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Short Circuit / Fault - Analysis

Electric Distribution System

DR. JOSEPH FREEMAN E. DIAZ


Per Unit Quantities

●Introduction
●The Per Unit System
●Per Unit Impedance
●Changing Per Unit Values
●Consistent Per Unit Quantities of Power System
●Advantages of Per Unit Quantities

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FAULT / SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

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The Per Unit System
Per Unit Value

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Per-unit Value is a dimensionless quantity


Per-unit value is expressed as decimal

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎

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The Per Unit System
Per Unit Value

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓


𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆


𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕


𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆


𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

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The Per Unit System

Per Unit Calculations

𝑷𝑼 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑷𝑼 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑷𝑼 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑷𝑼 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝑼 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒙 𝑷𝑼 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

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The Per Unit System
Establishing Base Values

1. Base values must satisfy fundamental electrical laws (Ohm’s Law


and Kirchoff’s Laws)

2. Choose any two electrical parameters


● Normally, Base Power and Base Voltage are chosen

3. Calculate the other parameters


● Base Impedance and Base Current

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The Per Unit System
Establishing Base Values

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝟐


𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

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The Per Unit System
Establishing Base Values

For Single Phase System For Three Phase System

𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏Ø 𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑Ø
𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 =
𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟏Ø) 𝟑 𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝑳

𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏Ø [𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏Ø ]𝟐 𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝑵 [𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝑳 ]𝟐


𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = = 𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = =
𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟏Ø) 𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟏Ø) 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝑳) 𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟑Ø)

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The Per Unit System
Establishing Base Values

• Base Values can be established from Single Phase or Three Phase


Quantities.
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝟑Ø
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝟏Ø = 𝟑

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒌𝑽𝑳𝑳
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒌𝑽𝟏Ø =
𝟑

• Base MVA is the same base value for Apparent, Active and Reactive Power.

• Base Z is the same base value for Impedance, Resistance and Reactance.

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Per Unit Impedance
Generators

• Manufacturers provide the following impedance in per unit:

}
1. Armature Resistance, Ra
Positive
2. Direct-axis Reactances, Xd”, Xd’ and Xd Sequence
Impedance
3. Quadrature-axis Reactances, Xq”, Xq’ and Xq

4. Negative Sequence Reactance, X2

5. Zero Sequence Reactance, X0

• The Base Values used by manufacturers are:


1. Rated Capacity (MVA, kVA or VA)

2. Rated Voltage (kV or V)x

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Per Unit Impedance
Transmission and Distribution Lines
𝒁Ω
𝒁 𝒑𝒖 =
𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑹Ω
𝑹 𝒑𝒖 =
𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑿𝑳 Ω
𝑿𝑳 𝒑𝒖 =
𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑿𝑪 Ω
𝑿𝑪 𝒑𝒖 =
𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏Ø [𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏Ø ]𝟐 𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝑵 [𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝑳 ]𝟐


𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = = 𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = =
𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟏Ø) 𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟏Ø) 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝑳) 𝑺𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝟑Ø)

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Changing Per Unit Values
If the MVAbase is not equal to MVAactual (Transformer Capacity).

𝟐
%𝒁𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝒁 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒑𝒖 = 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍

𝟐
%𝑹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑹 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒑𝒖 = 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝟐
%𝑿𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑿 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒑𝒖 = 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑽𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑴𝑽𝑨𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍

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The Per Unit System
Transformers
• The ohmic values of resistance and leakage reactance of a
transformer depends on whether they are measured on the high- or
low-tension side of the transformer.

• The impedance of the transformer is in percent or per unit with the


Rated Capacity and Rated Voltages taken as base Power and Base
Voltages, respectively.

• The per unit impedance of the transformer is the same regardless of


whether it is referred to the high-voltage or low voltage side.

