ms = concentration of the adsorbent; C = concentration of
adsorbate.
Microalgae Type Target Removal efficiency Optimum conditions References
pH = 5
T = 30 ◦ C
Ni2+ 1.69 mmolg− 1
ms = 6.06 g
Immobilized by calcium C = 0.903mmolL− 1
Sargassum species [226]
alginate pH = 5
2+ − 1 T = 30 ◦ C
Cu 2.06 mmolg
ms = 5.84g
C = 0.781mmolL− 1
pH = 4.5
C. crinitophylla Free algal biomass Cu2+ 160 mg g− 1
[227]
C = 600 mgL− 1
2+
Scenesesmus sp. Living algal cell Pb 83.5− 84.2% C = 1 and 2 mg/L [228]
C. C = 5 mg L− 1
2+
Dried biomass Cu 83.14 % ms = 1.28 gL− 1 [229]
pyrenoidosa
pH = 6.33.
TS = 35.30 %
TDS = 74.24 %
Fe = 27.26 %
NO−3 1 = 48.88%
Chrome sludge from electroplating PO−4 3 = 86.16%
D. olivaceus Living algal cells _ [204]
industry Cu = 8.385 %
Cr = 33.33 %
Zn = 16.49 %
COD = 23.80 %
BOD = 22.70 %
Fe3+ BCF = 10.5804
Porphyridium sp. Living algal cells _ [216]
Co2+ BCF = 0.1151
P. aeruginosa and P. putida Dead algal biomass electroplating effluent COD = 97.52 % _ [230]
As(III) t = 168
81.73913 % 85.07692
C. pyrenoidosa Living algal cells pH = 9.0 [231]
As(V) %
inoculum size = 10 % (v/v)
Chlorella sp. 86 %
_ CN _ [232]
S. obliquus 99 %
− 1
C. vulgaris Living algal cells KCN 61 % C = 0.1 to 10 mg L [233]
CN 91 % t =77 h
S. obliquus _ [220]
Zn 50 % pH = 10.3
C. chroococcus _ CN 14.06 % _ [234]
78 % T = 25 ◦ C
pH = 6
Contact time = 180
Chaetoceros sp. Chlorella
_ pb min [71]
sp 60 %
particle size = 20 mesh
ms = 1.5 g/L
C (Pb) = 20 mg/L
production of biomass between seasons, i.e., 43 g VSS/m3⋅d in summer pollutants from wastewater with a major role played by the fungus
to 7 g VSS/m3⋅d in winter. It was inferred that the average N removal [242].
efficiency ranged from 50 % in winter to 90 % in summer. The removal It was suggested that the different microalgal species can tolerate a
efficiency of P was greater than 95 % in almost all cases [241]. specific concentration of any particular pesticide. The ability to with
Another study evaluates the growth of the microalgae N. oculata in stand certain concentrations of specific pesticides varies among different
the presence of pesticide lindane and the ability of N. oculata to remove species of microalgae. When pesticides are present in a sublethal con
it from the media. N. oculata removed 68.2 % and 73 % of lindane in the centration, microalgae not only have the ability to bioaccumulate the
0.5 and 0.1 mg/L media concentrations, respectively. N. oculata eradi pesticides, but can also biodegrade them. However, the metabolic
cated lindane from the media at concentration lower than 1.0 mg. Thus, pathway of the microalgal is considered as an area that needs to be
N. oculata may be useful for lindane bioremediation in contaminated explored to remediate the pesticides in future researches [34]. Esper
aquatic systems [59]. Another study was conducted to evaluate whether anza et al. [256] reported that the exposure of C. reinhardtii to the
fungal-assisted algal cultivation can also remediate the pesticides from sublethal concentration of atrazine for 3 and 24 h results in an alteration
contaminated water or not. In this experiment C. vulgaris (microalga), in a gene associated with catabolism of amino acid and respiratory
A. niger (the filamentous fungus) and the biopellets formed by these cellular process. It was recommended that photosynthesis was hindered
microorganisms were investigated against 38 pesticides. It was observed and the algal cell was pushed to go for heterotrophic metabolism for
that treatment by biopellets significantly decreases the concentration of their survival [242]. In the same ways, several studies were conducted to
the 17 of these pesticides, as compared to control. However, treatment evaluate the removal efficiency of different kinds of microalgae for
with algae did not have any significant effect on the concentration of pesticides and other agricultural wastes (Table 7). Findings revealed
pesticides as compared to control. Further, treatment by fungus lowers that bioremediation is a viable approach for the for treatment of efflu
the concentration of pesticides by 59.6 ± 2.0 g/L and treatment by ents having different types of pollutants like dyes, metal ions, pharma
biopellets lowers the pesticide concentration by 56.1 ± 2.8 g/L, as ceutical agents, inorganic and organic toxic pollutants [243,244].
compared to the control which reduces the concentration of the pesti
cide by 66.6 ± 1.0 g/L. Thus, biopellet, formed by fungal assisted algal
harvesting, can also provide a possibility for the removal of organic
10
Table 7 Declaration of Competing Interest