• The per unit impedance of the three-phase transformer is the same


regardless of the connection

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Consistent Per Unit Quantities
of Power System
Procedure:

1. Establish Base Power and Base Voltages

● Declare Base Power for the whole Power System

● Declare Base Voltage for any one of the Power System components

● Compute the Base Voltages for the rest of the Power System

components using the voltage ratio of the transformers

Note: Define each subsystem with unique Base Voltage based on separation due to
magnetic coupling.

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Consistent Per Unit Quantities
of Power System
2. Compute Base Impedance and Base Current

● Using the Declared Base Power and Base Voltages, compute the

Base Impedances and Base Currents for each Subsystem

3. Compute Per Unit Impedance

● Using the declared and computed Base Values,

compute the Per Unit values of the impedance by:

▪ Dividing Actual Values by Base Values

▪ Changing Per Unit Impedance with change in Base Values

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Selection of base quantities

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Consistent Per Unit Quantities
Utility Utility
69kV 69kV

15 MVA
67/13.8kV
%Z=8.0
X/R=18.60

R=0.063 Ω/mile
X=0.118 Ω/mile
For the distribution s ystem s hown, use
Length=1.5 miles
10 MVA as the s ystem base power a nd
67 kV as the base volta ge in the circ uit R=0.299 Ω/mile
of the utility. R=0.184 Ω/mile
X=0.264 Ω/mile
X=0.252 Ω/mile
Length=2 miles
Length=2 miles

R=0.299 Ω/mile
X=0.264 Ω/mile
Length=1.5 miles

R=0.299 Ω/mile
X=0.264 Ω/mile
Length=6 miles
R=0.380 Ω/mile
R=0.556 Ω/mile X=0.486 Ω/mile
X=0.306 Ω/mile Length=4 miles
Length=3 miles

3 MVA R=0.184 Ω/mile


13.2/4.16kV X=0.252 Ω/mile
%Z=5.5 Length=3 miles
X/R=10.67

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Advantages of Per-Unit Quantities
● The computation for electric systems in per-unit simplifies the work
greatly. The advantages of Per Unit Quantities are:

1. Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of equipment in percent


or per-unit on the base of the nameplate rating.

2. The per-unit impedances of machines of the same type and widely


different rating usually lie within a narrow range. When the impedance
is not known definitely, it is generally possible to select from tabulated
average values.

3. When working in the per-unit system, base voltages can be selected


such that the per-unit turns ratio of most transformers in the system is
equal to 1:1.

4. The way in which transformers are connected in three phase circuits


does not affect the per-unit impedances of the equivalent circuit,
although the transformer connection does determine the relation
between the voltage bases on the two sides of the transformer.

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Advantages of Per-Unit Quantities
5. Per unit representation yields more meaningful and easily
correlated data.

6. Network calculations are done in a much more handier fashion with


less chance of mix-up

• between phase and line voltages


• between single-phase and three-phase powers, and
• between primary and secondary voltages.

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Fault Definition
A fault in an electrical power system is the unintentional and
undesirable creation of a conducting path (a short circuit) or a
blockage of current (an open circuit). The short-circuit fault is
typically the most common and is usually implied when most
people use the term “fault.” The causes of faults include lightning,
wind damage, trees falling across lines, vehicles colliding with
towers or poles, birds shorting out lines, aircraft colliding with
lines, vandalism, small animals entering switchgear, and line breaks

resulting from excessive ice loading (Country with winter season).

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Consequences of short-circuits

❑ On the faulty circuit Damage to insulation

➢ Electrodynamic forces, resulting in

- Deformation of the busbars

- Disconnection of cables

➢ Excessive temperature rise due to an increase in Joule losses, with the


risk of damage to insulation

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Consequences of short-circuits

The consequences are variable depending on the type and the duration of the
fault, the point in the installation where the fault occurs and the short-circuit
power. Consequences include:

❑ At the fault location, the presence of electrical arcs, resulting in

➢ Damage to insulation

➢ Welding of conductors

➢ Fire and danger to life

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Consequences of short-circuits
❑ On other circuits in the network or in near-by networks

➢ Voltage dips during the time required to clear the fault, ranging from a few
milliseconds to a few hundred milliseconds

➢ Shutdown of a part of the network, the extent of that part depending on the
design of the network and the discrimination or coordination levels offered
by the protection devices

➢ Dynamic instability and/or the loss of machine synchronization

➢ Disturbances in control / monitoring circuits

➢ etc.

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Types Fault

The faults can be categorized as the shunt faults (short circuits),


series faults (open conductor), and simultaneous faults (having
more than one fault occurring at the same time). The unbalanced
faults can be easily solved by using the symmetrical components of
an unbalanced system of currents

or voltages.

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Types Fault
SHUNT FAULTS
The voltage to ground of phase “a” at the fault point “F” before the fault
occurred is “VF”, and it is usually selected as 1.0∠0° pu. However, it is
possible to have a “VF” value that is not 1.0∠0° pu.

Example: Unintentional Connection between phases or between phase and ground.


1. Single Line to Ground (SLG) Fault
2. Double Line to Ground (DLG) Fault
3. Line to Line (LL) Fault
4. Three Phase (TP) Fault

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Possible Short Circuits

• A short circuit of all three phases, one to the other • A short circuit from one phase to another phase

• A ground fault of two phases to ground • A ground fault from one phase to ground

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Types of Fault
SERIES FAULTS
In general, the series (longitudinal) faults are due to an unbalanced
series impedance condition of the lines. One or two broken lines, or an
impedance inserted in one or two lines, may be considered as series
faults. In practice, a series fault is encountered

Example: When line (or circuits) are controlled by circuit breakers (or by fuses) or any
device that does not open all three phases; one or two phases of the line (or the circuit) may be
open while the other phases or phase is closed.
1. One Line Open (OLO) Fault
2. Two Lines Open (TLO) Fault

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Possible Short Circuits

• One Line Open (OLO) Fault

• Two Lines Open (TLO) Fault

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Zero Sequence Networks
It is important to note that the zero-sequence system, in a
sense, is not a three-phase system but a single-phase system.
This is because the zero-sequence currents and voltages are
equal in magnitude and in phase at any point in all the phases
of the system. However, the zero-sequence currents can only
exist in a circuit if there is a complete path for their flow.
Therefore, if there is no complete path for zero-sequence
currents in a circuit, the zero-sequence impedance is infinite.
In a zero sequence network drawing, this infinite impedance is
indicated by an open circuit.

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Zero Sequence Networks

Figure shows zero-sequence network for wye- and


delta-connected three-phase loads:
(a) wye-connected load with undergrounded neutral,
(b) wye-connected load with grounded neutral,
(c) wye-connected load grounded through neutral
impedance,
(d) delta-connected load. One Line Open (OLO) Fault

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Zero Sequence Networks
Figure shows zero-sequence network equivalents of
three-phase transformer banks made of three identical
single-phase transformers with two windings.

The possible paths for the flow of zero-sequence


current are indicated on the connection diagrams,
as shown in Figure a, c, and e. If there is no path shown
on the connection diagram, this means that the
transformer connection prevents the flow of the zero-
sequence current by not providing path for it, as
indicated in Figure b, d, and f.

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Zero Sequence Networks

Figure shows zero-sequence network equivalents of three-


phase transformer banks made of three identical single-
phase transformers with three windings.

The impedances of the three winding transformer between


primary, secondary, and tertiary terminals, indicated by
P, S, and T, respectively, taken two at a time with the other
winding open, are ZPS, ZPT, and ZST, the subscripts
indicating the terminals between which the impedances
are measured. Note that only the wye–wye connection
with delta tertiary, shown in Figure a, permits zero-
sequence current to flow in from either wye line (as long as
the neutrals are grounded).

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End of Presentation

“ A mind that is stretched by new experience can never go back


to its old dimensions.”

Thank You…!
34

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