Microalgal species for the remediation of effluents from agricultural runoffs.
Microalgal Target Removal References The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
specie efficiency interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
(%) the work reported in this paper.
N. muscorum Malathion 91 [61]
C. vulgaris propamocarb 30− 50 [47] References
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(long term
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study)
C. vulgaris Propanil, Carbofuran, [245] [2] A. Fathi, A. El-Shahed, M. Shoulkamy, H. Ibraheim, O. Abdel Rahman, Response
96− 99 of Nile water phytoplankton to the toxicity Cobalt, Copper and Zinc, Res. J.
Dimethoate, Pendimethalin,
(short term Environ. Toxicol. 2 (2008) 67–76.
Metoalcholar, Pyriproxin)
study) [3] S. Ahmadzadeh, M. Dolatabadi, In situ generation of hydroxyl radical for efficient
C. vulgaris A standard pesticide mix 46.77 [246] degradation of 2, 4-dichlorophenol from aqueous solutions, Environ. Monit.
Atrazine 6 Assess. 190 (6) (2018) 1–11.
Simazine 10 [4] J. Pena-Castro, F. Martınez-Jerónimo, F. Esparza-Garcıa, R. Canizares-Villanueva,
Alachlor 51 Heavy metals removal by the microalga Scenedesmus incrassatulus in continuous
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102009

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Water Process Engineering

Microalgae biosorption, bioaccumulation and biodegradation efficiency for

1. Introduction The bioremediation has been emerged as an eco-friendly substitute

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

wastewater (Figs. 1–3).

Microalgae size ranged in few micro-metres to hundreds of micro-

Fig. 1. Flowchart showing potential use of microalgae in environmental remediation.

Fig. 3. Biosorption of metal ions by algal cells.

31.9% to 89.3%, and from 38.5% to 65.8%, respectively [98]. Table 2

wastewater or due to the sterile conditions in the reactors. It was pre

Chlorella sp. G23 TWW 50 COD = 75 ± 3 _ [140]

Retan chrome Cl = 63− 75

S. obliquus Tramadol and other 91 _ [181]

Table 7 Declaration of Competing Interest

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Mustafa 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mustafa 2021

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mustafa 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102009

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Water Process Engineering

Microalgae biosorption, bioaccumulation and biodegradation efficiency for

1. Introduction The bioremediation has been emerged as an eco-friendly substitute

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

wastewater (Figs. 1–3).

Microalgae size ranged in few micro-metres to hundreds of micro-

Fig. 1. Flowchart showing potential use of microalgae in environmental remediation.

Fig. 3. Biosorption of metal ions by algal cells.

31.9% to 89.3%, and from 38.5% to 65.8%, respectively [98]. Table 2

wastewater or due to the sterile conditions in the reactors. It was pre­

Chlorella sp. G23 TWW 50 COD = 75 ± 3 _ [140]

Retan chrome Cl = 63− 75

S. obliquus Tramadol and other 91 _ [181]

Table 7 Declaration of Competing Interest

You might also like

wastewater or due to the sterile conditions in the reactors. It was pre